B.A. (Hons.

) Political Science Semester-II

GENERIC ELECTIVE (ENGLISH)

Academic Writing and Composition
Study Material
Unit : I-VII

SCHOOL OF OPEN LEARNING

UNIVERSITY OF DELHI

Department of English
 Graduate Course

Generic Elective English

ACADEMIC WRITING AND COMPOSITION

CONTENTS

Unit 1 : Introduction to the Writing Process

Unit 2 : Introduction to Academic Writing
Unit 3 : Conventions of Academic Writing
Unit 4 : Summarizing and Paraphrasing
Unit 5 : Critical Thinking
Unit 6 : Structuring an Argument
Unit 7 : Citing Resources

Edited by Prepared by
Nalini Prabhakar Deb Dulal Halder

SCHOOL OF OPEN LEARNING

University of Delhi
5, Cavalry Lane, Delhi-110007
 Unit 1

THE WRITING PROCESS

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Writing is thought to be a secondary communicative activity (the primary being speech)

as many people in the world live their life without learning how to write. When one says
this one is wrong in his or her estimate as it presupposes that writing is to present
something in graphic detail and in a coherent structure. Can we not consider the etchings
of a child on the wall or the drawings of the cave man as kinds of writing? If an illiterate
person due to some reason wants to count days and usually draws one line in a wall for
each day that passes by, will it not be considered as writing. If these are writings, then to
say that we can live without writing is a sham. Writing is as essential a part of human
communicative activity as speech. As civilization has progressed, writing became a much
more significant activity of human life and today we cannot imagine our life without it.
Think of the many writing activities that you undertake each day – messaging, emails,
blogs, etc. These are some communicative activities that we keep on doing for our
communicative necessities. Some of us even write for pleasure, whether in the form of
personal dairy or some other creative writing – whether poem or short story or an article
or something else.
In this Unit, we will be talking about the writing process in detail so as to acquaint you
with it. It is not that you haven’t written ever in your life or that you will be writing for
the first time. What this Unit intends to do is to make you take writing process from a
methodical and logical point of view so that the writing process becomes smoother and
easier for you. The writing process is not just true for academic writing, but for any kind
of writing that you do, though for academic writing it is much more appropriate. This
chapter is a shortened form of the chapter of the same name from the book Academic
Writing and Composition: A Handbook (2016) Book Age Publications, New Delhi, edited
by Deb Dulal Halder. For detailed knowledge of Academic Writing, you are advised to
follow the book mentioned above.

1.2 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

In this chapter, you will learn the following aspects of writing:

• The Process of Writing

• The Importance of Right Words and Phrases and Correct Sentences in Writing
• Features of Writing
o How to Write an Introduction?
o The Importance of Coherence and Cohesion in Writing.
o How to Write a Conclusion.

1.3 THE WRITING PROCESS

Academic writing is not a god’s gift that a few do possess and others don’t. It is a kind of

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competence which can be inculcated with practice and one can become a better academic
writer if one chooses to be so and works harder to be so.. When one writes poetry as one
has a natural inclination to write poetry; but when one writes an assignment or a term
paper, one does it because of an academic necessity. While writing an assignment or an
academic paper not only you should know about the subject on which you are asked to
write on or have chosen to write, but should also have some basic idea about the format
of how to write an assignment or academic paper. In Academic writing, it is necessary
that we approach it as a craft and learn it. Academic writing is a response to a necessity;
therefore writing should be approached as a process. It is a necessity as if one wants to
remain in the academic world and get once degrees and diplomas then one needs to give
exams, produce papers and assignments and also often wrote dissertation and thesis as
well as reports. All these can be taken very professionally and one can produce greater
academic works if one intends to be scientific in one’s approach to writing.
As writing is a process, therefore it usually follows a particular sequence which we will
learn in this Unit. Most scholars like to believe that academic writing needs to go through
three processes which are as follows –

Prewrite → Write → Rewrite

1. Prewrite – Prewriting is a process which comes before the actual writing begins.
While writing any assignment or term paper, it is presumed that there must be
something very significant that needs to be written. Therefore, one must ponder
over certain significant aspects before one begins writing. They are:
• One should figure out the aims and goals of writing. In other words, one
must make sure that one knows why one is writing. If you are writing an
assignment, your approach will be different from that of an answer you are
preparing for the examination.
• One should gather all the available information and data on the subject one
decides to write on, that is, one needs to do the required research on the
topic and figure out the available literature on that topic.
• One should then determine the style, that is, the way one arranges one’s
words and sentences into a cohesive piece of writing. The same data can be
used by different individuals to produce different arguments even though
they may intend to write for the same audience. Therefore before getting
into writing one should also decide on and choose one’s style of writing.
• Moreover, while writing an assignment or a project, there is a deadline that
is given to us and we need to plan our writing in such a way so as to meet
the deadline. It is assumed that during our college or university days, there is
not a single assignment or project to be done, but many. Therefore one needs
to plan all assignments together and make sure that deadlines for each of
them are met. Therefore it is significant that we chalk out a plan.
• Very often, in writing assignments and projects for academic purposes, a
word limit is also set by the instructors / teachers / evaluators. One should
limit oneself within the word limit and therefore while arranging the facts
and arguments, give more importance to the facts and arguments which are
primary to support your topic. Thus one needs to plan or chalk out a rough

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 plan or structure of how one will progress with the process of writing.
2. Write – Once the relevant information and data has been gathered and a rough
structure of the argument is decided; it is the time to launch oneself into the actual
process of writing. In this phase of writing, one should organize the writing in
such a manner that it is easily comprehensible. Therefore it is very important to
ascertain a logical sequence in writing. (We will be talking more about this in
Unit II and Unit VI)
3. Rewrite – Rewriting is the final step of the writing process, and one that is
essential to successful writing. This step requires that one revises the rough draft
and edits it. Revision allows you to perfect your assignment, project or any other
writing. (We will be dealing with this topic of editing in more details in Unit VII)

1.4 FEATURES OF WRITING

If you are reading a newspaper or a magazine, would you carry on reading any news item
even if you find the first sentence or the first paragraph boring and providing you with no
new detail, idea, information or news and views that you are not already familiar with. In
most cases, the answer would be no. Many a times we tend to overlook or not take a
person seriously if s/he is not dressed according to the occasion. Looks, dresses, etc. – the
first impression, matters.
In the same way in most kinds of writing, a good introduction is a must since

• It gives reader(s) an idea / suggestion /scheme of what the rest of the writing will
be dealing with.
• It provides a reason for readers to keep reading, in the sense; it evokes the interest
in the reader(s).
This is why journalists are so worried about writing the perfect lead sentence (the first
sentence), because if the lead sentence is not interesting, no one will bother to read or
listen to the news. Therefore there is not only a focus on writing the perfect lead sentence,
but a good introductory paragraph. It is not always true that the introduction should be a
single paragraph. There are cases where there are introductions which run into several
pages. If you are writing a report, the introduction can run into several pages
The introduction of any writing usually includes –

• A background or history for the topic

• Definition of the term, phrase, or central concept to the writing
• A clear and specific thesis statement, which usually comes at the end of the
introduction. If the introduction is of one paragraph, usually the thesis statement
comes as the last sentence of the first paragraph.
1.4.1 Ways of Writing an Introduction

• Formulate a question which will evoke readers’ interest and engage them
• Provide data, statistics, etc. that will surprise the reader or unsettles their common

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 beliefs
• Provide an interesting anecdote or story related to the topic
• Start with an interesting and relevant quotation
• Provide an unusual or unexpected comparison and contrast
1.4.2 What Not to Do in an Introduction:

• Avoid stereotypes, clichés, jargons and boring constructions

• Avoid dictionary and encyclopedia definitions if possible and explain in your own
words
• Avoid writing the introduction till you have finished writing the draft.
Make sure that the readers now know enough to follow your paper, but not too much that
they lose the focus of your paper.

Paragraph
A paragraph can be defined as a group of sentences that expresses a single
idea, supported by facts, evidences, examples, anecdotes, quotations, etc.
Paragraphs primarily indicate the beginning and end of a new idea to the
reader(s). Thus it helps the reader(s) in assimilating the contents in an
organized manner without much difficulty. In paragraph writing, therefore
the writer can develop just one idea. When one is writing something longer
like an essay or a report, each paragraph explains or demonstrates a key
point or thought of the central idea, usually to inform or persuade.
Writing good paragraphs is essential for two reasons:
1. It helps one as a writer, as one remains focused while writing.
2. It makes the writing more readable, and the reader can easily figure
out that a new idea has been introduced.

1.4.3 Body Paragraphs

Body paragraphs can be written in many ways, depending on your purpose. However,
each paragraph should have one point which supports the thesis statement. Most body
paragraphs will have:
1. A Topic Sentence
The first sentence in a paragraph is usually known as the Topic Sentence and it
introduces the main idea of the paragraph. In other words, it is a sentence in which the
main idea of a paragraph is summarized so that the readers can figure out what they can
expect in the rest of the paragraph. Though this may not always be true, as the Topic
Sentence can also be elsewhere in the paragraph, depending upon the demand of the
writing. One should keep in mind here that the topic sentence should relate to the thesis

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statement and in some way should uphold the thesis.
The following points should be kept in mind while writing the topic sentence –

• The topic sentence should connect to the previous paragraph, so that the readers
do not lose focus.
• The topic sentence is not about just stating a fact; but it is about a point of view. A
point of view that the writer is about to develop in the rest of the paragraph.
• Every sentence in the paragraph should aim to support the topic sentence.

Activity
Take any an essay or an article or a chapter from any newspaper or journal or
any book and try to figure out the topic sentences of each paragraph.

2. Supporting Sentences
Supporting sentences are sentences which support or uphold the topic sentence and make
the body of a paragraph. The supporting sentences support by providing facts, details and
examples to logically present the argument.
One should keep in mind to provide specific details to show how the ideas are valid.

• While stating facts, examples, studies, experts’ opinions, etc. be specific.

o Use the experts’ names and other details.
o Examples should also be specific in terms of their names, places, dates,
etc.
o Use specific numbers and dates.
o In case of scientific studies, explain in short how the study was done.
o Use vivid descriptions to provide details.
• One should make sure that all the details provided in the supporting sentences are
relevant; otherwise, the reader may lose interest and focus with unnecessary
digressions.
• Try to explain things in detail so that the readers do not have to think too hard to
figure out the significance.
• Supporting sentences should not be used to merely repeat your topic sentences,
but they should be the explanations, justifications, interpretations and analyses of
the topic sentence.
• One should also make sure that all the supporting sentences are in a logical order.

2. Concluding sentence
The last sentence of the paragraph is termed as the concluding sentence which is usually a
review of the paragraph. It should emphasize on the main point or the topic sentence. It is
advisable not to end the paragraph therefore with a quotation, but to end with your own
words and idea.

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An illustrative example

The Right to Information Act

Before getting into the writing about The Right to Information Act one
needs to get all the required information regarding The Right to Information
Act, such as the historical and the legal background to such an act, the need
for such an act, the history of the enactment of the Act, the details of the act,
the use of the act for the benefit of the citizens, etc. When all these details
are collected then one needs to put them in proper logical perspective so
that when the readers read it they can have a clear notion about what the act
is all about.

The following outline was made before the actual writing –

The Thesis statement – The Right to Information Act opened up the door
of information for the individual citizens and in the process empowered
them.
The Body paragraphs –
Paragraph I – the factors that impaired free flow of information,
Paragraph II – legislation of the Act,
Paragraph III – some important provisions of the act.
The Conclusion – the needs and benefits of the Right to Information Act.

The Right to Information is one of the basic human rights in a democratic society
and is indispensable for free flow of information. If a democratic society has to
function properly then it is essential that it has informed citizens. But many a times
it happens that the government does not share all the information with the citizens in
the name of Official Secrets Act and such other legal provisions. In such a situation
what was necessary was to bring about a legal provision which would make citizen’s
access to information easier. The Right to Information Act opened up the door of
information for the individual citizens and in the process empowered them.

But before one goes into the ways in which the Right to Information Act has enabled
free access to information what one needs to know the factors that impaired free
flow of information. It is usually thought that there are three factors –
a. The legislative framework includes several pieces of restrictive legislation,
such as the Official Secrets Act, 1923;
b. The pervasive culture of secrecy and arrogance within the bureaucracy; and
c. The low levels of literacy and rights awareness amongst India's people.
(http://www.legalserviceindia.com/articles/rti_dh.htm)

The Right to Information Act came into effect only after a lot of pressure was
given to the government to legislate such an act. The demand for the right to
information gained momentum in India in the last three decades. The pressure from
the mass led to the draft bill of Right to Information being introduced to the Indian
Parliament in July 2000. It came into effect on 12th October 2005. Under this law,
information has become a fundamental right of the citizen.

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 According to the act, the government bodies and government funded agencies
are liable to share any information that the citizens ask for. Under this law all
government bodies or government funded agencies have to designate a Public
Information Officer (PIO) whose role would be to ensure that information sought for
is disclosed to the petitioner within thirty days. Information means any material in
any form, including records, documents, memos, e-mails, opinions, advices, press
releases, circulars, orders, logbooks, contracts, reports, papers, samples, models,
data material held in any electronic form, etc. According to this act citizen also has
firstly, the right to inspection of work, documents, records; secondly to take notes,
extracts or certified copies of documents or records; thirdly to take certified samples
of material; and finally to obtain information in the form of diskettes, floppies,
tapes, video cassettes or in any other electronic mode or through printouts where
such information is stored in a computer or in any other device.

In conclusion, it can be said that any healthy democracy requires an informed

citizenry and transparency of information which are vital to its functioning and
also to contain corruption and to hold governments and their instrumentalities
accountable to the governed. Consequently, it can be said that Right to Information
is essential as it gives citizens the chance to get any information (barring some
which are official secrets for various reasons) and help them make political, social
and financial decisions.

• The first paragraph is the Introduction which provides the necessary

background for Right to Information Act. The last line of the first paragraph
is the Thesis Statement – “The Right to Information Act opened up the
door of information for the individual citizens and in the process
empowered them.”
• Each paragraph starts with a Topic sentence which sums up the theme of that
paragraph. For example, in the second paragraph the topic sentence is “one
needs to know the factors that impaired free flow of information.” All
the other sentences after the topic sentence go on to support the topic
sentence. These sentences are known as the Supporting sentences.

1.5 COHESION AND COHERENCE

One can have a great idea, but if that idea is not presented in a logical and smooth
flowing manner, then reader(s) will miss the greatness of the idea. Therefore it is essential
that one presents the idea in such a fashion that the reader(s) remain engaged with the
topic. To achieve it, Cohesion and Coherence are two elements which needs to be
followed as they bind the writing together. No writing can be effective if it is not bound
together by a string of thoughts and ideas and if the links between the words and
sentences and paragraphs are not tightly bound. Coherence refers to the way the ideas are
sequentially presented in writing to make the reader(s) comprehend the idea. Writing has
coherence if its arguments are in a clear, plausible and comprehensible order, if there are
no logical gaps in its line of reasoning, and if it avoids unnecessary digressions. In other
words, it can be said that Coherence is about how meanings and sequences of ideas relate
to each other in writing such as, from general to particular, from problem to solution,

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from question to answer, from claim to counter-claim, etc. Cohesion, on the other hand,
refers to formal (stylistic) aspects of writing, specifically on the paragraph and sentence
level. Cohesion is achieved by a skilful use of lexico-grammatical forms that highlight the
sense relations binding the paragraphs and sentences. Cohesion is achieved through the
use of synonyms, lexical sets, pronouns, verb tenses, time references, grammatical
reference, transitional words and phrases, etc. For example, ‘it’, ‘neither’ and ‘this’ all
refer to an idea previously mentioned. ‘First of all’, ‘then’ and ‘after that’ help to
sequence writing. ‘However’, ‘in addition’ and ‘for instance’ link ideas and arguments. In
other words, cohesion is a means of establishing connections within writing at different
levels, e.g., sections, paragraphs, sentences and even phrases.

In short, it can be said that Coherence refers to the content element

in writing, whereas Cohesion refers to the stylistic devices.

1.5.1 Coherence
Any writing will be easy to understand if the content is presented coherently. A clear and
logical presentation of facts and arguments is essential for the reader to easily grasp the
meaning. If you are writing an application requesting your boss to grant you study leave
for a period of two years as you are planning to pursue a full time MBA course, then can
you expect the grant of the leave if the cause of the leave is not coherently presented in
your letter? Coherent writing will focus only on the important issue and try avoiding the
irrelevant details so that the reader is not lost. But one should remember here that to
present any idea in a coherent manner in writing, one needs to have a clear understanding
of the subject so that s/he can present his or her ideas with clarity. Two things are
absolutely important here –
(a) That one knows his or her subject very well.
(b) That one knows for whom one is writing.
If one is writing a narrative, the coherence in narrative writing does not come from just
presenting the facts in a chronological order, but by modifying the chronology of facts in
such a manner that the reader gets fascinated into reading. The point of view should be
such that it provides a fresh perspective to the reader. But if one is writing a manual, then
the coherence of the writing will be about following the chronology in such a manner that
the readers are able to fathom the exact step by step way of doing things. Thus, coherence
in writing varies from writing to writing. Different strategies need to be adopted for
different kinds of writings to make them easily comprehensible. In other words, the
choice of strategy depends on the aims and purposes of a piece of writing and the readers
whom the writer is addressing.

In the above writing on Right to Information, the information on Right to

Information Act are presented coherently by presenting the details in a manner
which would be easier for the readers to grasp it. The Introduction deals with a
background about the need for the Right to Information Act. The second paragraph
provides legal details and the socio-political framework which would not allow free

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 flow of information and hence the necessity of Right to Information Act. The third
paragraph provides a historical detail of the Act. The fourth paragraph in short sums
up some important provisions of the act. And the last paragraph is a summary of the
essay along with the necessity of such an act in the Indian context.

