Course Name: Heat Transfer

Course Code: UME 720

Topic: Thermal Radiation

by
Dr. Madhup Kumar Mittal
Associate Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Thapar Institute of Engineering & Technology
Fundamentals of Thermal Radiation
1. Radiation is the energy emitted by a body in the form Electric field wave
of energy waves which are also called Magnetic field wave
electromagnetic waves because they consist of both
electric and magnetic field waves. That is why
radiation emitted by a body is also called
electromagnetic radiation.

2. Electromagnetic radiation can be described as a stream Photons

Flashlight
of photons, which are massless particles each travelling
in a wave-like pattern and moving at the speed of light.

3. There are many types of electromagnetic radiation such as gamma ray radiation, X-ray radiation,
microwave radiation, thermal radiation etc.

4. Different types of electromagnetic radiations are produced through various mechanisms. For example,
gamma rays are produced by nuclear reactions, X-rays by the bombardment of metals with high-
energy electrons, microwaves by special types of electron tubes such as klystrons and magnetrons.
continued….
Fundamentals of Thermal Radiation
5. In 1864, James Maxwell observed an interesting mechanism which also produced electromagnetic radiations.
He observed that electromagnetic radiations are produced whenever electric charges accelerate, decelerate or
change the direction of their movement.
accelerates electromagnetic
electromagnetic
or decelerate radiation
radiation

change of direction

6. The observations of Maxwell can be used as an explanation for emission of radiation from any hot material.
➢ In a hot solid material, the molecules continuously vibrate. The electromagnetic
continuous vibration of molecules in solids results in production vibrating radiation
charge electromagnetic
of electromagnetic radiations. radiation
➢ In hot liquid or gas, the molecules collide with each other
randomly, send each other off in different directions at different
speeds. The collision of molecules in liquid and gases result in Solid material Liquid or gas
production of electromagnetic radiations.
➢The amount of radiation emitted from a hot material depends on the temperature of the material producing
the radiation. The radiation emitted by a body as a result of its temperature is called Thermal Radiation.
Fundamentals of Thermal Radiation
Thermal Radiation
• Thermal radiation is the thermal energy emitted by a body in the form of electromagnetic waves as a
result of its temperature.

• Electromagnetic waves can be described as a stream of massless energy particles, called photons
(proposed by Max Planck), each moving at the speed of light in a wave like pattern whose wavelength is
given by 𝝀 = 𝒄Τ𝝂.

• Each photon is considered to have an energy of 𝑬 = 𝒉. 𝒄Τ𝝀, where h = 6.62×10-34 J.s is Planck’s constant.

• The strength or energy of thermal radiation emitted by a body depends upon the temperature of body.
As E ∝ 1/λ, thermal radiation emitted by bodies at low temperature (or at room temperature) has high
wavelength and vice-versa.
Photons
Flashlight

Continued…
Fundamentals of Thermal Radiation
Thermal Radiation
• All bodies at a temperature above absolute zero emit thermal radiations over a wide range of wavelength. However,
most of the thermal radiation (≈ 99%) emitted by a body lies in the wavelength range of 0.1 to 100 μm, hence the
thermal radiation is also defined as the portion of electromagnetic spectrum that extends from 0.1 to 100 μm.
• The radiation emitted by bodies at room temperature lies in the infrared range of spectrum.
• Bodies start emitting noticeable radiation (radiation in visible range) at temperatures above 527°C (800 K).
visible 𝑬 = 𝒉. 𝒄Τ𝝀

A surface that reflects red while

absorbing the remaining parts of the
Spectrum of Electromagnetic Radiation incident light appears red to the eye
Fundamentals of Thermal Radiation
Concept of Black Body
• A Black body is an idealized body which is used as a standard body against which the radiative
properties of real bodies are compared.

• A Black body is a perfect absorber,

i.e., it absorbs all the incident radiation.

Black body Real body

All radiation absorbed Partial radiation absorbed

• A Black body is also a perfect emitter, i.e., at a specified temperature, no surface can emit more
energy than a black body. Eblackbody > Erealbody

Both bodies at the same temperature T

Fundamentals of Thermal Radiation
Planck’s law for black body radiation
A body emits radiation in all directions

Violet
Red
over a wide range of wavelength. In 1901,
1014 Visible light region
Max Planck developed the following 5800 K
relation for the amount of radiation energy A body emits radiation 4000 K
in all directions 1012 Locus of max. power
emitted per unit time, per unit surface area, λT = 2898 μm-k
at a wavelength λ by a black body at an 1010
2000 K

Eb (λ), W/m2-μm
1000 K
absolute temperature T.
500 K
108
300 K
106

104 100 K

102
Eb(λ, T) is called monochromatic (single wavelength)
1
emissive power of black body. 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
λ (μm)
Fundamentals of Thermal Radiation
Total emissive power of black body (Stefan-Boltzman Law)
The total emissive power of a black body [Eb(T)] is defined as the total radiant energy emitted in all directions
over the entire wavelength range, per unit time, per unit surface area, by a black body at an absolute temperature T.

