DELTA STATE UNIVERSITY, OLEH CAMPUS

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL AND PETROLEUM

ENGINEERING

LECTURE NOTES

COURSE TITLE: TRANSPORT PHENOMENA II

COURSE CODE: CHE 314

By
Engr. K.M Oghenejoboh (PhD)
Professor of Chemical Engineering
(Environmental Pollution and Control)

1
 COURSE OUTLINE
Weeks Material Coverage
1 Radiation: Mechanisms of radiative heat transfer

2 heat exchange between radiating surfaces; radiating network

3 Convection: Principles of free and forced convective heat transfer.
4 Determination of film transfer coefficient
5 Continuous Assessment Test

6 The Fourier equation and application to composites, cylinders and

sphere.

7 Boiling and condensation: different phases of boiling, heat flux

relations

8 Film and drop wise condensation, film transfer coefficient,

condensation number

9 Boiler design. Heat exchanger design.

1.0 Thermal Radiation

2
Radiation heat transfer is defined as the transfer of energy across a system boundary by means of an
electromagnetic mechanism which is caused solely by a temperature difference. The contribution of
radiation to heat transfer is very significant at high absolute temperature levels such as those
prevailing in furnaces, combustion chambers, nuclear explosions and in space applications. The solar
energy incident upon the earth is governed by the laws of radiation

1.1 Mechanism of Radiative Heat Transfer

A radiating surface releases energy in discrete packet or quanta called photons. The photons are
propagated through space as rays. The movement of swarm of photons is described as
electromagnetic waves. The photons travel in a straight path with unchanged frequency and speed of
light. When they approach the receiving surface, there occurs re-conversion of wave motion into
thermal energy which is partly absorbed, reflected or transmitted through the receiving surface. All
types of magnetic waves are classified in terms of wavelength and are propagated at the speed of light
(c) i.e. 3 x 108 m/s. The distinction between one form of radiation and another, lies only in its
frequency (f), and wavelength (λ). The speed of the electromagnetic wave, the wavelength and
frequency are related by:
c= λ x f (1.1)
The emission of thermal radiation depends upon the nature, temperature and state of the emitting
surface, however, with gases, the dependence is also upon the thickness of the emitting layer and the
gas pressure

1.2 Surface emission Properties

The rate of emission of radiation by a body depends upon the following factors:
(i) The temperature of the surface
(ii) The nature of the surface
(iii) The wavelength or the frequency of the radiation
The parameters which deal with the surface emission parameters are discussed below
a) Total Emissive Power: The emissive power is defined as the total amount of radiation emitted
by a body per unit area and time. It is expressed in W/m 2. The emissive power of a black body
according to Stefan-Boltzmann, is proportional to absolute temperature to the fourth power.
Eb =σ T 4 W / m2 (1.2)
4
Eb =σA T W (1.3)
whereσ = Stefan-Boltzmann constant = 5.67 x 10-8 W/m2 K4
b) Monochromatic (Spectral) Emissive Power (E λ): It is often necessary to determine the spectra
distribution of the energy radiated by a surface. At any given temperature, the amount of
radiation emitted per unit wavelength varies at different wavelengths. For this purpose the
monochromatic emissive power, Eλ of the surface is used. It is defined as the total emissive
power and is given by
∞
E=∫ E λ dλ W /m2
0 (1.4)
c) Emission from Real Surface-Emissivity: The emissive power from a real surface is given by
Eb =ε σ A T 4 W (1.5)

3
 whereε = emissivity of the material which is defined as the ability of a surface of a body to
radiate heat. It is also defined as the ratio of the emissive power of any body to the emissive

( )
E
ε= b
Eb
power of a black body of equal temperature .Its value varies for different substances
ranging from 0 to 1. For a black body, ε = 1, for a white body surface, ε = 0 and for gray
bodies it lies between 0 and 1. It may vary with temperature or wavelength.
d) Intensity of radiation
e) Radiation density and pressure
f) Radiosity (J): It refers to all of the radiant energy leaving a surface
g) Interrelationship between surface emission and irradiation properties

1.3 Absorptivity, Reflectivity and Transmissivity

Consider the Figure below

Incident radiation (G) Reflected radiation

(Gr)

Material surface Absorbed radiation

(Ga)

Transmitted radiation
(Gt)
Figure 2.1 Absorption, Reflection and Transmission of Radiation

When incident radiation (G) also called irradiation, defined as the total incident radiation on a surface
from all directions per unit time and per unit area of surface, expressed in W/m 2 impinges on a
surface, three things happens; a part is reflected back (G r), a part is transmitted through (G t) and the
remainder is absorbed (Ga), depending upon the characteristics of the body.
Then by the conservation of energy principle, we have
Ga +Gr + Gt =G
(1.6)

Dividing both sides of equation (1.6) by G, yields

Ga Gr Gt G
+ + =
G G G G (1.7)
which can be written as
α + ρ+τ =1
(1.8)

Where α = absorptivity (or fraction of incident radiation absorbed)

4
 ρ = reflectivity (or fraction of incident radiation reflected

τ =transmittivity (or fraction of incident radiation transmitted)

When the the incident radiation is absorbed, it is converted into internal energy.

Black Body: a black body is one which neither reflects nor transmits any part of the incident
radiation but perfectly absorbs all of it. For such a body, α = 1, ρ = 0, τ = 0. In practice, a perfect
black body does not exist, however its concept is very important

Opaque Body: An opaque body is one that no incident radiation is transmitted through. For such a
body, τ = 0, thereby reducing equation
α + ρ=1 (1.9)

Solids generally do not transmit unless the material is of very thin section. Metal absorbs radiation

within a fraction of a micrometer, and insulators within a fraction of a millimetre. Glasses and liquids

are therefore, generally considered as opaque.

White Body: A white body is one that allows all the incident radiation falling on the body to be
reflected. For such a white body, , α = 0, ρ = 1, τ = 0. Gases such as hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen
(and other mixtures of air) have a transmissivity of practically unity. There are two types of
reflection:
(i) Regular reflection: This implies that angle between the reflected beam and the normal to
the surface equals the angle made by the incident radiation with the same normal.
Reflection from highly polished and smooth surfaces approachesa specular characteristics

Incident radiation Reflected radiation

θ θ

Figure 1. 2 Regular (Specular) Reflection

(ii) Diffused reflection: This implies that the incident beam is reflected in all directions. Most
of the engineering materials have rough surfaces, and these rough surfaces gives diffuse
reflections

θ
5
Figure 1.3 Diffuse Reflection

Gray Body: A gray body is one whose absorptivity of the surface does not vary with temperature and
wavelength of the incident radiation. For such a body, the radiative properties, α, ρ, τ is assumed to be
uniform over the entire wavelength spectrum. For a gray body, [α = (α) λ], while for a coloured body
[α ≠ (α)λ]

1.4 Concept of Black Body

From the definition of black body given in the previous section, it is clear that the concept of a black
body is an idealisation with which the radiation characteristics of real bodies can be conveniently
compared. A black body has the following properties:
(i) It absorbs all the incident radiation on it and does not transmit or reflect regardless of
wavelength and directions
(ii) It emits maximum amount of thermal radiation at all wavelengths at any specified
temperature
(iii) It is diffuse emitter (i.e. the radiation emitted by a black body is independent of direction)
Consider a hollow enclosure with a very small hole for the passage of incident radiation as shown in
Figure (1.4). Incident radiant energy passes through the small opening. Some of this energy is
absorbed by the inside surface and some are reflected. However, most of this energy is absorbed as a
second incidence, with a small fraction also reflected. After a number of such reflections, the amount
unabsorbed is exceedingly small and very little of the original incident energy is reflected back out of
the opening. A small hole leading into a cavity thus acts very nearly as a black body because all the
radiant energy entering through it gets absorbed
Isothermal furnaces, with small apertures approximate a black body and are frequently used to
calibrate heat flux gauges, thermometers and other radiometric devices.