1.5.2 Cohesion
Cohesion makes writing comprehensible by highlighting lexico-grammatical elements of
a language at both the sentence and paragraph level so that readers can comprehend the
link between one textual unit and those preceding or following it. Cohesion comes from
stylistic devices that serve as a guiding function for the reader. The cohesive elements
that structure writing and help in the reader’s comprehension of the writing can be of
many kinds, such as:
1.5.3 Transitions and Link Words:
One of the ways to write cohesively is to structure information and facts in a
chronological presentation. A straightforward way of presenting the sequence is to use
lexical items like first … second … third ….finally. Other lexical items like in the
beginning/ at the start/ to start with/ after that/ and then/ in between/ before that/
following on that/ in the end, etc. can also be used.
In writing, where one is comparing, contrasting or evaluating facts, ideas, events, etc. the
lexical items such as, similarly/ in the same way/ in a different way/ but/ on the one hand
… on the other hand/ in contrast/ though/ however/ moreover/ in addition/ on top of that/
whereas, etc. can be used. Even the use of comparatives such as more/ most/ better/ best/
worse/ worst/ better than/ worse than/ even worse, etc. also serve the function in some
cases of writing.
When one is argumentative in writing, the words such as because/ consequently/
therefore/ as a result, etc. will fit the purpose. In case of conditional truths the words like
depending on/ given that/ assuming that, etc. can be of help.
Here is a list of transitional devices that you can use to write more cohesively:

Transition Function
again, also, and, and then, besides, equally
important, finally, first, further, furthermore, in
Addition
addition, in the first place, last, moreover, next,
second, still, too
Comparison also, in the same way, likewise, similarly
although, and yet, at the same time, but at the same
time, despite that, even so, even though, for all that,
however, in contrast, in spite of, instead,
Contrast
nevertheless, notwithstanding, on the contrary, on
the other hand, otherwise, regardless, still, though,
yet

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 Concession granted, naturally, of course
Emphasis certainly, indeed, in fact, of course
after all, as an illustration, even, for example, for
Example/ instance, in conclusion, indeed, in fact, in other
Illustration words, in short, it is true, of course, namely,
specifically, that is, to illustrate, thus, truly
all in all, altogether, as has been said, finally, in
brief, in conclusion, in other words, in particular, in
Summary
short, in simpler terms, in summary, on the whole,
that is, therefore, to put it differently, to summarize
after a while, afterward, again, also, and then, as
long as, at last, at length, at that time, before,
besides, earlier, eventually, finally, formerly, further,
furthermore, in addition, in the first place, in the
Time Sequence
past, last, lately, meanwhile, moreover, next, now,
presently, second, shortly, simultaneously, since, so
far, soon, still, subsequently, then, thereafter, too,
until, until now, when
Place/Direction above, below, farther on, nearby, to the right
Relationships therefore, so, consequently, for this reason, since
1.5.2.2 Performative Verbs and Commenting Adverbs
Transition words, as mentioned earlier, helps the writer bring cohesiveness to the writing,
but when the writer wishes to guide or influence the readers then s/he can use
performative and modal verbs and commenting adverbs.
Examples of performative verbs are: X claims, X states, X argues, X insists, X mentions, X
believes, X postulates …or (the author) postulates, suggests, describes, illustrates,
criticizes, demonstrates, believes, assumes, concludes…
Examples of modal verbs, which indicate the degree of strength of claims, are: may/
might/ can be/ could be/ is/ has/ is not/ cannot be/ must be….
Examples of commenting adverbs are: obviously, essentially, crucially, certainly,
secretively, tacitly, boldly, clearly, allegedly, surreptitiously …
1.5.2.3.Repetitions
Sometimes repetitions of words, phrases or key ideas help in the comprehension process
as the reader can easily sense the main idea. But repetition can sometime make the
writing boring and dull. The ways in which the writers can repeat the idea or word for
emphasis but still not be boring is to use devices like anaphora, synonyms and hyponyms.
1.5.2.4.Anaphora
An anaphora is a type of expression which we generally use when we want to refer to an
already mentioned object in writing. We substitute the already used expressions with

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pronouns such as this/ that/ he/ she/ / it/ they/ who/ which, etc. For example, if someone
says, “Samir want to the market to get a cake and ate it.” The word “it” is an anaphora
which is used to refer to “cake.” But instead of using cake twice in the sentence, the word
“it” suffices the purpose.
1.5.2.5.Synonyms
No two words are identical in their meaning, because if the meaning of two or more
words would have been similar than there would not have been a need for two different
words. There must be slight variation in meaning between the two words. But, two or
more words with very closely related meanings are called synonyms. These synonymous
words can often be substituted in a sentence to mean almost the same thing, though this is
not always true. For example – “what is your answer?” or “what is your reply?” or “what
is your response?” almost means the same thing, though the meaning may differ from
context to context. But suppose the words which are synonymous – ‘reply’, ‘answer’ and
‘response’ – cannot be used in the case when a person is writing an exam. It does seem
very proper to say that “Sam has replied to all the questions in the examination” or to say
that “Sam has responses to all the questions in the examination.” The proper thing would
be “Sam has answers to all the questions in the examination.” Thus, depending on the
context we can substitute one synonymous word with another. Therefore one needs to
keep in mind that the idea of ‘sameness’ of meaning used in discussing synonymy is not
necessarily ‘total sameness’.
1.5.2.6.Hyponyms
When the meaning of one form of word is included in the meaning of the other, then the
relationship between the two words is described as hyponymy. For examples:
animal/dog, vegetable/carrot, flower/rose, tree/banyan, etc. The concept of ‘inclusion’ is
involved in this relationship. The concept of a rose necessarily implies that it is a flower.
Therefore rose is a hyponym of flower. In hyponymous connections, one is primarily
looking at the meaning of words in some type of hierarchical relationship. The relation of
hyponymy captures the concept of ‘is a kind of’, for example, “carrot is a kind of
vegetable”. Sometimes the only thing we know about the meaning of a word is that it is a
hyponym of another term.
In the writing on Right to Information Act, cohesion was achieved through
various devices. Some of them are –

• Transitional words such as ‘firstly’, ‘secondly’, ‘thirdly’, ‘finally’ are

used in the following sentence “According to this act citizen also has
firstly, the right to inspection of work, documents, records; secondly
to take notes, extracts or certified copies of documents or records;
thirdly to take certified samples of material; and finally to obtain
information in the form of diskettes, floppies, tapes, video cassettes
or in any other electronic mode or through printouts where such
information is stored in a computer or in any other device.”

• Anaphora “it” in the sentence “Right to Information is essential as it

gives citizens the chance to get any information”

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1.6 THE CONCLUSION

The conclusion is as important as the introduction as the conclusion serves the purpose of
giving the findings of the writing in a nutshell. In other words, it can be said that a good
conclusion –

• Usually restates / reemphasizes the thesis of the writing in different

words/phrases.
• Should reinstate the significance of the findings of the writing.
• Briefly summarizes the main points of your paper. Though it should not be done
using same words as that would be repetitive and boring.
• Usually does not quote sources or new facts as that need to be done in the body of
the writing. It is better to put one’s own thoughts in one’s own words in
conclusion.
• Do not try to conclude with anything ambiguous that leaves the readers uncertain
about your meaning. Though it does not mean that one should not end in a way
that makes the reader thoughtful about the idea.

The last paragraph in the writing on Right to Information Act sums up the need
for Right to Information Act and it is the Conclusion.

1.7 SUMMING UP

In this Unit, we have learnt about how to write in a manner which becomes less
burdensome for us. We need to take writing as a process and follow the steps of writing
in a methodical manner if we want to achieve much in the academic world in terms of our
grades. One need to understand that writing is not something which should be taken to be
a burden; but is a kind of a process in which we learn to organize our thoughts in a
coherent manner so as to put them down in the paper to produce works which can fetch
us academic excellence. Writing often helps in the clarification of our thoughts and
therefore it is necessary that we take it very seriously. Apart from writing assignments
and other academic exercises which may fetch us good grades, we also need to write for
ourselves to organize our thoughts and knowledge and to give them a shape in our minds.

1.8 SELF CHECK QUESTIONS

1. Write a brief critical note on writing as a process.

2. Why do you think that writing should be approached as a process? Give reasons
for your answer.
3. What are the kinds of words and phrases that one should avoid while writing?
4. What is the importance of writing a good introduction? Enumerate the ways of
writing a good introduction.
5. What is the significance of Cohesion in writing? Give examples to illustrate your
answer.

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 6. What is a body paragraph? What does body paragraph consist of? Write a
paragraph on a topic of your choice to illustrate your points.
7. the difference between them and their significance in our academic studies.

1.9 RECOMMENDED READINGS

• Deb Dulal Halder edited Academic Writing and Composition: A Handbook (2016)
Book Age Publications, New Delhi.
• Deb Dulal Halder, Anjana Neira Dev and Prerna Malhotra (2012) Technical
Writing and Communication in English, Book Age Publications, New Delhi.
• M. Deane (2010) Academic Research, Writing and Referencing. Harlow” Pearson
Education.
• P. Elbow (1981) Writing with Power: Techniques for Mastering the Writing
Process. New York: Oxford University Press.
• Prerna Malhotra, Neerja Nagpal, Yamini and Deb Dulal Halder (2015) Business
Communication. Book Age Publications, New Delhi.
• Trevor Day (2013) Success in Academic Writing, Palgrave Study Skills. Palgrave,
Macmillan, New York.

13
 Unit 2

ACADEMIC WRITING

2.1 INTRODUCTION

In Unit I, we have come across the basic features of writing and also have talked about
the ways in which writing should be approached as a process to make it methodical and
less burdensome. We have probably understood the ways in which writing organizes our
thoughts and makes our academic life easier. In this Unit, we will especially focus on
Academic Writing and will figure out the ways in which academic writing needs to be
approached. We need to understand that there is a difference between academic writing
and other writing practices. All these different facets of academic writing and is related
aspects will be dealt with in this Unit.

2.2 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

In this chapter, you will learn the following aspects of Academic Writing –
o Principles of Academic Writing
o Selection of a Topic
o Formulation of a Thesis Statement
o Development of a Thesis
o Intext Referencing and Bibliography

2.3 ACADEMIC WRITING

Academic writing is essentially the kind of writing one does for academic purposes
within the arena of academic institutions. Such writing includes essays, papers, research
papers, term papers, argumentative papers/essays, analysis papers/essays, informative
essays, etc. In such writing one should start by asking a good question, then find and
analyze answers to it. The writing should share your thoughts and findings and justify it
with logic and evidence. Academic writing helps in developing skills in research,
evaluation, organization, argument, analysis, and expressing oneself.

For good academic writing, the writing should:

• Clearly state the topic and aim of the paper.

• Maintain a strong sense of purpose and organization.
• Clearly structured
• Provide relevant, specific, and convincing supporting evidence
with accurate bibliographical data
• Use correct, varied sentences with no errors whether grammatical,
syntactical, or orthographical (spelling)

• Employ a rich vocabulary appropriate to the audience and task

But, the organisation of thoughts into a coherent piece of writing is what many find

14
difficult. To overcome this difficulty, as mentioned in the last Chapter, writing should be
approached as a process – prewriting, writing, rewriting. What happens if one takes
writing as a process is that during the process the writer is able to revise his or her
concepts, reorganise his or her thoughts, and clarify his or her doubts by redrafting before
one produces the final version.

2.4 PRINCIPLES OF ACADEMIC WRITING

• Clear Purpose: The goal of academic writing is to answer the topic question. The
common purposes in academic writing are to persuade, analyze/synthesize,
inform, etc.
• Audience Engagement: Academic writing, like any other writing, has a specific
audience. One needs to write keeping in mind the audience. If one is writing a
research paper on Chemistry, it is advisable that s/he uses scientific jargon,
whereas jargon would not be either necessary or appropriate while writing for the
general reader.
• Clear Point of View: Academic writing is not just to inform and summarize, but
also to present one’s thoughts on those ideas, facts, etc. Therefore it is essential
for good academic writing to have a clear point of view.
• Single Focus: As any academic writing has a thesis to develop therefore it should
not unnecessarily divert to irrelevant and unimportant or even contradictory
information / ideas.
• Logical Organization: Writing should be logically organized so that the reader is
able to comprehend the thesis. Usually academic writing consists of an
introduction, body, and conclusion, where each paragraph logically leads to the
next one.
➢ The introduction is meant to catch readers’ attention, provide necessary
background information, and to map for the reader what to expect. The
introduction should also include the thesis statement. The introduction of
“Is Sting Operation Justified?” provides a short description of what is a
sting operation and then it states the thesis.
➢ The body paragraphs are written to support the thesis statement. Each
paragraph should have one main point (known as Topic Sentence) which
supports the thesis. All the sentences in the paragraph should be
progressing with logical reasoning. Each paragraph should lead to the next
in a cohesive manner.
➢ The conclusion should summarize the main points and show the
significance of the findings.
• Strong Support and Complete Explanations: Each paragraph should have
relevant support (in terms of facts, examples, description, personal experience,
and expert opinions and quotations) for the topic sentence and thesis statement.
Moreover, one should provide explanations so that the readers do not have to
think hard to understand the ideas and logic of the writing.
• Writing Style: Style is the dress of thought. If a great idea is not presented
effectively, it loses its greatness. Therefore it is essential that one should try to
figure out an apt style to write. One should remember to be clear, concise, and

15
 easy to read, having are no grammatical, spelling, punctuation mistakes.

2.5 SELECTION OF A TOPIC

Whenever one wants to write, selection of the topic becomes the first major problem as
one is often confused about the topic which can engage the reader(s). But a topic does not
mean a subject. Conflict management or Inorganic Chemistry are subjects. Subject is a
broader concept, on which a book can be written, but when we narrow a subject by
looking at its smaller parts, or by choosing a specific problem, time period, etc. we come
to a topic. One needs to be specific while choosing a topic.
While selecting a topic, one must keep in mind the following:
o Select a topic that interests you. If the topic is not of your interest area, then there
is always a possibility that you will not be able to write with conviction about the
topic. It is better to start with a number of topics and then categorize them
according to one’s preference.
o One can also identify topics from among those which established scholars of any
discipline say needs more study and research. One can even talk to one’s seniors
and teachers, if necessary.
o When one has more or less selected a few topics, one should turn them into
questions and see whether they can be easily answered. Those that have ready
answers obviously do not need further investigation and elaboration and are not
suitable for your purpose. You need to choose a topic that needs some
contribution from you in terms of findings and points of view.
o Also see if the answer to the question you are seeking is worth answering. If you
are choosing a topic which does not have any kind of relevance, whether
academic, scientific, sociological, cultural, political or financial, then what is the
point of looking for answers to those questions? Ask yourself whether your
answers to the question chosen by you will help readers get a new perspective or
gain new insights? If yes, then you have chosen the topic well.
o One also needs to figure out whether the topic can be researched properly within
the stipulated time and whether there is enough material available on the topic. In
other words, one should be practical and also ponder over whether it is a ‘do-able’
topic.
o If one has shortage of time, one should not choose a topic on which much material
is easily available and there are reliable sources of information.
o A good academic writing is not based on personal beliefs, but on sound evidences,
facts and information.

Activity
In most cases, your teachers provide you with a topic or topics for your
assignment. But in case your teacher provides you with an area of study and ask
you to choose a topic by yourself within the area of study, what methodology
will you follow to come to your topic for the assignment that you need to write
and submit.

16
 ➢ First write the broad area of study.
➢ Then point out at least five topics related to that area of study.
➢ Discuss the topics with your friends and figure out which topic is the best
for you to write an assignment.
➢ Give reasons why you have chosen a particular topic and not the other
four.

2.6 THESIS STATEMENTS

If one is writing on the topic ‘Should student politics be allowed on the college campus?’
one cannot merely summarize the condition and state of student politics. What one can do
is to look at the necessity and advisability of student politics in academic institutions,
look at the pros and cons of the issue and take a side. Let’s assume that you believe that
students should actively participate in politics. Now when you are writing, you need to
state your position somewhere at the beginning of your writing. But this should not be the
first sentence. What is required is to introduce the topic of student politics and then at the
end of first paragraph probably you can give your position on the issue, which you will
develop in the rest of your writing. The last sentence of the first paragraph where you
state your position on the issue can be termed as the thesis statement.
Writing is often used for persuading others to think in the same way as you are thinking
or for other motives such as, convincing others that you have an interesting, logical point
of view on the subject about which you are writing. The primary objective of persuasive
writing is to convince readers to accept your point of view. In academic writing, one
often uses persuasion as a means to achieve one’s end. What is usually done is that after a
brief introduction of the topic, one states one’s point of view on the topic directly and
often in a sentence or two. This sentence(s) is the thesis statement as it serves as a
summary / umbrella statement of the argument for the rest of the writing.
2.6.1 How to formulate a thesis statement?
To frame a suitable thesis statement one needs to brain storm by gathering all the
available data and looking for possible relationships between the information collected, in
terms of comparing and contrasting the gathered data. For example on the topic ‘should
student politics be allowed on the college campus?’ one collects all the available data and
then analyses it to figure out whether there is any correlation between students
participation in politics and career prospects. From the available data if one comes to the
conclusion that students politics is advantageous for those participating in it as it
improves their understanding and their career prospects, then this finding would form
your thesis statement, which the remainder of the essay would prove and justify.

Some other examples of thesis statements

Suppose you are writing on the topic should “Environment Pollution and
Industrialization.” And your stand on the topic is that rampant industrialization
without taking care of the environmental concerns is causing pollution which needs
to be checked. So the thesis statement for such an essay would be – “Rampant

17
 thoughtless industrialization is one of the major causes of environmental pollution
and several measures should be taken to check it.”

Suppose you are writing on the precautions that one needs to undertake for climbing
rocks. The thesis statement for such writing can be “Rock climbing is a fun sport but
there are certain precautions that need to be taken to eliminate risks.”

2.6.2. Purpose of a thesis statement:

• A thesis statement summarizes for the reader what s/he is going to encounter in
the writing and also states the significance of the writing. In other words, it can
be said to be a road map of the writing.
• A thesis usually is an interpretation of the subject that you are writing on. For
example, if you are writing about the industrial pollution in India, the thesis
statement is not industrial pollution, but the aspect of industrial pollution that you
are dealing with in your writing.
• A thesis statement usually makes an argument that others might dispute, leading
one to justify the thesis in the rest of the writing.
• A thesis statement is usually a single sentence mostly in your first paragraph. The
rest of the writing, that is, the body of the essay, organizes evidence that
persuades the readers to accept this interpretation.
2.6.3. How to know if the thesis is strong enough?
When reviewing the working thesis, the following questions can be asked to ascertain that
your thesis is strong enough:

• Does your thesis statement make others challenge or oppose it? If your thesis
statement states facts that no one opposes or challenges then it is an accepted
truth, which needs no further elaboration.
• Is the thesis statement specific enough? One cannot make a general statement in a
thesis as general truths are usually accepted ones. Therefore, one needs to ask
specific questions which can be developed in the rest of the writing.
• Does your writing support your thesis? If it does not then change your working
thesis according to your writing.
• Does your thesis make people feel that it is unnecessary to read further? If it is so
then one needs to review one’s thesis.
• While reading your writing will your thesis make the readers ask why or how the
writing supports the thesis? If it does then you need to review your thesis
statement.

18
 Note

• A thesis statement is a unifying aspect of the writing; therefore it

should summarize the main point of the writing.

• Usually the thesis statement comes in the first paragraph, though

there is no rigid rule about position.

• Everything in the writing should follow from your thesis statement.

• One can modify the thesis statement while writing and rewriting.
When we start writing, the thesis is usually a working thesis and
one should finalize it only when the writing is over.

• It is not necessary that all writing would have a thesis statement.

For example, narrative writing often does not have a thesis
statement.
• Avoid announcing that it is a thesis statement. Avoid using phrases
such as “The purpose of this paper is . . . .” Or “In this paper, I
will ….”
• A thesis statement can be in more than one sentence, as a complex
thesis statement needs many sentences to develop the thought or
the idea.

2.7 DEVELOPING THE THESIS

When one has more or less drafted a preliminary thesis statement one can proceed
towards making a basic outline before one actually starts writing. The outline is necessary
as it helps in focusing one’s research and considering the order of one’s ideas.
2.7.1 Choosing and ordering points

• Write the preliminary thesis statement.

• Write all the reasons/arguments/effects/solutions you have to answer the question
and support your thesis.
• When the list is more or less done, you need to organize the ideas/ arguments/
reasons, etc. in proper sequence. The sequence can be chronological, cause to
effect, problem to solution, etc.
• Even make a list of the counter arguments or opposing viewpoints to refute them.

2.7.2 Planning – Taking Notes

One of the important aspects of academic writing is to take notes of the information,
ideas, views of important scholars, etc. while taking notes one should also note down the
sources as one needs to refer to the sources while writing and it also helps in making the
bibliography.

19
2.7.3 Planning – Detailed Outline
After taking notes, one needs to create a detailed outline by adding details to the basic
outline. One may even find new points or arguments and counterarguments which one
needs to add to the basic outline. Then reorganize the points in such a way that it sounds
logical and is smooth flowing.
While making a detailed outline it is necessary that one plans each paragraph of the
writing in terms of the topic sentence for each paragraph and the factual evidence,
examples, expert opinions, descriptions, quotations, etc. that support the topic sentence.
A detailed outline is necessary for several reasons:

• To ensure that there is enough evidence to support the thesis statement.

• To make sure that there is enough evidence to counter the opposing views
• To map the writing.
• To avoid major organizational problems.
• To think deeply on the topic so as to refine it.

Outline of the essay on “Is Sting Operation Justified?”

Thesis statement:
When someone is doing a crime or an immoral act which is affecting public life or
public money then it is completely justified on the part of the journalist to use any
means possible to expose the person or the crime.
Arguments:
Argument I: Sting operation has been used by journalists to unearth truths
which have changed the face of the world.
Example: Water Gate Scandal which led to the American President
Richard Nixon to resign from his office
Argument II: In India, sting operations uncovered many such scams which are
for the public good.
Example: Operation West End by Tehelka, which led to Bangaru
Laxman being convicted for four years and a fine or Rs. One Lakh.
Dilip Singh Judeo accepting Bribe and his resignation from being
the Minister of State for Environment and Forests
Argument III: Sting Operations are also good in terms of laying bare the truth of
how different people try to play with the mass sentiments.
Example: Fallen Heroes, the Tape released by Tehelka providing
details of match-fixing in cricket.

20
 Argument IV: One should not be deterred from doing their jobs because they are
long-drawn or tedious or risky.
Counter Argument: Some people may argue that sting operations can be
misused or done with malafide intention of blackmailing a person or harming him
or her in other ways.
Example: The case of the fabricated Sting operation of Uma Khurana.
Counter-argument countered: Aspiring journalists can get into criminal acts for
quick recognition in the world of media.
Conclusion: It can be concluded that sting operation is not unethical at all as it
lays bare the truth which are hidden from public.