𝜆=∞

𝐸𝑏 𝑇 = න 𝐸𝑏 𝜆, 𝑇 𝑑𝜆
𝜆=0

𝐸𝑏 𝜆, 𝑇

𝐸𝑏 𝜆, 𝑇
𝜆=∞
𝐶1
= න 𝑑𝜆
𝜆5 𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝐶2 Τ𝜆𝑇 − 1
𝜆=0

𝐸𝑏 𝑇
= 5.67 × 10−8 𝑇4 = 𝜎𝑏 𝑇4

𝐸𝑏 𝑇 = 𝜎𝑏 𝑇 4 (W/m2) dλ λ

where, σb = Stefan-Boltzman constant = 5.67×10−8 W/m2-K4

Fundamentals of Thermal Radiation
Monochromatic Emissivity (ελ) of non-black body (real body) T = const.
The ratio of the monochromatic emissive power of a real body [E(λ,T)] to
the monochromatic emissive power of black body [Eb(λ,T)] at the same E (λ)
wavelength and temperature is called the monochromatic emissivity of
real body.
𝐸(𝜆, 𝑇)
𝜀𝜆 =
𝐸𝑏 (𝜆. 𝑇)
λ

Emissivity (ε) of non-black body (real body) ελ

The ratio of the total emissive power of a real body [E(T)] to the total Blackbody, ε =1
1
emissive power of black body [Eb(T)], both being at the same temperature, ε = average emissivity for
non-black body
is called the average emissivity or simply the emissivity of non-black body.
𝜆=∞
𝐸(𝑇) ‫=𝜆׬‬0 𝐸 𝜆, 𝑇 𝑑𝜆 𝐸(𝑇)
𝜀= = 𝜆=∞
𝐸𝑏 (𝑇) ‫׬‬ 𝐸 𝜆, 𝑇 𝑑𝜆
=
𝜎𝑏 𝑇 4 ελ for non-black body
𝜆=0 𝑏 0
0 λ
∴ 𝐸(𝑇) = 𝜀 𝐸𝑏 (𝑇) = 𝜀 𝜎𝑏 𝑇 4 = Emissive power of any real body at temperature T
Fundamentals of Thermal Radiation
Absorptivity, reflectivity and transmissivity of a body
When a radiant energy emitted by a body impinges upon a semi-transparent body, a portion of it is absorbed, a part
of it is reflected back and the remaining portion is transmitted as shown in the Fig. below:

……(1)
Absorbed radiation
semi-transparent (Ga)
body
Transmitted
radiation (Gt)

• The absorptivity, reflectivity and transmissivity of real body are not constant. 1 αavg
αλ
Rather, they vary with the wavelength of radiation impinging on it.
0 λ
• The absorptivity (α), reflectivity (ρ) and transmissivity (τ) in Eq. (1) are the 1 ρavg
ρλ
average values of monochromatic absorptivity (αλ), monochromatic
0 λ
reflectivity (ρλ) and monochromatic transmissivity (τλ) respectively, averaged 1 τavg
over the entire wavelength range of impinging radiation on the body. τλ
0 λ
Fundamentals of Thermal Radiation
Types of radiative bodies (radiative surfaces)
(1) Black Body (Black surface) Incident radiation

• A black body is one which absorbs all the radiation impinging on it. α =1
• For black body: α = 1; ρ = τ = 0
• Black body is also a perfect emitter, i.e., ε = 1 for black body. It means, at a
specified temperature, no surface can emit more energy than a black body.
𝐸(𝑇) = 𝜀 𝐸𝑏 (𝑇) = 𝜀 𝜎𝑏 𝑇 4
• There does not exists a perfectly black body which can absorb all the incident
radiation. Hence, black body is a hypothetical ideal body which is used as a
standard body against which the radiative properties of real bodies are
compared. Both bodies at the same temperature T

(2) Real Body (Non-black body, Non-black surface, Real surface) 1 αavg
• A real body is a non-black body which absorbs only a certain portion of total αλ
0 λ
radiation striking on it. Thus the absorptivity of a real body is blow unity (α < 1).
1 ρavg
• The absorptivity of a real body is wavelength dependent, i.e., the absorptivity ρλ
of a real body does not remain constant over the entire range of wavelength of 0 λ
incident radiation. Thus for real body: α < 1 and α = f (λ). 1 τavg
• The other radiation properties such as ρ, τ and ε are also less than one τλ
and wavelength dependent. 0 λ
continued….
Fundamentals of Thermal Radiation
(3) Gray Body (Gray surface) εreal surface
1 εgray surface
• For the purpose of simplification of analysis, all real bodies are ε
assumed to have constant values of radiation properties 0 λ
irrespective of wavelength of incident radiation. 1 α real surface α gray surface
α
• Thus for gray body: 0 λ
(α, ρ, τ & ε) < 1 and (α, ρ, τ & ε) ≠ f (λ). 1 ρ real surface ρ gray surface
ρ
• The condition of constant radiation properties too is not satisfied 0 λ
by the real body and as such gray body is also a hypothetical 1 τ real surface τ gray surface
concept like a black body. τ
0 λ
(4) Opaque Body (Opaque surface)
• An opaque body is one which does not allow any amount of radiation
to transmit through it. Thus for opaque body: τ = 0 and α + ρ =1.
• Since most of the solids and liquids encountered in engineering are
τ=0 Opaque body
almost non-transparent (opaque) to thermal radiation, all radiation
& α + ρ =1
thermal analysis is done by assuming bodies involved to be opaque. No radiation transmitted
Fundamentals of Thermal Radiation
Large enclosure behave like a black body
A large enclosure at temperature ‘T’ behave like a black body
because radiation emitted by an interior surface will undergo
multiple reflections and some amount of radiation will be
absorbed by inner surface upon each reflection. Hence entire
radiation will be eventually absorbed by the enclosure.

Kirchoff’s Law of Radiation

Kirchoff’s law of radiation states that the ratio of the emissive power ‘E’ to the absorptivity ‘α’ is same
for all the bodies which are in thermal equilibrium with their surrounding enclosure.

