UNIT 4 EVAPORATION AND RADIATION

Theory of evaporation - single effect and multiple effect evaporation – Design calculation for single and
multiple effect evaporation. Radiation heat transfer - Black body radiation, Emissivity, Stefan -
Boltzman law, Plank’s law, radiation between surfaces.

RADIATION
CONCEPT OF THERMAL RADIATION
 It refers to be transport of energy through space by electromagnetic waves.
 Radiation is the mode of transport of energy in the form of electromagnetic waves through space
at the speed of light [3x108m/s].
 It depends upon the electromagnetic waves as a mean for the transfer of energy from a source to
receiver.
 Radiant energy is of the same nature as the ordinary visible light.
 It travels in the straight lines and it may be reflected from the surfaces.
 The electromagnetic waves with wavelength ranging from 0.5-50µm are of importance to radiant
heat transfer [1µm=10-6m].
 Radiation of a single wavelength is called as monochromatic.
 Thermal radiation is the energy emitted by a body entirely due to its temp and we restrict our
discussion to this type of radiation.
 Typical examples of heat transfer by radiation:
(a)Transfer of heat from sun to earth.
(b)Heat loss from unlagged steam pipe.
(c)Use of energy from the sun in solar heaters.
(d)Heating of cold room by radiant electric heater.
 Radiation heat transfer does not require any intervening medium [Material or Fluid] and the heat
can be transmitted by radiation mode across an absolute vacuum.
 Radiation this the only significance mode of energy/heat transfer when no medium is present.
 For example: The heat leakage through the evacuated walls of the thermal flask.
ABSORPIVITY, REFLECTIVITY AND TRANSMISSIVITY
 The fraction of incident radiation on a body that is absorbed by the body is known as the
Absorptivity. It may be denoted by the letter ‘a’.
 The fraction of incident radiation on a body that is reflected by the body is known as the
Reflectivity. It may be denoted by the letter ‘r’.
 The fraction of incident radiation on a body that is transmitted by the body is known as the
Transmissivity. It may be denoted by ‘t’
 The energy balance about a body [receiver] on which the total incident energy falling is unity
[sum of the fraction is unity] is given as,
a  r  t  1--------------------(1)
 The majority of the engineering materials are opaque. [i.e., for which the amount transmitted is
very negligible] and in such cases, the equation (1) reduces as.

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 a  r  1.0 as t  0 {for opaque material /surfaces} --------------- (2)

 If t  1, a  r  0 , all the incident energy passes through the body and it’s called perfectly
transparent. Example: Rock salt, Quartz, and Fluorite.
 If r  1, a  t  0 all the incident energy is reflected by the body, it is called as specular.
 If the surface of the body gives diffused reflection, the body is called as a perfectly white body.
 For example pieces of white chalk [white body].
(1) r=0 ,represents non-reflecting surfaces
(2) r=1, represents perfect reflector
(3 ) a=0, represents non-absorbing surfaces
(4) a=1, represents perfectly absorbing (or) black surfaces
(5) t  0 , represents opaque surfaces /non-transparent surfaces
(6) t  1,represents perfectly transparent surfaces
Monochromatic emissive power
 It is the radiant energy emitted from a body per unit area per unit time, per unit wavelength about
the wavelength 𝜆.
 It is denoted by E𝜆and it has the units of W/m2μm.
Total emissive power
 It is the total quantity of radiant energy of all wavelength emitted by a body per unit area per unit
time.
 It is denoted by the symbol ‘E’ and It has the unit is W/m2.

E   E d
0

Monochromatic emissivity
 It is the ratio of the monochromatic emissive power of a surface to that of a black surface at the
same wavelength.
E
e  
Eb,