2.8 WRITING THE FIRST DRAFT

When one has the detailed outline ready, one has more or less developed the thesis. Now
it is time to launch oneself into the actual writing process. Some people prefer to start
with the introduction and then carry on from there; while many prefer to write the body
paragraphs first and then write the introduction and conclusion.

2.9 REVISING

When the first draft is complete, one needs to revise the writing to make it finer,
strengthen the content and make more reader friendly. During revision and editing, one
should

• Eliminate all unnecessary or irrelevant details, ideas, words, sentences.

• If there are too many long sentences which are difficult to understand then break
the sentences into two or more.
• Are there repetitions which can be avoided?
• Where all can the repetitive words or ideas be replaced with synonyms,
hyponyms, anaphoric words, etc.?
• Have transitional words been used properly to make the writing cohesive?
• Add words, sentences or paragraphs or other details that make the writing
coherent and cohesive.
• If necessary reorganize words, sentences or paragraphs to give it a logical order.
• Check for all grammatical mistakes, punctuation errors, spelling mistakes or any
other errors.

2.10 INTEXT REFERENCING

While writing we often use quotations and even paraphrase others views, data, etc. which
needs to be acknowledged. When we are quoting or paraphrasing we need to provide the
detail in parenthesis in the following manner (Author’s last name, Date of Publication,
Page No.)

21
Direct Quotes are written exactly as they appear in the work, in inverted commas, such
as:
“Strong interest in general relativity began to be revived starting in the late 1950s,
particularly by the Princeton group led by John Wheeler and the London group led by
Herman Bondi.” (Wald, 1984, 3)
Short quotes (less than 30 words) should be incorporated into your sentence.
Long quotes (more than 30 words) should be indented.
Indirect Quotes do not require inverted commas as one is summarizing or paraphrasing
the idea in one’s own words. But the referencing is done in the same fashion as in direct
quotes

2.11 BIBLIOGRAPHY

When the writing is over, one knows what are the sources consulted during the process of
writing. All those sources (books, research papers, articles, websites, etc.) need to be put
in a sequence in the bibliography. It is usually the practice to list out the books, first, then
the periodicals, articles and then the web materials.

The word “bibliography” comes from the Greek word ‘bibliographia’ which
meant the copying of books by hand. Later, during the middle ages, the term was
used to signify any intellectual activity of composing books. The way in which it is
used today is a contribution of the 17th century where bibliography has been
expanded to include any studies that consider the book as a material object.

Details about how to prepare a Bibliography has been discussed in Unit 7.

2.12 SUMMING UP

In this Unit, you have come across some of the introductory notions of academic writing.
You must by now already have the knowledge that Academic writing has certain goals
and therefore the writing should be approached as a process and there should not be any
deviation from the original intent of the writing. We have learnt about thesis statement
and how to develop a thesis statement into an essay or a research paper so as to present
our thoughts in an organized manner. Other facets such as intext citations as well
bibliography are also discussed in short which will be taken up in the later units. The
focus of the next few units will be moreover to introduce you with the other aspects of
Academic writing in detail.

2.13 SELF CHECK QUESTIONS

1. Write a Critical note on the principles of academic writing. Do you think these
principles should be followed while writing academically? Give reasons for your
answer.
2. How can you select a good topic for writing? What are the parameters you should
keep in mind while selecting a topic for academic writing?
3. Write a note of the way a thesis statement is the governing statement of academic

22
 writing. Do you think Thesis statements need to be thought about in very minutest
details before writing anything academically? Why do you think so? Illustrate
with examples.

2.14 RECOMMENDED READINGS

• Deb Dulal Halder edited Academic Writing and Composition: A Handbook (2016)
Book Age Publications, New Delhi.
• Deb Dulal Halder, Anjana Neira Dev and Prerna Malhotra (2012) Technical
Writing and Communication in English, BookAge Publications, New Delhi.
• John Gonzales, Michael Pringle (2009) The APA Style of Documentation: A
Pocket Guide. Prentice Hall.
• M. Deane (2010) Academic Research, Writing and Referencing. Harlow Pearson
Education.
• MLA Handbook for writers of Research Papers, MLA, (2008) Affiliated East-
west Press Pvt. Ltd.
• P. Elbow (1981) Writing with Power: Techniques for Mastering the Writing
Process. New York: Oxford University Press.
• Prerna Malhotra, Neerja Nagpal, Yamini and Deb Dulal Halder (2015) Business
Communication. Book Age Publications, New Delhi.
• Trevor Day (2013) Success in Academic Writing, Palgrave Study Skills. Palgrave,
Macmillan, New York.

23
 Unit 3

CONVENTIONS OF ACADEMIC WRITING

3.1 INTRODUCTION

One of the most significant aspects of Academic Writing is that it is undertaken after
doing a particular kind of a research on a particular topic at length. At different levels of
educational process, the nature of research gets different kinds of intensity and objective
– depending on the intellectual acumen of the learners, time associated with doing the
research, etc. For example, at undergraduate level, the research done for writing an
assignment varies much from the research that one does to get a doctorate degree. But
even though the nature of research varies according to the grade of intellectual activity;
the conventions that one needs to follow more or less remains the same. In this chapter
we will focus on the few essential conventions that we need to follow to maintain the
standards of academic writing. We will briefly acquaint ourselves with the notion of
research and then go into the details of the conventions of academic writing.

3.2 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of the chapter, you should have learnt about –

• Research and its objectives

• Contextual Appropriateness of a research work / writing
• Conventions of Academic Writing

3.3 RESEARCH

Research is an oft used word these days as we use the word loosely for any kind of search
that we do to come to a possible desired outcome. Before buying any gadget or any
expensive item, we usually try to figure out the comparative prices, features, facilities,
etc. of the same product between competitive brands so as to choose the best option
available. This is also termed as research, though it is nothing but market survey. But
when we look at the research within the academic field, it has other dimensions which are
much more serious than just mere market survey. In this section of the book we will look
closely at the term “research” and will try to figure out the connections between research
and academic writing.
Etymologically, the word “research” is derived from the Middle French word
”recherche”, which means “to go about seeking”, the term itself being derived from
the Old French term “recerchier” a compound word from “re-” + “cerchier”, or
“sercher”, meaning ‘search’. The earliest recorded use of the term was in 1577. But in
today’s academic context the term is used primarily as a verb to mean “to examine
closely and carefully”, “to test and try” or “to probe.” In short, it can be said in the words
of Grinnell that research “a careful, systematic patient study and investigation in some
field of knowledge, undertaken to establish facts or principles” or in words of Redman
and Mory, research as “a systematized effort to gain new knowledge.”

24
Characteristics and Objectives of Research

B. W. Tukmann (1978) has listed the following characteristics of research –

1. Systematic
2. Empirical.
3. Logical
4. Replicable and transmittable
5. Reductive
These features of research probably makes it clear that research is all about scientific
way of studying a particular subject to gain new knowledge or to validate existing
knowledge in a particular context or to ascertain new laws, principles or facts, etc. Based
broadly on these particular sets it can be said that there are few primary objectives of
research. They are –
1) To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it.
2) To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a
group.
3) To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is
associated with something else
4) To test a hypothesis or a casual relationship between variables.

Like writing, research is also a process. There are few steps that the academic researcher
needs to follow while undergoing research on any subject or topic. The process involves
the following –
(1) Formulating the research problem
(2) Literature survey
(3) Developing the hypothesis
(4) Preparing the research design
(5) Determining sample design
(6) Collecting the data
(7) Execution of the project
(8) Analysis of data
(9) Hypothesis testing
(10) Generalizations and Interpretation
(11) Preparation of the report, i.e. formal write-up of conclusions reached.
Academic Writing deals with the last step of the Research work when one is writing, a
project report or a dissertation or a thesis or a paper based on the research findings. For

25
the present purpose of the course, we will not deal with the first ten stages of Research;
but merely concern ourselves with the preparation of the report or the thesis.

3.4. PREPARATION OF THE REPORT OR THE THESIS

As mentioned earlier, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done by
her / him so as to notify his or her contribution to the field of knowledge and moreover
for others to build up on that knowledge. Therefore, writing of report/ thesis / paper
should be done with keeping in view the following:
The layout of the Report should be as follows:
o The preliminary pages.
o The main text, and
o The end matter.
In its preliminary pages the report should carry title and date followed by
acknowledgments and foreword. Then there should be a table of contents followed by a
list of tables and list of graphs and charts, if any, given in the report. After these
preliminary things, the main text of the report comes, which should include –
a) Introduction: It should contain a clear statement of the objective of the research
and explanation of the methodology in accomplishing the research. The scope of
the study along with various limitations should as well be stated in this part.
b) Summary of findings: After introduction there would appear a statement of
findings and recommendations in nontechnical language. If the findings are
extensive, they should be summarized.
c) Main report: The main body of the report should be presented in logical sequence
and broken-down into readily identifiable sections.
d) Conclusion: Towards the end of the main text, researcher should again put down
the results of his research clearly and coherently.
The end matter of the report can include the appendices which may enlist all technical
data, Bibliography, i.e., list of books, journals, reports, etc. consulted. Index should also
be provided in case of a published research report.
Report should be written in a concise and objective style in simple language avoiding
vague expressions such as ‘it seems’, there may be’, and the like. Charts and illustrations
in the main report should be used only if they present the information in conducting
research operations. In short, all other parameters of academic writing should be
employed while writing a research report.
At your stage of your academic career, probably you are not asked to do original
research, but often you are asked to write assignments and term papers which are meant
to train you to do research. In most cases, you are given a topic or an area on which you
need to write an assignment, but in many cases the instructor or the teacher gives you a
broad area and you are supposed to choose a particular topic or problem within the broad
subject area. Therefore it can be said that in most cases the teacher / instructor provides
you with the research problem or makes you choose a research problem from within a

26
particular area of studies. Finding a proper research problem for academic researchers is a
job which often takes much time and dedication, therefore the teacher provides you with
the topic of assignment. But the second step in the process of research is often the same
as your process of writing the assignment – that is, doing literature survey. What you do
in the survey of literature is that you try to figure out all / some of the prominent writings
published on the topic of the assignment that is provided to you so as to acquaint yourself
thoroughly with the given topic of the assignment. In most cases, at the undergraduate
level assignment writing, you are not supposed to go through the other processes of
research, but directly go to the process of writing your assignment based on your readings
that you have done while in the process of surveying the existing literature. Then the
actual process of writing takes place which is similar to the process of writing that we
have discussed in the earlier chapter, but in case of academic writing there are certain
other factors that one has to kept in mind while writing. They are –
(a) Contextual appropriateness
(b) Academic conventions.
We will discuss these two topics in detail so as to acquaint yourself about the process of
academic writing that you undertake in the graduate level assignment writing as well as
doing basic research write-up.

3.5. CONTEXTUAL APPROPRIATENESS

Any writing has a context within with one performs the role of being the writer of what
one are penning down. For example, when this book is planned, it is kept in mind that it
should serve the purpose of the students those who are new to higher studies and have
just been initiated into the academic world and need to understand the basic steps of
academic writing so as to prepare themselves for the future projects and professional
undertakings. Thus the purpose of this book is that to make the subject of academic
writing easily understandable to the students. So it has a particular context and a
particular audience. It is always the norm that you communicate with the person keeping
in mind the context of your intended audience. As this book’s audience is students who
have taken up Generic Elective – Academic Writing or is interested in knowing about the
process of Academic Writing, therefore the context of the students, their needs, concerns,
abilities, etc. are kept in mind so as to make the book appropriate in the given context. In
the following section, we will discuss the “appropriateness – contextual” of academic
writing in detail so as to make you understand how you should make every attempt to
contextualize your writing – in terms of purpose, audience, situation, etc. of your writing.
Purpose
Writing is not an easy task. Whenever you are given any assignment, the first reaction
probably is ‘why’? The lazy ones ask the question only to find a lame excuse so that s/he
can get away with the assignment. But as the course requirements needs you to write the
assignment or do the project, therefore there is no way you can avoid the pain of doing a
bit of work and write what the course requires you to do. Therefore the question “Why”
should be asked with different implications. The implications should be –

27
(a) Why should I write about this topic? Is the topic of any relevance in the present
context?
(b) Why should I think deeply over this topic of assignment? Does it have any
consequence in terms of its relation to the subject or course?
(c) For whom should I write this assignment?
Probably many such questions come to your mind when you are instructed to write an
assignment. Then some other questions come in, such as –
(a) What materials should I consult to write the assignment?
(b) Do I need to talk to others, including my instructor / teacher or any other subject
expert to write this assignment?
(c) What is the time frame of writing the assignment? Is there any other assignment to
be done within a similar deadline?
(d) How much time can I devote to the assignment given the circumstance and the
background reading that I have to do?
(e) What should be my approach in writing the assignment? Etc.
So among the many questions that your mind generates to yourself, one significant
question will be dealt with this is section of the book – that is, how should I approach the
task of writing my assignment. Based on general ways of writing that we have talked
about in the first chapter, it is usually thought that there are three ways in which academic
writing is usually done. They are –

• Writing to Inform
• Writing to Analyze
• Writing to Persuade
In the first chapter we have discussed various kinds of writing and these various kinds are
usually employed at different stages of academic writing; but it needs to be kept in mind
that while writing many of these categories overlap with each other so as to make your
writing cohesive and coherent.
Not only one should try to figure out the contextual appropriateness of academic writing,
one should also follow certain other norms related to style, tone and language while
writing for academic purposes. There are certain norms which one should follow which
can broadly be termed as Academic Conventions.

3.6. CONVENTIONS OF ACADEMIC WRITING

As Academic Writing is of a specific kind, therefore it also requires you to make a special
effort to write in such a manner which will show your academic bent of mind. Your
content does matter when you write; but if the content is not presented according to the
conventions of the academic writing you are bound to lose the best of grades as you
haven’t followed the standard conventions of writing. We will discuss the different
standard conventions of Academic writing under three headings – Style, tone and
language.

28
3.6.1 Style Conventions of Academic Writing
Style Conventions here does not refer to the mode that you choose to write – that is, to
inform or to analyze or to persuade or a combination of two or more different modes; but
certain other specific things that one needs to follow. Some of the standard conventions
are enumerated below which may be of help in pursuing your academic writing—
Numbers and Dates –
Dates and numbers often are a significant part of your academic writing and one needs to
follow certain standard pattern while writing dates and numbers.
(a) As far as dates are concerned, there are two standard formats for writing dates.
They are –
(i) DD/MM/YYYY
(ii) MM/DD/YYYY
You need to choose any one of the following format for writing dates and follow the
same throughout your writing so as to be uniform.
(b) When one is writing about centuries, capitalization is not a requirement. For
example, “modernization of India started in nineteenth century.”
(c) When one mentions a decade it is a usual practice that you use digit or alphabets
but if you are using numbers or digits then apostrophe should not be used –
“1990s is the time of the liberalization of Indian economy.”
(d) Usually numbers below hundred are written in full – “Twenty people were there
altogether.”
(e) Numbers above hundred should be represented in digits – “There are about 250
teachers in our college.”
Using Capitals –
Capital letters are to be used in specific contexts while writing according to the standard
conventions. The contexts are –
(a) Proper Nouns – The President of India, University of Delhi,
(b) National Holidays – Diwali, Holi, Christmas
(c) Geograhical Names – Kolkata, Chennai, Himachal Pradesh
(d) Trade Names – Microsoft, Canon
(e) Books and Journal Titles – Literary Canon, Academic Writing and Composition:
A Handbook, etc.
3.6.2 Tone Conventions
As you are writing for academic purposes therefore the tone of your writing should be
formal and impersonal / objective. Use of first person singular number or third person
singular number is not usually the standard convention of academic writing. For example
–

29
 • First Person Singular Number – I investigated the facts related to the child labour
and figured out …
• Third Person Singular Number – The writer investigated the facts related to the
child labour and figured out …
• Impersonal writing – Facts related to child labour were investigated and it was
figured out …
In the above three instances, three different tones have been employed; but in case of
academic writing, the last instance is more suitable as it presents a impersonal tone and
presents the objectivity of the writer.
3.6.3 Language Conventions
As mentioned in the first chapter, right words in the right place have the most appropriate
effect. In other words, the right words in the right context have power, but if words are
used without any thought then they still wield power but of the wrong kind and often can
have the opposite effect. In academic writing, as well as in all other kinds of writings,
which words to choose to express oneself is something that one needs to ponder over.
One’s language expresses one’s clarity of thought, so it is important that one makes an
attempt to choose the right words which will bring about the intention of the writer in
clearest terms.
Moreover, as academic writing has a particular structure, therefore using appropriate
rules of grammar, using appropriate spellings are must. But apart from grammar and
spellings, there are other parameters that one needs to follow while writing. They are –

• Use Simple, Familiar, Straightforward Words:

When one writes in convoluted language, one is not keeping the reader in mind. In
written communication, the reader is not always in front of the writer to seek
clarification; therefore, the language should be such that it can be easily comprehended.
When writing, one should be careful to use words that are simple, straightforward and
familiar. In written communication, obscure words can only lead to more obscurity in
comprehension. Below is a list of some obscure words which one should try to avoid and
use the corresponding familiar, straightforward, easily understandable words.

Obscure words Alternative words

Accede Agree

Aforementioned Already discussed

As per your request As you requested

Ascertain Find out

Attached herewith Attached

30
 Cognizant Know

Endeavour Try

In lieu of Instead of

Inasmuch as Because

Initial First

Issuance Send

Pertaining to About

Pursuant to After

Remittance Pay

Subsequent Later

Supersede Replace

• Use Specific and Concrete Words:

In written communication, one should try to use specific words, rather than using general
and abstract words. Concrete words make the reader feel that one has in-depth knowledge
about the subject and therefore it interests the reader. For example, if one writes in an
email to his or her friend “I saw an apparel in a mall which I liked very much. I wish you
were with me to buy it. Let’s plan to meet some time in near future to buy the apparel.”
This sentence will not provide the reader any concrete detail about which apparel the
writer has seen, in which mall or when s/he intends to meet and buy the apparel. Instead,
if it is mentioned, a ‘t-shirt’ instead of an apparel, ‘Ambience Mall’ instead of ‘a mall’
and “Saturday afternoon at 5 pm” instead of “in near future”, then the reader will have the
exact details.

• Avoid Clichés:
Clichés are words and phrases which are used so much that they have lost their appeal.
When one uses such words and phrases repeatedly, it becomes unimpressive and the
reader loses all interest. For example, if one says – “There is no point in burning the
midnight oil in discussing a topic which would not provide any food for thought in the
audience.” The phrases “burning the midnight oil” or “food for thought” are redundant as
they have been used so much that when one hears or reads them, one feels that the
encoder of the message has no original thought of his or her own. Instead, the encoder
could have said the same thing in a much more direct way – “There is no point in putting
so much of labour in discussing a topic which would not interest the audience.”

31
 • Use Jargons sparingly:
Jargons are words or expressions which are subject-specific or profession specific, and
consequently can be easily understood by the people within the same profession or who
are dealing with the same subject. But for others who are not from the same profession or
from the same discipline, it becomes difficult and sometimes impossible to comprehend
the jargons. If one is writing a paper for a journal or an assignment, then it is appropriate
to use jargon, but one needs to use them intelligently and sparingly.

Newspaper beat, breakline, byline, chaser, circulation, cut, dateline, ears,

Jargon flag, lead, stringer, strip, teaser, and zone

Business actionable, axe, back burner, best practice, bean counter,

Jargon bearish, brain dump, bullish, buzz, change agent, circular file,
core competency, down and dirty, downsize, headcount, hired
guns, in the black, in the loop, in the red, level playing field,
leverage, org chart, out of pocket, out of the loop,
stakeholders, sweat equity, timeframe, traction, value-added

Computer browser, bus, cache, chip, cookie, CPU, crash, database,

Jargon download, driver, file, firewall, folder, fragmentation,
freeware, hardware, interface keyboard, shortcuts, mouse,
network, operating system, plug and play, resolution,
software, spam, upload, URL, and virus .

• Avoid Redundant Words and Circumlocution:

Sometimes one is in the habit of using words which are not necessary and yet one uses
them thinking that they look stylish. One even uses a roundabout way of saying things
(circumlocution) rather than saying things directly using concise words. These kinds of
words and expressions should be avoided as they make writing unimpressive. Below are
lists of kind of expressions that should be avoided in written communication.
(a) Redundancies:
Redundancies are two or more words that say the same thing and yet we use all of them.
For example, we often write “During the year 2010”, it is unnecessary to use the words
“the year” as “during 2010” carries the whole sense. Such redundancies should be
excluded from communication. Below is a list of some expressions with redundant words
and their corresponding concise alternatives:

Phrases with Redundancies Concise Alternatives

In the month of December In December

Will cost a sum of Rs. 1000. Will cost Rs. 1000.