Large enclosure at Large enclosure at Large enclosure at 𝐸1 𝐸2 𝐸3 𝐸𝑛

2 temp. T 3 = = =
1 temp. T temp. T 𝛼1 𝛼2 𝛼3 𝛼𝑛
Small body 1 (α1) Small body 2 (α2) Small body 3 (α3)
at temp. T at temp. T at temp. T

continued….
Proof of Kirchoff’s Law of Radiation
Let us consider a large enclosure which encloses a small body ‘1’ of surface area A1.
Let us assume both the enclosure and body are at the same temperature T. Under the Large enclosure at
steady state condition, thermal equilibrium must exist between the body and the 1 temp. T
enclosure, i.e.
Radiation emitted by the body (1) = radiation absorbed by the body (1)
Small body 1 (A1,
𝐸 (𝑇) …(1)
𝐴1 𝐸1 𝑇 = 𝛼1 𝐴1 𝐸𝑏 (𝑇) or, 𝐸𝑏 (𝑇) = 1 α1, ε1) at temp. T
𝛼1
Now we remove body ‘1’ and replace it by body ‘2’ having surface
area A2, absorptivity α2 and emissivity ε2. In this case, we may write:
𝐸 (𝑇) …(2) Large enclosure at
𝐴2 𝐸2 𝑇 = 𝛼2 𝐴2 𝐸𝑏 (𝑇) or, 𝐸𝑏 (𝑇) = 2
𝛼2 2 temp. T
𝐸1 (𝑇) 𝐸2 (𝑇) 𝐸3 (𝑇)
Thus in general we can write: = = = … … … 𝐸𝑏 (𝑇) …(3) Small body 2 (A2,
𝛼1 𝛼2 𝛼3
α2, ε2) at temp. T
From above Eq. (3), we can also write that for any radiating body (having 𝐸(𝑇)
= 𝛼 …(4)
absorptivity α) which is in thermal equilibrium with the surrounding : 𝐸𝑏 (𝑇)
We also know that the ratio of the emissive power of a real body (E) to the emissive power of black body (Eb), both being at
the same temperature, is called the emissivity of body, i.e., 𝐸(𝑇)
𝜀= …(5) ⸫ from Eq.(4) and Eq.(5),
𝐸𝑏 (𝑇) we have α = ε
Thus, Kirchoff’s law of radiation also states that the absorptivity of a body is equal to its emissivity when the body is in
thermal equilibrium with its surroundings.
Radiation Heat Transfer Between Surfaces
Radiation heat transfer between surfaces depends on: Surface-3 Surface-2

• Temperatures of the surfaces

• Radiation properties of the surfaces

• Orientation of surfaces relative to each other Surface-1

Shape factor (View factor, geometric factor, configuration factor)

• Shape factor is defined as the fraction of radiative energy that is radiated from one surface and strikes the
other surface directly.
Direct radiation from surface "1" incident upon surface "𝟐"
F12 =
Total radiation radiated from surface"1"

Direct radiation from surface "2" incident upon surface "𝟏"

• Similarly F21 =
Total radiation radiated from surface"2"

• In general, Fij represents the fraction of the radiation leaving surface ‘i’ that strikes surface ‘j’ directly
Radiation Heat Transfer Between Surfaces
Salient features of shape factor
When two surfaces 1 & 2, of area A1 and A2
respectively, exchange radiant energy with each
other, the shape factor follows reciprocity
theorem, i.e., 2 ,A 2
A1F12 = A2F21
1 , A1
A concave surface has a shape factor with respect
to itself because the radiant energy coming out
from one part of the surface is intercepted by the
another part of the same surface. The shape
factor with respect to itself for surface ‘1’ is
denoted as F11.
1 from the exterior surface of inside
F11 ≠ 0
For a flat surface or convex surface, shape factor with respect to itself
is zero as no radiation leaving from their surfaces strikes themselves.
F11 = 0
F11 = 0
If a enclosure consists of many surfaces, N 1
then each surfaces of enclosure follows
2
the following relation for shape factor.
F11 + F12 + F13 +………..+F1N = 1 3
F21 + F22 + F23 +………..+F2N = 1
This is known as conservation
…………………………………..
principle or summation rule.
FN1 + FN2 + FN3 +………..+FNN = 1
Enclosure
Shape factor for a body inside a
enclosure is 1 as all radiation leaving 2
1 Inner body
body strikes the enclosure surface. (sphere)
F12 = 1
Radiation Heat Transfer Between Surfaces
Determine the shape factor from any one For surface-1 Thus, for surface-1
surface to any other surface for the following F11 + F12 + F13 = 1 F11 = 0
enclosure configuration:
F11 = 0 (because it is a flat surface) F12 = 0.5
⸫ F12 + F13 = 1 F13 = 0.5
and, F12 = F13 (By symmetry) Similarly for surface-2
2 3 ⸫ F12 = F13 = 0.5 F22 = 0
2
1 3 F23 = 0.5
1
F21 = 0.5
A tube with cross-section
of an equilateral triangle Similarly for surface-3
F33 = 0
F31 = 0.5

F32 = 0.5
Radiation Heat Transfer Between Surfaces
Determine the shape factor from any one For plane surface-1
surface to any other surface for the following F11 + F12 = 1
enclosure configuration:
F11 = 0 (because it is a flat surface)
⸫ F12 = 1
2
r For hemispherical surface-2
F22 + F21 = 1

1 r We know that:
Plane surface A1F12 = A2F21 (By reciprocity theorem)
A1
∴ F21 = F
Hemispherical sphere of radius A2 12
r closed by a plane surface π𝑟 2
= × 1 = 0.5
1Τ2(4𝜋𝑟 2 )
⸫ F22 = 0.5
Radiation Heat Transfer Between Surfaces
Determine the shape factor from any one For surface-1 of inner sphere
surface to any other surface for the following F11 + F12 = 1
enclosure configuration:
F11 = 0 (because it is a convex surface)
Spherical enclosure
⸫ F12 = 1

