1

Chapter 3
Heat Transfer

Prof. Sami Karaki

February 2015, 2016, 2018
September 2021
 Radiation 2

• Thermal radiation is emitted by bodies due to their temperature. The atoms and
electrons are raised to excited states and return spontaneously to lower energy states.
In doing so they emit energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation distributed over a
range of wavelengths.
• Solar radiation outside the atmosphere is mainly in the wavelength range from 0.25 to 3
m. This includes the visible spectrum, i.e. from 0.38 to 0.72 m, as shown in Figure 3.1
of the electromagnetic spectrum, on the next slide. Solar radiation received on Earth is
between a narrower range of wavelengths due absorption by the atmosphere , i.e. from
0.3 to 2.5 m, this is from the ultraviolet to the near-infrared range.
• Quantum theory considers that thermal radiation is emitted in particles, or photons. The
energy of a photon is given by:
𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 (3.1)
• Where ℎ is Planck’s constant (6.6256×10-34 Js) and 𝜈 is the frequency related to the
wavelength by
𝐶 = 𝐶0Τ𝑛 = 𝜆𝜈 (3.2)
where 𝐶0 is the speed of light in vacuum and 𝑛 is the medium refraction index.
• A blackbody is a perfect absorber of radiation at any wavelength from any direction; it is
a concept that does not exist in nature but some materials approach it. For example a
thick layer of carbon black can absorb 95% of all incident radiation.
 3
Electromagnetic Spectrum

Fig. 3.1: Frequencies and wavelengths

of the electromagnetic spectrum.
 4
Planck’s Law
• The wavelength distribution of radiation
emitted by a black body is given by Planck’s
law:
𝐶1
𝐸𝜆𝑏 = 𝐶2 (3.3)
𝜆5 exp ൗ𝜆𝑇 −1

where the constants 𝐶1 = 2𝜋ℎ𝐶0 and 𝐶2 =

ℎ𝐶0 /𝑘 are Planck’s first and second
radiation constants. The recommended
values for these constants are 𝐶1 =
3.7405 × 10−16 m2 W and 𝐶2 =
0.0143879 mK.
• By differentiating (3.3) and equating to zero
the maximum of the distribution can be
derived. This leads to Wien’s Displacement
law expressed as
𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2897.8/𝑇 m (3.4)
• Planck’s law and Wien’s displacement law
are illustrated in Figure 3.2.
Fig. 3.2: Spectral distribution of black body radiation
 5
Energy Emitted by a Blackbody
• The total energy emitted by a blackbody is obtained by integrating Planck’s law over all
wavelengths:
∞
𝐸𝑏 = ‫׬‬0 𝐸𝜆𝑏 d𝜆 = 𝜎𝑇 4 (3.5)
where 𝜎 is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant and is equal to 5.6697×10-8 W/m2K4
• Planck’s law (3.3) can be integrated between any wavelengths. The total energy emitted
from zero to any wavelength 𝜆 is given by:
𝜆
𝐸0−𝜆,𝑏 = ‫׬‬0 𝐸𝜆𝑏 d𝜆 (3.6)
• By substituting (3.3) into (3.6) and dividing by 𝜎𝑇 4 we obtain the fraction of the black body
radiation between 0 and 𝜆𝑇:
𝜆𝑇 𝐶1 d(𝜆𝑇)
𝑓0−𝜆𝑇 = ‫׬‬0 𝐶 (3.7)
𝜎 𝜆𝑇 5 exp 2ൗ𝜆𝑇 −1