The Holhlraum is
usually kept
at a constant
temperature, T

Ray of radiant
energy

Figure 1.4 Concept of a Black Body

6
1.6 Laws of Thermal Radiation

(a) The Stefan-Boltzmann Law

The law states that the emissive power of a black body is directly proportional to the fourth power of
its absolute temperature i.e
E b = σ T4 (1.9)
where Eb = Emissive power of a black body
σ = Stefan-Boltzmann constant = 5.67 x 10-8 W/m2.K4
equation (1.9) can be written as

( )
4
T
Eb =5 . 67
100
(1.10)

(b) Kirchhoff’s Law

The law states that at any temperature, the ratio of total emissive power E to the total absorptivity, α

is a constant for all substances which are in thermal equilibrium with their environment.Kichhoff’s

law also states that the emissivity of a body is equal to its absorptivity when the body remains in

thermal equilibrium with its surroundings.

(c) Planck’s Law

The law stated mathematically showed by quantum argument that the spectral distribution of the

radiation intensity of a black body is given by

2 π c 2 h λ−5
( E λ )b=
exp( ch
λkT )
−1

(1.11)

where (Eλ)b = monochromatic (single wavelength) missive power of a black body

c = velocity of light in vacuum = 3.00 x 108 m/s

7
 h = Planck’s constant = 6.625 x 10-34 J.s

λ = wavelength, μm

k = Boltzmann constant = 1.3805 x 10-23 J/K

T = absolute temperature, K

Quite often the Planck’s law is written as

c 1 λ−5
( E λ )b=
exp ( )
c2
λ T
−1

(1.12)

where c 1=2 π c 2 h =3 . 742 x 108 W . μ m 4 /m 2

ch
c 2= =1 . 4388 x 10 4 μmK
k

Equation (1.12) is of great importance as it provides quantitative results for the radiation from a black
body.
The monochromatic emissive power (E λ)b, is defined as the energy emitted by the black surface in all
directions at a given wavelength

(d) Wien’s Displacement Law: This law gives the relationship between the temperature of a black
body and the wavelength at which the maximum value of monochromatic emissive power occurs.
The law states that the product of λmax and T is constant, i.e
c 1 λ−5
( E λ )b=
exp ( )
c2
λ T
−1

(1.13)
(Eλ)b becomes maximum (if T remains constant) when

[ ]
d ( E λ )b d c 1 λ−5
=0 or =0

( )
dλ dλ c2
exp −1
λT
(1.14)

Differentiating equation (1.14) and solving by trial and error gives

8
 λmaxT = 2898 μm.K

A combination of Planck’s law and wien’s displacement law yields the condition for the maximum

monochromatic emissive power for a black body

( )
−5
−15 2 . 898 x 10−3
0 .374 x 10
c 1 ( λ max )−5 T
( E λ )b= =

( ) [ ]
c2 −2
1 . 4388 x 10
exp −1 exp −1
λ max T 2 . 898 x 10−3
(1.15)

or
(Eλb)max = 1.285 x 10-5 T6 W/m2 per metre wavelength

2.0 Radiation Exchange Between Surfaces

The actual process of relative heat exchange between different surfaces takes place in presence of

either a non-participating medium or a participating medium. A non-participating medium is one

where the surfaces exchanging heat are separated by vacuum or by a medium that does not interfere

with the propagation of radiation. A participating medium on the other hand is one which tends to

interfere with the propagation of radiation because it may absorb, emit or scatter radiation. In our

treatment of heat exchange between surfaces, it is assumed that:

a) All surfaces have uniform properties over their extent

b) Each surface is considered to be either Gray or black

c) The absorptivity of surface is independent of the temperature of the source of incident

radiation and equals its emissivity

9
 d) Radiation reflections are diffuse

2.1 Radiation Exchange between Black Bodies Separated by a Non-Absorbing

Medium

Consider two black radiatingbodies with areas A1 and A2 and temperatures T1 and T2respectively,

separated by a non-absorbing medium. The distance between the two bodies is r and the normal to

their areas make angles θ1 and θ2 with the line joining them.

dA2 T2, A2

Normal to, dA2

θ2
θ1
Normal to, dA1

dA1
T1, A1
Figure 2.5 Radiation heat exchange between two black bodies
Heat balance from Figure (2.5) gives the net heat for the total areas A1 and A2 as
cos θ1 cos θ2 dA 1 dA 2
Q12=∫ dQ 12=σ ( T 14 −T 24 )∫ ∫
A1 A π r2
2 (2.1)
The rate of radiant energy by A1 that falls on A2 is
cos θ1 cos θ2 dA 1 dA 2 cos θ1 cos θ2 dA 1 dA 2
Q1−2 =I b 1∫ ∫ =σ T 4
1 ∫ ∫
A1 A π r2 A1 A 2 π r2
2 (2.2)
The rate of total energy radiated by A1 is given by

Q1 =A 1 σ T 14 (2.3)
Hence the fraction of the rate of energy leaving area A1 and impinging on area A2 is given by

Q1−2 1 cos θ 1 cos θ 2 dA 1 dA 2

Q1
= ∫ ∫
A1 A A π r2
1 2 (2.4)
or

10
 Q1−2
=F 1−2
Q1 (2.5)
F1-2 is known as the configuration factor or surface factor or view factor between the two radiating
surfaces and is a function of geometry only.
Thus the shape factor may be defined as the fraction of radiative energy that is diffused from one
surface element and strikes the other surface directly with no intervening reflections
Further
Q1−2 =F 1−2 A1 σ T 41 (2.6)
Similarly, the rate of radiant energy by A2 that falls on A1 is given by

cos θ 1 cos θ 2 dA 1 dA 2
Q2−1 =σ T 42 ∫ ∫
A1 A π r2
2 (2.7)
The rate of total energy radiated by A2 is given by

Q2 = A2 σ T 24 (2.8)

Hence the fraction of the rate of energy leaving area A2 and impinging on area A1 is given by

Q2−1 1 cos θ 1 cos θ 2 dA 1 dA 2

Q2
= ∫ ∫
A2 A A π r2
1 2 (2.9)
or
Q2−1
=F 2−1
Q2 (2.10)
F2-1 is the shape factor of A2 with respect to A1

Q2−1 =F 2−1 A 2 σ T 42 (2.11)

From equations (2.10) and (2.11), we get
A1 F 1−2 = A2 F 2−1 (2.12)
Equation (1.12) is known as reciprocity theorem. It indicates that the net radiant interchange may be
evaluated by comparing one way configuration factor from either surface to the other. Thus the net
rate of heat transfer between two surfaces A1 and A2 is given by
Q12= A1 F 1−2 σ (T 41 −T 42 )= A2 F 2−1 σ ( T 41 −T 42 )
(2.13)

2.2 Shape Factor Algebra and Salient Features of the Shape Factor
In order to compute the shape factor for certain geometric arrangements for which shape factors or
equations are not available, the concept of shape factor as factor of intercepted energy, and
reciprocity theorem can be used. The shape factor for these geometries can be derived in terms of
known shape factors of other geometries. The interrelation between various factors is called shape
factor algebra. Some properties are useful for the calculation of shape factors for specific geometries
and the analysis of radiant heat exchange between surfaces. These properties are:
(1) The shape factor is purely a function of geometric parameters only

11
 (2) When two bodies are exchanging radiant energy with each other, the shape factor relation is
given by
A1 F 1−2 =A 2 F 2−1
Ai F i− j= A j F j−1
This reciprocal relation is particularly useful when one of the shape factors is unity
(3) When all the radiation emanating from a convex surface 1 is intercepted by the enclosing
surface 2, the shape factor of convex surface with respect to the enclosure F 1-2 is unity. Then
in conformity with the reciprocity theorem, the shape factor F2-1 is merely the ratio of areas
i.e when surface A1 is entirely convex, say a sphere, completely enclosed by A 2, then
according to reciprocity theorem, we have
A1F1-2 = A2F2-1
But F1-2 =1
A1
Then F2-1 = A 2
In the case of black body radiation exchange is
Q12= A1 σ ( T 14 −T 42 )