2 For spherical enclosure surface-2

1 (sphere) F22 + F21 = 1
r A1F12 = A2F21 (By reciprocity theorem)
2r
A1
∴ F21 = F12
A2
Sphere of radius r inside spherical 4π𝑟 2
= 2
× 1 = 0.25
enclosure of radius 2r 4π(2𝑟)
⸫ F22 = 0.75
Radiation Heat Transfer Between Surfaces
Net radiation heat exchange between black surfaces
• Consider two black T1 > T2 • Amount of radiation energy leaving surface ‘1’
α=1 and striking surface ‘2’ is given by:
opaque surfaces of
ε=1
arbitrary shape of area
ρ=0 Q12 = 𝐴1 𝐹12 σb T14 W
A1 & A2, and maintained τ=0 • Similarly, the amount of radiation energy leaving
at uniform temperatures
surface ‘2’ and striking surface ‘1 ‘is given by:
T1 and T2 respectively, as
shown in Figure. Q21 = 𝐴2 𝐹21 σb T24 W

• Amount of radiation energy leaving surface ‘1’ per unit • The net rate of radiation heat transfer from
time per unit area is given by: surface ‘1’ to surface ‘2’ can be calculated as:
Eb1 = σb T14 WΤm2 Q12 𝑛𝑒𝑡 = Q12 − Q21
= 𝐴1 𝐹12 σb T14 − 𝐴2 𝐹21 σb T24
• Total amount of radiation energy leaving from entire
surface ‘1’ per unit time is given by: • By applying reciprocity relation (i.e., A1F12 = A2F21),
Q1 = 𝐴1 σb T14 W the above equation can be written as:
Q12 𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐴1 𝐹12 σb T14 − T24
Question
A small sphere (outside diameter = 60 mm) with a
surface temperature of 300°C is located at the
geometric centre of a large hollow sphere (inside
diameter = 360 mm) with an inner surface
temperature of 15°C. Calculate how much of
emission from the inner surface of the large sphere
is incident upon the outer surface of the small
sphere; assume that both sides approach black body
behaviour. Also determine the net interchange of
radiation heat between the two spheres.

Solution
The net interchange of heat between the two sphere is:
2
𝑄𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐴1 𝐹12 σb T14 − T24
r1
1 𝑄𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 4𝜋 × 0.032 × 1 × 5.67 × 10−8 300 + 273 4 − 15 + 273 4

r2 4 4
573 288
𝑄𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 0.0113 × 5.67 × − = 64.66 𝑊 (𝑨𝒏𝒔)
100 100
Radiation Heat Transfer Between Surfaces
Radiation Heat Transfer Between Gray (Non-Black) Surfaces
Irradiation (G)
It denotes the total radiant energy incident upon
unit surface area per unit time. Its unit is W/m2.

Radiosity (J)
It denotes the total radiant energy leaving from
unit surface area per unit time. Its unit is W/m2.
Opaque gray surface
J = εEb + ρ𝐺 = εσb T 4 + ρ𝐺 with emissivity ε &
at temperature T
For black surface, ε = 1 & ρ = 0

⸫ For black surface, J = Eb, i.e., the radiosity of

black surface is equal to its emissive power.
Radiation Heat Transfer Between Surfaces
Net Radiation Heat Transfer from or to a Gray Surface
Let us consider a opaque gray surface i of surface area
Ai and at a temperature Ti. Let Gi be the total radiant
Ji
energy incident upon the unit surface area per unit time.

For a surface i, the radiosity (Ji) can be expressed as:

𝐽𝑖 = 𝜀𝑖 𝐸𝑏𝑖 + 𝜌𝑖 𝐺𝑖 (W/m2) ....(1) Gi ρi G i εiEbi

For opaque surface i: 𝛼𝑖 +𝜌𝑖 = 1 𝑜𝑟, 𝜌𝑖 = 1 − 𝛼𝑖 Ai, εi

Surface i
since, 𝛼𝑖 = 𝜀𝑖 (from Kirchoff ′ s law) ∴ 𝜌𝑖 = 1 − 𝜀𝑖

⸫ Eq (1) can be written as:

𝐽𝑖 = 𝜀𝑖 𝐸𝑏𝑖 + 1 − 𝜀𝑖 𝐺𝑖

𝐽𝑖 − 𝜀𝑖 𝐸𝑏𝑖
𝑜𝑟, 𝐺𝑖 = ....(2)
1 − 𝜀𝑖
Continued…
Radiation Heat Transfer Between Surfaces
Net Radiation Heat Transfer from or to a Gray Surface

𝐽𝑖 − 𝜀𝑖 𝐸𝑏𝑖 Ji If, Gi > Ji

𝐺𝑖 = ....(2)
1 − 𝜀𝑖 Gi ρiGi εiEbi The net rate of heat transfer to surface
i can be expressed as:
Surface i Ai, εi 𝑄𝑖 = 𝐴𝑖 ( 𝐺𝑖 − 𝐽𝑖 ) (W)