• The values of 𝑓0−𝜆𝑇 may be tabulated as shown in Table 3.1 to make the radiation
calculations easier. There are longer tables with more detailed values.
 6
Energy Emitted by a Blackbody - Example
• Example 3.1: Consider that the sun is a blackbody
Table 3.1: Fraction of blackbody radiation
at 5777 K.
Energy between 0 and T
a) What is the wavelength at which the maximum
emissive power occurs? f0-T T f0-T T
b) What is the fraction of energy from the sun in the (m K) (m K)
visible part of the spectrum, i.e. 0.38 to 0.75 m? 0.05 1880 0.55 4410
• Solution: 0.10 2200 0.60 4740
a) The value of wavelength at which the maximum
0.15 2450 0.65 5130
emissive power occurs is given by (3.4):
𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2897.8/5777 = 0.502 m 0.20 2680 0.70 5590
b) The fraction of energy between 0 and 𝜆= 0.75 m 0.25 2900 0.75 6150
is obtained as follows: 𝜆𝑇 = 0.75 × 5777 =
0.30 3120 0.80 6860
4333 m K, which is between 4110 and 4410 m K,
in Table 3.1. By interpolation, we find the value of 0.35 3350 0.85 7850
f0-T = 53.7%. At 𝜆= 0.38 m, the fraction of energy
0.40 3580 0.90 9380
between 0 and 𝜆𝑇 = 0.38 × 5777 = 2195.3 m K
is similarly obtained by interpolation to be very 0.45 3830 0.95 12500
nearly 10%. So the fraction of the energy in the
visible spectrum is 53.7 – 10 = 43.7%.
0.50 4110 1.00 
 Heat Exchange by Radiation – 1 7

Two Surfaces
• The type of surfaces considered in heat transfer problems are termed gray surfaces for which the
basic idealized properties are as follows:
– Radiation properties are independent of wavelength
– The surface is specular diffuse
– The surface temperature is uniform
– The incident energy over the surface is uniform
• The majority of heat transfer problems involve radiation between two surfaces. The heat
transfer between two surfaces, from surface 2 to surface 1, is given by:
𝜎 𝑇24 −𝑇14
𝑄1 = −𝑄2 = 1−𝜀1 1 1−𝜀2 (3.8)
+ +
𝜀1 𝐴1 𝐴1 𝐹12 𝜀2 𝐴2
• When the plates are parallel and have the same area 𝐴, the view factor 𝐹12 approaches unity,
then (3.8) reduces to:
𝐴 𝜎 𝑇24 −𝑇14
𝑄1 = −𝑄2 = 1 1 (3.9)
+
𝜀 1 𝜀2
−1

• When a small convex object (surface 1) is surrounded by a large enclosure (surface 2) then the
area ratio 𝐴1 /𝐴2 approaches zero. The view factor 𝐹12 approaches unity and (3.8) reduces to:
𝑄1 = 𝜀1 𝐴1 𝜎 𝑇24 − 𝑇14 (3.10)
This result is independent of the surface properties of the large enclosure (e.g. sky) since
virtually none of the radiation leaving the small object is reflected back from the large enclosure.
This applies to the case of flat plate collector emitting radiation to the sky.
 8
Heat Exchange by Radiation – 2
• Equation (3.10) may be used to predict surface radiation to the sky. The sky is considered a
blackbody at some temperature 𝑇𝑠 . In this case (3.10) takes the following form:
𝑄 = 𝜀𝐴𝜎 𝑇 4 − 𝑇𝑠4 (3.11)
The sky temperature depends on the atmospheric conditions and has been related to the local
ambient temperature, water vapor pressure, and the dew point temperature. The range of
difference (𝑇𝑎 −𝑇𝑠 ) is from 5C in hot humid climate to 30C in a cold dry climate.
• To bring simplicity to the heat transfer equation, it is some time convenient to define a radiation
heat transfer coefficient between two surfaces such that:
𝑄1 = ℎ𝑟 𝐴1 𝑇2 − 𝑇1 (3.12)
Then it follows that
𝜎 𝑇22 +𝑇12 𝑇2 +𝑇1
ℎ𝑟 = 1−𝜀1 1 (1−𝜀2 )𝐴1 (3.13)
𝜀1
+𝐹 + 𝜀2 𝐴2
12
• If the areas are not equal, then the value of ℎ𝑟 depends on whether it is to be used with 𝐴1 or
𝐴2 . When 𝑇1 and 𝑇2 are close together as in a flat plate solar collector then the numerator of
(3.13), i.e. 𝜎 𝑇22 + 𝑇12 𝑇2 + 𝑇1 , is nearly equal to 4𝜎𝑇ത 3 , where 𝑇ത is the average of 𝑇1 and 𝑇2 .
 Heat Exchange by Radiation – 3 9

