AP Government GATE Online

Classes

Heat Transfer
Day-6 (31.05.2020)
Dr. R. Srikanth
Professor
ANITS-Visakhapatnam
RADIATION HEAT TRANSFER
 Introduction
• Radiation H.T is defined as “ the transfer of energy across
a system boundary by means of an electromagnetic
mechanism which is caused by a ‘Temperature’
difference.
• Where as H.T by conduction & convection takes place
only in the presence of medium, Radiation H.T doesn’t
require a medium.
• Radiation exchange occurs most effectively in vacuum.
• The rate of H.T by conduction & convection varies as
the ‘Temp’ difference to the 1st power, where as the
radiant heat exchange b/w two bodies depends on the
difference b/w their temperature to the 4th power.
 Introduction
• Both the amount of radiation & the quality of radiation depend
upon ‘Temp’.
• Ex. of H.T by radiation:
• 1.The dissipation from the filament of a vacuum tube.
• 2.Heat leakage through the evacuated walls of a thermo flask.
• All substances at temperatures above absolute ‘0’,emit radiation
that is independent of external agencies.
• The solar ‘Energy’ incident upon the earth is also governed by
the “laws of radiation”.
• The ‘Energy’ which radiating surfaces releases is not continuous,
but is in the form of successive & separate quanta of energy is
called “Photons”.
 RADIATIVE HEAT TRANSFER

• Radiation is a form of electromagnetic energy transfer

• Thermal radiation is the electromagnetic radiation
emitted by a body as a result of its temperature.
• There are many types of electromagnetic radiation;
thermal is only one of them.
• The distinction b/w one form of radiation & another lies
only in its frequency & wavelength related by : C=λ* f
• It propagated at the speed of light, 3×108 m/s.
• The wavelength of thermal radiation lies in the range
from 0.1 to 100 µm.
• Visible light has wavelength from 0.4 to 0.7 µm.
 RADIATIVE HEAT TRANSFER

• The sun with an effective surface temperature of

5760 K
• emits most of its at the extreme lower end of the
spectrum 0.1 to 4 µm (µm = 10-6 m).
• The radiations from a lamp filament are in the range
of 1 to 10 µm.
• Most solids and liquids have a continuous spectrum;
they emit radiations of all wavelengths.
 The Emission Process

• For gases and semitransparent

solids, emission is a volumetric
phenomenon.

• In most solids and liquids the

radiation emitted from interior
molecules is strongly absorbed by
adjoining molecules.
• Only the surface molecules can
emit radiation.
 Surface emission properties

• Gases and vapors radiate energy only at certain bands

of wavelength and hence are called selective emitters.
• The emission of thermal radiation depends upon the
nature, temperature and state of the emitting surface.
• However with gases the dependence is also upon the
thickness of the emitting layer and the gas pressure.
 Wave length of RADIATION
• OVERALL ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
 THERMAL RADIATION
• Defined over a range of the electromagnetic
spectrum from λ = 0.1 μm to λ = 100 μm.
• visible is a section of the thermal spectrum.

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 Wave length of RADIATION
• Known electromagnetic radiations cover an enormous range of
wave lengths, from the short cosmic rays having
wavelengths10-11cm to long wave broadcasting waves having
wavelengths of 1000m.
• Radiation of a single wavelength is called “monochromatic”.
• Electromagnetic spectrum wavelength range:0.5 & 50μm.
• Visible light : 0.38-0.78μm.
• Thermal radiation at ordinary industrial temperatures has
wavelength in Infrared spectrum.
• At temperatures above 5000c heat radiation in the visible
spectrum.
 Fundamental facts concerning Radiation:
Absorptivity(α), Reflectivity(β) and Transmitivity(γ)

The total radiant energy

impinging upon a body be
(1) partially absorbed by it ,
(2) reflected from its surface
or
(3) transmitted through it
in accordance with the
characteristics of the body.
 Absorptivity, Reflectivity and Transmissivity
(contd.)

Qa  Qr  Qt  Q0
α absorptivity
Q a Q r Qt
  1 β reflectivity
Q0 Q0 Q0
γ transmitivity

α+β+γ=1

The values of these quantities depend upon the nature

of the surface of the bodies, its temperature and
wavelength of incident rays.
 BLACK BODY
• A body which absorbs all incident radiation is called
black body.
• For black body,

α = 1, β β= 0, γ= 0
• Snow is nearly black to thermal radiations. α = 0.985
• The absorptivity of surfaces can be increased to 90-95% by
coating their surfaces with lamp black or dark range paint.
• In actual practice, there does not exist a perfectly black body
that will absorb all the incident radiations.
 Emissivity

• A black body is an ideal emitter.