If, Ji > Gi 𝐽𝑖 − 𝐸𝑏𝑖 𝐽𝑖 − 𝐸𝑏𝑖

⇒ 𝑄𝑖 = = ....(4)
The net rate of heat transfer from 1 − 𝜀𝑖 𝑅𝑖
Eq (3) can be represented 𝐴𝑖 𝜀𝑖
surface i of surface area Ai is in the form of electrical
denoted by Qi and is expressed as: network as given below:
Eq (4) can be represented in the form
𝑄𝑖 = 𝐴𝑖 ( 𝐽𝑖 − 𝐺𝑖 ) (W) V1 V2 Ji of electrical network as given below:
I
e 𝑉R Ji
𝐽𝑖 − 𝜀𝑖 𝐸𝑏𝑖 𝑉1 − 2 1−ε
𝑄𝑖 = 𝐴𝑖 𝐽𝑖 − 𝐼= Qi =
1 − 𝜀𝑖 𝑅𝑒 Aε
𝐴𝑖 𝜀𝑖 𝐸𝑏𝑖 − 𝐽𝑖 𝐸𝑏𝑖 − 𝐽𝑖 𝐸𝑏𝑖 − 𝐽𝑖 Surface i Qi 1−ε
⇒ 𝑄𝑖 = =
1 − 𝜀𝑖
= ....(3)
Ebi =
1 − 𝜀𝑖 𝑅𝑖 Aε
𝐴𝑖 𝜀𝑖
Surface i
The factor 𝑅𝑖 = (1 − 𝜀𝑖 )Τ𝐴𝑖 𝜀𝑖 is called surface resistance because this
resistance is related to surface properties of the radiating body. Ebi
Radiation Heat Transfer Between Surfaces
Radiation Heat Exchange Between Any Two Gray Surface
Let us consider two opaque gray surfaces i & j of surface area Ai & Aj, Surface j
and maintained at uniform temperatures Ti & Tj respectively.
Jj
Radiation heat exchange between surface i and
surface j can be expressed as: Ji

Surface i

Eq (1) can be represented in the form of

electrical network as given below:
𝑄𝑖𝑗 = 𝐴𝑖 𝐽𝑖 𝐹𝑖𝑗 − 𝐴𝑗 𝐽𝑗 𝐹𝑗𝑖
Surface j
By using reciprocity relation, i.e., Ai Fij = Aj Fji, above Eq. becomes
Jj
𝐽𝑖 − 𝐽𝑗 𝐽𝑖 − 𝐽𝑗
𝑄𝑖𝑗 = 𝐴𝑖 𝐹𝑖𝑗 𝐽𝑖 − 𝐽𝑗 𝑜𝑟, 𝑄𝑖𝑗 = = ....(1)
1 𝑅𝑖𝑗
𝐴𝑖 𝐹𝑖𝑗 Ji
The factor 𝑅𝑖𝑗 = 1Τ𝐴𝑖 𝐹𝑖𝑗 is called space resistance, because this resistance
is related to the gap and orientation between the radiating surfaces . Surface i
Radiation Heat Transfer in Two-Surface Enclosures
Let us consider an enclosure consisting of two opaque gray surfaces 1 & 2 of surface area A1 & A2, and maintained
at uniform temperatures T1 & T2 respectively. Surfaces 1 & 2 have emissivities ε1 & ε2 respectively.
T1 > T2 Ji
Gi ρiGi εiEbi
1 Q
Q1 Q12 Q2 1
Surface i Ai, εi Eb1 J1
1 − ε1
1 2
𝑄𝑖 = 𝐴𝑖 ( 𝐽𝑖 − 𝐺𝑖 ) (W) A1 ε1

1 2
As the surface 1 and surface 2 making an enclosure, so we can write: Q1 Q2
Q12
Net rate of radiation heat transfer from surface 1 (Q1) = Net radiation heat exchange J1 J2
1
between surface 1 and surface 2 (Q12) = Net rate of radiation heat transfer to surface 2 (Q2) 𝐴1 𝐹12
⸫ we can also write for an enclosure consisting of surfaces 1 & 2 that: 2
Net rate of radiation heat transfer from surface 1 to surface 2, (Q12)net = Q1 = Q12 = Q2 Q2
J2 Eb2
𝐸𝑏1 − 𝐽1 𝐽1 − 𝐽2 𝐽2 − 𝐸𝑏2
𝑄12 𝑛𝑒𝑡 = = = ...(1)
1 − 𝜀1 1 1 − 𝜀2
𝐴1 𝜀1 𝐴1 𝐹12 𝐴2 𝜀2
continued….
Radiation Heat Transfer in Two-Surface Enclosures
𝐸𝑏1 − 𝐽1 𝐽1 − 𝐽2 𝐽2 − 𝐸𝑏2
𝑄12 𝑛𝑒𝑡 = = = ...(1)
1 − 𝜀1 1 1 − 𝜀2 Q1 Q12 Q2
𝐴1 𝜀1 𝐴1 𝐹12 𝐴2 𝜀2
1 2

From above Eq. (1), we can write following three separate equations:
1 − 𝜀1 1 1 − 𝜀2
𝐸𝑏1 − 𝐽1 = 𝑄12 𝑛𝑒𝑡 ..(2) 𝐽1 − 𝐽2 = 𝑄12 𝑛𝑒𝑡 ..(3) 𝐽2 − 𝐸𝑏2 = 𝑄12 𝑛𝑒𝑡
..(4)
𝐴1 𝜀1 𝐴1 𝐹12 𝐴2 𝜀2

Adding Eqs. (2), (3) & (4), we get:

1 − 𝜀1 1 1 − 𝜀2 Eq (5) can be
𝐸𝑏1 − 𝐸𝑏2 = 𝑄12 𝑛𝑒𝑡 + +
𝐴1 𝜀1 𝐴1 𝐹12 𝐴2 𝜀2 represented in the
Q1 Q12 Q2
form of electrical E J1 J2
𝐸𝑏1 − 𝐸𝑏2 𝐸𝑏1 − 𝐸𝑏2 b1 Eb2
network as shown R1 R12 R2
⇒ 𝑄12 𝑛𝑒𝑡 = = ..(5)
1 − 𝜀1 1 1 − 𝜀2 𝑅1 + 𝑅12 + 𝑅2 in the fig.
𝐴1 𝜀1 + 𝐴1 𝐹12 + 𝐴2 𝜀2 1 2

