Prefix Symbol Submultiple Mass kilogram (kg)

pico p 10–12 Length metre (m)

nano n 10–9 Time second (s)

micro μ 10–6 Electric current ampere (A)

E.g.
E.g.
mili m 10–3

E
E
T
Temperature
t k l i (K)
kelvin
centi c 10–2 E.g. uses Amount of Substance mole (mol)
deci d 10–1 Prefixes SI Units
Luminous Intensity candela (cd)
Prefix Symbol Multiple
has
Base Quantities Base Units
kilo k 103
mega M 106
giga G 109 through
tera T 1012 Measurable
Defining Equations
are
Parallelogram Head to Tail Vector Addition

P PHYSICAL QUANTITIES
R R Derived Quantities Derived Units
P & UNIT
P Q
Q Q are velocity m s–1

E.g.
E.g.
Momentum g m s–1
kg
P
Parallelogram
ll l Vector
V t

E
Head to Tail

E
Subtraction Pressure kg m–1 s–2
Work kg m2 s–2
R R P
P Vectors Scalars
P
or e.g : Length, Distance, energy, work, speed, time
–Q Q Magnitude only
–Q – hv both
magnitude
& direction Vector Manipulations
y 
Multiplication of vectors
Vector A  Axiˆ  Ayˆj
Dot product Cross product
e.g : Displacement, acceleration, momentum, force 
    A
A  B | A || B | cos  | A  B || A || B | sin  Ay

  
x
A  B  AxBx  AyBy  AzBz Ax

Magnitude and x and y

direction

 components
Ax  A cos
A,  Ay  A sin 
A  Ax 2  Ay 2  Ax, Ay
 Ay 
  tan 1  
 Ax 
 prepared by chongyl
 Acceleration Velocity
Rate of Change Velocity Rate of Change of Displacement
Speed – rate of change in distance vu dv ds s 2  s1
a a v v
t dt to define dt t 2  t1
Total Distance SI unitit : m s–22
Average Speed  SI unit : m s–1
Total Time Taken

to define to define
SI unit : m s–1
Distance Time Displacement vy=0
x – component
p vx
SI unit : s SI unit : m
SI unit : m
ux  u cos 
Equations of Motion uses
uses
uses ax  0
hMAX
1 vx  ux
s  (u  v)t describes motion ( a=constant ) with describes projectile motion with
sx  uxt
2 KINEMATICS
v  u  at
y – component (FF) R
1
s  ut  at 2 describes uy  u sin 
motion
2 with ay   g vx
v  u  2as
2 2
vy  uy  gt
Graphs
vy 2  uy 2  2 gsy vy
v
1
sy  uyt  gt 2 v  vx  vy 2 2

Graph for an object Equation of Free Fall

thrown up into the air
Motion under the sole
influence of gravity

v  u  gt
v 2  u 2  2 gs
1 2
s  ut  gt
2

Gradient of Area under

Gradient of
(v-t) graph (v-t) graph
(s-t) graph
gives gives
gives

g  9.81 m s 2

 prepared by chongyl
 Weight ( W ) Mass in Relate with
W = mg Mass Momentum
Linked to motion  
p  mv
gravitational field.

DYNAMICS
because o of

Is a study of

vector quantity ; SI unit : kg m s –2 ; Newton (N)

1 N = 1 kg m s–2  the force which produces a linear
Type of Forces Force ( F ) acceleration of 1 m s–2 in the direction of the force when it
acts on a body of mass 1 kg.

Tension ( T )
Normal Force ( N ) – Force in a cord that pulls T
- Retarding forcce that resist

on a body Describes by Impulse J = F t

– directed away from a - J = ∆p
urface.

body and along the cord. = pfinal – pinitial

Relationship between - J = area under the
motion on a su

1st Law action & reaction when graf F– t

If F = 0, In built
Newton’s Laws of
masses are in contact 3rd Law
– Contact force exerted by
a=0 FAB = - FBA Force
a surface onto a body Tendency of mass to Motion
If F≠ 0, resist changes in its
a≠ 0 state of rest or motion

sses
( known as Inertia )

force (F) & momentum

en
Relationship betwee

When 2 mas
Implies that if
t Time

collide
Friction ( f )
At present In Future
Impulsive force,

(mv)
Collision mv  mu
F
u=0 v=0 t
2nd Law When t ,F
Fnet = ma Can be
When t ,F
or
2 types

