Chapter 4

Solar Thermal Heating

Lectures 5, 6 and 7
Prof. Sami Karaki
March 2009, February 2015, 2016
October 2021

1
 Introduction
• An obvious use of solar thermal energy is for heating air and water. For example, it would be
beneficial to use solar energy to supply about 30% of the UK’s energy consumption, which is
used for heat in buildings. The manufacture of solar water heaters has become an established
industry in several countries , e.g. Australia , Greece , USA , Japan and China.
• When solar radiation is absorbed and utilized without mechanical pumping and blowing, the
solar energy system is said to be passive . However, if the solar radiation is collected as heat in
a fluid, e.g. water or air, which is then moved by pumps or fans for use, then the solar system
is said to be active.
• There are many applications that have active or passive mechanisms to absorb the sun’s
energy as heat, e.g. air heaters, crop driers, solar ‘power towers’, solar sills for distilling water,
solar buildings. In this chapter we will study mainly flat-plate and concentrating collectors to
collect heat in a fluid. The quantitative analysis of other applications follow the same
principles but will not be directly covered in this course.
• Solar radiation is absorbed in a collector and energy is transferred to a fluid. Flat plate or
evacuated collectors do not concentrate the solar irradiance; in contrast focusing collectors
concentrate irradiance by mirrors or lenses. Non-focusing collectors absorb beam and diffuse
radiation, and function even when beam radiation is cut off by cloud and are preferred to
heat fluids to less than 80C. Focusing collectors absorb only beam radiation but can reach
temperatures of about 350C.

2
 Introduction
Solar collectors , in order of increasing efficiency and cost.

hL= 33.3 W m-2K-1 hL = 7.6 W m-2K-1

Tp(m)= 40C Tp(m)= 95C
(a) Price 30 $m-2 (b)
Price 90 $m-2

hL = 2.5 W m-2K-1
Tp(m)= 180C hL= 2.1 W m-2K-1
(d) Tp(m)= 240C
(c) Price 240 $m-2
Price 450 $m-2

• Figure 4.1: (a) Black closed container (‘tank’) ; large heat loss , especially to wind; no overnight
storage. (b) Sheltered black tank; cheap, but materials degrade. (c) Standard commercial metal
tube and plate collector, and flooded plate with selective surface; fluid moves through the
collector to a separate storage tank. (d) Evacuated collector. No convection losses to the cover.
3
 Heat Balance in a Solar Collector - 1
• All solar collectors include an absorbing surface which may be called the plate, as shown in
Fig. 4.2. The radiant flux striking the plate is cov Ap G, where G is the irradiance, Ap is the
exposed area of the plate, and cov is the transmittance of the transparent cover. Only a
fraction p of this flux is actually absorbed.
• The plate is at a temperature Tp hotter than its surroundings that are at the ambient
temperature Ta. Thus the plate loses heat at a rate (Tp – Ta)/ RL, where RL is the resistance to
heat loss from the plate to its surrounding. The net heat flow into the plate is given by the
Hottel-Whillier-Bliss equation:
Pnet = p cov Ap G – (Tp – Ta)/ RL (4.1)
• Only a fraction of Pnet is transferred to the fluid at temperature Tf,
the transfer efficiency is pf . Thus the useful power transferred to
the fluid is:
Pu = pf Pnet (4.2)
If a static mass 𝑚 of fluid is being heated
𝑃𝑢 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝 dTf / dt (4.3)
If a mass flow rate 𝑚ሶ flows through, then
𝑃𝑢 = 𝑚𝐶
ሶ 𝑝 (T2 – T1) (4.4)
• These equations are used to determine the useful output Pu for a
Figure 4.2: Heat balance
given irradiance G. The parameters cov , p , Ap of the collector are
of a covered plate
usually specified, from which RL may be calculated.
4
 Heat Balance in a Solar Collector - 2
Uncovered Solar Water Heater
• It is clear that the efficiency of solar water heating depends on one set of parameters related
to the transmission, reflection and absorption of solar radiation, and another set of
parameters related to the retention and movement of heat.
• In this first example, the water is enclosed in a shallow matt black bag and no heat is lost by
evaporation. The matt black outer surface absorbs radiation well (p 0.9), but loss of heat, by
forced wind convection, limits the performance . The heating system has a simple
construction, however, its analysis is rather involved. We will carry it out through an example.
• Example 4.1: the Heat balance of an unsheltered black bag
A rectangular black rubber bag 11 0.1m with
walls of negligible thickness is filled with 100 liters
of water. It is supported on a thin non conductive
v= 2 ms-1
horizontal grid above ground and exposed to a
solar irradiance of G= 750 W m-2 (Fig. 4.1 a). The
ambient temperature Ta= 20C and the wind speed
v= 2 m s-1. Consider the plate absorptance to be
0.9. a) Calculate RL the resistance to heat loss
between the collector and environment, b)
estimate the maximum temperature of the water, (a)
and c) the time taken to reach 95% of that
temperature in centigrade. Figure 4.3 (a) Cross section diagram of
uncovered bag. 5
 Heat Balance in a Solar Collector - 3
Uncovered Solar Water Heater
• Solution: The heat going into or out of the water is conducted through the material skin,
which is the ‘collector’ or ‘plate ‘of this system. We treat the container, i.e. black bag,
and its fluid contents as one composite object with Tp = Tf , so pf = 1. The thermal
capacity Cf= mCp = 0.418106 J K-1, and since there is no cover cov = 1. From (4.1) and
(4.3) we have:
mCp dTf / dt = p cov Ap G – (Tp – Ta)/ RL (4.5)

The electric circuit analogue corresponding to Eq.

(4.5) is shown in Fig. 4.3 (b); the capacity Cf = mCp is
shown connected between Tf and a reference Tref,
and the battery symbol Ta allows the representation cov Ap
of the ambient temperature.
a) The resistance RL includes the convective and
radiative losses from both the top and the bottom of
the bag with a total exposed area AL= 2m2. In
general, convective loss is to the ambient air
temperature, and radiative loss is to the sky.