32
 Our regular monthly status reports Our monthly status
reports

We collaborated together We collaborated

The other alternative The alternative

A new innovation An innovation

The consensus of opinion is to The consensus is to

(b) Avoid ‘Shun’ Words

‘Shun’ words are words which end with ‘–tion’ or ‘–sion’; that is, words ending in a
‘shun’ sound. For example, instead of using “I want you to take into consideration the
following”, it can easily be said “Consider the following.” The expression not only makes
the sentence concise, but also makes it more comprehensible.

Shun Words and phrases Concise Alternatives

Came to the conclusion Concluded or decided

With the exception of Except for

Make revisions Revise

Investigation of the Investigate

Consider implementation Implement

Utilization of Use

(c) Avoid Camouflaged words

Camouflaged words are words in which a shorter expression can be used, but people tend
to use the expression in a camouflaged fashion. For example, instead of saying “thanking
you” in a letter, we often use “thanking you in anticipation” which is not needed.

Camouflaged Words Concise Alternatives

Arrive to an agreement Agree

At a later moment Later

For the purpose of Discuss

discussing

33
 Have a meeting Meet

Make an adjustment of Adjust

Make an amendment to Amend

(d) Avoid Wordy Phrases:

Wordy phrases are phrases which are used unnecessarily to say things in a roundabout
way which could be avoided.

Wordy Phrases Concise Alternatives

A great number of times Often (or state the

number of times)

Am in receipt of Received

As soon as possible State the exact time

At a rapid rate Fast (or state the

exact speed)

At all times Always

At that point in time Then

At the present time Now

At this present writing Now

Beyond a shadow of a doubt Certainly

Despite the fact that Although

Due to the fact that Because

Due to the fact that Because

Enclosed please find Enclosed is

For the purpose of For

In accordance with According to

In connection with With

In most instances Usually

34
 In order to To

In order to purchase To buy

In some instances Sometimes

In spite of the fact that Although

In the event that If

In the first place First

In the likely event that If

In the near future Soon

Is of the opinion that Thinks

It is evident that Evidently

On a daily basis Daily

On an everyday basis Routinely

Rendered completely Broken

inoperative

Subsequent to After

The reason is because Because

With regard to About

These phrases could be avoided altogether

All things considered
As a matter of fact
As far as I am concerned
For all intents and purposes
In the final analysis
It is a fact that
It is clear that
It seems that
The point I am trying to make is

• Avoid Discriminatory Words and Phrases:

Discriminatory language is a symptom of as well as a contributor to the unequal socio-
cultural status of women, the differently-abled and people from various ethnic and racial

35
backgrounds. It is appropriate to use non-discriminatory language as not only is it
politically correct, but also reflects one’s mental and psychological makeup. The
discriminatory words and phrases that one should avoid are:
(a) Sexist language that expresses bias in favour of one sex/gender and thus
discriminates against the other. Any language that discriminates against women or
men by not adequately reflecting their roles, status and presence in society is
sexist. Women are made invisible in language such as in the use of the terms
‘mankind’ or ‘manmade’. Many a times we refer to man first and then women, for
example, he/she, his/her, etc., which refers to the subordinate status of women.
Non-sexist language should be used to ensure a balanced and fair representation
of men and women. Reversing the word order women and men, her and him, she
and he, Madam or Sir, etc. can be one way, but it is better to alternate the words
throughout a document for fair representation. One should avoid using the terms
such as ‘lady doctor’, ‘women academic’, etc. as they stereotype occupation with
gender. Below are some other examples that one can avoid.

Avoid Use

Men of Scientists
science

Manpower Workforce

Manning the Staffing the office

office

Man-made Synthetic/artificial

Chairman Chairperson

(b) Those who are differently abled should not be labeled as crippled, deaf, dumb,
disabled, handicapped, mentally retarded, blind, etc. Instead terms like ‘physically
challenged’, or ‘differently abled’ should be used.
(c) Similarly, racial biases should not be a part of the language we use. We should not
use the word ‘ethnic’ to mean ‘foreign’ or ‘the other’. Everybody has an ethnicity
and belongs to an ethnic group. Moreover, other such terms, such as ‘uncivilized’,
‘uncultured,’ etc. to refer to a minority group not in touch with the mainstream
culture should be avoided as they have their own culture and civilization having
its own uniqueness and identity.
One should keep in mind that the use of discriminatory language is extremely hurtful and
upsetting for the recipient and in most cases even unlawful.

• Use Acronyms and Abbreviations Judiciously:

Acronyms are words coined by taking the first letters of each word in a series of words,

36
for example, WHO for ‘World Health Organization.’ The word abbreviation refers to any
shortened form of a word or a phrase, such as Dr. for ‘doctor’ or Prof for ‘professor.’ We
use a whole lot of them in our communication. When someone writes that “The Radio
angular detecting and ranging is not working” or “My computer is being bugged by Vital
resource and information under seize”; one would not be able to comprehend. But if the
same things are said as “The RADAR is not working” or “My computer is being bugged
by VIRUS”; then the general readers would immediately understand what is being said.
In cases where the acronyms or abbreviations are so popular that people have forgotten
the original words then it is advisable to use the acronyms or abbreviations, but if it is the
other way round where the acronyms or abbreviations are not so widespread in everyday
usage then it is advisable to use the full form at least initially and then shift to the
acronym and abbreviations during the later stage of the writing. For example, if the
acronym ‘CIA’ is used in a business letter then it should be mentioned at the first instance
that CIA refers to ‘Cash in Advance’, otherwise the recipient might wonder why you are
referring to the ‘Central Investigating Agency’ which is the other full form of this
acronym. Thus it is significant that one uses Abbreviations and Acronyms judiciously.
Moreover with the growth of the new media, such as different messaging services, it has
become a common practice that we use abbreviations all the time for messaging because
of the space constraint. But such abbreviations are not welcome in academic writing.
Therefore it has to be kept in mind that one should not fall prey to abbreviations when
they are not required.

3.7 CHOOSING THE RIGHT SENTENCES

Choosing right words are important in communication, but to put them properly in
grammatically and semantically coherent sentences is important to make written
communication effective. If the sentences are loosely formed, grammatically incorrect,
ambiguous, awkward, then they fail to make an impact on the reader. Therefore it is
essential to write in grammatically correct and coherent sentences.

• Use Simple, Short and Straightforward Sentences

Simplicity is a feature of anything good and it applies to writing too. When one writes in
simple language one is reader-friendly. Short simple sentences convey the meaning in a
much better fashion then unnecessarily longer sentences. If one loads too much
information in a sentence then it becomes difficult to fathom the meaning of the sentence.
When one says that one should write in simple language it does not necessarily mean that
one should avoid using complex and compound sentences. Simplicity in sentence
construction and simple sentences are two different things.

• Economize with Words

There are many ways of saying things in a roundabout (circumlocutory) way using wordy
phrases, redundant words, etc. which unnecessarily makes the sentence longer. One
should not try to write in as brief as possible as that makes the reader give less time to
read and s/he can be more focused in comprehending the idea. Therefore, for better
writing, it is essential that one economizes with words, in the sense that one should use as
few words as possible to express oneself. The shorter the expression, the greater is the

37
chance of being understood. In the following sentence: “Despite the fact that she was
feeling ill, she came to the conclusion that she would go to attend her classes” there are
too many words that are unnecessarily used. The same idea can be expressed in a much
better fashion if it is expressed as “Despite being ill, she decided to go for her classes.”
The earlier sentence makes the meaning abstruse. It is better to use a shorter version
which is much clearer and has greater impact.

• Avoid Ambiguous Sentences

Ambiguity can never be a characteristic of clear thinking and clear understanding.
Therefore it can never be a feature of good writing. One needs to write in a fashion where
the meaning is clear. In some cases one uses words in such a way that the readers are not
able to fathom the meaning as there is much ambiguity in the sentence. If someone writes
“five teachers taught five students last year,” we are not sure whether ‘each of the five
students were taught by five teachers each’ or whether ‘each student had one teacher.’ It
is better to communicate in concrete and specific details rather than communicating in
abstract and ambiguous way. In this case, suppose the writer intended to communicate
that ‘each of the five students were taught by five teachers each’, then the unambiguous
way of saying it would be “All the five teachers taught five students last year.”
Certain other conventions that one needs to follow while writing academically are –
(a) Be judicious in your use of brackets. Brackets are usually used in writing to
provide additional information. Use brackets only when you think that the
information is really additional to your writing.
(b) Use transition words judiciously as they make your writing cohesive. Please refer
to Chapter One for details on transition words.
(c) Use proper punctuation marks as they make writing clear and meaningful.
(i) Dashes should be used only when you are providing additional
information.
For example – “All the buses – both odd and even – can ply on Sunday.”
(ii) A colon is used to mean that the reader needs to pause for a while.
For example – “The report is all inclusive: facts, interpretation, analysis as
well as citation.”
(iii) Semi-colons to be used at instances where the reader will pause for a time
which is longer than that of a coma but shorter than that of a full stop.
Sometimes semi-colons are also used to describe the sequence of events.
More importantly, remember that while writing academically you are not typing a
message in your mobile phone and consequently, in all earnestness, try to avoid SMS
language as it only makes the reader feel that you are too careless and casual.

3.8 SUMMING UP

In this Unit on Academic Writing and Composition, Conventions of Academic Writing,

we have dealt with all the conventions barring the conventions of Citation and
Bibliography making which we will be dealing in Unit 7. The conventions of Academic
Writing need to be followed strictly while we are writing academically so as to make

38
ourselves present our writing to be looking academic. One may have the greatest content
to write the most brilliant academic paper, but if you are not following the conventions of
academic writing then the chances are that you will not be heard in the academic world at
all. We all dress according to the occasion, similarly for academic purposes we need to
dress our thoughts and readings with the academic conventions so as it make it
presentable.

3.9 SELF CHECK QUESTIONS

1. Explain the term “Academic Conventions” using appropriate examples

wherever necessary.
2. Do you think one can write an academic paper without the conventions of
academic writing and yet be brilliant? Give reasons for your answer.
3. What does one mean by “Academic Style Conventions”? Illustrate with
examples.
4. Contextual Appropriateness is very important for any writing, especially
for academic writing. Do you agree? Give examples to justify your
answer.
5. Language conventions are essential to make your writing look academic.
Do you think Language conventions are significant? Why so? Give
reasons.

3.10 RECOMMENDED READINGS

• Deb Dulal Halder edited Academic Writing and Composition: A Handbook (2016)
Book Age Publications, New Delhi.
• Halder, Deb Dulal, Anjana Neira Dev and Prerna Malhotra (2012) Technical
Writing and Communication in English, Book Age Publications, New Delhi.
• M. Deane (2010) Academic Research, Writing and Referencing. Harlow Pearson
Education.
• P. Elbow (1981) Writing with Power: Techniques for Mastering the Writing
Process. New York: Oxford University Press.
• Prerna Malhotra, Neerja Nagpal, Yamini and Deb Dulal Halder (2015) Business
Communication. Book Age Publications, New Delhi.
• Trevor Day (2013) Success in Academic Writing, Palgrave Study Skills. Palgrave,
Macmillan, New York.

39
 Unit 4

SUMMARISING AND PARAPHRASING

4.1 INTRODUCTION

We have discussed various facets of Academic Writing in the last few chapters which
probably have given you fair notion of the way in which you should progress with your
academic writing when you are writings assignments or when you are answering
questions or when you will be writing academic papers and articles as well as dissertation
and thesis in your later academic life or even reports and other such documents in your
professional life. One of the things that you should always keep in mind while writing
any academic or professional write up is that your document should not be plagiarized in
any way. Plagiarism can simply be defined as an academic fraud where you are stealing
from others and using the same ideas and documents claiming them to be your own. It is
one of the greatest crimes in the academic and professional world where one needs to be
very careful with how one presents one’s thoughts and ideas in words. But at the same
time, it is generally seen that while doing academic writing you necessarily need to refer
to other scholars and their ideas on a certain topic so as to appear academically sound.
Two such ways in which plagiarism can be avoided are Summarizing and Paraphrasing.
These are the two techniques which we need to get competence on so as to use them
properly in our academic writing. In this chapter, the focus of our learning process will be
to make ourselves proficient in these two skills.

4.2 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

In this chapter, we will learn about –

• Why Summarize and Paraphrase – For Avoiding Plagiarism,

• 'Originality' in academic writing,
• How to paraphrase,
• How to Summarize, etc.

4.3 WHY SUMMARISE OR PARAPHRASE?

The Introduction of the chapter probably has given you a brief idea about the ways in
which summarizing and paraphrasing are essential tools of academic writing as it is
through these tools that we can tend to avoid plagiarism. As stated, Plagiarism is an
academic offence which we do when we take ideas or words from a source without
giving credit (acknowledgement) to its author(s). This is a kind of cheating as one is
claiming someone else’s words and ideas to be his or her own. In the early stages of
academic life, we often tend to do this mistake when we copy other’s academic content
unknowingly and unconsciously. But as we get into serious academic business we need to
be sure about the things which should and should not be done in the academic world. One
such serious ‘should not’ is Plagiarism, which should not be committed at any point of
time in life as it is kind of a breach of the intellectual property.

40
In your student life and later in your professional life, you will read many books, articles,
and other stuff such as from internet, governmental and non-governmental reports, etc.
for enhancing your knowledge and getting information. We will carry on doing serious
researches – till the time you are reading someone else’s writing and formulating your
ideas, there in nothing wrong. But when we have to use other’s writings and ideas to
formulate your arguments, to write your research paper, to write your thesis, you will
need to put those ideas in such a way that you are not accused on any kind of academic
fraud. These can be done through number of ways –
(a) By Quoting – Often we quote other scholars, researchers and authors so as to give
their views in support of our logic or to theorize on the existing literature which is
already available in the public domain. While quoting we need to not only
acknowledge the source (Proper citation, which we will deal with in the later
Unit) but also should put the phrases and sentences we are quoting in “quotation
marks” so as to make the readers know that this is someone else’s words. Often
when you read books and articles, we see that quotations are used so as to serve
this purpose. (It is advised that you also learn to quote as well as acknowledge the
source of the quote)
(b) By Summarzing – Summary writing is something which we are doing from our
childhood (from our school life). Probably during your school days, you have
often wondered why one should summarize and carry on doing such exercises.
You will now know that such skills which was developed during your school days
is very significant in your later academic and professional life. Summarizing
other’s arguments and ideas in your writing (along with referring to /
acknowledging the fact that you are summarizing other’s arguments and ideas) is
an essential step of academic writing. We will be dealing with Summarising as a
tool of academic writing in a short while in this chapter.
(c) By Paraphrasing – Paraphrasing is often a necessary tool by which you put
other’s ideas in your own words to avoid plagiarising. Even while doing
paraphrasing it is necessary that you acknowledge whom and what text you are
paraphrasing. Again this will be discussed in detail in this Unit.

4.4 ‘ORIGINALITY’ IN ACADEMIC WRITING

In the above section, we have seen three ways – Quoting, Summarizing and Paraphrasing
– by which we can use others thoughts and ideas while doing any academic writing. The
question which probably has by now rung in your mind is that whether doing these three
steps while writing makes one an academic writer. The answer to this question is a simple
“No.” If you are just summarizing and paraphrasing others, it does not show that you
have done any academic work; it merely points out that you probably have read on the
subject. What is required when you read a subject or a topic is not just to know what
other scholars and thinkers have thought and written before you, but also to formulate an
idea of your own about that given topic/ subject and come up with some original
thinking? If there is no original thought in your academic paper or thesis / dissertation
then it is not a proper academic writing at all. What is expected from you when you do
any sort of academic writing is to produce something original which has not been done
earlier.

41
 • Suppose you have written a 2000 words essay with everything original in it, it is
not considered to be good enough as it does not show that you have read enough
on the subject.
• Again suppose you have written a 2000 words essay with everything summarized
and paraphrased from what others have thought and written, then also it is not
considered academic enough.
What is required is that you do both at the same time – you present your originality of
thought and yet at the same time you quote, summarize and paraphrase other scholars and
researchers in your paper so that you have done enough reading on the subject and
comprehended them and now have come up with something original which you are
coherently and cohesively putting down in your present academic writing. Only when
you are able to achieve this you will be termed as a better researcher and an academic
writer.
So Academic writing can be thought to be an act where you strike a balance between
what others have thought and what originality you have brought to the topic in hand.
Summarizing and Paraphrasing are merely tools of writing; one needs to understand that
there is no way critical thinking and comprehension of the subject is to be compromised
when you are doing academic writing.

4.5 SUMMARIZING AND PARAPHRASING

In the above section, we have dealt with summarizing and paraphrasing in some detail
which probably have given you some notions about the need to have a competence of
these two aspects in academic writing. In this section, we will be dealing with these two
tools in more detailed fashion. Summarising and paraphrasing are very useful skills
because they allow us to use the work of authors whom we wish to cite, while using our
own words. In other words, we are not merely doing a copy paste of the works of other
writers.

In Short

Paraphrasing means putting a piece of writing in new words, so that most of the
language or expression is different, while the content or idea is retained.

Summarising means reproducing the main points of a piece of writing while

substantially cutting down its length.
4.5.1 Paraphrasing
Paraphrasing means changing the words in which something you have read has been
expressed. The result of paraphrasing should be significantly different from the original
source, so that as far as the expression goes, it counts as your original writing. At the
same time, because you will be giving credit to the original author of the text you have
read, s/he must not be misquoted. Therefore, the meaning should not be changed in any
way from what the author you are paraphrasing had intended it to be.
Some of the effective paraphrasing tools are –

42
 (a) Use a different sentence structure than the original.
(b) Mostly use different words. Changing few words here and there will not make it a
right paraphrase of the original.
(c) Retain the same meaning as the original. The meaning should not be changed in
any way in the paraphrasing. The meaning of the original text should be there in
the paraphrased text as closely as possible.
(d) Do not try to forcibly replace the words or phrases that are in common use, or
have no effective substitute, or whose replacement would make the statement
clumsy or unclear, e.g. ‘industrial revolution’ or ‘eighteenth century’.
At the same time, it should be kept in mind that there is no single way to paraphrase.
Each text that you will try to paraphrase will need a different set of skills. So to merely
say that one has learnt the key to paraphrasing by doing a few passages is a hoax. One
needs to be constantly in practice of paraphrasing so that one gets the necessary skills.
As in all writing exercises, no amount of theoretical knowledge about how to write is
going to make you a perfect writer. One becomes a better writer only by practice and
practice alone. So the more one writes, the more there are changes that she / he close
closer to being a good practitioner of the same. Similar is true about paraphrasing. One
needs to do more and more of paraphrasing so as to acquaint oneself with the process of
doing so.
Sometimes it is advised that we should try to paraphrase word by word; but when one
tries to do so, one often ends up doing a bad paraphrasing. So it is advisable that when
one is trying to paraphrase one, is striking a balance between focusing on individual
words and phrases, and understanding the text as a whole before expressing it in one’s
own words. One of the things that we can do is to use a thesaurus so as change some
words with their synonyms; but it does not work in all cases and all words. Some words
are too specific and therefore they need to kept as they are there in the original text. Some
synonyms may differ in their meaning and therefore there has to judicious use of them as
well as some other words can be added to the original so as to bring out the meaning.
Paraphrasing is more like translation work, where one needs to have a knowledge of the
whole text and then one should how that based on the signification of the whole text, how
one can paraphrase the text one is supposed to do. So word-by-word replacement is not a
good idea as meaning may be lost or poorly presented or it may lead to some kind of
aberration of meaning.
4.5.2. Summarising:
Summarizing is a necessary tool of academic writing which we are accustomed with from
our school life as summary writing and précis has been a part of our school syllabus.
Summarizing cab be easily defined as process by which the main points of a text is
written in one’s own words, while maintaining the meaning of the original. Brevity is
essential in the act of summarizing where one should cut out the unnecessary details and
just write what is the essential argument or the main points that the writing deals with. In
short, it can be said that Summarizing is a process in which one reads, selects the

43
essential information and rewrites it in one’s own language keeping in mind that the
signification of the original write up is not compromised in any way.