(4) A concave surface has a shape factor with itself because the radiant energy coming out from
one part of the surface is incepted by the other part of the same surface. The shape factor of a
surface with respect to itself is F1-1
(5) For a flat or convex surface, the shape factor with respect to itself is zero (i.e. F 1-1 = 0). This is
due to the fact that for any part of flat or convex surface, one cannot see/view any other part of
the same surface

Receiving A2
surface A2

Receiving
A3 Surface
Radiating A2 = A3 + A4
surface F1-3
A1
A1 = A3 + A4 A4
Radiating F1-4
surface A1
Figure 1.6 Relation between shape factors
(a) (b)

(6) If two surfaces A1 and A2 are parallel and large, radiation occurs across the gap between them
so that A1 = A2 and all radiation emitted by one falls on the other, then
F1-2 = F2-1 = 1
12
 (7) If one of the two surfaces (say Ai) is divided into sub-areas Ai1, Ai2, …., Ain, then
Ai F i− j=∑ A in F in− j

2.3 Electrical Network Analogy for Thermal Radiation Systems

An electrical network analogy is an alternative approach for analysing radiation heat exchange
between gray or black surfaces. In this approach the two terms commonly used are irradiation and
radiosigy
Irradiation (G) is defined as the total radiation incident upon a surface per unit area. It is expressed
in W/m2
Radiosity (J) is used to indicate the total radiation leaving a surface per unit time per unit area. It is
also expressed in W/m2. The radiosity comprises the original emittance φ from the surface plus the
reflected portion of any radiation incident upon it, i.e. (referring to Figure 2.7), we have

J=E + ρG
(2.14)
or
J=εE b + ρG
(2.15)
where Eb = emissive power of a perfect black body at the same temperature
Also
α + ρ+τ =1
(2.16)
J  E  G

ρG G
E

Opaque, non-black surface

(a)

Eb Gnet A J

1 

(b)

Figure 2.7 Irradiation and Radiosity

or
13
 α + ρ=1 or ρ=1−α
(2.17)
Since τ = 0, the surface being opaque
∴ J =ε Eb + ( 1−α ) G
(2.18)
But α = ε

∴ J =ε Eb + ( 1−ε ) G
(2.19)
or

J −ε Eb
∴ J −ε Eb =( 1−ε ) G ⇒ G=
1−ε
(2.20)
The net energy leaving a surface is the difference between its radiosity and irradiation, thus
Q net Q net J −ε Eb
=J −G or =J −
A A 1−ε
(2.21)

or
J ( 1−ε )−( J −ε Eb ) J −Jε−J + εE b ε ( Eb −J )
= = =
1−ε 1−ε 1−ε
(2.22)

or
Aε ( E b −J ) E b −J
= Q nft = =
1−ε ( 1−ε ) / Aε
(2.23)
The representation of this equation in the form of electric network is shown in figure (2.7b), the
( 1−ε )
Aε is known as surface resistance, as it is related to surface properties of the radiating
quantity
body.
Now consider the exchange of radiant energy between two surfaces (non-black) 1 and 2. Of the total
radiation which leaves surface 1, the amount that reaches surface 2 is J 1A1F1-2. Similarly the heat
radiated by surface 2 and received by surface 1 is J 2A2F2-1. The net exchange of heat between the
surfaces (Q12) is given by
Q12 = J1A1F1-2 – J2A2F2-1 (2.24)
But
A1F1-2 = A2F2-1 (by reciprocity theorem)
∴ Q12= A1 F 1−2 ( J 1 −J 2 )
(2.25)
or
14
 J 1−J 2
= Q1−2=
1/ A1 F 1−2
(2.26)
Equation (2.26) can be represented in the form of electric network as shown in figure (2.8)

J1 Q12 J2
1
A1 F1 2
Figure 2.8 Electric network of radiant energy between non-black bodies
1
The quantity A 1 F1−2 is called the space resistance because it is due to the distance and
geometry of the radiating bodies. If the surface resistances of the two bodies and space resistance
between them is considered, as in case of two gray surfaces then the net heat flow can be represented
by an electric circuit as shown in Figure (2.9)

Qnet

Eb1 1  1 J1 1 J2 1 2 Eb2
A1 1 A1 F1 2 A2 2

Figure 2.9 Electric circuits representing net heat exchange between two gray surfaces

The net heat exchange between the two gray surfaces is given by

Eb 1−E b 2 A1 σ ( T 41 −T 42 )
= ( Q12) net = =
1−ε 1 1 1−ε 2 1−ε 1 1 1−ε 2 A 1
+ + + + .
A 1 ε 1 A 1 F1−2 A 2 ε 2 ε1 F 1−2 ε2 A2
(2.27)

(multiplying the numerator and denominator by A1)

or
( Q12 ) =( F g )1−2 A 1 σ (T 1 −T 2 )
4 4
(2.28)
1
( F g )1−2= 1−ε 1−ε 2 A1
1 1
+ + .
where ε1 F1−2 ε 2 A2

and is known as gray body factor

When exchange of heat takes place between two black surfaces, the surface resistance becomes zero
as ε1 = ε2 = 1; (Fg)1-2 changes to F1-2 (i.e. configuration factor) and equation (2.28) reduces to
15
 Qnet =F 1−2 Aσ ( T 41 −T 42 )
(2.29)
Let us consider the following situations:
1) When the radiating bodies are infinite parallel plates,
Then A1 = A2 and F1-2 = 1
1 1
∴ ( F g )1−2 = =
1−ε 1 1−ε 2 1 1
+1+ . ε + ε −1 .
ε 1 ε 1 2 2

(2.30)
2) When the radiating bodies are concentric cylinders or spheres
Then F1-2 = 1
1
∴ ( F g )1−2=
1−ε 1 1−ε 2 A 1
+1+ .
ε1 ε2 A 2

(2.31)

In the case of concentric cylinders,

A1 π d1 l d1 r1
= = =
A2 π d2 l d2 r2

(2.32)

In the case concentric spheres,

A 1 4 π r 21 r 21
= =
A 2 4 π r 2 r2
2 2

(2.33)

3) When a small body lies inside a large enclosure

Then
A1
→0
F1-2 = 1, A1 << A2 so that A 2

16
 1
∴ ( F g )1−2=
1−ε 1
+1
ε1

(2.34)

2.3 Radiation Heat Exchange for Three Gray Surfaces

The network for three gray surfaces is shown in Figure (2.10). In this case each of the bodies
exchanges heat with the other two
Eb3

1 3
A3 3

J3
1 1
A1 F13 A2 F2 3
Eb1 Eb2
J2 J1
1  1 1 1 2
A1 1 A1 F1 2 A2 2

Figure 2.10 Electrical network for three gray surfaces

The heat expressions are as follows

Q12=
J 1−J 2
1/A 1 F 1−2
¿ Q 13=
J 1−J 3
1/A 3 F 1−3 }
¿ ¿ ¿ (2.35 ) ¿ }
The values of Q12, Q13 etc. are determined from the values of the radiosities which must be calculated
first. The most convenient method is the Kirchhoff’s law which states that the sum of the currents
entering a node is zero

2.4 Radiation Heat Exchange for Two Black Surfaces Connected by a Single Refractory
Surface
The network for two black surfaces connected by a single refractory surface is shown in shown in
Figure (2.11). Here the surfaces 1 and 2 are black and R is the refractory surface. The surface R is not
connected to any potential as the net radiation transfer from this surface is zero.
17
 R