At present In Future d (mv)

F
dt

u = constant v = u =constant
Static friction, fs kinetic friction, fk
Leads to the

( no motion / at rest ) ( in motion ) Elastic Inelastic

fs ≤ μsN fk = μk N -Momentum is conserved -Momentum is conserved
fs(max)=μsN - KE is conserved - KE is NOT conserved
L

μk < μs
Conservation of Momentum
In an isolated system (net external force
equal to zero), Force, Momentum & Impulse
 
 pinitial   pfinal  prepared by chongyl
 formula Poutput
How well a machine Mechanical Efficiency  (100%)
Pinput
transfer input work to
output work

defined by
 Work , W Conservation of Energy
ENERGY, E
F  
W  F s  Einitial   Efinal
 W  F s cos 

be
can b
-- scalar quantity Power, P
 -- Unit: kg m2 s-2 ; J
s
W
If s = 0 – no work is done Mechanical P @PFv
If F perpendicular to s(θ=90°) – no work is done t
Total work done in a system Wnet = Fnet s Unit SI: Watt ( W ) ;
Work W = Area under (F–
Work, (F s) graph Other unit : horse power (hp)

can be
e
1 hp = 746 W

Potential Energy ( U ) Kinetic Energy ( K )

- Energy due to the motion of a body

can be
1 2
K mv
2

Gravitational Potential Energy, U Elastic Potential Energy, Us

Changes in K
- Energy stored in an object as the result of - Energy stored in elastic materials as result of
its vertical position (height). their stretching @ compressing
Work Energy Theorem
Work-Energy
1
Us  k x 2
U mgh 2 Wnet  K
1 1
k : spring constant ( Hooke’s Wnet  mvfinal 2  mvinitial 2
Law : F= kx ) 2 2
x : amount of compression/
stretching x

Work, Energy & Power

F
 prepared by chongyl
 Angular velocity ( ω )
- Rate of change of angular
displacement Linear velocity ( v )
 2 Related to
  ;  ;   2 f v  r
t T
Centripetal Force ( Fc )
Unit SI : rad s –1;
Other units : rps @ rpm Centripetal acceleration ( ac ) mv 2
* 1 rps = 2 π rad s–1
v2 Fc   mr 2  m v 
ac   r 2 r
-- pointing towards the center
r
- Towards the center of the circle

Angular Displacement ( θ )
- Angle undergone by the particle
from a fixed reference point
Unit SI : rad
Kinematics of motion Dynamics of motion
s
 Other : revolution
r (1 rev = 2 π )
Consider the Consider the

UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION

– Motion in circular path with constant
speed but continuously changing direction

Motion in Horizontal Circle Motion in vertical Circle

E.g E.g

Revolving
g object
j vertically
y Ferris Wheel
Revolving object horizontally Motion
M ti off car round
d a curve Conical Pendulum N
Case1: flat curve

fs  Fc mg

N
T  Fc Case2: frictionless banked road
At the top:
T + mg = Fc
( T minimum )
At the top:
mg –NN = Fc mg
T sin   Fc At th
the bottom:
b tt
T – mg = Fc
At the bottom:
( T maximum )
v  r g tan  N – mg = Fc

v min  rg v max  rg
 prepared by chongyl
 Angular Displacement ( θ )
Linear Distance
s  r
Unit : rad , rev Kinematics Dynamics Torque, 
1 rev = 2π rad Rotational Motion of Rigid Bodies
- Turning action on a body about a
rotational axis due to a force
Rate of change of θ Rotational – motion about a fixed axis - Torque on rigid body produces α
Rigid Body - an object or a system of particles in which   I
the distances between particles are fixed & remain
Angular velocity ( ω ) constant.-- has a definite & unchanging shape or size. Rotational Kinetic Energy ( KR )
Linear velocity  2  1 d 1 2
v  r   KR  I
t dt 2
Unit : rad s–11 ; rps ; rpm
Property of body to For rolling without slipping on horizontal plane:
All particles on a resist changes in its -- body have KT & KR
rigid body have rotational state of
Rate of change of ω same ω & α motion