An Act of Summarization

Original Paragraph
John Locke was a very rich man, with investments in the silk trade as well
as in the slave trade, and income from loans and mortgages. He invested
heavily in the first issue of the stock of the Bank of England, just a few
years after he had written his Second Treatise as the classic statement of
liberal democracy. As adviser to the Carolinas, he had suggested a
government of slaveowners run by wealthy land barons. Locke's support
of people's government was actually support for a revolution in England,
leading to the free development of mercantile capitalism. (Zinn, A
People’s History of the United States)
(a) This can be summarised as follows, in 47 words:
Citing John Locke’s writing of key liberal democratic works in the same
years as he grew wealthy from investments, and proposed that a slave-
owning, landholding elite rule the Carolinas, Zinn argues that he actually
favoured not democracy but unlimited growth of merchant capitalism
following an English uprising. (Zinn, A People’s History of the United
States)
(b) It can be made even shorter, as follows, in 25 words:
John Locke’s wealth, and his support for slavery and unelected
government, lead Zinn to argue that he supported unrestricted merchant-
capital growth rather than liberal democracy. (Zinn, A People’s History of
the United States)

Source: From Sumati Dwivedi’s Chapter on “Summarizing and Paraphrasing”

from the book Academic Writing and Composition edited by Deb Dulal Halder,
published from Book Age, New Delhi in 2016.

4.6 SUMMING UP

In this Unit, Summarising and Paraphrasing, two essential and useful skills are being
discussed in detail. Paraphrasing means putting a piece of writing in new words, so that
most of the language or expression is different, while the content or idea is retained.
Summarising is to reproduce the main points of a piece of writing while substantially
cutting down its length. It is to be kept in mind that having theoretical knowledge of
summarizing and paraphrasing does not help till one practices these two skills again and
again. Only when one does that one becomes better in the art of summarizing and
paraphrasing.

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4.7 SELF CHECK QUESTIONS

1. Why should we summarize and paraphrase? What is its significance in academic

writing?
2. What are the ways summarizing and paraphrasing are significant for academic
purposes? Discuss in detail.
3. Paraphrasing is an effective tool of to avoid Plagiarism. Do you agree? Give
reasons for your answer
4. What are the different ways of avoiding plagiarism?
5. Write a Summary of the following passage and give it a suitable title.
Title of any work of art is significant as it is a pointer to the theme or to the main
protagonist. But “As You Like It” does not come under any such category
apparently. The plot of the play is borrowed and adapted from Thomas Lodge’s
prose romance Rosalynde. We can trace the title to lodge’s work where he uses
the phrase “”if you like it, so.” Probably Shakespeare had Rosalynde’s this phrase
in mind while working on the title of the play.
But more significant is the epilogue in terms of aptness of title. In the epilogue,
Rosalind says – “like as much of this play as you please.” Rosalind here is
speaking to the female audience, but she also speaks to the male audience, and
says – “that between you (males) and the women the play may please.” Epilogue
primarily serves the purpose of summing up the theme of the play and to address
the audience directly so as to make a lasting impression in the minds of the
audience.
What Rosalind says in the epilogue is significant, as a good play has been
performed and the audience may take the play as they feel like. The play had
various things to offer – the distinction between city and the court, the love
affairs, the politics of usurpation, property disputes, contemplative wisdom,
melancholic satiric outbursts, witty and humourous scenes and episodes and the
audience has the liberty to ponder on any one or all aspects of the play and also
has the liberty to interpret the play in whichever way they feel like.
Elizabethan audience, as in all ages, consists of audience from different strata of
society. The variety in audience demands the playwright to be much more diverse
in his conceptualization and presentation of the play. Shakespeare knew that in his
times if he has to establish himself as a popular dramatist then he needs to make
everyone happy with his theatre. So he wrote and named the play accordingly.
Moreover, if seen from the characters’ perspective the play fulfills the wishes of
everyone – Orlando and Rosalind, Oliver and Celia, Silvius and Phebe,
Touchstone and Audrey are joined with each other in matrimony, Duke Senior
gets back his dukedom and property, Oliver gives the due share of Orlando . All
the characters’ whims, aspirations and dreams are fulfilled at the end of the play
and for them even the play offers solutions as they would like to have it.

45
6. Paraphrase the following passage.
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi is known as the father of India (Bapu) and often
also termed as “mahatma” (great soul) – a title given to him by another great poet
of India, Rabindra Nath Tagore. The two great men had immense respect for each
other and shared a connection between then which is unparallel in the history of
India. Whereas Rabindra Nath Tagore was a poet, dramatist, lyricist, novelist,
essayist, educationist and a great political activist; M. K. Gandhi was a writer,
lawyer and a political and social leader who gave a new direction to the freedom
struggle of India with his “satyagraha.” If one talks about early twentieth century
history or literature, then Gandhi’s influence in every aspect of life was so much
that without talking about him any discourse on historical processes or literary
creations of the early twentieth century India is impossible.
For example, when one talks about Indian English novels in the first half of the
twentieth century, we see that all the writers were heavily influenced by Gandhian
thoughts whether it is Mulk Raj Anand or R. K. Narayan or Raja Rao (the three
stalwarts of Indian English novels). In some novels Gandhi appears as a character,
such as Mulk Raj Anand’s Untouchable, which deals with the question of
untouchability. Raja Rao’s Kanthapura is a novel which deals with Gandhian
thoughts and philosophy and the protagonist of the novel Murthy is a Gandhian
figure. From this one can understand how deep was Gandhi’s influence in India’s
nation building that the novelists could not dare avoid speaking about him. Not
only the novelists but not any writing dealing with the early twentieth century
historical – social and cultural processes would be incomplete without speaking
about Gandhi’s contribution to building India as a nation.
When Gandhi arrived at the political scenario of India, our nation was drowned in
the darkness of British colonial presence and it needed a strong willed visionary to
lead the Indian mass to the light that was much needed to achieve freedom for
India. The lack of leadership was the primary problem India had to fight against
the British. Gandhi was that leader who had the mass appeal, the charisma to
change the perception of the entire nation, to inspire people to stand up for their
own rights and that too in a way which the British found hard to tackle. Gandhi
provided that impetus, that inspiration, that impelling force to the Indian mass in
the early twentieth century and still carries on giving that much needed vision that
India needs for its development and progress.
7. Write a Summary of the following passage and give it a suitable title.
The sonnet 116: “Let me not to the marriage of true minds …” is a love poem
where William Shakespeare is trying to redefine love by enumerating not what it
is but by saying what it is not. The poet, William Shakespeare, makes a statement
that true love is a “marriage of true minds.” It is such a marriage where there is a
perpetual bonding – a bonding which is inseparable. The bonding is such that
even if it finds any scope of “alteration” it does not alter. It is a perfect and
unchanging bond which can challenge any ‘impediments’. It is a fixed thing and

46
 does not in any way change. In other words, if love changes then it is not true
love.
This kind of love is like a ‘guiding star’ to the lost ship (wandering bark). The
imagery is very striking as what the poet seems to suggest that when one is in true
love one does not wander away, but remain focused in one’s life as there is always
a guiding star which does not allow the ship to get lost. In other words, being in
true love is something which can give direction in one’s life.
The third stanza emphasizes on the eternal quality of life as it is not “Time’s
fool.” All things change with time. This is the rule of the natural order that things
are in constant process of change. But true love defies this law of nature. It does
not depend on external beauty. External beauty changes with nature; but true love
as it does not depend of external beauty; therefore even if beauty vanishes true
love succeeds. The poet states that if he is proven to be wrong then he has never
written anything worthwhile and people have never loved truly.
8. Paraphrase the following passage.
The Naval Mutiny started as a strike by ratings of the Royal Indian Navy on 18
February 1946 in protest against general conditions of the naval people working
for the British Navy. Though the immediate issues of the revolt are usually
thought to be the living conditions and food of the British Indian Navy, but the
nationalist as well as communist aspects of the mutiny cannot be downplayed as
they are a major way in which the Naval Mutiny has been perceived by the
historians. By nightfall on 19 February 1946, a Naval Central Strike Committee
was elected where Signalman Lieutenant M.S. Khan and Telegraphist Madan
Singh were unanimously elected as the President and the Vice-President of the
Mutiny respectively.
Soon the Naval strike found some support amongst the Indian population as the
Indian population was already under seething with the nationalist spirit and were
looking for ways in which they could oppose the British rule. Though, the some
parts of the Indian population thought highly about the Naval Mutiny and gave it a
thumbs up by supporting its cause, but the major political leaders of the country
along with their political parties thought that it was a mismatched thing as India
was already on the eve of complete independence and talks were going on in their
favour. Inspite of the leaders being hostile to the mutiny, the actions of the
mutineers was supported by demonstrations which even included a one-day
general strike in Bombay. The strike also spread to other cities, and was joined by
elements of the Royal Indian Air Force and local police forces.
The Naval Mutiny though was called off soon following a meeting between the
President of the Naval Central Strike Committee (NCSC), M. S. Khan, and Vallab
Bhai Patel of the Congress Party, who had especially come to Bombay to settle
the major crisis. Patel there issued a statement calling on the strikers to end their
action programme, which was also advocated by a statement issued in Calcutta by
Mohammed Ali Jinnah on behalf of the Muslim League. Thus the Congress Party
as well as the Muslim League thought that the mutineers should stop any further
activity as the time was not right for the same. The strikers had no other way but

47
 to give way the political pressures from all political corners. Soon, arrests were
then made, followed by courts martial and the dismissal of four hundred and
seventy six sailors from the Royal Indian Navy.

4.8. RECOMMENDED READINGS

• Deb Dulal Halder edited Academic Writing and Composition: A Handbook (2016)
Book Age Publications, New Delhi.
• Dev, Anjana Neira. ed. A Handbook for Academic Writing and Composition.
Pinnacle Learning, New Delhi, 2014.
• Bailey, Stephen. Academic Writing: A Handbook for International Students. Third
edn. London: Routledge, 2011.
• Wray, A., Trott, K. and Bloomer, A. ‘Plagiarism and how to avoid it’. Projects in
Linguistics: A Practical Guide to Researching Language. Eds. A. Wray, K. Trott
and A. Bloomer. London: Arnold, 1998.

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 Chapter 5

CRITICAL THINKING

5.1 INTRODUCTION

What is the role of education in our life – to get a job or to gain professional success?
Education do get us good jobs, but the role of education is not to merely become a literate
in various branches of knowledge, neither it is to become a store house of information;
but, the primary purpose of education is to become thinking individuals who can ponder
over what is given to them and then figure out with their thought process what lies
beyond the apparent. In this Unit, we will focus on this skill which we all need to develop
through education so as to become powerful and potential thinkers for which critical
thinking is an essential quality. The Unit will focus on how to develop critical thinking so
as to make oneself academically sound, to be able to understand the reality in a much
better fashion and to be able to engage oneself with the world in a meaningful way. One
of the prime aims of academics is discussed in this Unit and we will also focus on the
ways in which this skill needs to reflect in our writing so as to make us successful in
getting our desired grades.

5.2 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of the chapter you should have learnt about:

• What is Critical Thinking?

• Its relation to academic writing
• Note Making

5.3 CRITICAL THINKING

In the earlier Unit, while doing summarizing and paraphrasing, we have come across the
fact that doing paraphrasing and summarizing or even quoting other authors while doing
academic writing is not enough to become a good and true academician. What one needs
to do is to put one’s originality into one thought process as well as one’s writing. Only
when one is able to think in original terms that one is truly getting educated and for this
one needs to develop one’s critical thinking ability(ies).
One needs to remember here that this ability cannot be developed in one single day; but
has to be done over the years with diligent practice which makes one sharp and original
thinker and leads to some kind of fruition of the education process. Education’s meaning
is not to make oneself literate and be able to read and write; but moreover the main aim of
education is to develop certain skills which makes one a rational human being who can
ponder over what is given to him or her and can take an informed rational decision which
will not only lead to his or her personal prosperity but also the development of the nation
as well as that of the sustainable world. As stated in the Introduction of the Unit, in this
chapter we will focus on the ways in which critical thinking abilities can be developed.

49
Critical thinking can be said to be a skill by which one acquires the ability to intelligently
reflect upon and evaluate ideas and experiences so as to come up with the right
conclusion and moral choices which is very essential not only for one’s academic
brilliance but also for one’s existential reasons. It can be said to be the cultivation of a
kind of mental discipline that allows an individual to rationally interpret, analyse and
explain rather than merely find solutions to problems in a haphazard manner. We all deal
with problems all though our lives and another name of life are solving problems.
Education provides us with the necessary skill to solve the problems in a methodical
manner and not just panic when some problem knocks at our doors. It is significant to
remember here that in the realms of academics there are certain problems that are given
to you in form of answers which you need to solve. At a higher level of academics when
you will be engaged in research you will figure out that one of the things which you will
need to learn is to formulate a research problem so that you can come up with a solution
to that problem in the course of your research.
Problem solving is a skill which we need to acquire early in our lives so as to become
successful. Our education system should be so, which should hone our problem solving
skills. One should not get perturbed when one encounters a problem; but should be able
to deal with the problem in a manner which will make him or her come out of it in
glowing terms. To do that Critical thinking is a necessary skill. Critical thinking makes us
take decisions while dealing with problems in a manner which we will not regret later as
the choices and decisions are governed by a kind of a scientific enquiry as well as rational
explanations.
In life, as well as in academic arena, when problems and challenges are thrown at us, we
need to make a purposeful inquiry into the problem and try to think about the problem
from multiple perspectives so as to ponder deeply over it and come up with the potential
solution(s). When one inculcates this kind of thinking process in one’s academic life as
well as life in general one is able to acquire many set of sub-skills which are essential for
everyday living. These are –
(a) purposeful inquiry,
(b) active dialogue
(c) multiple perspectives.
(d) self-regulatory mechanism
(e) systematic understanding of the world.
(f) Thinking habit
(g) diligent practice
(h) conscious of the limits of one’s knowledge

In Short

Critical thinking is defined as ‘that mode of thinking - about any subject,

content, or problem – in which the thinker … takes charge of the

50
 structures inherent in thinking, and imposes intellectual standards upon
them’ (Davis 22).

5.4. CRITICAL AND CREATIVE THINKING

One needs to distinguish between creative thinking and critical thinking so as to

understand how these two are very different from each other and then one will eventually
figure out that these two thinking should be amalgamated in the higher level to become a
better academic writer. Davis is of the opinion that critical thinking is scrutinising the
contours of the box itself (Davis 23). When one is creative one usually thinks out of the
box and tries to create something new. One innovates and makes things fresh. Whereas
apparently it seems that when one does a critical thinking one is thinking within the given
parameters and chooses to work within the field or domain of one’s subject so as to have
in-depth knowledge of the given area. Out of the box thinking is good when one is
dealing with creative field as there one needs to make choices and take decisions which
are not within the realm of the knowable. But when one is doing critical thinking, one is
moreover concentrated within his or her subject/ domain and from within that he or she
makes evaluations which go on in the development of the knowledge within that
particular domain.
Davis is of the opinion that critical thinking is ‘carefully cultivated curiosity’ (Davis 24).
This cultivated curiosity makes one undertake the evaluation of the possibilities of an
idea, thought or action so as to figure out the ways in which the idea, thought or action
can be modified, refined as well as redefined to suit the present purpose or to put it to
future use. Often critical thinking is also liked to problem solving as when we encounter
problems we need to think critically and reorganize our thoughts so as to find solutions to
the problems one faces. From our childhood, the education process should be so that
comprehensive critical outlook needs to be developed so that people acquire the
necessary skill of problem solving. One needs to understand that the objective of all
education and research is to find ways in which human beings can have a better life.
Betterment of life and our surrounding is the prime objective of education and therefore
for it to happen it is necessary that the critical thinking abilities are developed. It can be
said to be an essential life-skill so as to live in the contemporary world which is engulfed
with diverse problems from all sides. For example, the Corona Virus (COVID 19) is a
pandemic which is devastating the whole world and there are different strategies and
policies which are being implemented by various governments across the world to as to
stop its onslaught, such as closing down of schools and colleges, closing down of cinema
halls, cancelling the tourist visas, etc. Someone has put his or her thoughts or their
thoughts in critically evaluating the reasons of the spread of the virus as well as ways to
stop it from spreading and thus came up with ways to deal with the problem. Without
critical thinking, it is an impossibility to deal with any problems that we face in our lives.
At a time, when because of mass migration, connected economy between nations, faster
communication and transport opportunities, the world is becoming a smaller place day by
day and because of which we have various advantages; but at the same time it has also

51
become so that when any problem occurs in a part of the world, its effect is immediately
felt in far off places. It is therefore necessary in the present context to think globally and
also find out the connections that are there with the global world and yet at the same time
think in terms of the local things so as to come up with solutions which solves the local
problems as well as have a global outlook.
In these circumstances, it is necessary that we need to be active critical thinkers. But all
these do not mean that creative thinking does not have any significance. Creative thinking
is also as much necessary as critical thinking. With critical thinking you are able to grasp
what others have argued in a given topic and with those critical thinking along with your
creative thoughts, you can come up with something original. Therefore though this Unit
makes an attempt to make you understand the essence of critical thinking habits and
practices, but what is essential to understand is that we also need to have both critical and
creative thinking abilities so as to really flourish in our academic life as well as in our
professional career.
Critical thinking is also necessary when one deals with conflicting ideas as one needs to
evaluate those ideas and come up with certain conclusions by means of judging the pros
and cons of the conflicting things. The more one gets accustomed to these kinds of
thought process the more are the chances of one achieving greater things in life. It is
therefore necessary that Critical thinking abilities are cultivated and developed in the
students and the aim of education should be to hone the skill to perfection.

5.5 STEPS OF DEVELOPING CRITICAL THINKING ABILITIES

• The first step of learning process is when we start reading – reading enlarges our
horizon of knowledge and as we read more and more our understanding of the
world becomes clearer and clearer as we come to know things in a much more
specific fashion.
• The next step of comprehension of the given idea. While comprehending a piece
of writing it is essential that we need to understand the central argument of the
same. We need to figure out what exactly the writer has tried to enunciate in his or
her writing. We are trying to comprehend the writing; we are already using the
faculty of critical thinking.
• We carry on reading different writers on the same topic and then we may get
conflicting views on the same. Sometimes these conflicting views need to be put
in perspective to understand the topic in its essence.
• After understanding the various readings on the topic it is required that we need to
make an analysis of the topic in detail in which Critical thinking plays a major
role.
• Consequent to the analysis, we can delve ourselves into the writing of the
academic assignment.

5.6 ASKING QUESTIONS

What does critical thinking do? What objective does it serve? The primary job of critical
thinking is to make us ponder over any given issue, idea, thought, action or development

52
and ask more and more questions. Most of the times, the people accept things are they are
given or provided to them and do not have the capability to ask question. They merely
think that whatever is given to them is what is being meant. They do not look beyond the
apparent and look at the real behind the scenes. What critical thinking does is to make
people learn that they need to look beyond the apparent and question everything. They
need to ask more and more questions. The more questions they will ask, more
interpretations and results will come. We all know that there are The Five W and one H
questions (Who, What, When, Where, Why and How) – the first essential task is to make
the learners learn to ask these fundamental questions and when they have learnt the
fundamental questions, they the next step is to make the learners learn that they need to
ask more complicated and generic questions which can lead to more and more analysis of
the given situation or idea or thought or action. Asking more and more questions will lead
to the search for answers and more answers one finds, one will get in depth knowledge of
the said subject or situation which will make him ask more questions.

5.7 NOTE MAKING

Note making is an exercise that we need to do as it is a key to success in academic as well

as professional fields. Suppose you are given a topic to research and write on. As you do
your research a plethora of information comes to you – some of them are useful, some
very significant, some rubbish and some which you can neglect. While gathering all these
information if we do not keep proper notes and think that you will be able to retain
everything in your mind, then you are mistaken as it may happen that you may miss some
important information while writing or may miss an important argument. Therefore it is
always better that we make notes, which can then be used while we start writing or
preparing for the examination or use for future reference. Therefore, note making is an
essential part of many English language syllabus as it helps us in our writing process.
5.7.1. Why Note-Making?
Note-Making is significant academic exercise for the following reasons –
(a) Today when there is plethora of information available on any topic because of the
spread of digital information therefore it is significant that one takes down notes
of whatever one reads so that it can be used in future; otherwise the person may
have the tendency to forget many a things that he or she has read.
(b) The notes can be used for future reference.
(c) By note making on can filter the key ideas from what one has read and can do
away with information and analyses that are not so useful.
(d) It can be helpful in revision work.
5.7.2. Techniques of Note-Making or How to make notes?