1
1 A2 FR  2
A1 F1 R

Eb1 = J1 Eb2 = J2
1
A1 F1 2

Fig. 2.11 Radiation network for two black surfaces connected by a single refractory surface

The total resistance between Eb1 and Eb2 is

[ ]
1 1 1
= +
R t 1/ A1 F 1−2 1 1
+
A 1 F1−R A R F R−2
2.36
or

[ ]
1 1
=A 1 F1−2 +
Rt 1 1
+
A 1 F 1−R A R F R−2
Also F 1−R +F1−2=1
F 1− R=1−F 1−2
F 2−R +F2−1=1
F 2−R=1−F 2−1

A R F R−2 =A 2 F 2−R

[ ]
1 1
∴ = A 1 F1−2 +
Rt 1 1
+
A1 ( 1−F 1−2 ) A 2 ( 1−F2−1 )

18
 [ { }]
1
∴ ( Q12 )net = ( Eb 1−Eb 2) A 1 F 1−2 +
1 1
+
A 1 ( 1−F 1−2 ) A 2 ( 1−F 2−1 )
or
( Q12) net = A1 F̄ 1−2 ( E b1 −E b2 )= A 1 F̄ 1−2 σ (T 1 −T 2 )
4 4
(2.37)

{ }
1
∴ F̄1−2=F 1−2 +
{ }
1 A1 1
+
(1−F 1−2) A2 1−F 2−1 (2.38)

Using reciprocity relation, A1F1-2 = A2F2-1 and simplifying, we get

A 2 −A 1 F 21−2
F̄ 1−2 =
A 1 + A2 −2 A 1 F 1−2 (2.39)

2.5 Radiation Heat Exchange for Two Gray Surfaces Connected By Single Refractory
Surface
The network for radiating heat exchange for two gray surfaces connected by a single refractory
surface is show below

1 1
A1 F1 R A2 F2 R
J1 J2
Eb1 Eb2
1  1 1 2
1
A1 1 A1 2
A1 F1 2

Figure 1.12 Network for two gray surfaces connected by a refractory surface

The third surface influences the heat transfer process because it absorbs and re-radiate energy to the
other two surfaces which exchange heat. It may be noted that, in this case the node J is not connected
to a radiation resistance because surface 3 does not exchange energy.
The total resistance between Eb1 and Eb2 is given by
19
 [ ]
1−ε 1 1−ε 2 1
Rt= + +
A 1 ε1 A 2 ε 2 1
A 1 F 1−2 +
1 1
+
A1 F 1− R A R F R−2

(2.40)

But F1-R = 1 – F1-2 and F2-R = 1 – F1-2

[ ]
1−ε 1 1−ε 2 1
∴ Rt = + +
A1 ε 1 A 2 ε 2 1
A1 F 1−2+
1 1
+
A 1 ( 1−F 1−2 ) A 2( 1−F 2−1)

(2.41)

But from equation (2.41) , we have

[ ]
1
A1 F̄ 1−2=A 1 F 1−2+
1
1 1
+
A 1( 1−F 1−2) A 2 ( 1−F2−1)

(2.42)

or
1−ε 1 1−ε 2 1
Rt= + +
A 1 ε 1 A 2 ε 2 A1 F̄ 1−2

(2.43)

20
 [ ]
1
∴ ( Q12 )net = ( Eb 1−Eb 2) + 1−ε 1 1−ε 2 1
+ +
A1 ε 1 A 2 ε 2 A 1 F̄ 1−2

(2.44)

or

[( ]
1
( Q12) net = A1 ( E b 1−E b 2) +
) ( )
1 A 1 1
−1 + 1 −1 +
ε1 A 2 ε2 F̄ 1−2

(2.45)

Also
( Q12) net = A1 ( F g ) 1−2 ( E b1 −Eb 2 ) = A1 ( F g ) 1−2 σ ( T 1 −T 2 )
4 4

[( ]
1
∴ ( F g )1−2=
) ( )
1 A1 1 1
−1 + −1 +
ε1 A 2 ε2 F̄ 1−2

(2.46)

Where
A 2 −A 1 F 21−2
F̄ 1−2 =
A 1 + A2 −2 A 1 F 1−2

21
3.0 Free Convection
When a surface is maintained in still fluid at a temperature higher or lower than that of the fluid, a
layer of fluid adjacent to the surface gets heated or cooled. A density difference is created between
this layer and the still fluid surrounding it. The density difference introduces a buoyant force causing
flow of fluid near the surface. Heat transfer under such conditions is known as free or natural
convection. Thus, free or natural convectionis the process of heat transfer which occurs due to
movement of the fluid particles by density changes associated with temperature differential in the
fluid. The mode of heat transfer occurs very commonly, some examples are
(1) The cooling of transmission lines, electric transformers and rectifiers
(2) The heating of rooms by use of radiators
(3) The heat transfer from hot pipes and ovens surrounded by cooler air
(4) Cooling the reactor core (in nuclear power plants)

In free convection, the flow velocities encountered are lower compared to flow velocities in forced
convection, consequently the value of convection coefficient is lower, generally by one order of
magnitude. Hence, for a given rate of heat transfer, larger area could be required. As there is no need
for additional devices to force the liquid, the mode is used for heat transfer in simple devices which
have to be left unattended for long periods.
The rate of heat transfer is calculated using the general convection equation given below

Q = h A(ts – t∞) (3.1)

Where Q = heat transfer, W
h = convection heat transfer
A = area, m2
t∞ = temperature of fluid at distance well removed from the surface (the stagnant fluid
temperature

3.1 Characteristics Parameters in Free Convection

It has been observed that during heat transfer from heated surface to the surrounding fluid, the fluid
adjacent to the surface gets heated; this result in thermal expansion of the fluid and reduction in its
density (compared to the fluid away from the surface). Subsequently a buoyancy force acts on the
fluid causing it to flow up the surface, and in the neighbourhood of the plate hydrodynamic and
thermal boundary layer are set up. Since here the flow velocity is developed due to difference in
temperature, the two boundary layers are of the same order irrespective of the Prandtl number
A property that comes into play in free or natural convection is the coefficient of thermal expansion
of the fluid defined as
β= ( ) =− 1ρ ( ∂∂ PT )
1 ∂v
v ∂T P P

(3.2)

For an ideal gas, we have

22
 RT
v=
P

( )
∂v
=
∂T P P
R

hence
1
β=
T
(3.3)

Since free convection heat transfer coefficients are low and Reynolds number is not an independent

parameter, a new dimensionless grouping plays the major role (in free convection) which incorporates

the thermal expansion β in the expression. The dimensionless grouping is called the Grashof number,

expressed as
L3 gβΔt
Gr=
v2
(3.4)

Where L = characteristic length

∆t = ta - t∞ where ta and t∞ are the surface temperature and temperature of the surrounding

fluid respectively

The role of Grashof number is the same in free convection as that of Reynolds number in forced

convection. The critical Grashof number for the flow of air over a flat plate have been observed to be

4 x 104 approximately

In general

Nu = f (Gr., Pr.) = C (Gr)a (Pr)b (3.5)

In several cases equation (3.5) simplifies to the form

Nu = C (Gr, Pr)m (3.6)

23
Hence a new dimensionless group is often used called Rayleign number. This is represented as

Ra = Gr. Pr (3.7)

The product is also a criterion of laminar or turbulent character of the flow as determined by its value.