Angular acceleration ( α )
Linear / Tangential
acceleration  2  1 d Moment of Inertial ( I )
  
a t  r t dt 1 1
Unit : rad s–2 I   mr 2 K ICM 2  MvCM 2
2 2
-scalar quantity ; unit SI: kg m2 * Conservation of energy & work energy
theorem also apply for rotational motion
-depends on : mass & position of axis of
Constant angular acceleration rotation. Rotational Work W  
Particle/Hoop/Rin Solid cylinder/Disc
Thin rod
Equations for Rotational Motion
g
1
Rotational Power P  
ICM  MR 2
2
    t 0 Angular Momentum ( L )
For particle: L = m r v
 2    2 
0
2

ICM 
1 Unit : kg m2 s–1
ICM  MR 2 ML2 For Rigid Body : L = I ω
12
1
  (   ) t 0 Solid Sphere Hollow Sphere Conservation of Angular Momentum
2 If no external torque acts on a system, the total
2 2 angular momentum is conserved ( constant ).
1 ICM  MR 2 ICM  MR 2
  0 t   t2 5 3
 L initial   L final
2

 prepared by chongyl
 Moment / Torque of a Force Equilibrium Rigid bodies in Equilibrium

MUST satisfy

Condition 1 :
The Resultant force must be zero

Σ F = 0  Σ Fx = 0 ; Σ Fy = 0
Static Equilibrium – an object is at rest & all forces
act up the object are balanced. The vector addition of the forces must yield a
CLOSED triangle or polygon.

Torque / moment – measure of the turning

effect of a force at a point.

Free-body Diagram:

- diagram of a body ( or part of it ) which

shows all the forces acting on it.
E.g:  
TL TR
Line of action Condition 2 (for rigid bodies):
Moment The sum of torque on the object about any
arm point must be zero.


W
  rF sin   Fd   0
Steps to solve problem involved static:
Unit : Nm ; vector quantity
Torque tends to rotate system either clockwise 1. Draw a sketch to show the physical situation
or anticlockwise 2. Draw the free body diagram showing all forces acting
3. Resolve all the forces into component x & y & equate the resolved
Sign convention : components to zero
Clockwise : – ve Σ Fx = 0 ; Σ Fy = 0
Anticlockwise : + ve 4. Take moment / torque about any point and equate the algebraic
sum of the moments to zero.
Στ=0

 prepared by chongyl
 Newton’s Law of Gravitation Gravitational Field Strength

For a satellite in orbit

Leads to g ( a vector )

Gm1m 2
F F GM
r2 g  2 ( Unit : N kg-1 )
m r
GMm mv 2 G  6.67  100 11 Nm 2 kg 2

r2 r g (m s-2)

A Universal Law 9.81 g  r 1

g
r2
Satellite velocity :
r(m)
( )
GM work done per unit R
v Gravitation mass in bringing
r the object from ∞
to that point
M
Period of revolution of satellite

2 r r3
T  2 Gravitational Potential
v GM
U GM ( J kg–1 )
V 
m r

 prepared by chongyl
 with time
Variation of x x  A sin  t

with x with time

v   A2  x 2 Variation of v v  A cos  t

with x with time

a   2 x Variation of a a   2 A sin  t

1
f 
T Terminology SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION means * To and fro motion about
equilibrium position.
1
T
f * Acceleration  displacement
absence of external dissipative force Example of SHM system
2
  2 f  * Acceleration is always directed
T towards equilibrium position.