𝜎𝑏 𝑇14 − 𝑇24
⇒ 𝑄12 𝑛𝑒𝑡 = If both the surfaces are black, i.e., ε1 = ε2 = 1, then this Eq. is reduced to
1 − 𝜀1 1 1 − 𝜀2
+ +
𝐴1 𝜀1 𝐴1 𝐹12 𝐴2 𝜀2 𝑄12 𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐴1 𝐹12 𝜎𝑏 𝑇14 − 𝑇24
Radiation Heat Transfer in Two-Surface Enclosures
The net radiation heat flow between two gray surfaces, forming an
enclosure, can be represented by an electric circuit as shown in Figure :
𝐸𝑏1 − 𝐸𝑏2 𝐴1 𝜎𝑏 𝑇14 − 𝑇24
𝑄12 𝑛𝑒𝑡 = =
1 − 𝜀1 1 1 − 𝜀2 1 − 𝜀1 1 1 − 𝜀2 𝐴1
+ + + +
𝐴1 𝜀1 𝐴1 𝐹12 𝐴2 𝜀2 𝜀1 𝐹12 𝜀2 . 𝐴2

Net radiation heat flow (Q12) for the common cases of two-surface enclosures of practical interest are given below:
Concentric spheres Very long Concentric cylinders
𝐴1 𝜎𝑏 𝑇14 − 𝑇24
𝑄12 𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐴1 𝜎𝑏 𝑇14 − 𝑇24
2 1 − 𝜀1 1 1 − 𝜀2 𝐴1 𝑄12 =
𝜀1 + 𝐹12 + 𝜀2 . 𝐴2
𝑛𝑒𝑡 1 − 𝜀1 1 1 − 𝜀2 𝐴1
1 + + .
1 𝜀1 𝐹12 𝜀2 𝐴2
𝐴1 4𝜋𝑟12 𝑟12 2
Here, F12 = 1 and = = 𝐴1 2𝜋𝑟1 𝐿 𝑟1
𝐴2 4𝜋𝑟22 𝑟22 Here, F12 = 1 and = =
𝐴2 2𝜋𝑟2 𝐿 𝑟2

𝐴1 𝜎𝑏 𝑇14 − 𝑇24 𝐴1 𝜎𝑏 𝑇14 − 𝑇24

∴ 𝑄12 𝑛𝑒𝑡 = = 𝐴1 𝜎𝑏 𝑇14 − 𝑇24 𝐴1 𝜎𝑏 𝑇14 − 𝑇24
1 − 𝜀1 1 − 𝜀2 𝑟12 1 1 − 𝜀2 𝑟12 ∴ 𝑄12 𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 1 − 𝜀 =
1 − 𝜀2 𝑟1 1 1 − 𝜀2 𝑟1
𝜀1 + 1 + 𝜀2 . 𝑟22 𝜀1 + 𝜀2 . 𝑟22 1
+ 1 + .
𝜀1 𝜀2 𝑟2 𝜀1 + 𝜀2 . 𝑟2
continued….
Radiation Heat Transfer in Two-Surface Enclosures
Very large parallel plates or surfaces close to each other Small object in a large enclosure

𝐴1 𝜎𝑏 𝑇14 − 𝑇24 𝐴1 𝜎𝑏 𝑇14 − 𝑇24

𝑄12 𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑄12 𝑛𝑒𝑡 =
1 − 𝜀1 1 1 − 𝜀2 𝐴1 1 − 𝜀1 1 1 − 𝜀2 𝐴1
+ + . + + .
𝜀1 𝐹12 𝜀2 𝐴2 𝜀1 𝐹12 𝜀2 𝐴2

Here, F12 = 1 and A1 = A2 = A 𝐴1

Here, F12 = 1 and →0
𝐴2
𝐴 𝜎𝑏 𝑇14 − 𝑇24 𝐴 𝜎𝑏 𝑇14 − 𝑇24 𝐴1 𝜎𝑏 𝑇14 − 𝑇24
∴ 𝑄12 𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 1 − 𝜀 = ∴ 𝑄12 𝑛𝑒𝑡 = = 𝜀1 𝐴1 𝜎𝑏 𝑇14 − 𝑇24
1 1 − 𝜀2 1 1 1 − 𝜀1
+1+ + −1 +1
𝜀1 𝜀2 𝜀1 𝜀2 𝜀1
Question Determine the heat lost by radiation per meter length of 80 mm diameter pipe at 300°C, if pipe is
Case-1: located in a large room with red brick walls at a temperature of 27°C;
Case-2: enclosed in a 160 mm diameter red brick conduit at a temperature of 27°C.
Take ε for pipe and brick conduit = 0.79 and 0.73 respectively.
Solution Case-1
Given:
• emissivity of pipe = ε1 = 0.79; • temperature of pipe = T1 = 300 + 273 = 573 K
• radius of pipe = r1 = 80/2 mm = 40 mm = 0.04 m • temperature of room = T2 = 27 + 273 = 300 K

Radiation heat flow between the pipe and large room is given by: Pipe (1)
Large room (2)
𝐸𝑏1 − 𝐸𝑏2 𝐴1 𝜎𝑏 𝑇14 − 𝑇24 ….(1)
𝑄12 = =
1 − 𝜀1 1 1 − 𝜀2 1 − 𝜀1 1 1 − 𝜀2 𝐴1
+ +
𝐴1 𝜀1 𝐴1 𝐹12 𝐴2 𝜀2 𝜀1 + 𝐹12 + 𝜀2 . 𝐴2