• The energy emitted by any real surface is less than the energy emitted
by a black body at the same temperature.
• At a defined temperature, a black body has the highest
monochromatic emissive power at all wavelengths.
• The ratio of the monochromatic emissive power El to the
monochromatic blackbody emissive power Ebl at the same
temperature is the spectral hemispherical emissivity of the surface.

El
 (l ) 
Ebl
 Specular body and absolutely white body

• A body that reflects all the incident thermal

radiations is called a specular body (if reflection
is regular)

• or an absolutely white body (if the reflection is

diffused).

• For such bodies,

β = 1, α = 0, γ =0
 Reflections

θ
θ
θ

Specular Reflection Diffuse Reflection

 Opaque body
• When no incident radiation is transmitted
through the body is called Opaque body.

• Opaque materials are those which light

cannot pass through.

For Opaque material: α+ β =1

γ =0
 GRAY BODY (α=ε)
• If the radiative properties α,β,γ of a body are
assumed to be uniform over the entire wavelength
then such a body is called “gray body”.
• Absorptivity remains constant over the range of
temperature and wavelength of incident radiation.
• For a real body, it does not satisfy the condition of
constant.
• So Gray body is a concept only.
 Transparent or Diathermaneous.
• A body that allows all the incident radiations to
pass through it is called transparent or
diathermaneous.

• For such bodies, β = 0, α = 0, γ=1

• Transmissivity varies with wavelength of incident radiation.
• A material may be transparent for certain wavelengths and
non-transparent for other wavelengths.
• A thin glass plate transmits most of the thermal radiations from
sun, but absorbs in equally great measure the thermal
radiations emitted from the low temperature interior of a
building.
 BLACK BODY RADIATION

The energy emitted by a black surface varies with

(i) wavelength,
(ii) temperature and
(iii) surface characteristics of a body.

For a given wavelength, the body radiates more energy at

elevated temperatures.
 Stefan- Boltzman Law

• The total emissive power E of a surface is defined as the total

radiant energy emitted by the surface in all directions over the
entire wavelength range per unit surface area per unit time.

• The amount of radiant energy emitted per unit time from unit
area of black surface is proportional to the fourth power of its
absolute temperature.

E b   bT 4

where  b  5.67  10 8 W/m2K4, Stefan-Boltzman constant

 Planck ‘s Law
Based on experimental evidence, Planck suggested the
following law for the spectral distribution of emissive power
for a fixed temperature

5
l
El b  2C 2
h
 Ch 
exp  1
 klT 
 Symbols

where
h = Planck’s constant, 6.625610-34 J-s
C = Velocity of light in vacuum, 2.998108 m/s
K = Boltzman constant, 13.80210-24 J/K
l = wavelength of radiation waves, m
T = absolute temperature of black body, K
 Simplification
The Equation may be written as

5
C1l
El b 
 C2 
exp  1
 lT 
where

C1  2C h  3.742  10
2 16
Wm2

2
C 2  1.4389 10 mK
 Wien’s Displacement Law

The wavelength associated with maximum rate of emission

depends upon the absolute temperature of the radiating surface.
For maximum rate of emission,

d
E l   0
dl

 5 
d  C1 l 
 

dl  exp C 2
 lT  
1 

0
 Simplification

expC lT  1C  5l  C l expC lT  C

2
1
6
1
5 2
2 / T  1l 2
0
expC lT  1
2
2

C2   C2 
  exp    1  0
5lT   lT 

The above equation is solved by trial and error method to get

C2
 4.965
lT
 For Maximum Emission

C2 1.4388 10 2
 l max T    2.898 10 3  0.0029 mK
4.965 4.965

lmax denotes the wavelength at which emissive

power is maximum

Statement of Wein’s Displacement law

The product of the absolute temperature and the wavelength,
at which the emissive power is maximum, is constant.

Wein’s displacement law finds application in the prediction of a

very high temperature through measurement of wavelength.
 Kirchoff’s Law
• The surfaces are arranged parallel and so close to each other so
that the radiations from one fall totally on the other.
• Let E be the radiant emitted by non-black surface and gets fully
absorbed.
• Eb is emitted by the black surface and strikes non-black surface.
• If the non-black surface has absorptivity , it will absorb Eb
and the remainder (1-)Eb will be reflected back for full
absorption at the black surface.

• Radiant interchange for the non-black surface equals (E - Eb).

• If both the surfaces are at the same temperature, T = Tb, then
the resultant interchange of heat is zero.
 Kirchhoff's Law Fig

Radiant Heat exchange between black and non- black surfaces

 Kirchoff’s Law contd.

E
Then, E - Eb =0 or,  Eb

The relationship can be extended by considering different
surfaces in turn as

E1 E2 E3 Eb
   ................................   E b  f (T )
1 2 3 b

b (absorptivity for black surface is unity.)