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LAWS OF BLACK BODY RADIATION
Stefan-Boltzmann law:
 It states that, “the total emissive power (total energy emitted per unit area per unit time) of a
black body is directly proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature.”
Eb  T 4 ---------------- (1)
Eb  T 4 ----------------- (2)
Where,
T-Temperature in ‘K’
 -Stefan Boltzmann constant [  =5.67x10-8W/(m2K4)]
Eb-Total emissive power of black body ,W/m2
For a non –black body,
E
 e ------------------(3)
Eb
E  Eb .e --------------- (4)
Combining equation (2) and (4) we get,
E  e.T 4 -------------- (5)
Where,
‘e’ is the emissivity of the non – black body.
 The Stefan-Boltzmann equation is a fundamental relation for all radiant energy transfer
calculations.
Plank’s Law
 This law gives a relationship between the monochromatic emissive power of a black body,
absolute temperature and the corresponding wavelength.
2hc 25
Eb,   hc kT ------------------ (1)
e 1
Where,
Eb ,  - Monochromatic emissive power of the black body/black surface, in (W/m2.µm)
h- Planck’s constant (6.625  10 3 J.s )
k- Boltzman’s constant
c-speed of light (3x108 m/s)
T-Absolute temperature
𝜆-wavelength of radiation
The above equation can be written as
c15
Eb,   ---------------------- (2)
(ec2 T  1)
Where,
c1& c2 are constant
c1 = 3.472  1016W .m 2 ; c2 = 0.01439mK

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Wien’s displacement law
 It states that, “the wavelength of which the maximum monochromatic emissive power is
obtained [max ] is inversely proportional to the absolute temperature”.
Tmax  c
Where,
max -maximum monochromatic emissive power in µm
T- Absolute temperature in K
c-constant value is equal to 2890
 This law gives a relationship between the wavelength at which maximum emissive power is
attained and the absolute temperature.
Heat transfer by radiation
 A body having emissivity ‘e’ at temperatureT1 emits the radiant energy equal to
E  T14 per unit area.
 If the surroundings are black, none of this radiation will be reflected by them and is the
surroundings are at temperature T2 they until emit the radiation equal to e  T24.
 If a body is grey, it will be absorb fraction ‘e’ of its energy , so that the net rate of radiant energy
flow from the grey body tom the surroundings is given by the expression,
Q
=e  [T14-T24]
A
Where, e-Emissivity of grey body
T14-Absolute temperature of grey body
T24-Absolute temperature of surroundings.
Transfer coefficient for radiation (Radioactive heat transfer coefficient)
 The net heat transfer by radiation from a unit surface area of a gray body at temperature T 1 to the
black surrounding at temperature T2 may be expressed as
Qr  hr (T1  T2 )
Q e.
hr   (T1  T2 )
4 4
Therefore
(T1  T2 ) (T1  T2 )
Where, hr is the radioactive heat transfer coefficient.
 This Equation is also applicable if the surroundings are not black, the body is small and none of
its radiation is reflected back to it.
Problems:
1. Calculate the heat loss by radiation from an unlagged horizontal steam pipe, 50mm o.d at 377K
(1040C) to air at 283K (100C).
DataGiven: Emissivity, e = 0.90
  5.67  108W / m2 K 4 ; T1 = 377K; T2 = 283K
Solution:
The heat loss by radiation is given by

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 Qr
 e. (T14  T24 )
A
Qr
 0.90  5.67 108 (377 4  2834 )
A
Qr
 704W / m 2
A
2. Calculate the rate of heat transfer by radiation from an unlagged steam pipe, 50mm, o.d. at 393K
(1200C) to air at 293K(200C).
DataGiven: Emissivity, e =0.90
  5.67  108W / m2 K 4 ; T1 = 393K; T2 = 293K
Solution:
The rate of heat transfer by radiation per unit area is
Qr
 e. (T14  T24 )
A
Qr
 0.90  5.67  10 8 (3934  2934 )
A
Qr
 841.2W / m 2
A
3. A 50 mm i.d iron pipe at 423K (1500C) passes through a room in which the surroundings are at
temperature of 300K (270C). If the emissivity of the pipe metal is 0.8, what is the net interchange
of radiation energy per meter length of pipe? The outside diameter of pipe is 60mm.
DataGiven: Emissivity, e =0.8
  5.67  108W / m2 K 4 ; T1 = 423K; T2 = 300K; L = 1m; D = 60mm =0.06m
Solution:
Outside surface area per i meter length of pipe is
A = DL    0.06  1  0.189m 2
The net radiation rate per 1 meter length of pipe is
Qr  e.A(T14  T24 )
Qr  0.8  5.67 108  0.189(4234  3004 )
Qr  205W / m length of pipe.
4. Estimate the total heat loss by convection and radiation from an unlagged steam pipe, 50mm o.d,
at 415K (1420C) to air at 290K(170C).
Data Given: Emissivity = 0.90
The film coefficient (hc) to calculate heat loss by natural convection is given by
0.25
 T 
hc  1.18  ,W / m 2 K
 Do 
Solution:
Outside area of pipe = DL