𝐴1
In this case, F12 = 1 and →0
𝐴2

𝐴1 𝜎𝑏 𝑇14 − 𝑇24 𝐴1 𝜎𝑏 𝑇14 − 𝑇24

∴ 𝑄12 = = = 𝜀1 𝐴1 𝜎𝑏 𝑇14 − 𝑇24
1 − 𝜀1 1
+1 −1+1
𝜀1 𝜀1

∴ 𝑄12 = 0.79 × 2𝜋 × 0.04 × 1 × 5.67 × 10−8 573 4 − 300 4 = 1122.6 𝑊 Τ𝑚 (𝑨𝒏𝒔) continued
Question Determine the heat lost by radiation per meter length of 80 mm diameter pipe at 300°C, if pipe is
Case-1: located in a large room with red brick walls at a temperature of 27°C;
Case-2: enclosed in a 160 mm diameter red brick conduit at a temperature of 27°C.
Take ε for pipe and brick conduit = 0.79 and 0.73 respectively.
Solution Case-2
Given:
• emissivity of pipe and brick conduit = ε1 & ε2 = 0.79 & 0.73 • temperature of pipe = T1 = 300 + 273 = 573 K
• radius of pipe = r1 = 80/2 mm = 40 mm = 0.04 m • temperature of brick conduit = T2 = 27 + 273 = 300 K
• radius of brick conduit = r2 = 160/2 mm = 80 mm = 0.08 m
Pipe (1)
Radiation heat flow between the pipe and brick conduit is given by:
Brick conduit (2)
𝐸𝑏1 − 𝐸𝑏2 𝐴1 𝜎𝑏 𝑇14 − 𝑇24
𝑄12 = = ….(1)
1 − 𝜀1 1 1 − 𝜀2 1 − 𝜀1 1 1 − 𝜀2 𝐴1
+ + + + .
𝐴1 𝜀1 𝐴1 𝐹12 𝐴2 𝜀2 𝜀1 𝐹12 𝜀2 𝐴2
𝐴1 2𝜋𝑟1 𝐿 𝑟1 0.04
In this case: 𝐹12 = 1 and = = = = 0.5
𝐴2 2𝜋𝑟2 𝐿 𝑟2 0.08

𝐴1 𝜎𝑏 𝑇14 − 𝑇24 𝐴1 𝜎𝑏 𝑇14 − 𝑇24

∴ 𝑄12 = =
1 − 𝜀1 1 − 𝜀2 𝑟1 1 1 − 𝜀2 𝑟1
+1+ . + .
𝜀1 𝜀2 𝑟2 𝜀1 𝜀2 𝑟2
2𝜋 × 0.04 × 1 × 5.67 × 10−8 573 4
− 300 4
∴ 𝑄12 = = 979.05 𝑊 Τ𝑚 (𝑨𝒏𝒔)
1 1 − 0.73
+ × 0.5
0.79 0.73
 Radiation Shield
Radiation heat transfer between two surfaces can be reduced greatly by inserting a thin, opaque and highly reflective
sheet between the two surfaces. Such highly reflective thin sheet is called radiation shield.
𝐸𝑏1 − 𝐸𝑏2
𝑄12 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = We know that, for very large parallel
1 − 𝜀1 1 1 − 𝜀2
+ + surfaces: F12 = 1 and A1 = A2 = A
𝐴1 𝜀1 𝐴1 𝐹12 𝐴2 𝜀2

𝐴 𝜎𝑏 𝑇14 − 𝑇24
∴ 𝑄12 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = 1 − 𝜀
1 1 − 𝜀2
+1+
𝜀1 𝜀2
Eb1 Eb2 𝐴 𝜎𝑏 𝑇14 − 𝑇24
∴ 𝑄12 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 =
….(1)
1 1
+ −1
𝜀1 𝜀2
𝐸𝑏1 − 𝐸𝑏2
𝑄12 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 =
1 − 𝜀1 1 1 − 𝜀3 1 − 𝜀3 1 1 − 𝜀2
+ + + + +
𝐴1 𝜀1 𝐴1 𝐹13 𝐴3 𝜀3 𝐴3 𝜀3 𝐴3 𝐹32 𝐴2 𝜀2

For very large parallel surfaces: F13 = F32 = 1 and A1 = A2 = A3 = A

𝐴 𝜎𝑏 𝑇14 − 𝑇24
∴ 𝑄12 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = 1 − 𝜀
1 1 − 𝜀3 1 − 𝜀3 1 − 𝜀2
+1+ + +1+
Eb1 Eb2 𝜀1 𝜀3 𝜀3 𝜀2
Eb3 𝐴 𝜎𝑏 𝑇14 − 𝑇24
Under steady state ∴ 𝑄12 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = 1 1 1 1
….(2)
Q13 = Q32 = Q12 + −1 + + −1
condition 𝜀1 𝜀3 𝜀3 𝜀2
 Radiation Shield
Let us consider a special case when emissivities of radiating surfaces and shield are same, i.e., ε1 = ε2 = ε3 = ε
1 2
T1 T2 𝐴 𝜎𝑏 𝑇14 − 𝑇24 𝐴 𝜎𝑏 𝑇14 − 𝑇24
ε1 ε2 𝑄12 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = =
1 1 2
+ −1 −1
Q12 𝜀1 𝜀2 𝜀

shield 𝐴 𝜎𝑏 𝑇14 − 𝑇24

1 2 𝑄12 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 =
1 1 1 1
T1 T3 T3 T2 + −1 +
𝜀1 𝜀3
+ −1
𝜀3 𝜀2
ε1 ε3 ε3 ε2
𝐴 𝜎𝑏 𝑇14 − 𝑇24 1 𝐴 𝜎𝑏 𝑇14 − 𝑇24 1
Q12 =
2 2
= .
2 2
= 𝑄12
2 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
−1 + −1 −1
𝜀 𝜀 𝜀

shield shield 𝐴 𝜎𝑏 𝑇14 − 𝑇24

1 2 𝑄12 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 =
1 1 1 1 1 1
T1 T3 T3 T4 T4 T2 + −1 +
𝜀1 𝜀3
+ −1 +
𝜀3 𝜀4
+ −1
𝜀4 𝜀2
ε1 ε3 ε3 ε4 ε4 ε2
𝐴 𝜎𝑏 𝑇14 − 𝑇24 1 𝐴 𝜎𝑏 𝑇14 − 𝑇24 1
Q12 =
2 2 2
= .
2
= 𝑄12 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
−1 + −1 + −1 3 −1 3
𝜀 𝜀 𝜀 𝜀