Example
• Example 3.2: A large flat plate collector has its plate and cover parallel and spaced by 2.5 cm.
The emittance of the plate is 0.15 and its temperature is 70C. The emittance of the glass cover
is 0.88 and its temperature is 50C. Calculate the radiation exchange per unit area and the
radiation heat transfer coefficient for the collector.
• Solution:
The heat exchange is given by Equation (3.9):
𝑄1 𝜎 3434 −3234
= 1 1 = 24.6 Wm-2
𝐴 + −1
0.15 0.88
Then from the defining equation (3.12) of the radiation heat transfer coefficient:
24.6
ℎ𝑟 = = 1.23 Wm-2 K-1
70−50
The use of equation (3.13) produces identical results. As an exercise calculate ℎ𝑟 using the
average temperature of the two plates.
 10
Natural Convection between Parallel Plates - 1
• Free convection heat transfer is usually several time that of radiation heat transfer in solar
engineering applications. This heat transfer is correlated in terms of three dimensionless
parameters: the Nusselt number Nu, the Raleigh number Ra, and the Prandtl number Pr, which
are respectively given by:
ℎ𝑐 𝐿
𝑁𝑢 = (3.14)
𝑘
𝑔𝛽 ′ ∆𝑇𝐿3
𝑅𝑎 = (3.15)
𝜈𝛼
𝜈 𝜇
𝑃𝑟 = = (3.16)
𝛼 𝜌𝛼

• Where
ℎ𝑐 is the convection heat transfer coefficient
𝐿 is the plate spacing (m)
𝑘 is the thermal conductivity in (W m-1 K-1)
𝛽 ′ volumetric coefficient of a gas (=1/T for an ideal gas)
∆𝑇 is the temperature difference between the plates
𝜈 is the kinematic viscosity or diffusivity of momentum (m2/s)
𝜇 is the dynamic viscosity (N s/ m2) or (Pa s)
𝛼 is the thermal diffusivity (m2/s)
• The properties of the fluid facilitating the convection (e.g. air or water) should be evaluated at
the mean temperature of the two surfaces.
 11

Natural Convection between Parallel Plates - 2

• Hollands et al (1976) investigated experimentally the correlation between the Nusselt number
Nu and the Raleigh number Ra, for parallel plates separated by air at tilt angles from 0 to 75. An
equation is available for this correlation that is more conveniently represented using the graph
shown in Fig. 3.3. We will now use this correlation to calculate the convection heat transfer
coefficient between two parallel plates separated by air.
• Example 3.4: Find the convection heat transfer coefficient between two parallel plates separated
by 25 mm of air with a tilt of 45. The lower plate is at 70 C and the upper plate is at 50 C.
• Solution: From the property data table of air given at the end of this chapter we determine the
properties of air at the mean temperature of 60 C. So at T= 333 K , the thermal conductivity 𝑘=
0.029 W/ mK, 𝛽 ′ =1/333, kinematic viscosity 𝜈= 1.88x10-5 m2/s, and thermal diffusivity
𝛼=2.69x10-5 m2/ s. The Raleigh number is calculated using (3.15) as:
9.81×20×(0.025)3
𝑅𝑎 = = 1.82 × 104
333×1.88×10−5 ×2.69×10−5
From Figure 3.3, 𝑁𝑢 = 2.4. The convection heat transfer coefficient is found from (3.14):
𝑘 2.42×0.029
ℎ𝑐 = 𝑁𝑢 = = 2.81 W/ m2K
𝐿 0.025
• By comparing to other correlations, it is suggested that the 75 correlation of Fig. 3.3 may be
adequately used for two vertical surfaces. Once ℎ𝑐 is found, the heat transfer 𝑄 between the
two surfaces may found using an equation similar to (3.12):
𝑄 = ℎ𝑐 𝐴(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) (3.17)
 12