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 Assume: L = 1m
Do = 50mm = 0.05m
Outside area per unit length of the pipe =   0.05  1.0  0.157m 2
T  415  290  125K
0.25
 T 
0.25

  1.18
125 
hc  1.18   8.34W / m 2 K
 Do   0.05 
The heat loss by convection per unit length of pipe is
Qc  hc . A(T1  T2 )
Qc  8.34  0.157(415  290)  163.7W / m
The heat loss by radiation per unit length of pipe is
Qr  e.A(T14  T24 )
Qr  0.9  5.67 108  0.157(4154  2904 )  181W / m
The total heat loss by convection and radiation per unit length of pipe is
Qt  Qc  Qr
Qt  163.7  181
Qt  344.7W / m length of pipe.
5. Calculate the rate of heat loss from a 6m long horizontal steam pipe, 60mm o.d. when carrying
steam at 800kN/m2. The temperature of atmosphere and surroundings is 290K.
Data Given: Emissivity, e = 0.85
  5.67  108W / m2 K 4
The film coefficient (hc) to calculate heat loss by natural convection is calculated by
hc  1.64T 
0.25
, W / m2 K
Steam is saturated at 800kN/m2 and 443K (1700C).
Solution:
Neglecting the inside resistance and resistance of the metal wall, it may be assumed that the
surface temperature of pipe is 443K.
T1 = 443K; T2 = 290K; Do = 60mm =0.06m; T  443  290  153K ; L = 6m
For radiation from pipe:
Surface area of pipe = DL    0.06  6  1.131m 2
Rate of heat loss by radiation from pipe:
Qr  e.A(T14  T24 )
Qr  0.85  5.67 108 1.131(4434  2904 )  1714W
Rate of heat loss by convection pipe
Qc  hc A(T1  T2 )
Qc  1.64(T ) 0.25  A(T1  T2 )
Qc  1.64(153) 0.25  1.131(443  290)  998W

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 Total heat loss = Qr  Qc  1714  998  2712W
Concept of Black body
 A black body is the one which absorbs all radiation incidents upon it, whatever the wavelength 𝜆.
 It is an ideal body that absorbs all incident radiation energy and reflects or transmits none.
 This means that the black body is perfectly non-reflecting and non-transmitting.
 Actually no matter with a =1 and t  r  0 exists.
 Even the blackest surfaces occurring in nature still have reflectivity of about 1 percent (r = 0.01).
 Hence although a black body must be black in colour, this is not a sufficient condition.
 If a hollow body is provided with only one very small opening and is held at a uniform
temperature, then any beam of radiation entering through the hole is partly absorbed and partly
reflected inside.
 The reflected radiation will not find the outlet, but will fall again on the inside the wall.
 There it will be only partly reflected (other part of it is absorbed by the walls) and so on.

 By such a sequences of reflections, the entering radiation will be almost absorbed by the body,
and an arrangement of this kind will act as a perfectly black body as shown in figure.
 All substances emit radiation, the quality and quantity depending upon the absolute temperature
and the properties of material composing a radiating body.
 It may be shown that, at a given temperature, good absorbers of ant particular wavelength are
also good emitter of the wavelength.
 Thus, since by definition, a black body is a complete radiator of all wavelengths it is also the beat
possible emitter of the thermal radiation, i.e., it is a full radiator.
Radiation between black surfaces (two isothermal surfaces)
 The process of energy exchange by radiation between two black surfaces is considered first because
the black surfaces, being perfect absorbers and emitters simplify the problem due to the non
existence of reflected energy.
 Another unique feature of black surface is that they emit energy diffusely, that is the intensity of
emitted energy is independent of direction.
 Let us now take the general case of two black bodies A1 & A2 at uniform temperature T1& T2
respectively, separated by a non-absorbing space and between which there is a net interchange of
thermal radiation.
 Consider two elemental surfaces dA1 of A1 and dA2 of A2 as shown in figure given below.