(b)

Figure 4.3 (b) Circuit analogue of uncovered

bag thermal system. 6
 Heat Balance in a Solar Collector - 4
Uncovered Solar Water Heater
The convective heat loss is:
Pc= (Tp – Ta)/Rc (4.6)
where Rc= 1/ (hc AL) with hc= 2.8 + 3v is given by the
McAdams-Watmuff equation (3.22). The value of hc= 8.8
W m-2 K-1 and Rc = 0.057 K W-1.
The radiative heat flow to the sky is given by:
Pr = p  AL (Tp4 – Ts4) (4.7)
where the effective temperature of the sky is Ts= Ta – 6 K.
To simplify the calculation to one equivalent heat loss
resistance Rr it is convenient to write (4.7) in the form:
Pr = (Tp – Ta)/ Rr (4.8)
This will be identically equal to (4.7) if we take Rr Rc
Rr = (Tp – Ta)/ [p  AL (Tp4 – Ts4) ] (4.9)
It can be verified that Rr depends only weakly on Tp. So
taking Tp =50C as a likely value, we find Rr = 0.072 KW-1
and RL= (1/ Rc + 1/ Rr)-1 = 0.032 KW-1. Note here that the Fig. 4.4: Parallel combination
conductance values add since radiation and convection of heat loss resistances.
work in parallel between plate and ambient. 7
 Heat Balance in a Solar Collector - 5
Uncovered Solar Water Heater

b) The maximum obtainable temperature of Tp is Tp(m) that is

the stagnation temperature of the collector, which occurs
when the input balances the losses with Pnet= 0:
Pnet = p cov Ap G – (Tp(m)– Ta)/RL = 0 (4.10)

Hence Tp(m) is calculated from (4.10) and found equal to 42C.

c) The solution of (4.5) is of the form:
Tp(t)= A + B e-t/.
The constants A and B are found from initial and final
conditions: Tp(0)= 273 + 20= 293 K, and Tp()= 273 + 42= 315 K.
Therefore, A= 315 K, and B = -22 K. So
Tp(t)= 315 – 22 e-t/ .
The time constant  = RL Cf = 0.032 × 4178 × 100/ 3600= 3.7h.
We estimate the time t taken to reach 95% of the stagnation
temperature or 42 × 0.95+ 273= 312.9K: 312.9= 315 – 22 e-t/
which gives t = 2.35  3.7= 8.7 h.

8
 9
Heat Balance in a Solar Collector - 6
Sheltered Black Container
• The container now is sheltered from the wind, and its convective loss is reduced by
encapsulating it in a covered box with a transparent lid . Glass is often the chosen cover
material, having small absorptance for the solar short wave irradiation, and a significantly
smaller transmittance for infrared radiation (i.e. greenhouse effect).

• Example 4.2: Heat balance of a sheltered

Figure 4.5: Sheltered bag cross section diagram.
collector
The black container of Example 4.1 is
placed inside a box, as shown in Fig. 4.5,
with a glass lid 2.5 cm above it and 10cm
polystyrene insulation below. For the same
conditions as in Example 4.1, a) calculate
the resistance to heat losses from the bag,
b) the theoretical maximum average
temperature of the water, and c) the time
taken to attain 50°C. Consider the
emittance of the plate to be 0.9 as well as
that of the glass. Note: that if a surface
does not exhibit wavelength dependency,
then the absorptance is equal to the
emittance. More on this in later slides.
 Heat Balance in a Solar Collector - 7 10

Sheltered Black Container

• Solution: The electric circuit analogue of the i. The heat reaching the glass by these two
physical system is shown in Fig. 4.6. We shall treat mechanisms is then conducted to the outer
the container and contents as a composite system surface of the glass.
having an absorptance = 0.90 and a thermal ii. From there it is transferred to the
6 -1
capacity Cf= mCp = 0.41810 J K . So again in this surroundings by convection and radiation.
case, to a first approximation Tp = Tf, the mean
cov Ap G
temperature of the water.
a) The plate loses heat by conduction through the
base:
Pb= (Tp – Ta)/Rb
With the conduction heat loss resistance Rb= d/k A =
0.1/ (0.0341)= 2.95 KW-1. Rc1 Rr1
Ta
The outward heat transfer (i.e. loss) occurs in three
stages as indicated in Figure 4.6:
i. Convection air current in the gap transfers heat
to the glass. In parallel, the plate radiates heat at Rc2 Rr2
infrared wavelengths (~10 m). At these Ta Ts
wavelengths, glass is not transparent but strongly
absorbing. Thus this radiation is not exchanged
with the sky but is absorbed by the glass.
Figure 4.6: Sheltered bag circuit analogue
 Heat Balance in a Solar Collector - 8 11

Sheltered Black Container

The heat loss resistance from the top of the plate to the surroundings is:
Rpa= (1/ Rc1 + 1/ Rr1)-1 + Rg + (1/ Rc2 + 1/ Rr2)-1 (4.11)
The glass resistance Rg= d/ k A= 0.005 KW-1 is rather small since the glass is thin (d5mm)
with k 1 W m-1 K-1. Therefore the temperature difference across the glass is negligible. The
total heat loss resistance RL is the parallel combination of Rpa and Rb.
The calculation proceeds with initial estimates of temperatures Tp=70C and Tg= (Tp + Ta)/2=
45C. For the 1m2 collector, the convective resistance follows a similar calculation to that of
Example 3.4: The Raleigh number is Ra= 0.23x105 and the Nusselt number is obtained from
Figure 3.3 as Nu= 2.93. So hc1= 3.34 W/ m2 K. So Rc1= 1/ (hc1 Ac)= 0.299 K/ W. Taking p= 0.9
and g = 0.9, the radiation heat transfer coefficient is calculated using Eq. (3.13): hr1= 6.57 W/
m2 K, and Rr1= 1/ (hr1 Ac)= 0.152 K/ W.
Thus the total plate-to-glass resistance is: R1= (1/ Rc1 + 1/ Rr1)-1 =0.101 KW-1.
The resistance between the outside of the glass and the surroundings may be approximately
deduced from the case of the unsheltered bag, namely R2= 0.032 × 2= 0.064 KW-1. We
multiply by 2 because the back side of the bag is now insulated. So from (4.11) we obtain
Rpa= 0.170 KW-1, and since Rb >> Rpa then RL Rpa.
b) The value of Tp at steady state is Tp(m) obtained from (4.10) with p = cov = 0.9. Hence
Tp(m)= 123C. The solution of (4.5) is Tp = 376 – 83 e-t/ . We estimate the time t taken to
reach 50C ( i.e. 323K): 323= 376 – 83 e-t/ which gives t= 0.4485 = 0.448519.16= 8.6 h.
In conclusion, compared to the uncovered bag, we are able to reach a significantly higher
temperature (i.e. 50C instead of 40C) in about the same time!
 12
Systems with separate storage
Active systems with forced circulation - 1
• Collectors have in general a small volume of water which when heated is passed to an
insulated tank for storage (Fig. 4.7). For domestic systems, tanks with a volume of about
100–200 liters can store a day’s supply of hot water. For forced circulation only a small pump
is needed, designed with a pumping rate so that the water temperature increases by about 5
to 10C in passing through the collector in sunshine.
• Single-speed pumps are usually used with a simple pump controller that switches the pump
off if the collector output temperature is less than about 5C more than the water in the top
of the tank.