Total energy of the oscillating system is constant

Spring mass system

Simple Pendulum
Kinetic Energy Potential Energy Total Energy
E U  K
1 1
K m 2 ( A 2  x 2 ) U m 2 x 2 1
2 2 E m 2 A 2
2

where k = m ω2

Energy variation with

displacement

m
T  2
k

l
T  2
g
 prepared by chongyl
 Displacement (y) – Amplitude ( A )
distance (x) graph v
Wavelength ( λ )

f
1 v
Frequency ( f ) f  
T 
 
Graphs Terms Such as Wave speed ( v ) v f  
k T
1 2
Period ( T ) T 
f 
2
Wave number ( k ) k (unit : radm 1 )

Displacement (y) 2
– time (t) graph Angular frequency (ω )   2 f (unit : rads 1 )
T
can be can be Phase Angle / difference (Φ )
represent ed described by
b
by x
  2 ( )

 v
t
  2 ( )
T
Progressive / Travelling waves
Standing waves
2 progressive wave of same -- waves that propagated
-- wave profile do not Equation
move/advance
type ( same A & f ) move
towards each others &
continuously outward from a
source of disturbance
y  A sin ( t  k x)
-- no energy transferred superpose  : to left
out of region
 : to right

Transverse waves Waves Longitudinal waves

Waves which travel in a Waves which travel in

direction perpendicular a direction parallel to Particles velocity
have
to the direction of the direction of
vibration. vibration. vy  A  cos ( t  k x)
ex: water , light waves Intensity ex: Sound wave
 Power
2 I
 Area P
4 3 dimension – I
spherical waves 4 l 2
Equation Depends on
l : distance from
the point
y  2 A cos k x sin  t * A is the amplitude of the progressive wave I  (amplitude) 2 source
that formed stationary wave
1
Amplitude of the stationary wave
at any position: 2 A cos kx I
l2
Maximum Amplitude : 2A  prepared by chongyl
 Type of Standing waves Fundamental Mode / 1st Harmonic Overtones ( * 1st Overtone Ξ 2nd Harmonic & … ) General Equation

2nd Harmonic 3rd Harmonic v T

fn  n ( ) where v 
m 2L 
Stretched string 
L n  1, 2, 3, 
3rd Harmonic 5th Harmonic
Air column v
fn  n ( )
in closed 4L
end pipe
L n  1, 3, 5, 
L 2nd Harmonic 3rd Harmonic
v
Air column
fn  n ( )
in Open end 2L
Pipe
AN is not formed n  1, 2, 3,
exactly at the
opened end
v
Closed Pipe : fn  n n  1, 3, 5,  When the forcing frequency equal to the
4( L  c ) natural frequency of the air column in
open/closed pipe, resonance occurs and a
v
Opened Pipe : fn  n n  1, 2, 3, 
loud note(sound) can be heard.
End Correction (c) 2( L  2c )

2 sound waves of same When there is a

A but slightly difference f relative motion
Beats Sound Waves between sound
superposed
source & Observer

Periodic variation of
sound loudness the apparent change in frequency of a sound when there is
relative motion between the source & the observer
observer.

v  vo
Beat frequency :
* Phase difference between displacement f(Hz)
fa  (
v  vs
) f –O S+
approach
fb  | f 1  f 2 | & pressure is (π/2)
vo : speed of observer
vs : speed of source
f f : actual frequency
Move away fa : apparent frequency
v : speed of source of sound
s(m)

passes

 prepared by chongyl
 Cross sectional area for a wire , A =
πr2 where r is the radius of the wire
Radius of wire
wire, r = d/2 where d is
diameter of wire.

The extension, e is proportional to the force or tension

in a wire, F if the proportional limit is not exceeded.
Force ( F )
Stress, σ 
cross sectional area( A)

SI Unit : Pascal (Pa) @ N m–2

elongation
g or compression
p (e)
Strain ε 
Strain,
original length (LO )

Stress( ) Explanation for graph stress against strain

Young Modulus,Y 
Strain( )
YA
Hooke’ss law and Young Modulus k 
Relation between Hooke
lo When the strain is plotted against the stress in the wire, a graph is obtained
which is a straight line OA, followed by a curve ABC rising slowly at first
and then very sharply as Figure (ii) above.
A is the proportionality limit. Along OA and up to L just beyond A, the wire
returned to its original length when the load is removed. L is called the
elastic limit. Alongg OL the metal is said to undergo
g changesg called elastic
deformation.
1 Beyond the elastic limit L, however the wire has a permanent extension such
Strain energy, U  Fe
2 as OP when the force is removed at B. The extension increases rapidly along
 Area under graph F  e the curve ABC as the force on the wire is further increased and at C the wire
thins and breaks at N.
1
Strain energy per volume   Substances undergo plastic deformation until they break  Ductile.
2
Substances that break just after the elastic limit is reached  Brittle

 prepared by chongyl
 Insulated rod Non insulated rod

T2 T2
Q kAT

t x T1 T1
x x

Thermal energy is transferred through Direction of heat flow

Higher Temperature Lower Temperature
Conduction
T2 T1
vibration of atoms/molecules