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 Let r be the distance between these two surfaces, 1 be the polar angle between the normal 1 to
the surface element dA1 and the line joining dA1 to dA2 and 2 be the polar angle between the
normal  2 to the surface element dA and the line r.
2
 Let dW12 be the solid angle which dA2 subtends at dA1 and Ib1 be the intensity of radiation
diffused from the surface element.

The rate of radioactive energy, dQ1, leaving dA1 that strikes dA2 is given by equation as
dQ1  dA1I b1 cos 1dW12
---------------------- (1)
Where the solid angle is
dA2 cos 2
dW12 
r2 ---------------------------- (2)
cos 1 cos 2 dA2
dQ1  dA1 I b1.
So that, r2 ---------------- (3)
Similarly, the rate of radioactive energy, dQ2, leaving dA2 that strikes dA1 can be written as,
cos 1 cos 2 dA1
dQ2  dA2 I b 2 .
r2 ---------------- (4)
Since both dA1& dA2 are black surfaces dQ1& dQ2 are fully absorbed by dA2 and dA1
respectively
Therefore, net transfer of energy between dA1& dA2 is (combine equation 3 & 4)
dA dA
dQ12  ( I b1  I b 2 ). cos 1 cos 2 1 2 2
r ----------- (5)
Eb1 Eb 2
I b1  Ib2 
Since,  and 

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 dA1dA2
dQ12  ( Eb1  Eb 2 ). cos 1 cos 2
r 2 ---------------------- (6)
The net energy exchange between A1& A2 is obtained by integrating equation (6) as
dA dA
Q12  ( Eb1  Eb 2 )   cos 1 cos 2 1 2 2
A1 A2
r -------------------- (7)

(or)
 (T14  T24 ) dA dA
Q12 
  
A A
cos 1 cos 2 1 2 2 ---------------------- (8)
r
1 2

Problems:
1. The sun is a spherical mass of extremely hot gases continuously generating heat by thermo-
nuclear fusion reactions. This energy is radiated from the sun in all directions and a small
fraction of it reaches the earth. The orientation of sun and earth is shown in figure given below.
On a clear day the solar irradiation on the earth’s surface has been found to be 1350W/m2.
Assuming the sun to be black body, estimate its surface temperature.
Solution:
The sun, assumed to be a black body, will emit radiation diffusely. At a point on earth, the sun will
Dsi2 dQSE
appears as a dise of area 4 and the solar irradiation will be equal to dA is given by,
E

dQSE ( EbS  EbE ) cos 1 cos 2 dAs


dAE r 2
Here, ,1  2  0

so,
cos1  cos2  1
As the emissive power of earth can be neglected in comparison with Ebs.

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 dQSE .r 2
EbS  TS4 
dAE .dAS
(1350)(1.5  1011 )
= 
(1.39  109 ) 2
4
EbS  62.9  106
62.9  106
TS4  7
 0.111 1016
0.567  10
TS  5770K  5400C
Surface temperature, TS  5400C
Grey body
 A body having the same value of the monochromatic emissivity at all wavelength is called grey
body.
 A grey body is a one of which emissivity is independent of wavelength.
 The adjective monochromatic indicates that the quantity being defined for a particular
wavelength/single wavelength.
 Monochromatic property refers to a single wavelength and the total property is the sum of the
monochromatic values of property.
 Polychromatic values are important to a direct solution of an engineering problem.
Gray Surfaces (Heat exchange between non-black bodies)
 When two non-black bodies are situated in fairly close proximity part of the energy emitted by
one body will be reflected back to it by the second body and will then by partly re-absorbed and
partly reflected again.
 Thus the heat exchange undergoes a series of internal reflections and absorptions.