Natural Convection between Parallel Plates - 3

Figure 3.3: Nusselt Number as function of Raleigh number for parallel plates
 13

Heat Transfer for Internal Pipe Flow - 1

• Here we will study the heat transfer from the walls of a pipe to the liquid flowing inside it by
using experimental formulae, i.e. correlations, that will allow us to determine the convection
heat transfer coefficient. The first step is to establish whether the flow is laminar or turbulent by
calculating the Reynolds number :
𝑅𝑒 = 𝜌𝑣𝐷ℎ /𝜇 (3.18)
When the Reynolds number 𝑅𝑒 < 2200, then the flow is laminar and then the following quantity
is evaluated 𝑅𝑒 𝑃𝑟 𝐷/𝐿, and the average Nusselt number is obtained from Figure 3.4 from which
the convective heat transfer coefficient is evaluated using (3.14) as illustrated below.
• Example 3.5: What is the heat transfer coefficient inside the tubes of a solar collector in which
the tubes are 10 mm in diameter and separated by a distance of 100mm. The collector is 1.5 m
wide and 3m long and has a total water flow rate of 0.075 kg/s. The water is at 80°C.
• Solution: The collector has 15 tubes and so the flow rate per tube is 0.075/ 15= 0.005 kg/ s. The
Reynolds number is:
4𝑚ሶ 4×0.005
𝑅𝑒 = 𝜌𝑣𝐷ℎ /𝜇 = = = 1800
𝜋 𝐷ℎ 𝜇 𝜋×0.01×3.6×10−4
which indicates that the flow is laminar. The Prandtl number is 2.2 so that 𝑅𝑒 𝑃𝑟 𝐷/𝐿 = 1800 ×
0.01
2.2 × = 13. From Fig. 3.4 the Nusselt number is 4.6 and thermal conductivity of water is
3
𝑘=0.67 W/ mK at 80°C, then the heat transfer coefficient is given by:
𝑘 4.6×0.67
ℎ = 𝑁𝑢 = = 310 W/ m2K
𝐷ℎ 0.01
 14
Heat Transfer for Internal Pipe Flow - 2

Figure 3.4: Average Nusselt number for tubes with various Prandtl numbers
 15
Heat Transfer for Internal Pipe Flow - 3
• When the flow is turbulent, Kays and Crawford (1980) suggest to use the Petukhov equation to
obtain the Nusselt number given by:
𝑛
𝑓/8 𝑅𝑒 𝑃𝑟 𝜇
𝑁𝑢 = (3.19)
1.07+12.7 𝑓/8 𝑃𝑟 2/3 −1 𝜇𝑤

where 𝑛= 0.11 for heating and 0.25 for cooling and 𝑓 is the Darcy friction factor for smooth pipes
given by:
−2
𝑓 = 0.29 ln 𝑅𝑒 − 1.64 (3.20)
For non circular tubes the hydraulic diameter is defined by Dh= 4 (flow area)/ perimeter. The
Reynolds number is a measure of the turbulence of a flow. If Re  2200 the flow is laminar and if
Re  2200 the flow is turbulent.
• Exercise: Repeat Example 3.5 with the water mass flow rate at 0.75 kg/s; a) Calculate the
Reynolds number. Use the Petukhov correlation to calculate the Nusselt number, b) For
comparison purposes, use the laminar flow correlation graph (Fig 3.4) to obtain 𝑁𝑢, and c)
Interpret the effect of using the laminar flow correlation graph instead of the Petukhov
correlation.
• There are similar correlation formulae for the forced convection heat transfer for a variety of
topologies such as: ducts of different aspect ratios, parallel plates with constant temperature on
one side and insulated on the other.
 16

Wind Convection Coefficients - 1

• The heat loss from a flat plate exposed to outside wind is important in the study of solar
collectors. Sparrow et al (1979) from wind tunnel studies on plates at various orientations found
the following correlation giving the Nusselt number in term of the Reynolds and Prandtl
numbers:
Nu = 0.86 𝑅𝑒 1/2 𝑃𝑟1/3 (3.21)
The Reynolds number is calculated as 𝑅𝑒 = 𝜌𝑣𝐿𝑐 /𝜇 where 𝐿𝑐 is the characteristic length defined
as 4 times the plate area divided by its perimeter. For a square plate it is its side, and for a
circular plate it is the diameter. The above correlation is valid for laminar flows (i.e. 𝑅𝑒 < 106, the
critical Reynolds number for flat plates). The convection heat transfer coefficient is the
calculated from (3.14): ℎ𝑐 = 𝑁𝑢 𝑘/𝐿𝑐
• There are simpler formulae that give the convective heat transfer coefficient directly as in the
formula of McAdams (1954) which has been corrected by Watmuff et al (1977) and is as follows:
ℎ𝑐 = 2.8 + 3𝑣𝑤 (3.22)
where 𝑣𝑤 is the wind speed over the plate.
• For flow of air across a single tube in an outdoor environment the equations recommended by
McAdams have been modified as follows:

Nu = ቊ 0.4 + 0.54 𝑅𝑒 0.52 for 0.1 < 𝑅𝑒 < 1000 (3.23)

0.30 𝑅𝑒 0.6 for 1000 < 𝑅𝑒 < 50000
 Wind Convection Coefficients - 2 17

• Example 3.6: Determine the heat transfer coefficient over a plate of dimensions 1 x 2 m. The
wind speed is 𝑣𝑤 = 3m/s and the plate temperature is 40°C. a) Calculate the coefficient using
the Sparrow correlation (3.21), and b) calculate it using the simpler formula of McAdams-
Watmuff (3.22).
• Solution:
a) From the properties table of air the dynamic viscosity 𝜇 = 1.9x10-5 Pa s, 𝑃𝑟 = 0.7, 𝜌 = 1.127
kg/ m3; the characteristic length is 4 × 2/ 6= 1.33m. The Reynolds number is:
1.127×3×1.33
𝑅𝑒 = 𝜌𝑣𝐷ℎ /𝜇 = = 2.37x105
1.9×10−5
which indicates that the flow is laminar. The Nusselt number is obtained from (3.21) as 𝑁𝑢 =
0.86 (3.1 × 105 )1/2 × 0.71/3 = 372. The thermal conductivity of air is 𝑘=0.0272 W/ mK at 40 C,
then the heat transfer coefficient is given by:
𝑘 372×0.0272
ℎ = 𝑁𝑢 = = 7.6 W/ m2K
𝐷ℎ 1.33

b) From the McAdams-Watmuff equation (3.22): ℎ𝑐 = 2.8 + 3 × 3 = 11.8 W/ m2K

• Clearly the two methods do not give the same result. They give close results for a plate having an
area of 0.5m2. Try the two methods for a plate area of 0.5 m2. So it does not seem reasonable to
assume that (3.22) can be used for any plate area?
 Packed Bed of Pebbles - 1 18

Characterization
• In solar thermal systems, a packed bed of pebbles is a usual heat energy storage medium, see
Fig. 3.5. The heat transfer coefficient and pressure drop are characteristics of such storage
devices are of considerable interest. The correlation available for the heat transfer and pressure
drop are not entirely satisfactory in predicting the measured performance of packed beds.
Nevertheless, such correlation is useful in the initial assessment of designs.
• Two quantities have been used to cater for the variety of pebbles that can be used in the design
of solar storage devices. These are the average pebble diameter 𝑑𝑝 and the void factor 𝜀. To
determine these factors a simple experiment is done on a sample of the pebbles that will be
used in the packed bed or “thermocline” as it is also called. In this experiment, a sample of 𝑁
pebbles of mass 𝑀𝑝 is weighed, and is placed in a container of volume 𝑉 which is filled with
water. The water is drained and weighed; let the mass of the water be 𝑀𝑤 . 𝐷 𝑐
The void fraction is calculated as follows:
𝑀𝑤 /𝜌𝑤
𝜀= (3.24)
𝑉
The density of the pebbles is given by:
𝜌𝑝 =
𝑀𝑝
(3.25) 𝐿𝑐
𝑉(1−𝜀)

The average pebble diameter is given by:

1/3
6𝑀𝑝
𝑑𝑝 = (3.26)
𝜋𝜌𝑝 𝑁
Fig. 3.5: Packed bed of pebbles
 Packed Bed of Pebbles - 2 19