T2
Ta

T1

Fig. 4.7: Collector coupled to a

separate storage tank by a pump.
 Systems with separate storage 13

Active systems with forced circulation - 2

• Example 4.3: Temperature rise through a collector
A flat plate collector has a width of 1m and a length of 2m with 10 riser tubes of 12 mm
diameter each, a loss resistance rL = 0.240 m2 K W−1 and a plate transfer efficiency pf = 0.95.
The glass cover has transmittance = 0.9 and the plate absorptance is p= 0.9. Water enters
the collector at a flow rate of 𝑚=
ሶ 0.04 kg/ s and a temperature T1= 40C. The ambient
temperature is Ta= 20C and the irradiance in the plane of the collector is G= 750 W m−2. The
water exit temperature is related to the plate temperature, assumed uniform, as follows:
T2 = Tp + (T1 – Tp) 𝐹 (4.12)
where 𝐹 = exp −ℎ𝑓 𝐴𝑡 Τ 𝑚ሶ 𝑡 𝐶𝑝 where ℎ𝑓 is the fluid HTC, 𝐴𝑡 is the area of one tube, 𝑚ሶ 𝑡 is
the mass flow rate in one tube, and 𝐶𝑝 the heat capacity at the average fluid temperature.
a) Calculate the temperature of the plate and that of the exit water if ℎ𝑓 = 300 W/ m2 K.
b) If the pump continues to work at night, when G= 0, what will be approximately the
temperature fall in each passage through the collector, given that T1 = 40C and Ta = 20C?
• Solution: The useful power transmitted to the water flowing through the collector is:
Pu= 𝑚ሶ 𝐶𝑝 (T2 – T1)= pf p cov Ap G – (Tp– Ta) Ap / rL (4.13)
a) By using the expression (4.12) for T2 and replacing in equation (4.13) we obtain after
rearranging an expression for Tp that is evaluated to be Tp= 47.5C and T2= 45.5C.
b) When G= 0, the temperature fall is calculated by the same procedure. The values obtained
are Tp= 38.7C and T2= 39.1C, so (T2 – T1)= – 0.9C.
 Systems with separate storage 14

Passive systems with thermosiphon flow - 1

• In countries with a generally hot climate, e.g. and by replacing in (4.14) and dividing by
Middle East, Africa, or Australia, the water 0 g we obtain:
circulation can be driven by the density 𝑃𝑡ℎ Τ(𝜌0 𝑔) = 𝐻𝑡ℎ
difference between hot and cold water
through the thermosiphon effect. = −𝛽 ‫ 𝑇 ׯ‬− 𝑇0 𝑑𝑧
• Consider the simple system shown in Fig. 4.8, a = −𝛽𝐼𝑇 (4.15)
closed loop of pipe filled with fluid, and where 𝐻𝑡ℎ is the driving head expressed
standing vertically. as a difference in height between the left
• The left column of fluid is exerting a greater and right water columns.
pressure at aa’ than the right column, thus
setting the whole loop of fluid in motion. The
driving pressure can be expressed generally as:
𝑃𝑡ℎ = ‫𝑧𝑑𝑔𝜌 ׯ‬ (4.14)
The density  expressed in terms of
temperature T using the expansion coefficient
 is given by the Boussinesq approximation:
 0 [1 –  (T–T0) + … ]
Fig. 4.8: Principle of the thermosiphon flow.
 Systems with separate storage
15
Passive systems with thermosiphon flow - 2
• Example 4.4: A collector with thermosiphon flow
In the heating system shown in Fig. 4.9 (a), water enters at a temperature T1= 40C and is
heated by 4C and goes to the top of the tank without loss of heat at T2 = T3 = 44C. The
external pipes have a total length 2m and a diameter of 12 mm and the collector has 8
riser tubes of 12 mm diameter each. If the storage tank holds 100 litres, calculate the time
needed for the water to circulate once round the system. Assume the tank is stratified and
connecting pipes are well insulated.
• Solution: The pipe insulation insures that the
water at the bottom of the tank (T1= 40C )
reaches the collector at the same temperature.
From calculus, the closed integral ‫ 𝑇 ׯ‬− 𝑇0 𝑑𝑧
around the contour 1234 is equal to the area
inside the curve:
1
𝐼𝑇 = 0.5m 4℃ + 0.2m 4℃
2
1
+ 0.7m 4℃ = 3.2 m K
2 (a) (b)
Taking a mean value  = 3.5 × 10-4 K-1,
Eq. (4.15)
Fig. 4.9: Collector and storage tank (a)
yields 𝐻𝑇ℎ = – 0.00112 m. From physics, the flow and temperature distribution diagram (b).
goes in the direction 1234, and no external pump
is needed as the tank is above the collector.
 Systems with separate storage 16
Passive systems with thermosiphon flow - 3
To calculate the flow speed, we equate the thermosiphon head to the
friction head opposing it. The friction head (m) is given by
𝐻𝑡ℎ = 2𝑓𝐿𝑣 2 /𝐷𝑔 (4.16)
where 𝑣 is the speed of the flow and 𝑓 = 16𝜈/𝑣𝐷 is the friction coefficient
for laminar flow, where 𝜈 is the kinematic viscosity of water in m2/s. Here we
are considering that the friction head is mainly due to the external pipes
because the collector has 8 riser tubes in parallel and, correspondingly, their
friction coefficient will be significantly lower.
By replacing 𝑓 in (4.16) and rearranging we can express the speed as follows:
𝑔𝐷2 𝐻𝑡ℎ 9.81×(0.012)2 ×0.00112
𝑣= = = 0.0375 m/ s
32 𝐿 𝜈 32×2×0.658×10−6
𝑣𝐷
By checking the Reynolds number 𝑅𝑒 = = 684 which is lessthan 2200.
𝜈
So the flow is laminar. The volumetric flow rate through the external pipes is:
𝑄 = 𝑣𝜋𝐷2 /4 = 4.24 × 10−6 m3/ s
So if the system holds one hundred liters, the whole volume circulates in a
time ∆𝑡 given by:
∆𝑡 = 𝑉 Τ𝑄 = 100 × 10−3 Τ 4.24 × 10−6 × 3600 = 6.55h
 Collector Absorptance 17
Selective Surfaces - 1
• A solar collector absorbs radiation at wavelengths around 0.5 m and emits radiation at
wavelengths around 10 m, therefore there is a need to maximize its absorptance around
0.5 m and minimize its emittance around 10 m, as indicated schematically in Figure 4.10.
• Semiconductors have short-long characteristics that resemble those of an ideal surface.
However, their poor mechanical strength, small thermal conductivity, and large cost make
them unsuitable for the entire collector material. On the other hand, metals are
mechanically strong, good conductors, and relatively cheap but are good reflectors (i.e. poor
absorbers) in the visible and infrared spectrum.