 Consider two large gray planes/surfaces that are maintained at absolute temperature, T 1& T2
respectively. Let e1& e2 emissivity of the surface.
 Consider the energy radiated from surface 1 then, per unit area per unit time be

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 Energy radiated from surface 1 =
e1T14 -------------------------------------------(1)

Amount of energy absorbed by surface 2 =

e1T14e2 ---------------------------- (2)

Amount reflected by surface 2 =

e1T14 (1  e2 ) ----------------------------------- (3)

Amount re-absorbed by surface 1 =

e1T14  e1T14 (1  e 2 )e1 -------------- (4)

Amount reflected by surface 1 =

e1T14 (1  e1 )(1  e2 ) ---------------------------- (5)
Amount absorbed by surface 2  e1T14 (1  e2 )(1  e1 )e2 ------------------------- (6)
 Hence as a result of each complete cycle of internal reflection, it is seen by comparing (2) & (6),
that the absorption is reduced by a factor (1-e1) (1-e2)
 As the energy surfaces an infinite number of reflections
Total transfer of energy from surface1 to surface2
per unit area per unit time
 e1e2T14 [1  (1  e1 )(1  e2 )  (1  e1 )2 (1  e2 )2  ..............  ] -------(7)
[i.e (1+x+x2+……. = (1-x)-1)]
1
 e1e 2 T14
[1  (1  e1 )(1  e 2 )]
1 e1e 2 T14 e1e2
 e1e 2 T14   T14
[1  (1  e 2  e1  e1e 2 )] 1  1  e 2  e1  e1e 2 = e1  e2  e1e2 ---(8)
 In similar manner, considering the radiation emitted by the surface 2
 It can be drawn that the total transfer of energy from surface2 to surface1 per unit area per unit
time (i.e., emitted by surface 2 and absorbed by surface1)
e1e2
 T24
e1  e2  e1e2 --------(9)
Thus, the net energy transferred per unit area per unit time
Q e1e2
   (T14  T24 )
e 
 12 1 2 1 2
A e  e e ------------------------ (10)
Q 
   (T14  T24 )
 A 12 e 1 e e
 2  1 2
e
e1 e 2 e1 e 2 e1 e 2
Q  (T14  T24 )
  
 A 12  1 1 
   1
 e1 e2  -------- ------------------ (11)
Q
   F12 (T1  T2 )
4 4

 A 12 ----------------------- (12)

11
 1
F12 
Where, 1 1 
   1
 e1 e2 
F12 is called overall interchange factor and function of e1& e2.
Heat exchange between two non-black concentric cylinders (Spheres or cylinders with spherical or
cylindrical enclosures)
The net exchange between inner and outer spheres is given by
A1
Q (T14  T24 )
2 ------------------------ (13)
1  r1   1 
    1 
e1  r2   e2 
A1
Q (T14  T24 ) -------------------------- (14)
1  A1  1 
    1
e1  A2  e2 
The net exchange between infinitely large concentric cylinders is given by
A1 (T14  T24 )
Q
1  A1  1 
    1
e1  A2  e2 
A1 (T14  T24 )
Q
1  r1  1  ------------------------- (14)
    1
e1  r2  e2 
Where A1& A2 be the areas of inner and outer cylinders/spheres
e1 ,e2 - Emissivity of inner and outer cylinder/sphere
T1, T2 – Respective temperature
Q  A1F12 (T14  T24 ) ------------------------- (16)
1
F12 
Where, 1 A1  1  --------------------- (17)
   1
e1 A2  e2 
Problems:
1. Calculate the loss of heat by radiation from a steel tube diameter 70mm and 3m long at a
temperature, of 500K, if the tube is located in a square brick conduit 0.3m side at 300K.Assume
e for steel as 0.79 and for brick conduit as 0.93.
Given Data:
  5.67  108W / m2 K 4 ; T1 = 500K; T2 = 300K; e1 = 0.79; e2 = 0.93
Solution:
Loss of heat by radiation

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 A1 (T14  T24 )
Q
1  A1  1 
    1
e1  A2  e2 

70
A1     3  0.657m 2
1000
A2  4(0.3  3)  3.6m2
5.67  108  0.659  (500 4  3004 )
Q
1  0.659  1 
   1
0.79  3.6  0.39 
Q = 1588.5W
Loss of heat by radiation, Q = 1588.5W.
2. Calculate the net radiant interchange per square meter for very large planes at temperature of
703K and 513K respectively. Assume that the emissivities of hot and cold planes are 0.85 & 0.75
respectively.
Given Data:
  5.67  108W / m2 K 4 ; T1 = 703K; T2 = 513K; e1 = 0.85; e2 = 0.75

Solution:
Net radiant interchange per square meter
Q  (T14  T24 )
  