Pressure Drop and Heat Transfer Coefficients

• The recommended pressure drop relation is that of McCorquodale et al (1978):
2 (1−𝜀)𝛼
𝐿𝑐 𝑣𝑚 (1−𝜀)𝛼 𝜇𝑔
∆𝑃 = 4.74 + 166 (3.27)
𝜌𝑔 𝑑𝑝 𝜀3/2 𝜀3/2 𝑣𝑚 𝑑𝑝
where 𝜌𝑔 and 𝜇𝑔 are the density of the gas (e.g. air) and its dynamic viscosity, 𝑣𝑚 is the
mass velocity, which is the ratio of the mass flow rate to the container frontal area 𝐴𝑐 , and
𝐿𝑐 is the length of the container.
The shape factor 𝛼, for smooth river gravel appears to be independent of pebble size and is
approximately equal to 1.5. For crushed gravel 𝛼 varies with the pebble size and decreases
linearly from approximately 2.5 at very small sizes to approximately 1.5 for 50-mm-
diameter particles.
• The recommended volumetric heat transfer coefficient ℎ𝑣 in W/ m3 K is that of Löf and
Hawley (1948):
0.7
𝜌𝑔 𝑣𝑚
ℎ𝑣 = 650 𝑑𝑝
(3.28)
• The overall heat transfer conductance is then given by ℎ𝑣 𝑉𝑐 𝜀, where 𝑉𝑐 is the container
volume. The relationship between volumetric heat transfer coefficient ℎ𝑣 and area heat
transfer coefficient ℎ𝑐 is:
𝛼
ℎ𝑣 = 6ℎ𝑐 (1 − 𝜀) 𝑑 (3.29)
𝑝
 Packed Bed of Pebbles - 3 20

Solved Example
• Example 3.7: A thermocline, made from a container packed bed of pebbles, is used for
energy storage in a solar heating system and air is the working fluid. The container has a
cylindrical shape with the following dimensions and characteristics: diameter 1.0m, depth
1.5m, average pebble diameter 𝑑𝑝 = 23.5 mm, the surface shape factor 𝛼= 1.5, and the
void fraction is 𝜀 = 0.39. The superficial velocity is 0.15 m/s and the average air
temperature is 40°C. Estimate the pressure drop in the bed, the volumetric heat transfer
coefficient, and the area heat transfer coefficient.
• Solution: From the Table in Appendix 1, 𝜌𝑔 = 1.127 kg/ m3, and 𝜇𝑔 =1.9 × 10-5 Pa s. We first
calculate the mass velocity from the given superficial velocity:
𝑣𝑚 = 0.15 × 1.127 = 0.169 kg/ m2 s
Then using (3.27) we determine the pressure drop:
1.5×0.1692 1−0.39 1.5 1−0.39 1.5 1.9×10−5
∆𝑃 = 1.127×0.0235 0.393/2
4.74 + 166 0.393/2 0.169×0.0235
= 46.94 Pa
The volumetric heat transfer coefficient using (3.28) is:
1.127×0.169 0.7
ℎ𝑣 = 650 0.0235
= 2816 W/ m3K.
The area heat transfer coefficient using (3.29) is:
2816 0.0235
ℎ𝑐 = × = 12.1 W/ m2K.
6 1−0.39 1.5
 Heat Exchangers - 1 21

Effectiveness-NTU Calculation
• Heat exchangers are widely used in solar thermal processes. They are used between collectors
and storage tanks and between storage tanks and loads. Their performance is usually assessed
using the effectiveness-NTU (number of transfer units) method.
• The method is presented here using a counter flow heat exchanger, shown in Fig. 3.6. The
maximum drop in temperature on the hot side is from 𝑇ℎ𝑖 to 𝑇𝑐𝑖 and the maximum temperature
rise in the cold fluid is from 𝑇𝑐𝑖 to 𝑇ℎ𝑖 . So the maximum possible heat transfer is given by:
𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 = min 𝑚𝐶
ሶ 𝑝 ℎ
𝑇ℎ𝑖 − 𝑇𝑐𝑖 , 𝑚𝐶
ሶ 𝑝 𝑐
𝑇ℎ𝑖 − 𝑇𝑐𝑖 = 𝑚𝐶
ሶ 𝑝 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑇ℎ𝑖 − 𝑇𝑐𝑖 (3.30)
where 𝐶𝑝 is the heat capacity of the substance at constant pressure. From energy balance
consideration, neglecting losses, the actual heat exchange rate 𝑄 on the hot side and that of the
cold side are equal:
𝑄 = 𝑚𝐶
ሶ 𝑝 ℎ
𝑇ℎ𝑖 − 𝑇ℎ𝑜 = 𝑚𝐶
ሶ 𝑝 𝑐
𝑇𝑐𝑜 − 𝑇𝑐𝑖 (3.31)