• The first significant thing about Note-making is that the reader should read or go
through the reading or the passage very carefully and try to figure out the key
ideas, main theme, key arguments of the reading / passage.
• The Note-maker should them put the main idea of the passage as heading of the
passage – the heading should be short and easy to understand (usually of three to

53
 four words) and usually written on the top middle of the page. Moreover it should
be so that it evokes the interest of the other readers and also makes you again go
through it.
• Under the heading of the passage, the sub-headings should come in. sub-headings
are the subordinate or associated ideas that come under the heading, that are used
to develop the heading or the main idea of the reading or passage.
• Once we are through with the subheading it is essential to write the points under
each subheading which goes on in support/ against/ to uphold/ to argue in favour
or against/ to provide the details/ etc. of the sub-heading. It should be kept in mind
to properly indent (space suitably and provide them numbers of put them in bullet
form) the points.
• Other significant things –
o There is no need to write full sentences in Note-making – one can just
write in the form of just the necessary words which can be understandable.
o Abbreviations should be used as much as possible (and a list of
abbreviations should be provided at the end of Note-Making for other
readers)
Abbreviations

Some Popular and standard Abbreviations

a. Capitalized first letters of words
U.S.A.,U.K.,U.S.S.R., W.B.,U.P., etc.
b. Common abbreviations
c. Sc. (for science), Mr., Mrs., Dr., Govt., etc
d. Common symbols e.g., : \, ∴ , +ve, -ve, ® (leading to),
↑ (rising), ↓ (falling), =, etc.
e. Measurements and Figures
100′, 100”, 100 kg, 1000 mm, 100ml, etc.

Making own abbreviations

Such as, edn. (education), progm. (programme), prog’ve
(progressive).
We are all accustomed to doing it as we use such abbreviations
usually when we write SMS or while writing informally WhatApp
messages.

Since notes are prepared for one’s own use, one has the flexibility to use a format which
suits the most, yet the following format may be conveniently used by all, though there
could be other customized formats according to one’s needs and preference.

Heading: ............
Point 1. ...................

54
 1.a Sub-point. .............
1.b Sub point. ..................
Point 2. ................
2.a Sub point. ..............
2.b Sub point. ..............
Abbr. used

5.8 SUMMING UP

In this Unit, you have come across how Critical thinking is an effective and useful
strategy to enhance the ways in which you can make the most of your education system.
If you can develop better critical thinking skill then it will not only develop your problem
solving skills but will make you accept nothing without questioning them. The more you
question the given parameters, thoughts, ideas and actions, more will the critical thinking
development, leading to nor only the development of your academic excellence but also
your personality as well as your professional success. One should therefore take the
development of critical thinking as seriously as possible so as to enhance one’s
knowledge as well as one’s competence to look beyond the apparent.
Once you have developed a good critical thinking ability it will also help you to
formulate your arguments in a much more crisp as well as cohesive fashion which will
help you in your academic writing. In the next unit, we will be dealing with Structuring
an Argument, which can only be done when you have already achieved the necessary
competence of Critical thinking.

5.9 SELF CHECK QUESTIONS

1. Define Critical Thinking. What are its relationships with Academic Writing?
2. What is the significance of Critical thinking in the education process? Give some
examples to illustrate your answer.
3. Do you think developing Critical Thinking should be the objective of education?
Why do you think so? Give reasons for your answer.
4. ‘Asking Questions’ is one of the aims of education. Do you agree with the
statement? Give reasons for your answer.
5. Make notes of the following passage.
Right up until the twentieth century, people, especially women, could only rely on
luck or prayers when it came to family planning. People who wanted children
couldn’t always have them. People who didn’t want too many children or wanted
to have children further apart couldn’t do anything to accomplish this. The only
reliable method for birth control was abstinence, a method that didn’t appeal to
everyone. Now, however, many different family planning methods are available
and this availability has made significant changes to people’s lives.

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 Family planning affects many different aspects of someone’s life, the two major
ones being finances and health. First of all, thanks to family planning methods,
couples can decide when they are in a financial position to have children. This
becomes important when one considers the cost of healthcare during a pregnancy
and then the costs of bringing up the children including food, shelter, clothing and
education.
Birth control allows couples to decide when they are ready to bear these costs.
Second, planning children properly spaced apart helps women’s health. As per the
USAID or the United States Agency for International Development, if a mother
has children spaced less than two years apart or more than five years apart, both
the mother’s and the child’s health can be impacted.
Family planning isn’t important only for individual families, it is also important
for countries and for the world. One of the biggest problems we face today is
overpopulation. We have a global population that far exceeds the resources that
are available to us. Family planning helps to bring down the growth rate of the
population so that the burden on our resources, if not exactly eased, is at least not
increased. China’s one-child policy and India’s two-child policy are examples of
countries that are overpopulated using family planning methods to control their
populations.
6. Make notes of the following passage.
Punctuality is a most important characteristic that everyone must have to be a
successful person. It makes a person capable enough to complete all the required
tasks at already decided time. The word meaning of punctual is ‘on time’. It is
very necessary for everyone to be on time. What will happen if a doctor gets late
to the operation theatre, student gets late to the examination hall, etc. Everything
will get messed up, a student can be out of examination hall and a patient can be
dead.
It is very necessary for a student to be punctual all time in order to achieve what
he/she wants in life. It is one of the noblest virtues which make students more
civilized and cultured. Students need this quality to develop as a habit to do things
in correct time. Being punctual proves this proverb ‘A stitch in time saves nine’
means doing tasks within time saves time and unnecessary troubles.
Punctuality is of great values to the students as it teaches them discipline also.
Using this, students can be on right time everywhere such as in school, in lab, in
class, in library, at home, in examination hall, in project, etc. They can perform
better at both place home and school. It helps in removing laziness and negative
attitudes of the students. A disciplined and punctual student always gets respect,
recognition and social acceptance in the school and society. They appreciated a lot
by the teachers and parents.
Punctuality is the key to success for all the punctual students. Students should
follow all the great world leaders to achieve fame and success. It provides
students various golden opportunities to do better in life in many areas. No one of
us has born with the virtue of punctuality; everyone has to develop it on their own.
It makes certain the path of success.

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 Punctuality is a necessary trait for all. It needs to be developed by all especially
youths of the nation as they are future and have to lead their country. The rate of
development in any country depends on how people of that country are punctual
and disciplined to their job. So, punctuality is a key to success for everyone.

5.10 RECOMMENDED READINGS

• Halder, Deb Dulal edited Academic Writing and Composition: A Handbook

(2016) Book Age Publications, New Delhi.
• Dev, Anjana Neira. ed. A Handbook for Academic Writing and Composition.
Pinnacle Learning, New Delhi, 2014.
• Lau, Joe Y. F. An Introduction to Critical Thinking and Creativity: Think More,
Think Better. New Jersey: John Wiley and Sons (2011)
• Mark, Mason. Ed. Critical Thinking and Learning. USA: Blackwell Publishing
(2008).
• Morrow, David R. and Anthony Weston. A Workbook for Arguments: A Complete
Course in Critical Thinking. USA: Hackett Publishing Company Inc (2011).
• Rainbolt, George W. and Sandra L. Dwyer. Critical Thinking: The Art of
Argument. USA: Cengage Learning (2012).

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 Unit 6

STRUCTURING AN ARGUMENT

6.1 INTRODUCTION

There are many reasons for which we engage in writing tasks which we have encountered
in the previous units when we have discussed different kinds of writings and how
academic writing is different from other writings. By now, from your readings of the
previous units, you probably have already formed a very significant idea about the way
things progress in academic writing and how in academic writing one needs to be present
one’s critical thoughts with utmost precision and at the same time show your depth of
reading and understanding of the topic or area by quoting, paraphrasing as well as
summarizing the arguments and ideas of the known scholars of the area on which you are
writing. In this chapter the special focus will be on how to structure an argument in your
writing as when one reads an academic work, one is not only looking for the information;
but moreover is looking for the argument(s) which is essential in the understanding and
comprehension of the piece of writing. Therefore it is a prerequisite that we understand
how to formulate an argument in a piece of writing.

6.2 UNIT OBJECTIVES

In this chapter you will learn about –

• Researching for a good topic

• Writing the Introduction
• Developing the Body of the Argument
• Writing the Conclusion

6.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF AN ARGUMENT IN ACADEMIC WRITING

In the last two Units, we have come across two different aspects of academic writing –
‘Summarizing and Paraphrasing’ and ‘Critical Thinking.’ Apparently these two Units
may have been talking about two different things to you as one was emphasizing on how
to quote others in a piece of writing and the other pondered over how one should develop
critical thinking so as to be original in one’s ideas and writing. We have already come
across the fact that there should be some “originality” of the academic writer when he or
she is writing as without it his or her piece of writing would have nothing new to offer to
other academicians and readers. So it is essential that a budding scholar like you or a
well-versed academician always presents his or her original idea in a fashion which
makes it comprehensible to his or her peer groups as well as other academicians across
the world.
When this original idea is presented it may not necessarily be something which is
completely new; but something which is based on his or her readings of the already
existing researches and works on the area of study. The scholar, after doing the literature
review (existing literatures available on the given topic), may agree or disagree with some
of them and may come up with a new idea which he / she needs to tell to the academic

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world. While doing so, one needs to argue for and against the existing works/ scholars
and come up with some original thoughts. When one does argue in this way, one needs to
present the argument(s) in his or her writing so as to make it convincing and
understandable to the readers. It is for this purpose that it is extremely necessary for you
to learn how to make an argument in a paper or any academic writing.
For the sake of convenience, a piece of writing is added here which probably will give
you some notion about how to carry on writing academically.

Is Sting Operation justified?

With the growth of media, sting operation has become one of the important
devices to unearth the truth that are hidden from the public. It is a kind of
investigative journalism where the reporter investigates something which is of
public significance and brings to light the truth using gadgets, especially
electronic gadgets such as hidden cameras and/or sound recording equipments.
Many a times, sting operation is carried on by the journalist to uncover hidden
facts or some crime. Though it is a significant medium to uncover facts, but many
consider sting operation unethical as it involves breaching the right to privacy of
an individual who is being filmed and recorded without his or her knowledge or
consent. But when someone is doing a crime or an immoral act which is
affecting public life or public money then it is completely justified on the
part of the journalist to use any means possible to expose the person or the
crime. (Thesis statement)
Sting operation has been used by journalists to unearth such truths which
have changed the face of the world. (Topic Sentence) The famous Watergate
Scandal is one such example. On 17th June 1972, five men were arrested for
breaking into the headquarters of the Democratic National Committee in
Watergate office complex in Washington, D.C. During investigations, it was
found out that the so-called burglars were connected to the White House. One of
the burglars arrested was named Jim McCord Jr., the security officer for Richard
Nixon's Committee to reelect the President. The investigations also led to the
funding Richard Nixon's reelection campaign. Initially there was an effort by
Nixon and his men to cover up the whole Scandal. But The Washington Post
reporters Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein uncovered information suggesting
that the White House had knowledge of the break-in, and attempted to cover it
up. The correlation between the break-in and the re-election committee was
highlighted in the investigative coverage by The Washington Post, TIME, and
The New York Times. It culminated in Richard Nixon resigning from his office on
9th August 1974. In this case, investigative journalism led to the resignation of
the American president, which shows that media is the watch dog of the society
in the present day. When public good and public money is involved then it is
always better for media to use any means to unearth the truth. What is more
unethical – the investigation devices or the crimes that the political leaders do in
dealing with the public money.
In India, sting operations uncovered many such scams which is for the
public good. (Topic Sentence / argument) Operation West End by the Tehelka
journalists, Aniruddha Bahal and Samuel Matthew, investigated the way defense

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deals are done in India, which involves murky and illegal transaction of money.
These two journalists of Tehelka posed as employees of a fictitious UK based
company called West End to sell Hand-held Thermal Cameras which the
Ministry of Defence was in the process of buying. While posing as employees of
West-end and trying to strike a deal with the Ministry of Defence, the journalists
filmed about ninety hours of footage using spy cameras which showed how the
senior army officials and important politicians were accepting bribes. But the
operation could not carry on for long as they did not have the product which they
were trying to sell. Tehelka edited the tapes and a four-hour long film was shown
on 13th March 2001. Recently Bangaru Laxman, the ex-president of BJP was
convicted for four years and fined Rs. 1 Lakh for accepting the bribe. Similarly,
In November 2003 Dilip Singh Judeo, the Indian Minister of State for
Environment and Forests in Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee's Bharatiya
Janata Party led coalition government was accused by The Sunday Express of
accepting bribe from an Australian company in exchange for mining rights in
Chhattisgarh. The accusation was based on a video
(http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fDaZrF3QAd4 ) of him accepting bribe. He
resigned on 17 November 2003. In both the cases, sting operation laid bare the
corruption of the Indian political leaders. Is it unethical on part of the Tehelka
journalists to uncover the truth for the public? No one will disagree to it. These
sting operations are daring, unparalleled and innovative in the journalistic world
in India.
Sting Operations are also good in terms of laying bare the truth of how
different people try to play with the mass sentiments. (Topic Sentence /
argument) In India, cricket is a game with which sentiments are attached. In
2000, Tehelka brought forward how the players play with the sentiments of the
mass rather than playing cricket. Tehelka Journalists investigated the allegations
of Match Fixing in Indian Cricket and filmed about fifty hours of footage over
three months which they then edited into a ninety minute film called Fallen
Heroes. In this film, Tehelka showed how match-fixing is a common place thing
in the world of cricket which takes place in collision with the bookies who run
the illegal betting. Cricketers who have been thought to be heroic figures in India
duped the cricket lovers with match-fixing, which the journalists thought is
important to uncover so that the illegality of the way cricketers are involved in
consciously losing a match or under-performing for the sake of money can to be
brought to the knowledge of the public. Since then many a times, allegations of
match fixing have been brought to public knowledge against many internationally
known cricketers and many such allegations were proved to be true. Though
Fallen Heroes was inconclusive in terms of providing any concrete facts so that
cricketers could be booked but it questioned the sanctity of the game of cricket
and proved how the gentleman’s game is not so anymore.

These are some of the cases of sting operation which proves that sting operation
is not unethical at all, as it is for the public good. But when one talks of sting
operations or investigative journalism in general, one has to keep in mind that a
sting operation is a very tedious and long-drawn process which involves lots of

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 hard work, dedication, courage, and an immense amount of enthusiasm. Many a
time sting operations lead to disastrous results or no result at all, and they entail a
lot of traveling and expenditure and more importantly, a lot of risk(s) of various
kinds, even losing one’s life. But should not all these be part of the journalists’
job? There are challenges in all kinds of jobs. There are failures too. But one
should not be deterred from doing their jobs because they are long-drawn or
tedious or risky. (argument)
Some people may argue that sting operations can be misused or done with
malafide intention of blackmailing a person or harming him or her in other
ways. (Counter-argument) One of the examples of a fabricated Sting Operation is
the Case of Uma Khurana, a mathematics teacher of a Government School in
Delhi. Uma Khurana was filmed taking money from an aspiring journalist named
Rashmi Singh, who posed as her student. Rashmi than said that Uma Khurana
had been enticing her students for commercial sex-work. When Prakash Singh, a
journalist, aired this video on the television channel Live India on 30th August
2007, a mob gathered outside the school where Uma Khurana used to teach and
tried to assault her. Uma Khurana was subsequently arrested. Later it was found
that all the allegations against her were baseless. It was a man named Virender
Arora, to whom Uma Khurana owed money, who used his friend, the journalist
Prakash Singh to do a fabricated Sting Operation on Uma Khurana to teach her a
lesson.
The Uma Khurana case shows how aspiring journalists can get into criminal
acts for quick recognition in the world of media. (Counter-argument)He or she
may think that this is an easy way to establish oneself in the media. The case of
Uma Khurana does not suggest that the sting operation is an unethical act. It
moreover points out how the journalists in the present circumstances have
become unethical. It also points out how the media houses and television
channels do not verify the content before airing any content. The fault lies not
with the sting operation but with the people who misuse it.
It can be concluded that sting operation is not unethical at all as it lays bare the
truth which are hidden from public. Like any other things, it can be misused, but
that does not mean that it should not be a means of investigative journalism.
(Conclusion)

You probably have by now understood that we have gone across a similar exercise in
Unit II when we did academic writing. You have been provided with a rough outline of
the essay ‘Is Sting Operation Justified?” in Unit II. Probably, you must have also written
an essay on that topic by now to check on your academic skills. Try to compare your
essay with the essay given above and try to justify how and where your essay is better
than the essay given above. This comparison will make you realize how far you are
progressing with your academic writing skill.

6.4 RESEARCHING FOR A GOOD TOPIC

Probably, at your level, the teacher/ instructor provides you with a topic or a question
which you need to work on, but as you will go to the higher level of education you will

61
figure out that you will need to choose a topic on your own. The question is what will be
the parameters which you will keep in mind while choosing a topic. Some of these
parameters are provided below –
(a) When you choose a topic to work on it academically, the first question you should
ask yourself if the given topic is of interest to you. Remember that only of the
topic interests you then you will be able to sustainably work on it for a stipulated
time. Otherwise, soon your interest will wane away and you will be left in a lurch.
(b) The topic should be so where there is not much work done. If a topic is already
well-researched, then you may find it difficult to make any original contribution
to it. Again if the topic is not researched at all, then choose the topic depending on
the availability of time with you.
(c) Time is a very significant factor in any research. One needs to finish one’s writing
within a stipulated time. So keeping in mind the time factor one should choose a
topic. In other words, choose a topic which is doable.
(d) Figure out if the resources needed to work on the topic are available with you
easily. If resources are not available then you may waste all your energy looking
for the resources and not do justice in thinking, pondering and eventually write on
the topic.

6.5. COLLECTING MATERIALS

Once you have chosen your topic depending on the availability of time as well as do-
ability of the topic, it is time to search for materials on the topic. There are two kinds of
materials which usually one looks forward to. They are the Primary Sources and
Secondary Sources.

6.6 WRITING THE INTRODUCTION

Once you have made the rough plan of your writing, it is time to plunge into the actual
writing process and write the Introduction which has your Thesis statement. (We have
discussed it in Unit 2 in details) Still for the sake of clarity, let us once more think in
terms of what are the necessary things that one should follow while writing the
Introduction.

• The Introduction should have the Thesis statement of your writing.

• It should be more or less a map of what the readers are expecting in the piece of
writing.
• Introduction should generate curiosity so that the readers are made to read through
• The context of the writing should be provided so that readers are situated in the
context of the write up.

6.7 DEVELOPING THE BODY OF THE ARGUMENT

The body paragraphs of your writing should present most of your arguments in such a
manner that the readers or the instructor/ teacher is able to figure out well how you have
argued in your writing, You should provide supporting statements, facts, data and other
significant documents to support your arguments. The body of the writing should be

62
divided into paragraphs, with each paragraph containing one controlling idea. The
paragraphs within the body of the paper will be tied together through connecting words
and ideas, to show cohesion, logical progression and unity in your writing.
In argumentative writing, the writer aims at convincing the readers to agree with the facts,
values, arguments and conclusions presented by the writer. The thesis statement is proved
by the writer through logical arguments. The counter arguments are also presented to
refute them and to prove that the thesis statement is justified. Argumentative writing
proceeds very much on the lines of a debate. In many cases, the writer takes recourse to
such writing to persuade and convince the reader(s) to adopt the writer’s way of thinking
Therefore, in argumentative writing, the writer should start by stating the issue which is
usually the thesis statement. The thesis statement needs to be developed carefully in the
body of the writing by providing relevant statistics, facts, expert opinions in terms of
quotations and paraphrasing, historical examples, anecdotes if necessary, etc. so that the
argument is strong and believable. As the objective is to convince the reader that the
position taken is justified and needs to be taken seriously, therefore the writer must take
care to present the evidence and other details in such a logical manner that the reader gets
convinced that the writer is justified in his or her thought process.
So it is important that the writer plans the arguments carefully before he or she starts
writing. In the planning stage, the writer should make a list of all the points for both sides
of the argument and pick the side which he or she believes in or the side which has
stronger arguments. For academic writing to be effective, the writer should dig deeper
into the arguments and present the points in a detailed manner. One should keep in mind
here that simplistic arguments are something that everyone has heard before. So the
writer needs to make the arguments complex so that the readers feel that it is a well
thought out argument which cannot be refuted easily. Argumentative writing should
present both sides of the issue with an assessment of each and then point out how the
writer’s arguments are stronger than the counter arguments. Once the arguments are
jotted down, one should gather evidence, facts, statistical details and examples to support
one’s arguments and also to show how the counter arguments fail.
When the detailed plan is chalked out, then the writer can think in terms of getting down
to the actual writing. Like any other writing, argumentative writing has the same three
parts: the introduction, the body, and the conclusion. The first paragraph (or first few
paragraphs in case of longer writing) should contain a short introduction to the topic with
some background information, and a thesis statement (one’s opinion and stand on a
topic). The body of the essay should contain the arguments. When the arguments in
favour of the writer’s position are stated, the writer should present the counter-side of the
issue to prove how they are not justified. The conclusion should reiterate the thesis with
conviction. The conclusion should not be such that the readers feel that it is a belief or an
opinion, but should feel that it is a judgment supported by irrefutable facts.