 A r  1 1 
   1
 e1 e2 
Q 5.67  10 8 (7034  5134 )
  
 A r  1 1 
   1
 0.85 0.75 
Q
   6571W / m
2

 A r
3. Determine the net radiant interchange between two parallel oxidized iron plates, placed at a
distance of 25mm having sides 3X3m. The surface temperatures of two plates are 373K and
313K respectively. Emissivity of the plates is equal. Given e 1 = e2 = 0.736
Given Data:
  5.67  108W / m2 K 4 ; T1 = 373K; T2 = 313K; e1 = e2 = 0.736; Area =3x3 =9m2
Solution:
Interchange factor

13
 1
F12 
1 1 
   1
 e1 e2 
1
F12 
 1 1 
   1
 0.736 0.736 
F12  0.5823
Net radiant interchange between two parallel plates
Q  AF12 (T14  T24 )
Q  5.67 10 8  9  0.5823(3734  3134 )
Q  2900W
Radiation shape factor
 The concept of radiation shape factor is useful in the analysis of radiation heat exchange between
two surfaces.
 It is called as view factor, angle factor, configuration factor, geometric factor or simple
configuration factor.
 The shape factor depends upon the size and shape of surfaces, the orientation of surfaces with
respect to one another and distance between them.
 It is the fraction of the radiation energy that is emitted from one surface and intercepted by the
other surface directly without intervening reflections.
 It is represented by the symbol F’mn which means shape factor from a surface Am to the other
surface An. (F’mn represents fraction of energy leaving surface m which reaches surface n)

 Consider two black surfaces A1 & A2 at uniform temperature T1& T2respectively between which
there is a net interchange of thermal radiation.
 The energy leaving surface 1 and arriving at surface 2, is E b1A1F’12 and that between 2 &1 is
Eb2A2F’21.
The net energy exchange between A1& A2 is,
Q12  Q  Eb1 A1 F12'  Eb 2 A2 F21'
-------------------- (1)
If the both surfaces are at same temperature then Q12 = 0 & Eb1 = Eb2
A1F12'  A2 F21' -------------------- (2)
The above equation is called as the reciprocity theorem
In general, for exchange of heat between any two surfaces,
We can write,

14
 '
Am Fmn  An Fnm
'

The net heat exchange is,

Q  Q12  A1 F12' ( Eb1  Eb 2 )  A2 F21' ( Eb1  Eb 2 )
Q  Q12  A1F12'  (T14  T24 )  A2 F21'  (T14  T24 )

Mathematically,
F21' is given by,
Q2
F12'  --------------------- (3)
Q1
 Where Q1 is energy emitted by surface 1 and Q2 is energy intercept directly by the surface 2 out of
Q1.
 If surface A1 can see only surface A2, then shape factor F12' is unity.
 If ‘n’ surfaces form an enclosure, then the energy radiate from one surface is always intercepted by
the other (n-1) surfaces and the surface itself if it is a concave one.
F11'  F12'  F13'  .............  F1'n  1.0 ------------------- (4)
F21'  F22'  F23'  .............  F2' n  1.0 ------------------- (5)
F31'  F32'  F33'  .............  F3'n  1.0 --------------------- (6)
 F11' , F22' , F33' The shape factor with respect to itself is “the fraction of incident energy emitted by the
surface that gets intercepted by it”.
 When surface is concave it has shape factor w.r.to itself, but for plane or cover surface, shape factor
w.r.to itself is zero.
Fnn = 0, for convex or flat surface
and F11'  0 , for concave surface
Problems:
1. Two parallel black plates 0.5 by 1.0m are spaced by 0.5m apart, plate 1 is maintained at 1273K
and plate 2 is maintained at 773K. What is the net radiant heat exchange between the plates?