Fig. 4.10: Spectral characteristics of various

surfaces. The metal shown is Cu and the
semiconductor is Cu2O
 Collector Absorptance 18
Selective Surfaces - 2
• So, by placing a thin layer of semiconductor over a metal we can combine the desired
characteristic of both. Since the thermal conductivity of semiconductors is small then its layer
must be thin to insure efficient transfer to the metal; fortunately the absorption of a
semiconductor is 95% in the top 3 m.
• The result is a composite surface with low emittance which is a big advantage as the working
temperature increases; at a plate temperature of 400C the radiative losses, proportional to 
l T4, are 50% of the total if l = 0.9 and 10% only if l = 0.1.
• One method for preparing an actual selective surface involves dipping a sheet of copper in an
alkaline solution so that a film of Cu2O, a semiconductor, is formed on it, which achieves an
s = 0.9 and l = 0.16. Another material is “Nickel black” (Ni/Al2O3) on galvanized steel with
s = 0.81 and l = 0.17.
• A favored composition is a fine-grained dispersion of submicron-sized conducting particles
imbedded in a matrix of an insulating matrix with low dielectric constant, which has
absorptance of shot-wave radiation and high reflectance to infrared radiation. Examples are
black chrome (Cr/CrO2) formed from aggregates of metallic particles and voids, with particles
of 0.05 to 0.30 μm diameter that are combinations of very small particles of chromium and
an amorphous material, that is chromium oxide to achieve an s = 0.94 and l = 0.0.08.
• In flat-plate collectors, it is generally more critical to have high absorptance at short
wavelength than low emittance at long wavelength.
 Transmission Through Glazing - 1 19
Reflection Losses - 2
• The fundamental properties of glazing material are the refraction index (𝑛) and the extinction
coefficient (𝐾). The refraction index of glass is about 1.526 and the extinction coefficient
varies from 4 m-1 for “water white” glass (appears white when viewed from edge) to 32 m-1
for high iron oxide content glass (greenish at the edge). The transmittance, reflectance, and
absorptance of a glazing material under given conditions are derived from these two
properties.
• Fresnel has derived expressions for the reflection of unpolarized radiation on passing from
medium 1 with a refractive index 𝑛1 to medium 2 with refractive index 𝑛2 as shown in Fig.
4.11. The angles of incidence and refraction are related as:
𝑛1 sin 𝜃1 = 𝑛2 sin 𝜃2 (4.17) Gi Gr
• The reflectance at an angle 𝜃1 is given by:  1
2 2
1 sin(𝜃2 −𝜃1 ) tan(𝜃2 −𝜃1 )
𝑟(𝜃1 ) = + (4.18)
2 sin(𝜃2 +𝜃1 ) tan(𝜃2 +𝜃1 ) medium 1 n1
• At normal incidence 𝜃1 and 𝜃2 are both zero, so (4.17) and medium 2 n2
(4.18) are combined to yield:
2
𝑛1 −𝑛2
𝑟(0) = (4.19)
𝑛1 +𝑛2 Gr
• The transmittance due to reflection losses is defined by: 2
1−𝑟(𝜃)
𝜏𝑟 (𝜃) = (4.20) Fig. 4.11: Angles of incidence
1+𝑟(𝜃)
and refraction.
 Transmission Through Glazing - 2 20
Example on Reflection Losses
• Example 4.5: Calculate the average transmittance due to reflection losses in one cover of
glass at normal incidence and at 60°. The glass has a refractive index of 1.526.
• Solution: First we need to calculate the reflectance of glass at normal incidence from (4.19):
2
𝑛2 −1 0.526 2
𝑟 0 = = = 0.043
𝑛2 +1 2.526

At an incidence of 60◦ the refraction angle is obtained using (4.17):

sin 60
𝜃2 = sin−1 = 34.6°
1.526
And from (4.18) we get:
2 2
1 sin(−25.4) tan(−25.4) 1
𝑟(60) = + = 0.185 + 0.001 = 0.093
2 sin(94.6) tan(94.6) 2

So the transmittances due to reflection losses, obtained using (4.20), are:

1−0.043 1−0.093
𝜏𝑟 0 = = 0.9175 and 𝜏𝑟 60 = = 0.830
1+0.043 1+0.093
An average transmittance due to reflection is 𝜏𝑟 = (0.9175 + 0.830)/2= 0.874
 Transmission Through Glazing - 3 21
Absorption Losses
• The transmittance due to absorption losses 𝜏𝑎 of radiation in partially transparent media is:
𝐺𝑡 𝐾𝐿
𝜏𝑎 = = exp − (4.21)
𝐺𝑖 cos 𝜃2
where 𝐾 is the extinction coefficient that we have seen earlier, and 𝐿 is the glass thickness.
• For cover materials and angles of practical interest in flat plate collectors the overall
transmittance of a cover may be satisfactorily written as:
𝜏 ≅ 𝜏𝑎 𝜏𝑟 (4.22)
• The absorptance of a cover may be satisfactorily written as:
𝛼 ≅ 1 − 𝜏𝑎 (4.23)
• An average reflectance may be calculated from ρ = 1 − α − τ, so that
𝜌 ≅ 𝜏𝑎 (1 − 𝜏𝑟 ) (4.24)
• Example 4.6: Calculate the transmittance, reflectance, and absorptance of a single glass
cover of 2.5mm thick and with extinction coefficient of 32m-1 at an angle of 60.
• Solution: First we calculate the transmittance due to absorption losses from (4.21):
16×0.0025
𝜏𝑎 = exp − = 0.907
cos 34.6
The transmittance given by (4.22) is: 𝜏 ≅ 𝜏𝑎 𝜏𝑟 = 0.907 × 0.830 = 0.753
The absorptance given by (4.23) is: 𝛼 ≅ 1 − 0.907 = 0.093
The reflectance given by (4.24) is: 𝜌 ≅ 0.907 1 − 0.830 = 0.154
 Flat Plate Collector Model - 1 22
Collector Presentation
• Flat-plate collectors (Fig. 4.12) are used in applications requiring energy delivery at moderate
temperatures, up to perhaps 100◦C above ambient temperature. Both beam and diffuse solar
radiation are used by flat plate collectors, which do not require tracking of the sun, and require
little maintenance. They are mechanically simple. The major applications of these units are in
solar water heating, building heating, air conditioning, and industrial process heat.

Fig. 4.12: Flat plate collector parts

 Flat Plate Collector Model - 2 23
Problem Formulation
• A cross section of a flat-plate collector is shown in Fig. 4.13. The heat rate loss from the
receiver is due to radiation from the plate to the glass cover and to convection in the space
between the plates:
𝑄ሶ 𝐿 = ℎ𝑟1 + ℎ𝑐1 𝐴 𝑇𝑝 − 𝑇𝑔 (4.25)
𝑇𝑝 +𝑇𝑔 3
4𝜎
2
where ℎ𝑟1 = 1 1 is the radiation heat transfer coefficient and ℎ𝑐1 is the convection
T
+ −1 g
𝜀𝑝 𝜀𝑔 T2
heat transfer coefficient calculated as explained in Example 3.4.
ℎ𝑟2
ℎ𝑐2
• The same heat rate loss is also observed
through the glass and is given by:
G
𝑄ሶ 𝐿 = ℎ𝑟2 𝐴 𝑇𝑔 − 𝑇𝑠 + ℎ𝑐2 𝐴 𝑇𝑔 − 𝑇𝑎
ℎ𝑐1
(4.26)
𝑇𝑔 +𝑇𝑠 3 ℎ𝑟1
where ℎ𝑟2 = 4𝜎𝜀𝑔 and ℎ𝑐1 is the
2
wind convection heat transfer coefficient Tp
obtained using the procedure of example 3.6 Fig. 4.13: Flat plate energy
components
T1
𝑚ሶ
 Flat Plate Collector Model - 3 24
Problem Formulation
• The useful heat rate getting to the fluid is given by:
𝑄ሶ 𝑈 = 𝐺𝐴𝜂𝑐 − 𝑄ሶ 𝐿 (4.27)
where 𝜂𝑐 is the collector efficiency given by: 𝜂𝑐 = 𝜏𝑔 𝛼𝑝 𝜂𝑝𝑓
• And it is the useful heat rate which is heating up the fluid (i.e. water) from 𝑇1 to 𝑇1 , so:
𝑄ሶ 𝑈 = 𝑚ሶ 𝐶𝑝𝑓 𝑇2 − 𝑇1 (4.28)
• The receiver is usually made of a good conducting material, and thus it is reasonable to
assume that temperature is the same along the tube in the direction of the flow. Now the
heat transfer problem through a tube with constant wall 𝑇𝑝 temperature has a well known
solution giving the relation between 𝑇1 and 𝑇2 as follows:
𝑇2 = 𝑇𝑝 + 𝑇1 − 𝑇𝑝 𝐹 (4.29)
ℎ𝑓 𝑁 𝐴𝑡
with 𝐹 given by: 𝐹 = exp − ሶ 𝑝𝑓
(4.30)
𝑚𝐶