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Should College Students Participate in Politics?
Students are a young and energetic lot. If steered properly they can be an
indomitable force which is very tough to resist. Therefore during the independence
struggle of India, we saw many young students joining politics so that they could
free their motherland from the clutches of the British colonial force. But once
independence was achieved, many people are of the view that students should not be
initiated into politics in their college life as it hampers their studies and make them
lose focus in life and often are misled by crooning politicians. But the truth is that if
student are initiated into politics early in their life then it is beneficial for them
in the long run, more so in their career prospects.
The aim of studies is not to merely memorize facts and figures, formulas and
quotations, but to liberate one’s mind in such a fashion that one is able to see
what lies underneath the apparent. This cannot happen in a day as it is not a
revelation that one will arrive at on a given day. When one is initiated into politics
early in their life, one gets the focus; one understands how things work in the socio-
political and cultural arenas of our life. To understand it deeply, it is necessary to
fathom how the ruling class uses different state apparatuses to rule over the mass.
When one understands that it becomes easier for him or her to deal with things in
life.
Many argue that student politics is about destructive vandalism as they do not
operate on their own, but are manipulated by shrewd political leaders to achieve their
petty goals. It is true that there are many cases where the political leaders misuse the
students’ strength and make them behave like a mob having no sense of
understanding and control on themselves and merely act according to one’s whims
and wishes. The fact is that in many cases the crooning politicians act in the same
manner with the masses. When one learns this early in their life, it helps them in
their later life as they cannot be made the play thing of the politicians anymore.
More importantly, from the point of view of the career, joining politics in one’s
college life is significant as it helps in building different capabilities in students
which help them throughout their life, such as – art of public speaking, be
assertive and impressive, mass involvement, group activity, leadership quality, etc.
all of which is extremely important to succeed in our career. One also gets aware of
the issues like, national integration, environmental concern, industrial and
agricultural development and balance between the two in case of country like India,
and many such other issues which directly and indirectly affects our life. Student life
is the learning stage of one’s life; therefore it is important that students have an
overall development as an individual rather than just academic development.
In the recent years, with the rise of competitive spirit in the academic arena,
students and their parents are focusing on studies and nothing else as they think
that is how they will grow up to be good money earning machines. But one should
remember that on one can live alone in the society. We have to live with others as
we are social beings. Therefore to live a social life in the true sense of the term one
should know one’s society very well. Politics does not merely mean that one should
fight for the position of power. But politics means that one is standing up for one’s
rights, fighting for others’ rights and moreover addressing concerns which helps
society to be better place to live in. When one learns all these early in life, one grows

64
 up to be a responsible citizen and benefit as an individual and consequently a nation
can prosper.
Though it is true that students’ politics can be dangerous when irresponsible leaders
ignite fire in them for unjust and petty issues, but that does not mean that all leaders
are the same. If one has to grow as an individual and as a nation, then it is necessary
that we change our outlook towards politics and initiate a similar spirit amongst the
students so that they also have a favourable view about politics and be a part of
active politics from an early stage of their life.

6.8 THINGS ONE SHOULD REMEMBER WHILE WRITING ARGUMENTATIVELY

• In argumentative writing one should avoid emotional language as far as possible

as emotions may make the readers feel that you cannot logically prove your
arguments and therefore you have taken recourse to emotional language. It is true
that if you are not emotionally attached to be cause, it becomes very difficult to
argue passionately for or against it, but while presenting the arguments one should
not show one’s emotions.
• One should sequence one’s writing logically as that helps the readers in gaining
confidence in your thought process and agree to what you have written down.
• In most cases we try to prove our arguments by providing facts and evidences.
And if by any chance the readers can make out that one of the evidences or facts
are made up, then readers lose all faith in the arguments and the writing does not
serve its purpose.
• It is always important to cite the sources in argumentative writing as that makes
the writing authentic.
• Before one starts writing it is essential to make an outline of all the arguments and
counterarguments in a logical manner so that the writing becomes an easier job
and none of the arguments gets left out.
• One should be prepared to defend one’s side by knowing the strongest arguments
for the other side.

6.9 WRITING THE CONCLUSION

Writing the conclusion is not as easy a job as one thinks as one needs to conclude well so
as to have an impact of one’s writing, therefore it is necessary that we need to put our
thoughts together so as to come up with the best conclusions that we can write for any
kind of academic writing that we do. What is usually being done in the conclusion is to
sum up whatever is being stated in the entire writing. We have seen that the Thesis
statement is the umbrella statement on which the whole of the write up usually revolves
around. The thesis statement should be upheld in the conclusion though in a different
language.

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6.10 SUMMING UP

In this chapter, you have learnt how one should build up a paper or assignment and how
the introduction, body paragraphs and conclusion are to be written so as to make a
comprehensive, cohesive write up for academic purposes. You probably have realized
that in academic writing, one needs to argue for one’s stand point and therefore needs to
do much of argumentative writing. It is evident that even though you have theoretically
learnt about how to write argumentatively and how to structure your paper, yet the more
you will write academically, the more your writing skill will develop and you will
become a better academic writer. So it is essential that along with knowing the theoretical
aspects of writing, you also carry on writing more and more to become a better writer.

6.11 SELF CHECK QUESTIONS

1. What are the aspects that one should keep in mind while writing an academic essay.
2. What is the significance of conclusion of an academic writing?
3. The following is an introduction to an essay. Read it carefully and write two body
paragraphs and a suitable conclusion.
Feminism can be defined as “a political position against patriarchy” and feminist
criticism as “a specific kind of political discourse: a critical and theoretical practice
committed to the struggle against patriarchy and sexism.” (Toril Moi) In other
words, it can be said that Feminist criticism is an interdisciplinary approach which
focuses on ‘gender politics’ though feminism rather than confining itself to textual
analysis has a broader perspective in terms of having the political aim of seeking a
just world for females and an end of all kinds of suppression and patriarchal
oppression against women.
4. Write an essay on the following Thesis Statement.
“It is the duty of the movie makers to crosscheck the historical accuracy of the time
period they are portraying in movies.”
5. The following is an introduction to an essay. Read it carefully and write two body
paragraphs and a suitable conclusion.
The World Wars and its effect had shaken the whole of the humankind and more so
the whole of Europe. The effects of the World Wars were such that mankind lost
faith in fellow human beings and therefore a sense of loneliness crept into the minds
and consciousness of the modern man.
6. Write an essay on the following Thesis Statement.
“If water is not saved today, we are inviting another World War.”
7. The following is an introduction to an essay. Read it carefully and write two body
paragraphs and a suitable conclusion.
A forest is known as an intricate ecosystem that is densely covered with trees,
shrubs, grasses and mosses. The trees and other plants that form a part of the forests
create an environment that is healthy for the breeding several species of animals.
These are thus a habitat for a large variety of wild animals and birds. They are
responsible for maintaining a fine equilibrium of life which supports all forms of
life on our planet.

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8. Write an essay on the following Thesis Statement.
“Road Rationing is not a solution to Air Pollution in Delhi.”

6.12 RECOMMENDED READINGS

• Halder, Deb Dulal Edited Academic Writing and Composition: A Handbook

(2016) Book Age Publications, New Delhi.
• Dev, Anjana Neira. Ed. A Handbook for Academic Writing and Composition.
Pinnacle Learning, New Delhi, 2014.
• Bailey, Stephen. Academic Writing: A Handbook for International Students.
London: Routledge, 2006.

• Hartley, James. Academic Writing and Publishing: A Practical Handbook. New

York: Routledge, 2008.

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 Unit 7

CITING RESOURCES

7.1 INTRODUCTION

Each academic assignments or project that one prepares is often a result of long hours of
research from various kinds of resources that one consults, quotes, summarizes and
paraphrases in the process of writing the academic assignment or dissertation or thesis.
What is required to be done is not only to cite the references in the writing but also to
make a bibliography at the end of the writing so as to let the readers/ instructors know
what all sources one has consulted in the process of writing. In this unit, we will be
knowing in details about how to cite the resources that one uses during the process of
writing and also deal with the ways in which one makes a bibliography as well as what is
the significance of peer review. All these aspects of academic writing will be dealt with in
an elaborate manner so as to provide you with the basics of citing and making
bibliography.

7.2 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

In this chapter you will learn about –

• Citing resources in a research paper

• The Stylistic details of preparing a Bibliography

• Editing

• Peer Review

7.3 CITING RESOURCES

By now, you have understood the fact that academic writing is a serious business which
needs to be done with utmost care and gravity so as to achieve one’s objectives.
Therefore it is required that one follows the conventions of academic writing in detail so
as to present oneself to be academically serious. We have discussed some of the
conventions of Academic Writing in Unit Three. In this Unit, we will be looking at the
conventions of citation as well as Bibliography making which are also essential elements
of Academic Writing.
You also have come to know that Plagiarism is a serious offence in academic as well as
professional writing as it amounts to cheating or stealing when one uses some resource of
someone else without acknowledging their work. Plagiarism can be considered to be an
academic crime as it is a violation of the intellectual copy right which gives the right to
each author to sacredly possess the ideas and linguistic expression of those ideas in the
academic realm. (We have dealt with Plagiarism to some extent when we dealt with the
Unit on Summarizing and Paraphrasing) Throughout the world, there have been many
cases of copy right violation and people have been reprimanded seriously for these acts.
To avoid being caught in such a jinx, it is necessary that we cite each and every author

68
and their works in the writing that we do, for citation leads to us acknowledging their
contribution in the formation of our ideas as well as giving expression to it in our writing.
As suggested earlier, whenever we are about to write something academically we use a
lot of resources starting from research papers to books to audio-visual material to
different websites as well as blogs. All these needs to be cited in our writing so as to
make it appear just and hassle free from all plagiarism. In order to do so, from early on in
our academic life, we need to get into the habit of citation so as to make ourselves
prepared for the greater academic achievements in life.
One needs to further remember that when one does citation in one’s writing it not only
makes us bypass all troubles of being called a plagiarised writer; but also makes us look
more academic as it enhances the quality of our work. It shows that before one has gone
into writing, one has done academic research of good quality so as to present the
arguments, ideas and quotations of the renowned scholars of the field in our writing.
Citation is often a very good means of measuring the academic hard work and credentials
of a good academic writing. So it is advised that from now on whenever you carry on
doing any kind of academic writing you engage yourself in the citation work.
To add to this, one may even say that when one is working in a particular academic field
or topic, one necessarily figures out that many people have worked on the same field
earlier and without their contribution it is not possible at the present to formulate one’s
ideas and thoughts in the same field. It is therefore very essential to give credit to the
scholars and authors who have helped you in formulating your ideas. So when one is
preparing notes for writing the academic assignment, one should keep in mind that one
carries on keeping track of the citations so that one can use them while writing the draft
of the write up and later finalize it.

7.4 THE TECHNICALITIES OF CITING RESOURCES:

By now you have understood the fact that when you are writing academically, if you are
not citing enough researchers, scholars and authors and not providing a comprehensive
bibliography then your writing is not considered to be academic enough. We have already
discussed how in academic writing there has to be a right balance between literature
review and arguments of the other scholars on the topic and the originality of your ideas.
This balance needs to be achieved with much care and precision.
Some may think that only after producing the first draft of the write up, it will be
advisable to work on the citations and bibliography as that way the flow of writing will
not be hampered. But this is a wrong approach. One should start doing the citation and
noting down of the bibliographic details from the very beginning -- from the time one is
making notes. Otherwise, what happens is that after the completion of writing we are at a
lurch as we have already forgotten from where we have taken what. So during the process
of writing, the citation and working bibliography should be worked on simultaneously as
that ensures that we are methodical in our approach to academic writing. One needs to
remember that Academic writing is not the same as creative writing where we need to
have the necessary flow of writing; it is a much more methodical process where we need

69
to ensure that we are following the process well so as to succeed in our academic
ventures.
So citation and bibliographic work need to be done at the same time when one is doing
the research, reading up the essential readings, making notes and then doing the first
draft. One needs to keep in mind that doing citations and bibliography at the end of the
written work can become very tedious, boring as well as cumbersome if one has not
worked on it from the beginning. Therefore what is required is that you take the citation
work seriously from the beginning and not postpone it for the last thing to be done while
writing any academic assignment or research paper.
The methodical way of going about it is –

• To prepare a list of resources while drafting the paper. Keeping track of the
author, publication details, websites as well as details of audio-visuals needs to be
kept in an organized manner so as to not miss anything at the end. To repeat, it
should be a simultaneous exercise as that of writing a paper.
• To make the list in alphabetical order so as to figure out the resources in an easier
and comfortable manner.
• To first create a working Bibliography and then finalize it at the end of writing
process.
• Keeping the different resources in separate headings such as Primary Sources and
Secondary Sources. Then differentiate between books, essays and articles, web
resources, audio-visuals, encyclopaedias, etc.
• Keeping the resources handy so as to check their page numbers before finalizing
the final drafts.
While Preparing a Working Bibliography, the things which should be worked upon are –

• As suggested earlier, one should always maintain the bibliographical details with
the authors name in alphabetical order for the sake of convenience when finalizing
it.
• The first detail should be the name of the author where the last name should be
put first and then the first (and if any middle) name.
• In case of a book, quote the full title of the book. Name of the book should be
italicized.
• In case of a chapter from the book, then first write the name of the chapter and
then the name of the book from where the chapter is taken. Also the editor the
book should be mentioned to locate the exact book that one is talking about,
• In case of an essay or article from a journal, then the name of the article or essay
in full should be provided in double quotations, followed by the full title of the
Journal along with the Volume No and also the Issue no.
• In case the article is taken from a newspaper or magazine then the full name of the
article followed by the Name of the newspaper along with the date of publication.
• In case of multiple papers or books of the same author then the titles should be
arranged in alphabetical order.

70
• Not only author(s)’s name and the book or journal’s name is enough to figure out
the book or the article, but what is also required is to also mention the name of the
publisher along with the place of publication as well as the year of publication.
• For essays and articles, one should also mention the page numbers in which the
essays appear in the journals or books.
• For an Internet Source, all of these have to be included along with some more
information like:
o URL (Full Web-Link)
o Name of the Website
o Name of the Editor (if any)
o Date of last update of the Website
o Date when you accessed the work

7.5 DIFFERENT STYLE SHEETS

MLA Format
Sequence of the Details to be Included:
Author’s Last Name, Author’s First Name. (In case of multiple authors, only one name is
inverted). Title: Subtitle. Place of Publication: Publisher’s Name, Year of Publication.
In case of Single Author and Single Title (Article/Book):
• Williams, Raymond. Marxism and Literature. London: Oxford University Press,
1977.
• Millett, Kate. Sexual Politics. London: Abacus edition, Sphere Books, 1972.
• Valmiki, Omprakash. Joothan: A Dalit’s Life. Trans. Arun Prabha Mukherjee.
Kolkata: Samya, 2007.
• Spacks, Patricia Meyer. ‘Logic and Language in Through the Looking Glass’.
Lewis Carroll, Through the Looking Glass. Brinda Bose (ed.). Delhi: Worldview
Publications, 2000.
In case of Two or More Authors:
• Ashcroft, Bill, Gareths Griffilhs and Helen Tiffin. Key Concepts in Post-Colonial
Studies. London and New York: Routledge, 1995.
In case of two or more books by the Same Author:
• Gordimer, Nadine. July’s People. New York: Penguin Books, 1981.
• ---. The Conservationist. London: Jonathan Cape Ltd, 1974.
In case of Articles taken from the Internet:
• Perusek, D (1993). “Subaltern Consciousness and Historiography of Indian
Rebellion of 1857”. Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 28 No. 37 Article
Stable URL: <http://www.jstor.org/stable/4400141> Downloaded on 12 July
2015.
• Howden, Daniel. “Planet of the slums: UN warns urban populations set to
double.” 27 June 2007
<http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/politics/planet-of-the-slums>
Downloaded on 13 March 2020

71
 CHICAGO Format
Sequence of Details to be Included:
Author’s Last name, First name. Title: Subtitle. Edition. Place of publication: Publisher,
Date of publication.
In case of Single Author and Single Title (Article/Book):
• Williams, Raymond. Marxism and Literature. London: Oxford University Press,
1977.
• Millett, Kate. Sexual Politics. London: Abacus edition, Sphere Books, 1972.
• Valmiki, Omprakash. Joothan: A Dalit’s Life. Trans. Arun Prabha Mukherjee.
Kolkata: Samya, 2007.
• Spacks, Patricia Meyer. ‘Logic and Language in Through the Looking Glass’.
Lewis Carroll, Through the Looking Glass. Brinda Bose (ed.). Delhi: Worldview
Publications, 2000.
In case of Two or More Authors:
• Ashcroft, Bill, Gareths Griffilhs and Helen Tiffin. Key Concepts in Post-Colonial
Studies. London and New York: Routledge, 1995.
In case of two or more books by the Same Author:
• Gordimer, Nadine. July’s People. New York: Penguin Books, 1981.
• ---. The Conservationist. London: Jonathan Cape Ltd, 1974.
In case of Articles taken from the Internet:
• Perusek, D (1993). “Subaltern Consciousness and Historiography of Indian
Rebellion of 1857”. Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 28 No. 37 Article
Stable URL: <http://www.jstor.org/stable/4400141> Downloaded on July 12,
2015.
• Howden, Daniel. “Planet of the slums: UN warns urban populations set to
double.” 27 June 2007
<http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/politics/planet-of-the-slums>
Downloaded on March 13, 2020
Note: For Internet Citations, in the MLA Style the form of mentioning date of access is
Day Month and Year (08 June 2014) while in the Chicago Style, the form of mentioning
date is Month Day, and Year (June 08, 2014) and in the APA Style it is Year, Month and
Day (2014, June 08).
APA Format
Sequence of Details to be Included:
Author’s Last Name, Author’s First Name. (Year of Publication of the Work Cited).
Title: Subtitle. Place of Publication: Publisher’s/ Institute’s Name.
In case of Single Author and Single Title (Article/Book):
• Williams, Raymond. (1977) Marxism and Literature. London: Oxford University
Press.

72
 • Millett, Kate. (1972) Sexual Politics. London: Abacus edition, Sphere Books.
• Valmiki, Omprakash (2007) Joothan: A Dalit’s Life. Trans. Arun Prabha
Mukherjee. Kolkata: Samya.
• Spacks, Patricia Meyer. (2000) ‘Logic and Language in Through the Looking
Glass’. Lewis Carroll, Through the Looking Glass. Brinda Bose (ed.). Delhi:
Worldview Publications.
In case of Two or More Authors:
• Ashcroft, Bill, Gareths Griffilhs and Helen Tiffin (1995) Key Concepts in Post-
Colonial Studies. London and New York: Routledge.
In case of two or more books by the Same Author:
• Gordimer, Nadine (1981) July’s People. New York: Penguin Books.
• ---. (1974) The Conservationist. London: Jonathan Cape Ltd.
In case of Articles taken from the Internet:
• Perusek, D (1993). “Subaltern Consciousness and Historiography of Indian
Rebellion of 1857”. Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 28 No. 37 Article
Stable URL: <http://www.jstor.org/stable/4400141> Downloaded on 2015, July
12.
• Howden, Daniel. “Planet of the slums: UN warns urban populations set to
double.” 27 June 2007
<http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/politics/planet-of-the-slums>
Downloaded on 2020, March 13.
Note: In APA, both the Names have been inverted in case of Multiple Authors.