Thus

104< Gr. Pr< 109 for laminar flow

Gr. Pr> 109 for turbulent flow

The values of Gr and Pr are evaluated at the mean film temperature

(
tf= w
t + t∞
2 )
3.2 EMPIRICAL CORRELATION FOR FREE CONVECTION
The following dimension numbers apply for the usual free convection problems:
hL L3 βgΔt
(i) Nusselt number Nu= K ; (ii) Grashof number Gr = v2
μc p
(iii) Prandtl number Pr = k
(a) Vertical Plates and Cylinders
The commonly used correlations are:

Laminar flow: Nu =0.59 (Gr .Pr)

1
4
for ( 10 4 <Gr . Pr<109 ) (4.8)

for ( 10 <Gr . Pr<10 )

9 12
Nu =0.10 (Gr .Pr )
1

Turbulent flow: 3
(4.9)

( tf=
t s +t ∞
2 )
All the fluid properties are evaluated at the mean film temperature

Churchill and Chu have recommended the following correlation:

24
 1

0.67(Gr .Pr) 4

Nu =0.68+
[ 1+
Pr ( )
0.492 9 16 4/9
]
for (Gr.Pr>109) (4.10)

[ ]
2
0.387(Gr.Pr)1/6
0.825+

[( )]
9/16 8 /27
0.492
1+
Nu L
Pr
= for (Gr.Pr>109) (3.11)
Horizontal Plates

(b)

In case of an irregular plate, the characteristic length is defined as the surface area divided by the
perimeter of the plate
The upper surface heated or the lower surface cooled:

Laminar flow: Nu L =0.54 (Gr. Pr)1/4 ¿

for (105 < Gr. Pr 2¿ 107) (3.12)
Nu L ¿
Turbulent flow: =0.14 (Gr. Pr)1/3for (2¿ 107< Gr. Pr 3¿ 1010 .(4.13)

The lower surface heated or upper surface cooled:

Nu L =0.27 (Gr. Pr)1/4 for (3¿
Laminar flow: 105<Gr. Pr¿ 3¿ 1010 ) .(3.14)
Nu L =0.17 (Gr. Pr) 1/3 for (7¿ 106<Gr. Pr¿ 11¿ 1010)
Turbulent flow: (3.15)

(c) Horizontal cylinders

For such a case, the outside diameter is used as the characteristic dimension.
Mc Adams has recommended the following correlations:

Laminar flow: Nu L =0.53 (Gr. Pr)1/4 for (104 Gr. Pr<109 ) .(3.16)
Nu L =0.13(Gr. Pr)1/3 for (109< Gr. Pr<1012 )
Turbulent flow: (3.17)

25
The following correlation has been suggested by Churchill and Chu for use over a wide range of

Gr.Pr.

Nu L
=
[ 0 .60+
0 . 387(Gr . Pr )1 /6
[ 1+( 0 . 559 /Pr )9/16 ]
8/27
] for (10-5<Gr. Pr<1012)

(3.18)

The fluid properties, in all preceding equation, are determined at the mean film temperature

tf
=
( t s +t ∞
2 )
(3.19)

3.3 SIMPLIFIED FREE CONVECTION RELATIONS FOR AIR

The simplified relation for the heat transfer coefficient form different surfaces to air at atmospheric

pressure, in general, is given by

( )
m
Δt
L
h=C . (3.20)

Where C and m are constants depending on geometry and flow condition; the significant

length L is also a function of geometry and flow. Table 8.1 lists the values suggested by Mc

Adams for various geometries, orientation and flow condition indicated by the magnitude of

product (Gr. Pr).

Table 8.1 Simplified Free Convection Relations for Air

S/N Surface and its orientation Laminar Turbulent

( )
1/ 4
1 Vertical plate Δt h =1.32( Δt )1/3
or cylinder h =1.24 L 9
(10 < Gr. Pr< 1013 )
4
(10 < Gr. Pr< 109 )

( )
1/ 4
2 Horizontal cylinder Δt h =1.25( Δt )1/3
h =1.32 D 9
(10 < Gr. Pr< 1012)
4
(10 < Gr. Pr< 109 )

26
 ( )
1/ 4
3 Horizontal Plate: Δt h =1.67( Δt )1/3
Heated surface facing up
h =1.32 D 7
(2×10 < Gr. Pr<
5
(10 < Gr. Pr< 2×107 ) 3×1010 )

( )
Heated surface facing down Δt 1/ 4

h =0.59 D
(3×105< Gr. Pr<
3×1010 )
4 Spheres k
h =[2+0.392(Gr)1/4] D
(1<Gr.<105)

3.4 COMBINED FREE AND FORCED CONVECTION

Free convection effects are negligible when Gr<<Re2,at the other extreme, free convection dominates

when Gr>>Re2. There are certain situations where the free as well as the forced convection are of

comparable magnitude. One such case is when air is flowing over a heated surface at a low velocity.

A dimensionless group (Gr/Re2) is used to delineate the convection regimes. The various flow

regimes are characterised as follows:

(Gr/Re2)¿ 1 pure free convection

(Gr/Re2)
~1 ….mixed (free and forced) convection

(Gr/Re2)¿ 1 .pure free convection.

(a) External Flows

The local Nussett number

Νu¿ for mixed convection on vertical plates is given by

Νu¿ =0.332 (Re×)1/2 (Pr)1/3if (Gr×/Re×2) ¿ A (3.21)

and

Νu¿ =0.508(Pr)1.2(0.952 + Pr)-1/4(Gr×)1/4 if (Gr×/Re×2)> A .

(3.22)

where
~ 0.6 for Pr¿ 10
A

27
 and A¿ 1.0 for Pr = 100
¿
For horizontal plates when (Gr×/Re×2.5) 0.083 the following equation fir forced

convection may be used

Νu¿ =0.332Re×1/2Pr1/3

.(3.23)

(b) Internal Flows

(i) For mixed convection in laminar flow, Brown and Gauvin recommended a correlation of the

form as

( )
0 .14
μb
Nu =1.75 μs
[Gz+0.012(Gz.Gr1/3)4/3]1/3

(3.24)

where Gz = Graetz number = Re Pr (D/L)

μ μ
and b , s = viscosities of the fluid at the bulk mean temperature and

surface temperature respectively.

(ii) For mixed convection with turbulent flow in horizontal tubes, Metais and Eckert (1966)

Suggest

Nu =4.69(Re)0.27(Pr)0.21(Gr) 0.07(D/L)0.36 (3.25)

4.0 Unsteady State (Transient) Heat Conduction

Conduction of heat in unsteady state refers to the transient conditions wherein the heat flow and
temperature distribution at any point of the system vary continuously with time. Transient conditions
occur in
(i) Cooling of internal combustion engines
(ii) Heating and cooling of metal billets
(iii) Heat treatment of metals by quenching
(iv) Cooling and freezing of food
(v) Brick burning
(vi) Vulcanization of rubber
The temperature field in any transient problem is given by
t =f ( x , y , z , τ )

28
During an unsteady state change in temperature may follow either a periodic or non-periodic
variation. In a periodic variation the temperature undergoes a periodic within the system which are
either regular or irregular but definitely cyclic. Non-periodic variation on the other hand is when the
temperature at any point within the system varies non-linearly with time.