Data: F’12 = 0.285

Solution:
The net radiant heat exchange between the plates is,
Q  A1 F12' ( Eb1  Eb 2 )  A1 F12'  (T14  T24 )
Where,
  5.67  108W / m 2 K 4
A1 = 0.5 X 1 = 0.5m2
F12'  0.285
T1 = 1273K & T2 = 773K
Q = 5.67 108  0.5  0.285  (12734  7734 )

15
 Q = 18,333W
Net radiant heat exchange between the plates, Q = 18,333W.

Radiation Shield
 In order to reduce heat transfer by radiation between two surfaces, a third surface is introduced in
between them, this surface is known as radiation shield
 Radiation shields increases the surface resistance without removing any heat from the overall
system.
 This sheet of plastic that are coated, on both sides, with highly reflecting metallic films acts as
very effective radiation shields.
 They are used for the insulation of cryogenic storage tanks.
 Suppose two infinite and parallel planes (each of area A) at temperature T 1& T2 are separated by
a third plane.
 That is opaque to direct radiation between two and which is extremely thin as shown in figure is
given below.

 The net heat exchange between two initial planes (without shield) is given by,
A
Q (T14  T24 ) ------------------ (1)
1 1 
   1
 e1 e2 

Where, e1& e2 are emissivity of planes

Let e1 be the emissivity of radiation shield
If e1 = e3 but e1 # e2, the net heat exchange from 1to 3 is given by
A A
Q1  (T14  T24 )  (T24  T34 )
1 1  1 1 
   1    1
 e1 e2   e2 e3 
e1  e3
1
T24  (T14  T34 )
2
A 1 4
Q  . (T1  T34 )
Then, 1 1  2
2

   1
 e1 e2 
When e1 = e2 = e,

16
 A 1
Q3  . (T14  T34 )
2  2
  1
e 
For e1 = e3 =e
Add Q1+Q3
A
Q13  (T14  T34 )
 2 
  1
e 
Finally Q13 submit to Q2
1
Q2  Q
2 ------------------------- (2)
 It shows that due to insertion of one shield between two parallel planes/surfaces, the radiation
heat transfer rate between them reduces to half of the initial value
 For simple case when n shields are employed, each having the same emissivity as,
1
Qn  Q
n  1 --------------------------- (3)
1
Q
Q with n shields = n  1 without shield
Where Q is net heat exchange if the intial planes where not separated.
Problems:
1. A double walled flask may be idealized to be equivalent o two infinite parallel plates. The
emissivities of walls are 0.3 & 0.7 respectively. The space between them is evacuated. A shield
of polished aluminum of e = 0.05 is inserted between them. Find the reduction in heat transfer
due to insertion of radiation shield.
Data Given:
e1 = 0.3; e2 = 0.05; e3 = 0.7
Solution:

In the absence of shield, the radiant heat transfer rate is,

A(T14  T34 )
Q
1 1 
   1
 e1 e3 

17
 A(T14  T34 ) A(T14  T34 )
Q 
 1 1  3.76
   1
 0. 3 0. 7 
Z
Q [ Z  A(T14  T34 )]
3.76
With shield,
A A
Q1  (T14  T24 )  (T24  T34 )
1 1  1 1 
   1    1
 e1 e2   e2 e3 
A A
Q1  (T14  T24 )  (T24  T34 )
 1 1   1 1 
   1    1
 0.3 0.05   0.05 0.7 
(T14  T24 ) (T24  T34 )

22.33 20.42
(T1  T2 )  1.093(T24  T34 )
4 4

T14  1.093T34  2.093T24

T14  1.093T34
 T24
2.093
A
 Q1  (T14  T24 )
1 1 
   1
 e1 e2 
A T14  1.093T34
 [T14  ]
1 1  2.093
   1
 e1 e2 
A  1.093  4
  [T1  T34 ]
1 1   2.093 
   1
 e1 e2 
A 1.093
 [T14  T34 ]
 1 1 
   1
 0.3 0.05 
 0.02338A[T14  T34 ]
A[T14  T34 ] Z
 