• By defining the effectiveness ratio as :

𝜀 = 𝑄/𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 (3.32)
The working equation of the heat
exchanger is:
𝑄 = 𝜀 𝑚𝐶
ሶ 𝑝 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑇ℎ𝑖 − 𝑇𝑐𝑖 (3.33)
Fig. 3.6: Counter flow shell
and tubes heat exchanger
 Heat Exchangers - 2 22

Effectiveness-NTU Calculation
• For a counter flow heat exchanger the effectiveness is given by:
∗
1−𝑒 −𝑁𝑇𝑈(1−𝐶 )
∗ 𝑒 −𝑁𝑇𝑈(1−𝐶∗ ) if 𝐶 ∗ ≠ 1
𝜀= ൞ 1−𝐶
𝑁𝑇𝑈
(3.34)
if 𝐶∗ =1
1+𝑁𝑇𝑈
where 𝑁𝑇𝑈 is the number of transfer units, and 𝐶 ∗ the dimensionless thermal capacitance ratio
are respectively given by:
𝑈𝐴 ሶ 𝑝
𝑚𝐶
𝑁𝑇𝑈 = ሶ 𝑝
(3.35) 𝐶∗ = ሶ 𝑝
min
(3.36)
𝑚𝐶 𝑚𝐶
min max
where 𝑈𝐴 is the thermal conductance of the HE, with 𝐴 being the surface contact area between
the hot and cold sides, and 𝑈 is the thermal conductivity of the HE that depends the convective
heat transfer coefficients, the fouling resistances on hot and cold sides, and on the conductivity of
the wall material and its thickness. The corresponding thermal resistances are all added in series.
• There are effectiveness formulae similar to (3.34) for different types of heat exchangers given by
Kays and London (1964) and available in other heat transfer textbooks.

Fig. 3.8: Counter

flow shell and tube
heat exchanger
with open side
covers
Fig. 3.7: Counter flow shell and tube HE.
 Heat Exchangers - 3 23

Outlet Temperatures Calculation Example

• Example 3.8: A counter flow heat exchanger (HE) is between a collector and a tank. The fluid on
the collector side is a glycol-water mixture with 𝐶𝑝 = 3850 J/kg K and its flow rate is 1.2 kg/s. The
fluid on the tank side is water and its flow rate is 0.85 kg/ s. The 𝑈𝐴 of the heat exchanger is
estimated to be 6200 W/K. If the hot glycol-water mix from the collector enters the exchanger at
65°C and the cool water enters at 35°C, what are the heat exchange rate, and the outlet
temperatures?
• Solution:
We will first calculate the thermal capacitance rates on the hot (collector) and cold (tank) sides. So
𝐶ℎ = 𝑚𝐶 ሶ 𝑝 ℎ = 1.2 × 3850 = 4620 W/K
𝐶𝑐 = 𝑚𝐶
ሶ 𝑝 𝑐
= 0.85 × 4180 = 3553 W/K
The cold-side capacitance rate is the minimum of the two and from (3.36) we have:
𝐶 ∗ = 3553/ 4620= 0.77
and from (3.35) we have: 𝑁𝑇𝑈 = 6200/ 3553= 1.75
1−𝑒 −1.75(1−0.77)
The effectiveness of the HE is calculated from (3.34): 𝜀 = = 0.683
1−0.77 𝑒 −1.75 (1−0.77)
The heat transfer rate is calculated from (3.33): 𝑄 = 0.683 × 3553 65 − 35 = 72 801 W
The outlet temperatures are calculated using (3.31):
72 801 72 801
𝑇𝑐𝑜 = 35 + = 55.5 C and 𝑇ℎ𝑜 = 65 − = 49.2 C
3553 4620
 Appendix A - 1 24

Properties of Air at 1 atm

Appendix A – 2 25

Properties of Water
 26

Appendix A – 3
Properties of Materials