4.1 Heat Conduction in Solids having Infinite Thermal Conductivity –

Lumped Parameter Analysis
All solids have a finite thermal conductivity and there will always be temperature gradient inside the
solid whenever heat is added or removed. However, for solids of large thermal conductivity with
surface areas that is large in proportion to their volume e.g. plates and thin wires, the thermal

( )
L
resistance kA can be assumed to be small or negligible in comparison to the convective resistance

( )1
hA
at the surface.
The process in which the internal resistance is assumed negligible in comparison with its surface
resistance is called the Newtonian heating or cooling process. The temperature in this process is
considered to be uniform at a given time. Such an analysis is called Lumped parameter analysis
because the whole solid, whose energy at any time is a function of its temperature and as such the
total heat capacity is treated as one lump.
Consider for example a body whose initial temperature is t1 throughout and which is placed suddenly
in ambient air ta. The transient response of the body can be determined by relating its rate of change
of internal energy with convective exchange at the surface, i.e.
dt
Q=− ρVc =hA s ( t−t a )
dτ
(4.1)
where
ρ = density of solid, kg/m3
V = volume of the body, m3
c = specific heat of body, J/kgoC
h = unit surface conductance, W/m2.oC
t = temperature of the body at ant time, oC
As = surfaces area of the body, m2
ta = ambient temperature, oC
τ = time, s
After rearranging equation (3.1) and integrating, we have
dt hA
∫ t−t =− s ∫ dτ
( a ) ρVc
(4.2)

29
or
hA s
ln ( t−t a ) =− τ +C 1
ρVc
(4.3)
The boundary conditions are
at τ = 0, t = ti (initial surface temperature)
∴ C 1=ln ( t i −t a )
(4.4)
Hence
hA s
ln ( t−t a ) =− τ +ln ( t i−t a )
ρVc
(4.5)
or
t −t a
t i −t a
=
θ
θi
=exp − [
hA s
ρ Vc
τ ] (4.6)

Equation (4.6) gives the temperature distribution in the body for Newtonian heating and cooling and
it indicates that temperature rises exponentially with time. The quantity
hA s
τ
ρVc
For power exponential, i.e. can be arranged in dimensionless form as follows

( ) ( ρV c ) ( ) ( ατL )
hA s hV kA 2s hL c
τ= 2
τ = 2
ρVc kA s k c
(4.7)

where

α= [ ]
k
ρc
= thermal diffusivity of the solid
volume of solid (V )
Lc = characteristicl length =
surface area of the solid ( A s )
The values of characteristic length (Lc), for simple geometric shapes are as follows
V LBH L
Lc = = = =semi thickness
A s 2 BH 2
Flat plate (where L, B, H are thickness, width and
height of the plate)
2
πR L R
Lc = =
2 π RL 2
Cylinder (long) (where R = radius of the cylinder)

30
 4
πR3
3 R
Lc = =
4 πR 2 3
Sphere (where R = radius of the sphere)

L3 L
Lc = =
6 L2 6
Cube (where L = sides of the cube)
hLc
k
From equation (3.7), the dimensionless factor is called the Biot number Bi,
i.e.
hLc
B i= =Biot number
k
It gives an indication of the ratio of internal (conduction) resistance to surface (convection)
resistance. When the value Bi is small, it indicates that the system has a small internal (conduction)
resistance i.e. relatively small temperature gradient or the existence of practically uniform
temperature within the system. The convective resistance then predominates and the transient
phenomenon is controlled by the convective heat exchange
If Bi< 0.1 the lumped heat capacity approach can be used to advantage

ατ
L2c
The non-dimensional factor
is called
The Fourier number, F0
ατ
F 0= =F ourier number
L2c
i.e

It signifies the degree of penetration of heating or cooling effect through a solid. Using non-

dimensional terms equation (3.6) takes the form

t−t a θ −B F
= =e i 0
t i −t a θi
(4.8)

4.2 Transient Heat Conduction in Solids with Finite Conduction and

Convective Resistances (0 < Bi< 100)

ta ti Infinite
plane31wall
h h
Figure 3.1 Transient heat conduction in an infinite plane wall

As shown in Figure (3.1), consider the heating and cooling of a plane wall having a thickness of 2 L
and extending to infinity in y and z directions. Let us assume that the wall initially, is at uniform
temperature ti and both surfaces (x ± L are suddenly exposed to and maintained at the ambient
(surroundings) temperature ta. The governing differential equation is
d 2 t 1 dt
=
dx 2 α dτ
(4.9)
The boundary conditions are
(i)
At τ = 0, t = ti
dt
=0
(ii)
dx
At x = 0,

(iii)
At x = ±L,
kA ( dxdt )=hA (t−t )
a

The solution obtained after rigorous mathematical analysis indicate that

t −t a
t i −t a
=f
(
x hl ατ
,
l k l2
,
) (4.10)
From equation (3.10), it is evident that when conduction resistance is not negligible, the temperature
history becomes a function of

Biot numbers
( k )
hl

Fourier numbers
( )ατ
l2

and

Dimensionless parameter ()
x
l
32
which indicates the location of point within the plate where temperature is to be obtained. The

dimensionless parameter x/l is replaced with r/R in the case of cylinders and spheres

4.3 Transient Conduction with Given Temperature Distribution

The temperature distribution at some instant of time, in some situations is known for the one-
dimensional transient heat conduction through a solid. The known temperature distribution may be
expressed in the form of polynomials; t = a – bx + cx2 + dx3 – ex4 where a, b, c, d and e are the known
coefficients. By using such distribution, the one-dimensional transient heat conduction problem can
be solved.
5.0 Boiling and Condensation
Boiling and condensation are modes of heat transfer associated with change of phase. Whereas
boiling involves change from liquid to vapour phase of a fluid substance, condensation refers to a
change from the vapour to a liquid phase. Boiling and condensation processes entail the following
unique features:
(1) As a consequence of phase of phase change in these processes, the heat transfer to or from the
fluid can occur without influencing the fluid temperature
(2) The heat transfer coefficient and rates, due to latent associated with phase change are
generally much higher compared with the normal convection process
(3) High rate of heat transfer is achieved with small temperature difference.
The phenomenon associated with boiling and condensation are much more complex than the normal
convection process due to the latent effects, surface tension and surface characteristics including other
properties of two phase systems.

5.1 Boiling Heat Transfer

Boiling is the convective heat transfer process that involves a phase change from liquid to vapour
state. Boiling is also defined as evaporation at a solid-liquid surface. This is possible only when the
temperature of the surface (ts) exceeds the saturation temperature corresponding to the liquid pressure
(tsat). Heat is transferred from the solid surface to the liquid surface according to the law
Q=h A s ( t s −t sat ) =h A s Δt e
(5.1)
where Δt e= ( t s −t sat ) is known as excess temperature

The boiling heat transfer phenomenon may occur in the following forms

33
(a) Pool boiling: In this case, the liquid above the hot surface is essentially stagnant and its

motion near the surface is due to free convection and mixing induced by bubble growth and

detachment. The pool boiling occurs in steam boilers involving forced convection

(b) Forced convection boiling: This refers to a situation where the fluid motion is induced by

external means. The liquid is pumped and forced to flow. This type of boiling occurs in water

tube boilers involving forced convection

(c) Local boiling or sub-cooled boiling: In this type of boiling the temperature is below the

saturation temperature and bubbles are formed in the vicinity of heat surface. The bubbles

after travelling short path get condensed in the liquid which a temperature less than the boiling

point

(d) Saturated boiling: Here, the liquid temperature exceeds the saturation temperature. The vapour

bubbles formed at the solid surface are then propelled through the liquid by buoyancy effects

and eventually escape from a free surface (liquid-vapour interface)

5.1.1 Boiling Regime

The process of boiling depends upon the nature of the surface, thermo-physical properties of the

fluid and vapour bubble dynamics. Due to involvement of large number of variables, general

equations describing the boiling process are not available however; the boiling mechanism can be

understood by means of the boiling curve. Figure 5.1 shows the boiling curve for water

34
2t

/tfiseeb
W

zo

q
o

n
o
isro
tu
atu
rya
o
p
arveo

fEu
sce
n
etce
acg
rm an

rla
tele
aticb
en
IN
H
d
ee
eeH
tr
aF-y
era
h
rel
rp
eu
p
u

e
eat

rei
em
p
m

xIuu
E
B
sco

tn

eisg
sln
n

rvdb
n
o

bm
t
a

gfn

eic
sfll
ii
refo
ab

Isld
e

ri

oi
tg
ln

lsi

A
u
Vtia
V
SFR
m
o

i
te or ts tsat

Fig. 5.1 The boiling curve for water

As can be seen from the figure, there are three regimes of boiling
(i) Interface evaporation
(ii) Nucleate boiling
(iii) Film boiling

(i) Interface Evaporation: this regime exists in region I called the free convection zone. Here
the excess temperature, ∆te is very small and equals to 5oC. In the region, the liquid near
the surface is supersaturated slightly, the convection currents circulate the liquid and
evaporation takes place at the liquid surface

35
 (ii) Nucleate Boiling: This type of boiling exists in region II and III. With the increase in ∆t e,
the formation of bubbles on the surface of the object being boiled at certain localised
sports commences. In fact it is in region II that the nucleate boiling starts. With further
increase in ∆te the bubbles are formed more rapidly and rise to the surface of the liquid
resulting in rapid evaporation, as indicated in region III. The nucleate boiling is
characterized by formation of bubbles at the nucleation site and the resulting liquid
agitated. The bubble agitation induces considerable liquid mixing and that promotes
substantial increase in the heat flux and the boiling heat transfer coefficient.