 Statement of Kirchoff’s Law

E
Also, we have, 
Eb

  

The emissivity and absorptivity of a real surface are

equal for radiation with identical temperatures and
wavelengths.
 Lambert’s cosine law
• The total emissive power from a radiating plane
surface in any direction directly proportional to the
cosine of the angle of emission.
• The angle of emission ‘θ’ is the angle subtended by
the normal to the radiating surface & the direction
vector of emission of the receiving surface.
• If εn be the total emissive power of the radiating
surface in the direction of its normal.
• This equation is true only for diffuse radiation
surface.
• εθ = εn * cosθ
 Spectral and Spatial Distribution

• Magnitude of radiation at any wavelength

(monochromatic) and spectral distribution are found to
vary with nature and temperature of the emitting
surface.

• A surface element emits radiation in all directions; the

intensity of radiation is however different in different
directions.
 SPECTRAL ENERGY DISTRIBUTION

• (El)b : denotes monochromatic (single wavelength)

emissive power is defined as the energy emitted by
the black surface (in all directions) at a given
wavelength per unit wavelength interval around l.

• The rate of energy emission in the interval dl =

(El)bdl.

• The variation of distribution of monochromatic

emission power with wavelength is called the spectral
energy distribution.
Radiation Distribution

• Radiation is a continuous
function of wavelength.

• Magnitude increases with

temp.

• At higher temps, more

radiation is at shorter
wavelengths.

• Solar radiation peak is in

the visible range.
SPECTRAL ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
Graph
 Features of Spectral Energy Distribution
• The monochromatic emissive power varies across the wavelength
spectrum, the distribution is continuous, but non-uniform.
• The emitted radiation is practically zero at zero wavelength. With
increase in wavelength, the monochromatic emissive power
increases and attains a certain maximum value.
• With further increase in wavelength, the emissive power drops
again to almost zero value at infinite wavelength.
• At any wavelength the magnitude of the emitted radiation
increases with increasing temperature.
• The wavelength at which the monochromatic emissive power is
maximum, shifts in the direction of shorter wavelengths as the
temperature increases.
 Emissive Power
• The monochromatic energy emitted by a radiating surface
depends on the (a)’T’ of the surface (b) Wavelength of the
radiation.
• Monochromatic Radiating Power (Wλ):-
• The monochromatic radiation from unit area in unit time divided
by the wavelength is called “Monochromatic Radiating Power”.
• Total radiating Power (W):-
• For the entire spectrum of the radiation from a surface, the total
radiating power (W) is the sum of all the monochromatic
radiations from the surface.
• Graphically, ’W’ is the entire area under any of
the curve shown in fig. from wavelength of
0→∞.

• Physically, the total radiating power is the

total radiation of all wave lengths emitted by
unit area in unit time in all directions through
a hemisphere centered on the area.
 Black-body radiation :Emissivity
• A black body has the maximum attainable
emissive power at any given ‘T’.
• Emissivity= It is the ratio of Total emissive
power(W) of a body to the Total emissive
power(Wλ) of a black body. ε=W/Wb.

• Monochromatic emissivity (ελ): It is the ratio of

monochromatic emissive power of a body(Wλ)
to monochromatic emissive power of a black
body (W b,λ) at the wavelength ε=Wλ/Wb,λ.
 Absorption of radiation by Opaque solids
• When radiation falls on a solid body, a definite fraction
(ρ) may be reflected & the remaining fraction (1- ρ)
enters the solid to be either transmitted or absorbed.

• Most solids absorb radiation of all wavelengths, the

transmitivity=0 & all non-reflected radiation is
completely absorbed in a thin surface layer of the solid.

• Since the transmitivity of an opaque solid is zero, the

sum of the reflectivity & the absorptivity is unity & the
factors that influence reflectivity affect absorptivity in
the opposite sense.
• In general, the reflectivity of an opaque solid depends on the ‘T’ &
character of the surface, the material of which the surface is made,
the wavelength of the incident radiation & the angle of incidence.

• Two main types of reflection are :

• 1.Specular 2.Diffuse.

• 1.Specular reflection : The reflected beam makes a definite angle

with the surface & the angle of incidence=the angle of reflection.

• The reflectivity from these surfaces approaches unity,&

absorptivity approaches zero.

• Dull surfaces reflect diffusely in all directions, there is no definite

angle of reflection & the absorptivity can approach unity.
 2.Diffuse reflection
• Most industrial surfaces to the chemical engineer give diffuse reflection & in
practical cases assumption made that reflectivity & absorptivity are
independent of angle of incidence.

• This assumption is equivalent to the cosine law, which states that for a
perfectly diffusing surface is independent of the angle from which the surface
is viewed.

• This is true ,whether the radiation is emitted by the surface, giving diffuse
radiation or is reflected by giving “ diffuse reflection”.