where N is the number of tubes in the collector, and At is surface area along the tube, and 𝑚ሶ
is the mass flow rate of the fluid into the collector tubes. The fluid internal heat transfer
coefficient ℎ𝑓 is calculated as in Example 3.5.
 Flat Plate Collector Model - 4 25
Solution Procedure
• In the above equations we have three unknowns that we have solve for, i.e. 𝑇𝑝 , 𝑇𝑔 , and 𝑇2 .
We will use T2 from (4.29) and replace it in (4.28) to get after rather simple manipulation:
𝑄ሶ 𝑈 = 𝑚ሶ 𝐶𝑝𝑓 1 − 𝐹 𝑇𝑝 − 𝑇1 (4.31)
Now replace in (4.27) the value of 𝑄ሶ 𝑈 given by (4.31) and the value of 𝑄ሶ 𝐿 given by (4.26) and
rearrange to obtain:
𝑚ሶ 𝐶𝑝𝑓 1 − 𝐹 𝑇𝑝 − 𝑇1 + ℎ𝑟2 𝐴 𝑇𝑔 − 𝑇𝑠 + ℎ𝑐2 𝐴 𝑇𝑔 − 𝑇𝑎 = 𝐺𝐴𝜂𝑐 (4.32)
• Equations (4.25) and (4.26) are combined to eliminate 𝑄ሶ 𝐿 and obtain:
− ℎ𝑟1 + ℎ𝑐1 𝐴 𝑇𝑝 − 𝑇𝑔 + ℎ𝑟2 𝐴 𝑇𝑔 − 𝑇𝑠 + ℎ𝑐2 𝐴 𝑇𝑔 − 𝑇𝑎 = 0 (4.33)
• Equations (4.32) and (4.33) are two equations in two unknowns 𝑇𝑝 and 𝑇𝑔 and once these are
determined the value of 𝑇2 is obtained from (4.29). Since the heat transfer coefficients are
temperature dependent, albeit weakly, the process of solution is necessarily iterative starting
at some initial values of 𝑇𝑝 and 𝑇𝑔 and is outlined as follows:
1. Initialize 𝑇𝑝 0 = 𝑇1 + 5 and 𝑇𝑔 0 = (𝑇1 + 5 + 𝑇𝑎 )/2
2. Calculate the radiation and convection coefficients ℎ𝑟1 , ℎ𝑐1 , ℎ𝑟2 , and ℎ𝑐2
3. Solve the linear system (4.32) and (4.33) to obtain 𝑇𝑝 and 𝑇𝑔
4. Calculate the fluid heat transfer coefficient ℎ𝑓 and then determine 𝑇2 from (4.29)
5. Repeat from step 2 until the difference in two successive values of 𝑇𝑝 is smaller that a preset
tolerance.
 Flat Plate Collector Model - 5 26
Solved Example
• Note that the heat rate loss may also be written in terms of the plate temperature and the
−1 −1 −1
ambient using the overall HTC ℎ𝑡 = ℎ𝑟1 + ℎ𝑐1 + ℎ𝑟2 + ℎ𝑐2 as follows:
𝑄ሶ 𝐿 = ℎ𝑡 𝐴 𝑇𝑝 − 𝑇𝑎 (4.34)
and by equating (4.23) and (4.32) we can get an expression for 𝑇𝑔 as follows:
𝑇𝑔 = 𝑇𝑝 − ℎ𝑡 𝑇𝑝 − 𝑇𝑎 Τ ℎ𝑟1 + ℎ𝑐1 (4.35)
• Example 4.7: Calculate the top loss heat coefficient from a plate with a single glass cover
having the following characteristics: the plate-to-cover spacing is 25mm, the plate emittance
is 0.95, the glass cover emittance is 0.88, the mean plate temperature is 100C, and the
collector tilt is 45, the ambient and sky temperature is 10C, and the wind speed is 5 m/s
• Solution: To determine the top heat loss coefficient we need to calculate the heat transfer
coefficients (HTC) from the plate to the cover given by ℎ𝑟1 + ℎ𝑐1 and between the cover
and outside given by ℎ𝑟2 + ℎ𝑐2 . However we need first to estimate the cover temperature
and determine these coefficients using the methods of Chapter 3. Let 𝑇𝑔 = 𝑇𝑝 + 𝑇𝑎 Τ2=
55C, then ℎ𝑟1 = 8.22 W/ m2 K, ℎ𝑐1 = 3.37 W/ m2 K, and ℎ𝑟2 = 7.61 W/ m2 K, ℎ𝑐2 = 8.76
−1 −1 −1
W/ m2 K. The overall HTC is ℎ𝑡 = ℎ𝑟1 + ℎ𝑐1 + ℎ𝑟2 + ℎ𝑐2 = 6.79 W/ m2 K.
Then from (4.35) we have 𝑇𝑔 = 47.3 C, which is somewhat different from the initial guess.
A second iteration will yield the following results: ℎ𝑟1 = 7.96 W/ m2 K, ℎ𝑐1 = 3.52 W/ m2 K,
and ℎ𝑟2 = 7.61 W/ m2 K, ℎ𝑐2 = 8.76 W/ m2 K, and ℎ𝑡 = 6.74 W/ m2 K and 𝑇𝑔 = 47.1 C.
 Flat Plate Collector Model - 6 27
Solved Example
• Example 4.8: A solar collector has 12 tubes of 15 mm in diameter each, it is 1.5 m wide and
3m long and the plate-to-cover spacing is 25mm. The plate has an emittance of 0.95 and an
absorptance of 0.95. The emittance of the glass cover is 0.88 and its average absorptance is
0.9. The collector tilt is 45, the solar irradiance is 900 W/m2, the ambient temperature is
10C, and the wind speed is 5 m/s. The water is entering at 85C with a total flow rate of
0.075 kg/s. Using the HTC obtained in Example 4.7, calculate the temperatures of the plate,
the glass cover, and the water exit.
Solution:
First we need to calculate the fluid HTC using the method of Example 3.5. The Reynolds
number is calculated as 𝑅𝑒 = 4𝑚ሶ Τ𝜋 𝐷ℎ 𝜇 = 1666 and from Figure Fig. 3.4 the Nusselt
number is found as 5.3. The fluid HTC is ℎ𝑓 = 238 W/ m2 K and the factor 𝐹 = 0.344. Now,
by using the values of the HTC and plugging them in (4.32) and (4.33) we obtain the following
two equations with 𝑇𝑝 and 𝑇𝑔 as unknowns:
206.7 𝑇𝑝 + 40.9 𝑇𝑔 = 87 557 and -28.7 𝑇𝑝 + 69.6 𝑇𝑔 = 11 588
The values of the temperatures are 𝑇𝑝 = 87.9C and 𝑇𝑔 = 42.1C, and the water exit
temperature is found from (4.29) as 𝑇2 = 86.9C
• As an Exercise repeat Examples 4.7 and 4.8 when the solar collector has a plate emittance of
0.15 with the rest of the data as given. Answers (4.7): ℎ𝑟1 = 1.3 W/ m2 K, ℎ𝑐1 = 3.7 W/ m2
K, and ℎ𝑟2 = 1.2 W/ m2 K, ℎ𝑐2 = 11.3 W/ m2 K, and ℎ𝑡 = 3.6 W/ m2 K and 𝑇𝑔 = 35.8 C;
Answers (4.8): 𝑇𝑝 = 90.8C, 𝑇𝑔 = 33.2 C, and 𝑇2 = 88.8 C
 Concentrating Collectors 28

• There are applications such as solar based power generators where we require higher
temperatures than it is possible with flat plate collectors. The temperature at which energy is
delivered can be raised by reducing the size of the absorbing surface (receiver) and
concentrating solar radiation on it.

• Concentrating collectors, shown in Fig. 4.14, can

work only with direct or beam radiation and the
mechanism of concentration can be based on
reflection (mirrors) or refraction (lenses).
Concentrating collectors need to track the sun to
keep the rays of beam radiation focused on the
absorbing surface.
• Concentration ratios (CR) can vary from values
slightly greater than 1 to 105, and as the CR
increase the temperature at which the energy is
delivered is also increased. At the highest range
of concentration, the concentrating collectors are
called solar furnaces.