(iii) Film Boiling: Film boiling comprises regions VI, V and VI. The trend of increase of heat
flux with increase in excess temperature observed up-to region III is reversed in region IV.
This is due to the fact that the bubble formation is very rapid and bubble blanket the
heating surface and prevent the incoming fresh liquid from taking their place. Eventually
the bubbles coalesce and form a vapour film which covers the surface completely. Since
the thermal conductivity of vapour film is much lower than that of the liquid, the heat flux
drops with growth in ∆te

5.1.2 Boiling Correlations

In boiling heat transfer, a driving force is the excess temperature, which is given by

Δt e= ( t s −t sat )
(5.2)

For the boiling process the governing equation is

Q=h A Δt e
(5.3)

Where h is the boiling film coefficient

Since no analytical solution is available for boiling heat transfer due to difficult fluid behaviour,
empirical relations are used for engineering calculations. The simplest are the following proposed by
Jacob

(i) Correlations for nucleate boiling at atmospheric pressure on a flat plate and with low
fluxes was given as
Nu=0 . 16 ( Gr . Pr )0 . 33
(5.4)

(ii) For the nucleate boiling on a vertical flat plate, the correlation is of the form
36
 Nu=0 . 61 ( Gr . Pr )0 .23
(5.5)

5.2 Condensation Heat Transfer

The condensation process is the reverse of boiling process. The condensation sets in, whenever a
saturation vapour comes in contact with a surface whose temperature is lower than the saturation
temperature corresponding to the vapour pressure. As the vapour condenses, latent heat is liberated
and there is flow of heat to the surface. The liquid condensate may get somewhat sub-cooled by
contact with the cooled surface and that may eventually cause more vapour to condense on the
exposed surface or upon the previously formed condensate. Depending on the condition of cool
surface, condensation may occur in two possible ways

(i) Film condensation

(ii) Drop-wise condensation

(i) Film Condensation

If the condensate tends to wet the surface and thereby forms a liquid film, then the
condensation process is known as film condensation. Here the heat from the vapour to the
cooling medium is transferred through the film of the condensate formed on the surface.
The liquid flows down the cooling surface under gravity and the layer continuously grows
in thickness because of newly condensing vapour. The continuous film offers thermal
resistance and checks further transfer of heat between the vapour and the surface.
However, the heat transferred from the vapour to the condensate formed in the surface by
convection is further transferred from the condensate film to the cooling surface by
conduction. This phenomenon reduces the rate of heat transfer considerably
(ii) Drop-wise Condensation
In drop-wise condensation, the vapour condenses into small liquid droplets of various
sizes which fall down the surface in random fashion. The drops forms in cracks, and pits
on the surface grow to size and break away from the surface, knocks off other droplets and
eventually runs off the surface, without forming a film under the influence of gravity

37
6.0 Heat Exchangers
Heat exchangers may be defined as equipment which transfers the energy from a hot fluid to a cold
fluid with maximum rate and minimum investment and running costs. In heat exchangers, the
temperature of each fluid changes as it passes through the exchangers and hence the temperature of
the dividing wall between the fluids also changes along the length of the exchanger

6.1 Types of Heat Exchangers

In order to meet the widely varying application, several types of heat exchangers have been
developed which are classified on the basis of nature of heat exchange process, relative direction of
fluid motion, design and constructional features and physical state of fluid

6.1.1 Nature of Heat Exchange Process

On thebasis of nature of heat exchange process, heat exchangers are classified as, direct contact and
indirect contact heat exchangers

(a) Direct Contact Heat Exchangers

In a direct contact or open heat exchanger, the exchange of heat takes place by direct mixing
of hot and cold fluid and transfer of heat and mass takes place simultaneously. The use of
such units is made under the conditions where mixing of two fluids is either harmless or
desirable. Examples are cooling tower, jet condensation and direct contact feed heaters

(b) Indirect Contact Heat Exchangers

In this type of heat exchangers, the heat transfer between two fluids could be carried out by
transmission though walls which separates the two fluids. Examples are regenerators (gas
turbines, I. C engines, air heaters of blast furnace) and recuperators (car radiators, oil coolers,
intercoolers, economisers, condensers, evaporators etc)

6.1.2 Relative Direction of Fluid Motion

According to the relative direction of two fluid streams the heat exchangers are classified into the
following threes categories

(i) Parallel flow

(ii) Counter flow
(iii) Cross flow

(i) Parallel Flow Heat Exchangers

In this type of heat exchangers the two fluid streams enter at one end and leave at the other
end. The flow arrangement and variation of temperatures of the fluid streams in case of
parallel flow heat exchangers are shown in Figure 6.1 below

38
 tC1
tH1
Cold
Hot fluid tH2
tH1 Hot tH2c
Cold tC1 Cold fluid tC2
L (length)
tC2
Figure 6.1 Parallel flow heat exchanger.

(ii) Counter Flow Heat Exchangers

In a counter flow heat exchangers, the fluids flow in opposite direction. The hot and cold
fluids enter at the opposite ends. The flow arrangement and temperature distribution for
such a heat exchanger are shown in Figure 6.2

tC2

tH1
Cold Hot fluid
tH1 Hot tH2ctC2 tH2
Cold Cold fluid tC1
L (length)
tC1

Figure 6.2 Counter flow heat exchanger

(iii) Cross Flow Heat Exchangers

In cross flow heat exchangers, the two fluid streams (hot and cold) cross one another in
space, usually at right angles. Figure 6.3 illustrates a common arrangement of cross flow
heat exchangers.
Cold fluid in
(unmixed stream)
Cold fluid in Baffles
Tubes (mixed hot stream) Hot
fluid
Hot
Hotin Hot
fluid
fluid fluid
in
out out
(unmixed Cold fluid out
Stream)
39 Cold fluid out
 Figure 6.3 Cross flow heat exchanger

6.2 Heat Exchangers Analysis

For designing or predicting the performance of a heat exchanger, it is necessary that the total heat
transfer may be related its governing parameters:
(i) The overall heat transfer coefficient due to various modes of heat transfer, U
(ii) The total surface area, A
(iii) The inlet outlet fluid temperature ti and to

Taking the overall energy balance over a heat exchanger unit gives the total heat transfer rate in the
heat exchanger as
Q = U A tm (6.1)
where U = overall heat transfer coefficient between the two fluids
A = effective heat transfer area
Tm = appropriate mean value of temperature difference or logarithmic mean
temperature difference (LMTD)
6.2.1 Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD)
Logarithmic mean temperature difference (LMTD) is defined as that temperature difference, which if
constant, would give the same rate of heat transfer as actually occurs under variable conditions of
temperature difference. In order to derive expressions for LMTD for various types of heat
exchangers, the following assumptions are made
1. The overall heat transfer coefficient U is constant
2. The flow conditions are steady
3. The specific heats and mass flow rates of both fluids are constant
4. There is no loss of heat to the surroundings due to the heat exchanger being perfectly
insulated
5. There is no change of phase of either fluid during the heat transfer
6. The changes in potential and kinetic energies are negligible
7. Axial condition along the tubes of the heat exchanger is negligible
The value of the LMTD depends on the relative direction of fluid motion. The LMTD for common
fluid motions are given below:

40
 (a) Parallel Flow

L (length)
tH2
tC2 Cold fluid
Hot fluid
tH1

tC1

( t H 1 −t C 1 )−( t H 2−t C 2 )
t m=
( t H 1 −t C1 )
ln
( t H 2 −t C2 ) (6.2)
or
t 1 −t 2
t m=
t
ln 1
t2 (6.3)
Where t1 = tH1 – tC1
t2 = tH2 – tC2

(b) Counter Flow

tH1
Hot fluid
tC2 tH2

Cold fluid tC1

41
L (length)
 ( t H 1 −t C 2 )−( t H 2−t C 1 )
t m=
( t H 1 −t C 2 )
ln
( t H 2 −t C1 ) (6.4)
or
t 1 −t 2
t m=
t1
ln
t2 (6.5)
Where t1 = tH1 – tC2
t2 = tH2 – tC1
a special case arises when t1 =t2 = t, in a case of a counter-flow heat exchanger. In such a case we
have
t −t 0
t m= =
t 0
ln
t (6.6)
Equation (6.6) is indeterminate. The value of t m for such a case can be found by applying L’ Hopital’s
rule

lim it
t 2 −t 1
=lim it
t1
[ ]
t2
t1
−1

t 2→ t 1 t 2 t2 / t1 → 1 t2
ln ln
t1 t1 (6.7)
Let t2/t1 = R. Therefore equation (6.7) can be written as

t ( R−1 )
lim it
R→ 1 ln R (6.8)
Differentiating the numerator and denominator with respect to R and taking the limits, we get
t
lim it =t
R→ 1 1 /R (6.9)
Hence, when
t1 = t2, equation (6.1) becomes
Q=UAt (6.10)

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LMTD for a counter flow unit is always greater than that for a parallel flow unit; hence counter flow
heat exchangers can transfer more heat than parallel flow one; in other words counter flow heat
exchangers needs a smaller heating surface for the same rate of heat transfer. For this reason the
counter flow heat arrangement is usually used.

6.3 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient

In a heat exchanger in which two fluids are separated by a plane wall as shown below, the overall
heat transfer coefficient is given by

1
U=
1 L 1
+ +
hi k ho (6.11)

Plane wall
ti
tt1
1
Cold fluid film
Hot fluid film

tt2
2
hi ho to
L
Q ti Ri t1 RW t2 Ro to
1 L 1

If the fluids are separatedh Aby a tube wall

i kA
as shown inh the
A
figure below, then the overall heat transfer
o

coefficient is given as
Inner surface:
1
U i=
1 ri ro ri 1
+ ln + x
hi k r i r o ho (6.12)
Outer surface:

43
 1
U o=
ro 1 roro 1
x + ln +
ri hi k ri ho (6.13)
Where
UiAi = UoAo
Ai = 2πriL
Ao = 2πroL
Tube

Cold
ri ro fluid
hi Hot ho tube
fluid ti
tube k to

Q ti Ri RW Ro to
1 1 r 1
ln o
h A 2 k L r h A
i i i o o

The overall heat transfer coefficient depends upon the following factors:
(1) The flow rate
(2) The properties of the fluid
(3) The thickness of the materials
(4) The surface condition of the tube
(5) The geometrical configuration of the heat exchanger
It is also important to note the following:
1- That the overall heat transfer coefficient U will generally decrease when any of the fluids (e.g.
tars. oils or any of the gases) having low values of heat transfer coefficient, flows on one side
of the exchanger
2- The highly conducting liquids such as water and liquid metals gave much higher values of
heat transfer coefficients, h and overall heat transfer coefficients, U. In case of boiling and
condensation processes also, the values of U are high

44
 3- All thermal resistances in the heat exchanger must be low for its efficient and effective design

6.4 Correction Factors for Multi-Pass Arrangements

t 1 −t 2
t m=
t1
ln
The expression t 2 for LMTD is essentially valid for single-pass heat exchangers. The

analytical treatment of multiple pass shell and tube heat exchangers and cross flow heat exchangers is
much more difficult than single pass cases; such cases may be analysed by using the following
equation
Q = UAFTm ` (6.14)
Where F is the correction factor
The correction factors for several common arrangements are given charts in terms of two dimensional
variables, temperature ratio (P) and capacity ratio (R)
Temperature Ratio P: This is defined as the rise in temperature of the cold fluid to the difference in
the inlet temperature of the two fluids, i.e.
t c 2 −t c 1
P=
t h1 −t c 1

(6.15)

where subscripts c and h denotes the cold and hot fluids respectively, and 1 and 2 refer to the inlet
and outlet conditions

Capacity Ratio, R: It is the ratio of the mass flow rate times the heat capacity of the fluids, i.e.
mc . c pc
R=
mh . c ph

(6.16)

However, since

45
mc .cpc . (tc2 – tc1) = mh .cph . (th2 – th1)

Then

R= = =[
mc . c pc t h1 −t h2 temperature drop of the hot fluid
mh . c ph t c 2 −t c 1 temperature rise in the cold fluid ]
(6.17)

6.5 Heat Exchanger Effectiveness

A heat exchanger can be designed by the LMTD when inlet and outlet conditions are specified.
However, when the problem is to determine the inlet and outlet temperatures for a particular heat
exchanger, the analysis is performed more readily by using a method based on the effectiveness of the
heat exchanger
The heat exchanger effectiveness, ε, is defined as the ratio of actual heat transfer to the maximum
possible heat transfer, i.e.
A ctual h eat t ransfer Q
ε= =
M aximum p ossible heat t ransfer Q max

(6.18)

The actual heat transfer rate Q can be determined by writing an energy balance over either side of
heat exchanger, i.e.
Q = mccpc (tc2 – tc1) = mhcph (th2 – th1) (6.19)
The maximum possible heat transfer rate, Qmax is given by
Qmax = Ch (th1 – tc1) or Cc (th1 – tc1) (6.20)
where
Ch = mhcph = hot fluid capacity rate
Cc = mccpc = cold fluid capacity rate
Qmax= the minimum of the two values i.e.
Qmax = Cmin (th1 – tc1) (6.21)
Then
46
 Ch ( t h1 −t h2 ) C c ( t c 2 −t c 1 )
ε= =
C min ( t h 1−t c 1 ) Cmin ( t h 1−t c 1 )
(6.22)

Once the effectiveness is known the heat transfer rate can be very easily calculated by using the
equation
Q=ε C min ( t h1 −t c 1 )
(6.23)

6.6 Number of Transfer Units (NTU) Method

It is obvious from equation (6.22) that effectiveness ε is a function of several variables and as such by
compiling a non dimensional grouping ε, can be expressed as a function of three-dimensional
parameters. The method is known as an NTU method. This method or approach facilitates the
comparison between the various types of heat exchangers which may be used for a particular
application. Below are these arrangements for both parallel and counter flow exchangers.
(a) Parallel flow exchangers:
The common equation for parallel heat exchangers is
1−exp [−( UA / C min ) ] [ 1+ ( C min / Cmax ) ]
ε=
1+ ( C min / C max )
(6.24)

Where Cmin and Cmax represent the smaller and larger of the two heat capacities, Cc and Ch
 The grouping of the terms (UA/Cmin) is a dimensionless expression called the number of
transfer units (NTU), NTU is a measure of effectiveness of the heat exchanger
 Cmin/Cmax is the second dimensionless parameter and is called the capacity ratio R
 The last dimensionless parameter is the flow arrangement, i.e. parallel flow, counter flow,
cross flow etc
Equation (6.24) can then be written for parallel flow exchangers as
1−exp [ −( NTU ) ] [ 1+ R ]
ε=
1+ R (6.25)

(b) Counter flow

1−exp [ −( NTU ) ] [ 1−R ]
ε=
1−R exp [ −( NTU ) ] (6.25)

47