• The reflectivity may vary with the wavelength of the incident radiation & the
absorptivity of the entire beam is then, a weighed average of the
monochromatic absorptivities & depends upon the entire spectrum of the
incident radiation.

• If the surface of the gray body gives diffuse radiation its monochromatic
absorptivity is also independent of the angle of incident of the radiant beam.
 Reflections

θ
θ
θ

Specular Reflection Diffuse Reflection

Previous GATE Questions
SOLVED PROBLEMS
Q1:
For an ideal black body,
(A) absorptivity = 1 (B) reflectivity = 1
(C) emissivity = zero (D) transmissibility = 1

Answer: A
Q2:

Answer: C
Q3:
In a completely opaque medium, if 50% of the incident monochromatic
radiation is absorbed, then which of the following statements are CORRECT?
(P) 50% of the incident radiation is reflected
(Q) 25% of the incident radiation is reflected
(R) 25% of the incident radiation is transmitted
(S) No incident radiation is transmitted

A. P and S only
B. Q and R only
C. P and Q only
D. R and S only

Answer:
For a completely opaque system τ = 0 => S
Given α= 0.5
α+τ+γ=1
So, γ = 0.5 => P
Final Ans is (A) P and S only.
Q4:
A hole of area 1 cm2 is opened on the surface of
a large spherical cavity whose inside
temperature is maintained at 727 °C. The value
of Stefan-Boltzmann constant is 5.67×10-8
W/m2-K4. Assuming black body radiation, the
rate at which the energy is emitted (in W) by the
cavity through the hole, up to 3 digits after the
decimal point, is ________
Q5:
An insulated cylindrical pipe of 0.2m diameter has a
surface temperature of 45°C. It is exposed to black
body surroundings at 25°C. The emissivity and
absorptivity of the insulation surface are 0.96 and
0.93, respectively. The convective heat transfer
coefficient outside the insulation surface is
3.25W/m2-K. The Stefan-Boltzmann constant is
5.67×10-8W/m2 K4 . The surrounding fluid may be
assumed to be transparent. Find the percentage
contribution from radiation to the total heat
transfer rate to the surroundings.
(A) 30.9 (B) 50.0
(C) 57.6 (D) 68.4
Q6:
A black body at a higher temperature TH
transfers energy by radiation to a black body at a
lower temperature TL. Initially TH = 1850°C, TL =
500°C and the net rate of energy transfer is 25W.
After some time, when TH = 1500°C and TL =
750°C, what is the net rate of energy transfer?
(A) 8.73W (B) 9.60W
(C) 13.89W (D) 11.01W
Q7:
A Black body of finite dimension at 1000K is
inserted into an infinite medium at 300K. Given
Stefan Boltzmann constant as 5.8×10-8 W/m2K4,
the radiative heat transfer coefficient is
Q8:
A horizontal steam pipe 20m long, 50mm
internal diameter, 60mm outside diameter loses
13.5 kW heat to the surroundings at 310 K. the
pipe carries steam at 500 K. given that the
convective heat transfer coefficient hc =
1.65(ΔT)0.25 W/m2K, and the Stefan Boltzmann
constant as 5.87×10-8 W/m2K4. Find the
emissivity of the bare pipe.
Q9:
Consider three infinite parallel plates. Plate 1 is
maintained at 1227 °C and plate 3 is maintained
at -175°C. Emissivities are equal to that of black
body. Plate 2 is placed between plate 1 and 3,
and receives no heat from external sources.
What is the temperature of plate 2?
Q10:
The maximum emissive power of a surface at a
temperature T occurs at a wavelength of λ. If the
surface temperature is halved, the maximum in the
emissive power would occur at a wavelength of
A. λ
B. 0.5λ
C. 2λ
D. Cannot determine.
Answer: C (Wien’s displacement Law)
Q11:
In thermal radiation, for a black body –
A. α = 1 and ε ≠ 1
B. α ≠ 1 and ε = 1
C. α ≠ 1 and ε ≠ 1
D. α = 1 and ε = 1

Answer: D
Q12:
The thermal radiative flux from a surface of
emissivity = 0.4 is 22.68 kW/m2. The
approximate surface temperature is (K); take
Stefan Boltzmann constant as 5.67×10-8 W/m2K4
A. 1000
B. 727
C. 800
D. 1200
Q13:
The radiation heat flux from a heating element
at a temperature of 800°C, in a furnace
maintained at 300 is 8kW/m2. The flux when the
element temperature is increased to 1000 for
the same furnace is (kW/m2):
A. 11.2
B. 12.0
C. 14.6
D. 16.5
Q14:
The heat transfer by radiation from a mild steel
surface is to be reduced by reducing the emissivity
of the surface. This can be best achieved by
_______
A. Painting the surface black
B. Painting the surface white
C. Giving the surface mirror finish
D. Roughening the surface

Answer: B (need to reduce the absorptivity)