Fig. 4.14: Solar concentrators, (a) linear parabolic,

(b) Fresnel reflector, (c) Two-dimensional
parabolic, (d) heliostats with central receiver
 Parabolic Concentrating Collectors - 1 29

• Linear parabolic concentrators, Fig. 4.15, have been used in the development of
large power plants to generate electricity in excess of 550 MW in the Mojave
desert in California. Their analysis is similar to that of flat plate collectors.

cover
receiver 𝑇2
glass
cover
reflector
receiver

Lc Dri Dr
o
𝑚ሶ vacuum
𝑇1
Wc fluid
(a) Dci
Dco

Fig. 4.15: Linear parabolic concentrators, (a) (b)

general setup, (b) receiver-cover assembly detail
 Parabolic Concentrating Collectors - 2 30

Modeling Heat Loss

• The heat rate loss (HRL) observed between the receiver and the inside of the cover (made of
glass) is due to conduction and radiation. Convection is suppressed by essentially evacuating
the space between the receiver and the cover. The expression of the HRL is given by:
𝑄ሶ 𝐿 = 𝑈𝑐1 𝑇𝑟 − 𝑇𝑐𝑖 + 𝑈𝑟1 𝑇𝑟 − 𝑇𝑐𝑖 (4.36)
2𝜋𝑘1 𝐿
where 𝑈𝑐1 = is the heat conductance of the space between the two cylinders
ln 𝐷𝑐𝑖 Τ𝐷𝑟𝑜
formed by the receiver and glass cover, 𝑘1 is the thermal conductivity of the space usually
very small as this space is usually evacuated; 𝑈𝑟1 = ℎ𝑟1 𝐴𝑟𝑜 is the conductance due to
radiation from the receiver to the glass cover, and ℎ𝑟1 is given by,
𝑇𝑟 +𝑇𝑐𝑖 3
4𝜎
2
ℎ𝑟1 = 1 1
+ −1 𝐷𝑟𝑜ൗ𝐷
𝜀𝑟 𝜀𝑐 𝑐𝑖

where 𝜀𝑟 and 𝜀𝑐 are the emittance of the receiver and cover.

• The same HRL is also observed through the cover and is due to conduction only:
𝑄ሶ 𝐿 = 𝑈𝑐2 𝑇𝑐𝑖 − 𝑇𝑐𝑜 (4.37)
2𝜋𝑘2 𝐿
where 𝑈𝑐2 = is the conductance of the cover, and 𝑘2 is its thermal conductivity.
ln 𝐷𝑐𝑜 Τ𝐷𝑐𝑖
 Parabolic Concentrating Collectors - 3 31

Useful Heat
• The same heat rate loss is also observed between the glass cover and the outside and is given
by:
𝑄ሶ 𝐿 = 𝑈𝑐3 𝑇𝑐𝑜 − 𝑇𝑎 + 𝑈𝑟3 𝑇𝑐𝑜 − 𝑇𝑠 (4.38)
where 𝑈𝑐3 = ℎ𝑤 𝐴𝑐𝑜 with ℎ𝑤 being the HTC due to wind convection and is calculated using
the correlation of McAdams of a single tube in an outside environment given by (3.21), and
𝐴𝑐𝑜 is the area of the outside cover given by 𝐴𝑐𝑜 = 𝜋𝐷𝑐𝑜 𝐿 and 𝑈𝑟3 = ℎ𝑟3 𝐴𝑐𝑜 being the
𝑇 +𝑇 3
conductance due to radiation by the outside of the cover, and ℎ𝑟3 = 4𝜎𝜀𝑐 𝑐𝑜 𝑠 is the
2
HTC of radiation from the cover to the sky.
• The useful heat rate (𝑄ሶ 𝑈 ) reaching the fluid is the difference between the input solar energy
and the heat loss:
𝑄ሶ 𝑈 = 𝐺𝐴𝑐 𝜂𝑐 − 𝑄ሶ 𝐿 (4.39)
where 𝜂𝑐 is the collector efficiency given as the product of the transmittance of the cover
and absorptance of the receiver:
𝜂𝑐 = 𝜏𝑐 𝛼𝑟 (4.40)
• It is the useful heat rate (𝑄ሶ 𝑈 ) that is raising the fluid temperature from 𝑇1 to 𝑇2 , so:
𝑄ሶ 𝑈 = 𝑚𝐶
ሶ 𝑝𝑓 𝑇2 − 𝑇1 (4.41)
 Parabolic Concentrating Collectors - 4 32

Modeling Equations
• For a receiver with constant wall temperature over the length of the collector, the outlet
temperature is given in terms of the inlet and receiver temperatures is given by:
𝑇2 = 𝑇1 − 𝑇𝑟 𝐹 + 𝑇𝑟 (4.42)
where 𝐹 = exp − ℎ𝑓 𝐴𝑟𝑖 Τ 𝑚𝐶
ሶ 𝑝𝑓
• Replace 𝑇2 as given by (4.42) in (4.41) and by simple algebraic manipulation we obtain:
𝑄ሶ 𝑈 = 𝑚𝐶ሶ 𝑝𝑓 (1 − 𝐹) 𝑇𝑟 − 𝑇1 (4.43)
• Replace 𝑄ሶ 𝑈 as given by (4.43) in (4.39) to obtain the following:
𝐶𝑝𝑓 𝑚ሶ 1 − 𝐹 𝑇𝑟 − 𝑇1 = 𝐺𝐴𝑐 𝜂𝑐 − 𝑄ሶ 𝐿 (4.44)
• To formulate the final equations to be solved, we start by eliminating 𝑄ሶ 𝐿 from (4.34) and
(4.35) we obtain the first equation:
𝑈𝑐1 + 𝑈𝑟1 𝑇𝑟 − 𝑇𝑐𝑖 − 𝑈𝑐2 𝑇𝑐𝑖 − 𝑇𝑐𝑜 = 0 (4.45)
• Then, by eliminating 𝑄ሶ 𝐿 from (4.37) and (4.38) we obtain the second equation:
𝑈𝑐3 𝑇𝑐𝑜 − 𝑇𝑎 + 𝑈𝑟3 𝑇𝑐𝑜 − 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑈𝑐2 𝑇𝑐𝑖 − 𝑇𝑐𝑜 = 0 (4.46)
• Finally, by eliminating 𝑄ሶ 𝐿 from (4.37) and (4.44) we obtain the third equation:
𝐶𝑝𝑓 𝑚ሶ 1 − 𝐹 𝑇𝑟 − 𝑇1 + 𝑈𝑐2 𝑇𝑐𝑖 − 𝑇𝑐𝑜 = 𝐺𝐴𝑐 𝜂𝑐 (4.47)
 Parabolic Concentrating Collectors - 5 33