7.6 REFERENCING

There are three different methods of citing a reference within the text of a paper.
1. End Notes: Each time you refer to a paper/chapter/book you could number the
reference and prepare a list of End Notes (right at the end of the paper/book, just
before the Bibliography) where each entry number corresponds with the reference
number within the text.
2. Footnotes: Footnotes appear right at the end of a page and details of all the
references on that page could be mentioned in the footnotes. Again, you can
number a reference and the corresponding entry in the list of Footnotes would
provide details.
3. In text Referencing: The most commonly followed method though is that of
parenthetical referencing wherein the details of a reference are included within the
text of the paper/ book in brackets.

73
7.7 EDITING

All of us are aware about what it means to edit – it is not just correction of mistakes such
as typological errors, spelling errors, grammatical errors, etc. but also at the same time it
is also about looking at the arguments/ the logical progression of the writing, etc. so as to
make the writing a smooth reading. When we just correct the mistakes which are apparent
such as typological errors, spelling errors, grammatical errors, etc. what we are engaged
in is the proof-reading of the document. Proofreading is also a necessary step before
submission of any document / writing; but what is moreover required is to edit the writing
as far as possible so as to make the writing a pleasantly readable experience. In this
section, we will be specifically looking at the different techniques of editing so as to
understand how we need to give the final shape to our writing, before submission in case
of academic writing, or even for the professional writings.
7.7.1 The Process/ Method of Editing:
Editing should not be thought to be a singular activity. It is in fact a very long and tedious
process in which one needs to have utter concentration in reading what one has written.
Sometimes, it becomes difficult to find mistakes and look for lacunas in one’s own
writing, and therefore people often take help from the peer group (or even sometimes
professional help) so that the written document turns out to be error free, logical and
readable.
Patience is the key to good editing as one needs not only to read minutely each and every
word of the written document, but also needs to read between the lines so as to fathom if
the significance of the document is reached in the process of writing. An editor, first of all
should be one who is joyous about the reading process as if the person does not enjoy
reading, then it is impossible for him or her to do the editing work with passion. Along
with passion what the editor needs is the diligent patience to go through every aspect of
the work minutely so as to figure out not only the mistakes, but also to see the cohesion,
logical progression as well as consistency in the work.
Some of the things that one needs to do to effectively edit a text are —
(a) You should know the subject on which the research paper is written or any work
is written is something you are well-versed with as without knowing the jargon
and register (Register is subject-specific language) one cannot edit properly.
Suppose, one is editing a paper on legal studies. Will the person be able to do
justice to editing if he or she is not conversant with the legal language or legalese?
Similar is true for all domains of knowledge. To edit a writing which is very
general in nature can be a job of any editor, but for subject specific writing, which
academic writing usually deals with, it is necessary that the editor also has a
working knowledge of the subject in which the research paper or any other
academic work is written.
(b) The editor needs to first read the whole work in entirety so as to have an idea
about the research paper, etc. and then should carry on doing changes / editing as
per the requirements of the paper. Without reading a work in entirety, it is nearly
impossible to carry on editing.

74
(c) Inconsistencies and errors of expression can be best figured out in the second
reading of the work and therefore it is essential that the editor does a multiple
reading of the document.
(d) Sometimes, the thoughts written are poorly or badly expressed and in those cases,
it is essential to rewrite the whole section again so as to make it comprehensible;
instead of changing one or few words here and there.
(e) In case of an academic writing it is also to be figured out whether there is a
smooth blending of the already existing research along with the original thought
of the writer.
(f) One needs to figure out if the arguments and ideas are presently coherently and
cohesively and if the transition words are used properly.
(g) Sometimes rearrangement

7.8 PEER REVIEW

These days when one wants to publish a research paper on a reputed journal (whether
national or international) the paper goes through peer reviewing before it is published.
Review broadly means a kind of evaluation by the experts in the same field who have
similar or greater knowledge and aptitude. This evaluation is not done by a single person
as he or she may have a biased view on a given topic and therefore a group of people
related to the subject are given the job of doing the peer review so that a just review is
done. The question is – Why is the peer review necessary? The answer to this lies in the
fact that each research and its findings needs to be evaluated so as to figure out if the
research has made any substantial contribution to the knowledge formation and if it has
opened doors for further research. If any research has done that then it needs to be further
promoted so as to enhance the quality of research and also to make room for the
researcher that she or he is able to showcase to the world his or her research
achievements.
Peer review should not be taken as a hindrance to the research publication. One should
not feel that Peer review stands between one’s research findings and its publication in
reputed journals. Peer review is actually done to smoothen out the process of publication
of research findings so that what is good in a research finds its right audience and it helps
in furthering the research. One needs to understand that on a given topic, there may be
many across the world who are doing research at a given time. Each researcher can
benefit from the researches done by the other researcher. So, for mutual benefit, when a
research is peer reviewed before publication it leads it to the refinement of the research.
Who are the reviewers? It is an equally significant question as depending on the
credentials of the reviewers a research gets acknowledgement in the world forum.
Therefore, the reviewers are usually chosen with utmost care as they decide the fate of
other researches and researchers. The reviewers usually are those people who have
contributed their own papers for review/publication as well (peers). These are the
scholars who have acquired certain competence in the area and are considered to be
experts of their fields.

75
What these reviewers do is to give critical feedback on the research paper. It is not that
they merely pass a yes or no judgement for the publication of the paper. They often
provide judgements on how to improve the paper further so that it gets finer than before.
In other words, the role of the reviewer is moreover to suggest ways by which a research
paper becomes more effective and substantial in furthering knowledge. It can also be said
that peer review often look forward to main high standards in research which is essential
for the development of the world, as the objective of research is not merely to gain
academic credentials for oneself for some reason, but moreover to enhance knowledge
which can go towards some kind of application of those knowledge in solving the
problems and challenges of the world.

7.9 SUMMING UP

In the last Unit of the Self Instructional Material on Academic Writing and Composition,
you have come across the conventions of citation as well as Bibliography making which
are two essential aspects of Academic Writing. Without Citation and Bibliography, no
academic assignment is complete and therefore there is a need to learn these two things
with utmost diligence. Probably, by now you have known what are the ways (MLA, APA
and Chicago Styles) of Bibliography making and you will from now on use one of the
style sheets in the academic assignments that you undertake in future.
You have also been introduced to the nuances of editing an academically written piece.
Editing helps you to finalize your draft of writing and giving it a final shape. You have
also learnt about the significance of Peer Review in academics and probably when you go
to higher academics you will come to know more about its usages.

7.10 UNIVERSITY QUESTIONS

1. What are the differences between the APA and MLA Style Sheet?
2. What is the significance of Editing? What aspects should be kept in mind while
editing a piece of writing?
3. What is Peer Review? What is its significance in the world of academics?
4. Create a bibliography using the following sources. First use a citation convention
to rewrite the details of each source and then arrange the five sources in the
correct sequence.
Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak wrote A Critique of Post-Colonial Reason: Toward a
History of the Vanishing Present which was published from Harvard University
Press, Cambridge in 1999.
VS Seturaman edited the book Contemporary Criticism: An Anthology, which
was published from Macmillan, New Delhi in 1989.
Patrick Williams and Chrisman, Laura edited Colonial Discourse and Post
colonial Theory: A Reader which was published from Prentice Hall/Harvester
Wheatsheaf, Hempstead in 1993.

76
 Edward Said wrote Orientalism which was published in 1978 and its 25th
Anniversary Edition was published by Penguin Classics in 2003.
Robert Young wrote Post colonialism: An Historical Introduction which was
published from Blackwell, Oxford in 2001.
5. Create a bibliography using the following sources. First use a citation convention
to rewrite the details of each source and then arrange the five sources in the
correct sequence.
Lawrence Danson wrote The Harmonies of The Merchant of Venice which was
published from Yale University Press New Haven in 1978.
John Gross wrote Shylock: A Legend and Its Legacy which was published from
Simon and Schuster New York in 1992.
John Gross wrote Shylock: Four Hundred Years in the Life of a Legend which
was published from Chatto & Windus London in 1992.
James Shapiro wrote Shakespeare and the Jews which was published from
Columbia University Press, New York in 1996.
Emma Smith wrote The Cambridge Introduction to Shakespeare which was
published from Cambridge University Press in 2007.
6. Create a bibliography using the following sources. First use a citation convention
to rewrite the details of each source and then arrange the five sources in the
correct sequence.
Keval J Kumar wrote Mass Communication in India which was published from
Jaico Publishing House, Mumbai in 2007
Virbala Aggarwal and V. S. Gupta wrote Handbook of Journalism and Mass
Communication which was published from Concept Publishing Company New
Delhi in 2002
Sam Pitroda wrote Exploring Freedom which was published from Allied
Publishers New Delhi in 1992
Arvind Singhal, and Everett K. Rogers wrote India’s Information Revolution
which was published from Sage New Delhi in1989
C. R. Subrmaniam wrote India and the Computer: A Study of Planned
Development which was published from Oxford University Press, New Delhi in
1992.
7. Edit and proof read the following passage and then rewrite it, incorporating all the
corrections.
Post Colonialism is a branches of theoretical and critical study which aim to show
the world how the West had achieved hegemony using different apparatuses and

77
 how the colonized tried dealt with the experience of colonialism. It is not that
after the colonizer countries got their political freedom they were not under the
hegemony of the western superiority any more – but till today we see among us
the tendency to think that everything western is superior then our culture, we see
that till the west did not take notice of some cultural artefacts of ours, we do not
value it. Satyajit Ray, the famous filmmakers from India had to be given Oscar to
make us realize that we need to give him the national award Bharat Ratna.
Anything Indian needs to be recognized by the west to be liked by Indians. Our
writers need to get their books published by the Western Publishers to get a
international audience as only when a books is internationally acclaimed that we
think of read it. This needs to be changed—we need to be much more self-
respectful of us and need to have a faith in ourselves and our artefacts.

8. Edit and proof read the following passage and then rewrite it, incorporating all the
corrections.
Lyrical Ballads, publish in 1798, heralded an new era in a history of English
literature and with the publication of this volume of poems by William
Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge, the Romantic Era begin. These two
poet met on 1795 and immediately recognized each other calibre and joined hand
to created something new in the field of literature. Their wishes came true with
the publication of this volume of poetry Lyrical Ballads, which also had a short
Forward by William Wordsworth. The Second edition of the volumes came out in
1800 with a Preface by Wordsworth. In 1802, another revise edition was
published which had most significant additions.
8. Edit and proof read the following passage and then rewrite it, incorporating all
the corrections.
R.K. Narayan was born at a middle-class family of the Tamil Brahmin caste, a
notable intellectual and creative group within India system of social castes. He
was raised in the city of Madras of South India and was cared for largely by his
grandmother, whose stories and friends are said to inspired much of Swami and
Friends. Although writing was a uncommon career for Indian men of his time, his
families was supportive of his choice. Narayan also broke with tradition by
deciding to forego an arrange marriage and instead choose his own wife, although
she died of typhoid fever in 1939, only five years after their marriage. Narayan
raised his one daughter on his own and never remarried. Swami and Friends was
Narayan’s first publish book and was championed by the English author Graham
Greene, Narayan’s friend and mentar. Narayan went on to publish fifteen novel as
well as a memoir and numerous essays and short stories, and he also became an
activist for causes including environmentalism and children’s rights.

7.11 RECOMMENDED READINGS

• Deb Dulal Halder edited Academic Writing and Composition: A Handbook (2016)
Book Age Publications, New Delhi.
• John Gonzales, Michael Pringle (2009) The APA Style of Documentation: A

78
 Pocket Guide. Prentice Hall.
• M. Deane (2010) Academic Research, Writing and Referencing. Harlow Pearson
Education.
• MLA Handbook for writers of Research Papers, MLA, (2008) Affiliated East-
west Press Pvt. Ltd.
• Bailey, Stephen. Academic Writing: A Handbook for International Students.
London: Routledge, 2006.

• Hartley, James. Academic Writing and Publishing: A Practical Handbook. New

York: Routledge, 2008.

• Whitaker, Anne. Academic Writing Guide 2010: A Step-by-Step Guide to Writing

Academic Papers. Bratislava, Slovakia: City University of Seattle, 2009.

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 MODEL QUESTION PAPER

S. No. of Question Paper:

Unique Paper Code :
Name of Paper : Academic Writing and Composition
Name of Course : English Generic Elective

Duration : 3 Hours Maximum Marks: 75

(Write your Roll no. on the top immediately on receipt of this question paper.)
The Question Paper has two parts, A and B.
Three Questions have to be attempted from each part.

PART A
Answer any three of the following questions in about 200 words each.
Give suitable examples to illustrate your answers.
Each Question carries 10 Marks.

1. What is Academic Writing? How is it distinctive from technical writing?

2. Critically comment on the style conventions of Academic Writing.
3. Do you think Paraphrasing is an effective tool of Academic Writing? Give reasons
for your answer
4. Enumerate different ways of avoiding plagiarism.
5. What is Critical Thinking? What are the steps of developing critical thinking?
6. How to structure an argument for an academic paper?

PART B
Answer any three of the following questions.
Each Question carries 15 Marks.

1. Write a Summary of the following passage and give it a suitable title.

12 + 3 = 15 Marks.
Dreams play a vital role in shaping our future. It is rightly said, “If you can imagine it,
you can achieve it; if you can dream it, you can become it”. So if you have a dream then
set it up as your goal and work hard towards achieving it. Though it is easier said than
done however if you are really hard pressed towards achieving it you shall definitely be
able to make it.

80
You may have a big dream in life however in order to attain the same you must set both
short term and long term goals and take small and steady steps. Taking one step at a time
always helps rather than rushing into it all at once. For instance, my dream is to become a
fashion designer and I know that it would only be possible if I complete a course in
Fashion Designing from a reputed institute and there is nothing much that I can do to
speed up the attainment of my dream right now when I am still schooling. However, this
does not dither me from following fashion blogs and websites to explore the world of
fashion. By doing so I am taking the little steps I can to achieve my dream. While my
ultimate goal is to become an established Fashion Designer, I have set various small goals
for the months and years to come so that these take me to my ultimate goal.
One of the main hindrances in achieving the dreams and goals is lack of motivation.
Many people give up on their dreams as they get tired mid way. It is essential to stay
motivated and stop only when you have achieved your dream. Here are a few tips to keep
you motivated:
If ever you see yourself running out of energy and get too tired to follow the set goals it is
time to remind yourself of your ultimate goal and the joy and pride you will experience as
you achieve it. This is like pressing the reset button to begin with a fresh mind once
again. As you set short term goals, also keep a reward for each milestone you achieve.
The reward can be anything from buying yourself a dress or visiting your favourite café
or going out with friends. This is a good way to stay motivated towards achieving your
goals. Too much work and no play can make you rather dull and hamper your
productivity which in turn can de-motivate you. It is thus a good idea to take some time
off every now and then to indulge in something you love. Ideally you must squeeze in
half an hour from your schedule each day to indulge in your favourite sport. Surrounding
yourself with people who believe in your dreams and inspire you to work hard to attain
the same is a good way to stay motivated. Rather than getting disheartened and giving up
on your dreams when you make a mistake and face tough time, it is suggested to learn
from your mistakes and let them make you stronger.
As you dream and set goals, it is essential to put a plan in place and work according to it
to move in the right direction. Preparing a plan and getting organized are the initial steps
towards attaining your dream. Dream big and overcome every obstacle to achieve the
same!
2. Make notes and then paraphrase the following passage.
5 + 10 = 15 Marks
Train journeys are preferred by many owing to the various benefits they offer. However,
some people much rather prefer travelling by their own vehicle or buses to avoid the
downside of the train journeys. At times, it becomes quite difficult to decide the mode of
transport as all these have their own set of pros and cons. Here is a look at the various
advantages and disadvantages of train journey:
Here are the various advantages of train journey: Train is one of the best means of
transports if we look in terms of space and comfort. There is enough space to sit and even
lie down, a privilege we don’t get in the buses, cars or planes. Kids can easily play board
games. Group outings become all the more fun as we can enjoy various games and
activities sitting face to face. Since trains offer berths to sleep and washrooms to freshen

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up, travelling long distance via trains becomes quite easy. The washroom facility is
especially one of the main benefits train journeys offer over bus and car journeys. There
is a limit to the amount of luggage one can carry in the aeroplane. Buses also do not have
enough space to accommodate a lot of luggage. However, there is no such restriction
during the train journeys. If you require carrying a good amount of luggage then train
journeys are certainly the best. Train is also considered a safer means to travel compared
to buses, cars and aeroplanes. Travelling in hills is especially safer via trains compared to
buses and cars. You can easily take out your laptop and work on it while you are
travelling via train. You can also read your book comfortably or indulge in other tasks
such as knitting and sewing while travelling through train.
Here are some disadvantages of train journey: One of the main difficulties of travelling
via train is that you have to plan your journey months or weeks before your travel date. It
is difficult to get train tickets for trips that are planned instantly. Train reservation is a
difficult task. You have to visit the railway station and stand in the queue for hours to get
the tickets reserved which is extremely tiring. You can also get the ticket reserved online
but that is again a tedious task as the train booking site is too slow. Trains run on a fixed
schedule. You may be required to catch trains at odd times and this can be difficult at
times. Delay in reaching the railway station even by a few minutes means missing the
train and it is difficult to spend time on the railway station if you reach early. Travelling a
long distance by train means investing a day or two in journey is unlike planes which can
cover same distance within few hours. So it is not a good option for students or working
professionals who cannot take so many leaves and spend so much time on travelling.
While trains have washrooms which is considered to be a big plus of the train journeys
these are mostly not maintained well. Un-kept and unclean washrooms are a big put off.
Their use must be avoided as it can cause infection.
Thus, we see train journeys have a number of advantages however they also have certain
disadvantages. While space, comfort and the facility to carry enough luggages attracts
travelers to option for train journeys, difficulty of reservation and the need to plan the
journey way ahead of the travel date makes them look for other options.
3. The following is an introduction to an essay. Read it carefully and write two body
paragraphs and a suitable conclusion.
10 + 5 = 15 Marks
Hobby is a good thing a person gets from childhood. It can be developed at any age
however best to get from childhood. We all do some kind of work according to our
interest which can give us happiness and joy that is called hobby. Some people get
different hobbies according to their interest, likes and dislikes. There are many type of
hobbies we can develop such as dancing, singing, drawing, playing indoor or outdoor
game, bird watching, collecting antiques, photography, writing, eating, reading, sports,
playing, gardening, music, watching TV, cooking, talking, and so many. Our hobbies
help us in earning live hood and make a successful career. Hobby is something we can
fully enjoy in our leisure or free time.
4. Write an essay on the following Thesis Statement. 15 marks
“Sting operation is an encroachment to someone’s right to privacy.”

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5. Edit and proof read the following passage and then rewrite it, incorporating all the
corrections. 15 marks
Urbanization has cutted (i) the people from their root (ii). People are seen
engrossed (iii) in the modern day gadgets and are moving away from a (iv) nature.
Plant (v) more trees is a good way to keep them close to the nature. Growing trees
and building gardens and parks at short distances in towns and cities provide (vi)
an easy place for the people to social (vii). People came (viii) here for morning
walks, evening strolls, yoga sessions and laughter therapy. This (ix) also serve as
a safe place for the kid (x) to play and socialize. So, these offer a chance indulge
(xi) in various recreational activities. Planted forests give you the chance to
indulge in activity (xii) such as hiking, hunting, etc. A good environment helps in
uplift (xiii) our mood and trees help in building the same. With so much stress
round (xiv) these days we all seek things that give us pleasure and uplift our
mood. What we don’t realize is that nothing can burst our stress as easily and
quickly as the nature. Trees are also know (xv) for their healing properties.
6. Create a bibliography using the following sources. First use a citation convention
to rewrite the details of each source and then arrange the five sources in the
correct sequence. (10 + 5 = 15 Marks)
• R. S. Gupta and Kapil Kapoor edited the book English in India: Issues and
Problems which was published from New Delhi by Academic Foundation
in the year 1991.
• Braj B. Kachru wrote the book The Indianization of English: The English
Language in India. which was published from New Delhi by Oxford
University Press in the year 1983.
• Kapil Kapoor wrote the book Language, Linguistics and Literature: The
Indian Perspective which was published from New Delhi by Academic
Foundation in the year 1994.
• Victoria Fromkin, Robert Rodman and Nina Hyams wrote the book An
Introduction to Language which is in its Seventh Edition, published by
Thomson Wadsworth in the year 2003.
• R. S. Pathak wrote the book Teaching English in India which was
published from New Delhi: by Creative Books in the year 1999.

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