One of the heat transfer

mechanism

HEAT
The energy that is transferred from one region
to another as a result of
a temperature difference Voverflow  Vliquid  Vcontainer
T
causes increase

a change in temperature

causes

material expand
For liquid in
a container

Linear Expansion Area Expansion Volume Expansion

 A   A o T V   VoT
L  LoT
where   2 where   3  prepared by chongyl
p p / Pa

V p / Pa

1
V
(p – 1/V ) Graph V
(p – V ) Graph Boyle’s Law Charles’ Law T /K Pressure Law T /K
(V – T ) Graph (p – T ) Graph
V p
pV  constant  constant  constant
T T
p1V 1  p 2V 2 V1 V 2 p1 p 2
 
T1 T 2 T1 T 2

T constant V constant
p constant

N Boltzmann
n
NA pV  nRT pV  NkT Constant R = 8.31 J K–1 mol–1
m k = 1.38×10–23 J K–1
n n  No. of moles N  No. of molecules R
k NA = 6.02×1023
M NA
describe by
equation
of state
Mean square speed: 1) Identical molecules
Types of speed Basic assumptions
v1  v 2    vn
2 2 2 IDEALGASES 2) Large number of molecules
 v 2 
N
Relationship 3) Random motion with constant speed
between
p,v and <v2> 4) Volume of molecule – negligible
R t mean square speed:
Root d 5) No intermolecular force on each other
1 1
pV  Nm  v 2  or p    v2 
vrms   v 2  3 3 6) Elastic Collision

7) Time during Collision – negligible

or
Translation KE For n moles of
v1 2  v 2 2    vn 2 of N molecules ideal gas
vrms 
N Degree of Freedom
U depends on
Monoatomic  f = 3
Internal Energy types of gases
Relate with 3 3 Diatomic f=5
Absolute Temperature K NkT  nRT U  Total mean KE Polyatomic  f = 6
2 2
3kT 3RT f
vrms   U NkT
m M 2 Equipartition of Energy
f U T
1 Translation KE
T U  nRT each degree of freedom for 1
 vrms  T ; vrms  of molecules 2 molecules contributes U= ½kT
m

 prepared by chongyl
 1st Law of Thermodynamics
+ ve – ve

Q  U  W Q System absorbs heat System loses heat

where Q – Heat added to or removed from the system ∆U U increases ( T ↑ ) U decreases ( T ↓ )

∆U – change of internal energy
W – work done / on the system
W Work done by the system Work done on the system

Thermodynamic Process condition Equations involved

Work done by gas :

Isothermal V2
T constant
Pressure, p

W  nRT ln[ ]
U remain unchanged
g ∆U = 0 V1
Obey Boyle’s Law
T Q=W
T Volume, V P1V 1  P 2V 2
Vi Vf

W = area under the curve

pf Isovolumetric
V constant W depends on path taken
Pressure, p

Obey Gay lussac’s law

No work is done  W = 0
pi ∆U = U final – U initial
Q = ∆U P1 P 2 ∆U do not depends on path taken,

Volume, V T1 T 2 but depends on initial & final state.
V * ∆U AB = -∆U BA

Isobaric P constant W  P (V 2  V 1)
Pressure, p

p Q supplied used to (i) change

internal energy (ii) do work Obey Charles’ Law
T Q = ∆U + W V1 V 2
Volume, V 
Vi Vf T1 T 2

Adiabatic
No heat flow in or out
ure, p

Q=0
Pressu

Ti
W = – ∆U
Tf

Volume, V

 prepared by chongyl