Solution Procedure and Example

• Equations (4.45), (4.46), and (4.47) are three equations in three unknowns 𝑇𝑟 ,
𝑇𝑐𝑖 and 𝑇𝑐𝑜 and once these are determined the value of the exit temperature
𝑇2 is obtained from (4.42). As in the case of the flat plate collector, the heat
transfer coefficients are temperature dependent, albeit weakly, so the process
of solution is necessarily iterative starting at some initial values of 𝑇𝑟 , 𝑇𝑐𝑖 and
𝑇𝑐𝑜 and is outlined as follows:
1. Initialize 𝑇2 0 = 𝑇1 + 25 , 𝑇𝑟 0 = 𝑇2 + 25, 𝑇𝑐𝑖 0 = (𝑇𝑟 + 𝑇𝑎 + 4)/2,
and 𝑇𝑐𝑜 0 = (𝑇𝑟 + 𝑇𝑎 − 4)/2
2. Calculate the conduction, radiation and convection conductances: 𝑈𝑐1 ,
𝑈𝑟1 , 𝑈𝑐2 , 𝑈𝑐3 , and 𝑈𝑟3
3. Solve the linear system (4.45), (4.46), and (4.47) to obtain 𝑇𝑟 , 𝑇𝑐𝑖 and 𝑇𝑐𝑜
4. Calculate the fluid heat transfer coefficient ℎ𝑓 and then determine 𝑇2 from
(4.42)
5. Repeat from step 2 until the difference in two successive values of 𝑇𝑟 is
smaller that a preset tolerance.
• This procedure is implemented in the MATLAB function available on Moodle:
“solveConcentrator(…)”, which is run from the MATLAB script
“testConcentrator”. These may be used to follow the results in Example 4.8!
 Parabolic Concentrating Collectors - 6 34

Solution Procedure and Example

• Example 4.9: A cylindrical parabolic concentrator with a width of 2.5m and a length of 10m
has a beam radiation of 530 W/ m2. The ambient temperature is 10C, the cylindrical receiver
is made from stainless steel with an outside diameter of 60mm and a thickness of 5mm, a
conductivity of 16 W/ m2, an absorptance of 0.92, and an emittance of 0.31.
The receiver has a glass cover with an outer diameter of 90mm and a thickness of 4mm. The
glass cover has a conductivity of 1.4 W/m2 K, transmittance 0.9, and emittance 0.88. The
space between the absorber and the cover is evacuated and has negligible conductivity. The
wind speed is 5 m/s, the ambient temperature is 10C, and the sky temperature is 4C. The
fluid is entering at 200 C with a mass flow rate of 0.025 kg/s.
• The working fluid is Therminol-VP1 with the properties given on Moodle. Using a judicial
initial guess of the temperatures of the receiver, cover, and flow exit, determine the
different heat transfer coefficients and the coefficients of equations 4.43 to 4.35 and solve
the linear system to determine better estimates of the temperatures.
 Parabolic Concentrating Collectors - 7 35

Example Continued
• Solution: The initial temperature estimates in C are 𝑇2 = 𝑇1 + 20 = 220, 𝑇𝑟 = 𝑇1 + 2 × 20
= 240, 𝑇𝑐 = (𝑇𝑟 +5𝑇𝑎 )/6 = 48.3 C , with 𝑇𝑐𝑖 = 𝑇𝑐 + 2 = 50.3 C and 𝑇𝑐𝑜 = 𝑇𝑐 − 2= 46.3 C.
The negligible conductivity of the evacuated region implies that 𝑈𝑐1 = 0, and the conductance
of the glass cover is 𝑈𝑐2 = 945 W/ K. The radiation conductance in the evacuated space is
𝑈𝑟1 = 9.4 W/ K. The HTC on the outside of the glass cover is calculated using equation (3.21)
of a pipe in the outside atmosphere. The Reynolds number is Re= 28572, Nu= 141.5, and
ℎ𝑤 = 41.4 W/ m2 K; so the convective conductance of the outside of the cover is 𝑈𝑐3 =117
W/ K. The radiation conductance from the outside of the cover is 𝑈𝑟3 = 15.0 W/ K.
The fluid properties at the average temperature of (T1 + T2)/ 2= 210C are, 𝜌 =905 kg/ m3,
𝐶𝑝 = 2077 J/ kg K, k= 0.112 W/m2 K, 𝜇 = 3.61x10-4, and 𝑃𝑟 = 6.69. The Reynolds number
inside the tube is Re= 1601 and according to Fig. 3.4 the Nusselt number 𝑁𝑢 = 6.7, so the
fluid HTC is ℎ𝑓 = 13.6 W/ m2 K, and the factor 𝐹 = 0.635. The value of 𝐶𝑝𝑓 𝑚ሶ 1 − 𝐹 = 18.9
W/ K.
Now the 3×3 linear system of equations 4.45 to 4.47 can be set up and solved to update the
temperatures; the updated values are 𝑇𝑟 = 336 C, 𝑇𝑐𝑖 = 33.8 C and 𝑇𝑐𝑜 = 30.8 C. The
exit fluid temperature can then be calculated from (4.42) as 𝑇2 = 249 C. Clearly another
iteration is needed since 𝑇2 changed significantly from its initial value. After the 2nd
iteration: 𝑇𝑟 = 310C, 𝑇𝑐𝑖 = 38.4C, 𝑇𝑐𝑜 = 34.9C, and 𝑇2 = 239C.
 Social and Environmental Aspects 36

• Solar water heating is an extremely benign and acceptable technology. There are
no harmful emissions in operation and manufacture involves no especially
dangerous materials or techniques.
• The technology is now developed and commercial in many countries, either
extensively (e.g. China, Greece, Cyprus, and Jordan) and works best everywhere in
summer and especially in sunny climates, e.g. the Mediterranean. In the UK for
example a 4m2 collector is sufficient for nearly 100% supply to a family of 2–4, with
careful use, from mid-April to late-September, and will pre-heat in other months.
• Using solar energy for water heating replaces brown fuel and improves energy
sustainability and reduces green-house gas emissions. So, some governments
partially subsidize household purchase of solar water heaters in an attempt to
offset the “external costs” of brown energy.
• The payback period versus the running cost of a conventional system is usually 3 to
7 years, which is substantially less than the life of the solar heating system.
• Solar water heaters can be manufactured almost anywhere on a small or medium
scale thus giving employment. The technology is modular and can be scaled up for
commercial uses such as laundries and hotels. By far the largest producer of solar
water heaters is China.