42.766 42.766
Z
 Q1 
42.766

18
 Q  Q1
100
Radiation in heat transfer = Q
Z Z
[  ]
3.76 42.766 100
= Z
3.76
Radiation in heat transfer = 91.2%
Problems (Radiation)
1. The effect temperature of a body having an area of 0.12m2 is 630˚C. Calculate:
1. The total rate of energy emission
2. The intensity of normal radiation and
3. The wavelength of maximum monochromatic emissive power.
2. Find out the heat loss by radiation per meter length of 15cm diameter pipe at 285˚C for (1) pipe
located in a large brick room with the wall maintained at 40˚C.(2) pipe is in concentric with the
brick conduct of diameter 30cm with it is wall temperature is 40˚C.ε for steel pipe = 0.85, ε for
brick wall = 0.97
3. Two parallel plates 0.5m by 1 m, spaced 0.5m apart as shown in the figure below. one plate is
maintained at 1000˚C and the other plate is at 500˚C.the emissivities of the plates are 0.2 and 0.5
respectively. the plates are located in a very large room whose walls are maintained at 27˚C. The
plates exchange heat with each other and the room, but only the plate surfaces facing each other
need to be considered in the analysis. Find the net transfer to each plate and to the room.
4. Radiant heat exchange occurs between two parallel planes having emmissivities 0.4 and 0.75. if
a polished shield of emissivity 0.03 is introduced between these planes, how much percentage
reduction in radiant heat exchanger can be achieved. Stefan Boltzmann constant σ = 5.67 X10-8
W/m2K4
5. A cylindrical furnace of 20cm diameter and 20 cm height is maintained at temperature of 650˚C
over its entire volume. The total pressure of combustion gases is 1 atm the mixture contains 11%
CO2 and 10.5% H2O by volume. Calculate the emissivity of the gaseous mixture.
6. Two parallel Black discs of diameter 0.5m placed 1m apart and are maintained at 1000˚C and
500˚C respectively. Calculate the heat flow between the discs if they are connected by
reradiating wall.
7. Two large parallel having emmissivities of 0.4 and 0.6 are maintained at 1000˚C and 500˚C
respectively. The radiation shield having an ε of 0.03 on both sides is placed between two plates.
Determine
(i) Heat transfer rate/unit area before and after placing the shield
(ii) Temperature of shield when placed.
8. The radiation received by earth’s surface on a clear day with the sun overhead is 1 kW/m2 and an
additional 0.3 is absorbed by the earth’s atmosphere. Calculate approximately the temperature of
the sun, assuming its radius to be 700000km and the distance between the sun and the earth to
be150,000,000 km. the sun may be assumed to behave as a black body.

19
 9. Calculate the radiation heat exchange for unit area between two parallel infinite wall, the
temperature of which are 400˚C and 100˚C if
(i) Both are black surfaces
(ii) Wall at 400˚C is black body and wall of 100˚C is grey with emissivity of 0.5.
(iii) Both walls are grey with emmissivities of 0.8 and 0.5 respectively assume Stefan
– Boltzmann constant as 4.92x 10-8 kcal/hr.m2.K4
10. A black body emits radiation at 2000K. Calculate monochromatic emissive power 1µm wave
length, wavelength at which the emission is maximum and the maximum emissive power.
Part A

1. Define Radiation and give two examples?

2. Define Absorptivity, Reflectivity and Transmissivity?
3. Define Black body.
4. Define White Body?
5. Define Graybody?
6. Differentiate grey body and black body.
7. Define Emissivity?
8. Differentiate between Specular and Diffuse surfaces?
9. What are the characteristics of a black body?
10. Write the Planck’s equation?
11. State Planck’s law.
12. State the wein’s displacement law?
13. State the Stefan Boltzmann law?
14. What is meant by monochromatic emission?
15. What is monochromatic radiating power?
16. State Kirchhoff’s law?
17. Write the factors which affect (or) determine the rate of radiant heat exchange between two
bodies?
18. Define view factor (or) shape factor (or) Configuration factor?
19. What is called overall Interchange factor?
20. Define Radiation shield?
21. Define the term “radiation Intensity”
22. Radiation error in temperature measurement.
Part-B

1. Explain the concept of black body. What are its characteristics?

2. Describe the following radiation laws in detail: (i) Planck’s Law (ii) Wein’s Displacement Law
(iii) Stefan-Boltzman’s Law (iv) Kirchoff’s Law
3. Explain the grey body concept and derive the Kirchoff’s Law.
4. Derive an expression for radiation heat exchange between two parallel surfaces or planes.

20
5. Derive the equivalent emissivity for radiation exchange between small gray bodies and large
parallel gray planes.
6. Derive an expression for radiation heat exchange by radiation between the two non black bodies.
7. Explain the experimental determination of emissivity.(5)
8. Explain the relation between emissivity and absortivity.
9. Explain the effect of radiation shield kept between two radiating surfaces.

21