If there are N shields with same surface emissivities 1 𝐴 𝜎𝑏 𝑇14 − 𝑇24 1

𝑄12 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑁 𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠 = . = 𝑄12 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
as that of radiating surfaces, then: 𝑁+1 2 𝑁 + 1
𝜀−1
Radiation Shield
Temperature of shield in steady state condition

Eb1 Eb2
Eb3

Under steady state condition

Net heat transfer between surfaces 1 & 3 (Q13) = Net heat transfer between surfaces 3 & 2 (Q32), i.e.,
𝐴 𝜎𝑏 𝑇14 − 𝑇34 𝐴 𝜎𝑏 𝑇34 − 𝑇24
=
1 1 1 1
+
𝜀1 𝜀3 − 1 𝜀3 𝜀2 − 1
+

𝑇14 − 𝑇34 𝑇34 − 𝑇24 ….(1)

⇒ =
1 1 1 1
+
𝜀1 𝜀3 − 1 𝜀3 𝜀2 − 1
+

Above Eq. (1) is used to determine temperature of shield under steady state condition.
1 4
For special case when ε1 = ε2= ε3= ε, Eq. (1) is reduced to: 𝑇3 = 𝑇1 + 𝑇24
4
2
Radiation Heat Transfer in Three-Surface Enclosures

On applying heat balance for each node, we get:

Eb2
1 − 𝜀2 For node J1:
Q2 𝐴2 𝜀2 𝐸𝑏1 − 𝐽1 𝐽1 − 𝐽2 𝐽1 − 𝐽3
1 = +
1 − 𝜀1 1 1
𝐴2 𝐹23
2 3 𝐴1 𝜀1 𝐴1 𝐹12 𝐴1 𝐹13
J2 Q23
ε2, A2, T2 Q13 ε3, A3, T3 or,
1 Q12 1 𝐸𝑏1 − 𝐽1 𝐽1 − 𝐽2 𝐽1 − 𝐽3
𝐴1 𝐹12 𝐴1 𝐹13 − − =0 ……Eq. (1)
1 − 𝜀1 1 1
J1 𝐴1 𝜀1 𝐴1 𝐹12 𝐴1 𝐹13

1 − 𝜀1 Similarly, for node J2:

ε1, A1, T1
Q1 𝐴1 𝜀1 𝐸𝑏2 − 𝐽2 𝐽1 − 𝐽2 𝐽2 − 𝐽3
1
+ − =0 …Eq. (2)
1 − 𝜀2 1 1
Eb1 𝐴2 𝜀2 𝐴1 𝐹12 𝐴2 𝐹23
and, for node J3:
𝐸𝑏3 − 𝐽3 𝐽2 − 𝐽3 𝐽1 − 𝐽3
+ + =0 …Eq. (3)
1 − 𝜀3 1 1
𝐴3 𝜀3 𝐴2 𝐹23 𝐴1 𝐹13
Question (1)
𝐴 𝜎𝑏 𝑇14 − 𝑇24 𝐶
𝑄12 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = = = 0.363 𝐶
Consider two large parallel plates one at 1 1 1 1
temperature of 727°C with emissivity 0.8 and other 𝜀1 + 𝜀2 − 1 0.8 + 0.4 − 1 where,
at temperature of 227°C with emissivity 0.4. An 𝐶 = 𝐴 𝜎𝑏 𝑇14 − 𝑇24
aluminium radiation shield with an emissivity 0.05 𝐴 𝜎𝑏 𝑇14 − 𝑇24
𝑄12 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 =
on both side is placed between the plates. Calculate: 1 1 1 1
+
𝜀1 𝜀3 − 1 + 𝜀3 𝜀2 − 1
+
(1) percentage reduction in heat transfer rate
between the plates. 𝐴 𝜎𝑏 𝑇14 − 𝑇24
= = 0.024 𝐶
(2) Equilibrium temperature of the shield 1 1 1 1
0.8 + 0.05 − 1 + 0.05 + 0.4 − 1
Solution
plate shield plate ⸫ percentage reduction in heat 0.363 𝐶 − 0.024 𝐶
Given: 1 3 2 = × 100 = 93.4 % 𝑨𝒏𝒔
transfer rate between the plates 0.363 𝐶
• temperature of plate 1 T1 T3 T3 T2
ε1 ε3 ε3 ε2
= T1 = 727 + 273 = 1000 K (2) Under steady state condition: Q13 = Q32
• emissivity of plate 1= ε1 = 0.8 𝐴 𝜎𝑏 𝑇14 − 𝑇34 𝐴 𝜎𝑏 𝑇34 − 𝑇24
=
• temperature of plate 2 1 1 1 1
+
𝜀1 𝜀3 − 1 𝜀3 𝜀2 − 1
+
= T2 = 227 + 273 = 500 K
• emissivity of plate 2 = ε2 = 0.4 10004 − 𝑇34 𝑇34 − 5004
• emissivity of shield = ε3 = 0.05 ⇒ =
1 1 1 1
+ −1 + −1
0.8 0.05 0.05 0.4
⇒ 𝑇34 = 5452.84 × 108 ∴ 𝑇3 = 859.32 𝐾 (𝑨𝒏𝒔)
END