Thermal Radiation

When a body has internal energy, it emits energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation. This radiation
travels at the speed of light and does not require a transfer medium (such as matter) to propagate. In
fact, matter can reduce the transfer of radiation energy between bodies by absorbing some of the
energy.

The range of wavelengths from 10-1 to about 100 to 1000 micrometers (μm) is associated with thermal
radiation. This range corresponds to the radiation emitted by bodies with temperatures ranging from a
few Kelvin (close to absolute zero) up to about 20,000 Kelvin. Thermal radiation is often referred to as
black body radiation.

A black body is an idealized theoretical object that absorbs all incident radiation and emits the maximum
possible amount of radiation at every wavelength for a given temperature. The spectral emissive power
of a black body as a function of wavelength and temperature can be described by Planck's law of
radiation.

The equation you provided, M(T) = σT^4, represents the total spectral emissive power of a black body,
where σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant.

The Stefan-Boltzmann constant (σ) has a value of 5.67 × 10^-8 Watts per square meter per Kelvin to
account for the relationship between temperature and total emitted radiation power.

Wien's law relates the temperature of a body to the wavelength at which the radiation intensity is
maximum. The equation you mentioned, λmax = const. / T, where const. is the constant 2.897756 × 10^-3
meters per Kelvin, gives the wavelength of maximum radiation intensity as a function of temperature.

However, real bodies are not perfect black bodies, and their emission behavior differs. The emission of
real bodies is described by an emission coefficient (ε), which ranges from 0 to 1. The emission coefficient
accounts for the imperfect emission behavior of real bodies. The real energy flux due to radiation can be
calculated by multiplying the spectral emissive power of a black body by the emission coefficient: εσT^4.

In summary, the concepts you described pertain to the emission of thermal radiation by bodies, where a
black body represents the idealized case of maximum radiation emission at all wavelengths for a given
temperature. Real bodies deviate from this ideal behavior and their emission is characterized by an
emission coefficient that accounts for their imperfections.

Real Bodies

The emission coefficient or emissivity (ε) is a measure of how well a real body emits radiation compared
to a black body at the same temperature and wavelength. It is defined as the ratio of the emitted
spectral intensity (M(T, λ)) of the real body to that of a black body (M_b(T, λ)), often considering all
emission directions (hemispherical). Mathematically, it is expressed as ε(λ) = M(T, λ) / M_b(T, λ).

For the simplification of gray bodies, the dependence of emissivity on wavelength (λ) is neglected,
assuming that the body has a constant emissivity value across all wavelengths. In this case, the
hemispherical total emissivity is used, which is simply denoted as ε(T) = M(T) / M_b(T), where M(T)
represents the total emitted spectral intensity of the real body and M_b(T) represents the total emitted
spectral intensity of a black body at the same temperature.

The emissivity of a material also depends on the direction of radiation emission and can be influenced
by various material properties, including surface roughness. For non-conducting materials, the emissivity
(ε) typically decreases as the deviation from the surface normal (described by the angle β) increases. In
other words, when radiation is emitted at an angle away from the perpendicular direction to the
surface, the emissivity tends to decrease.

On the other hand, for metals, the emissivity is usually smaller than that of non-conducting bodies and
often has a minimum value when the radiation is emitted in the normal direction (β = 0 degrees).
However, for non-conducting materials, the emissivity tends to have a maximum value when emitted in
the normal direction.

In practical applications, it is often sufficient to use average emissivity values that appropriately
represent the material's behavior. The selection of suitable average emissivity values depends on the
specific application and the characteristics of the material. The effects of surface finish, such as
roughness, can also impact the emissivity values, and these effects can be observed in practical
examples.

Overall, emissivity is a property of materials that describes their ability to emit radiation compared to a
black body. It takes into account factors such as wavelength dependence, direction of emission, and
material properties, and it is often used in various fields, including thermal engineering and radiative
heat transfer analysis.

Absorption, Reflection, Transmission of Thermal Radiation

 Absorption: When a body is exposed to thermal radiation from other bodies, it can absorb some
of that radiation, converting the electromagnetic radiation into internal energy. This process is
called absorption. The absorbed energy increases the internal energy of the body and may result
in an increase in its temperature.
 Reflection: When thermal radiation encounters a body, it can also be reflected. Reflection occurs
when the radiation bounces off the surface of the body without being absorbed. The reflected
radiation changes direction and may interact with other bodies or be redirected elsewhere.
 Transmission: In addition to absorption and reflection, thermal radiation can also be transmitted
through a body. Transmission occurs when radiation passes through the body without being
absorbed or significantly reflected. This typically happens when the body is transparent or
translucent to the specific wavelength or range of thermal radiation.

The interaction of thermal radiation with a body can be described using the absorption coefficient (α),
reflection coefficient (ρ), and transmission coefficient (τ). These coefficients represent the fraction of
incident radiation that is absorbed, reflected, and transmitted, respectively. They satisfy the relationship
α + ρ + τ = 1, meaning that the total energy of the incoming radiation is distributed among these three
components.

Most solid bodies are considered impervious (opaque) to thermal radiation, meaning that they have a
low transmission coefficient (τ ≈ 0) and tend to absorb and reflect most of the incident radiation.
Absorption primarily takes place in a thin surface layer of the body, and then the absorbed energy
spreads through the body via heat conduction.

However, it's important to note that certain types of radiation, such as radio waves or cosmic rays, can
penetrate solids to varying extents depending on their frequency and energy. Microwave radiation, for
example, has a greater penetration depth compared to other thermal radiation types. This property can
be utilized to heat solids nearly evenly, as microwaves can penetrate deeper into the material, leading
to more uniform heating.

In summary, when thermal radiation interacts with a body, it can be absorbed, reflected, or transmitted.
The specific behavior depends on the properties of the body and the characteristics of the incident
radiation. Solid bodies are typically opaque to thermal radiation, absorbing and reflecting most of the
incident radiation, while transmission is minimal. However, other types of radiation, like microwaves,
may penetrate solids more deeply, allowing for more uniform heating.

Black, Gray, and Real Bodies

Classification of Bodies: The slide discusses the classification of bodies based on their reflection and
absorption behavior concerning thermal radiation. Different bodies can have varying absorption
characteristics.

 Black Body: A black body is an idealized body that absorbs all incident radiation across all
wavelengths (α = 1). It is a perfect absorber of thermal radiation, meaning all incoming radiation
is absorbed, and none is reflected.
 White Body: A white body is also an idealized concept where all incident radiation is reflected (α
= 0). It absorbs none of the incoming thermal radiation.
 Gray Body: A gray body is a real body that partially absorbs incident radiation, but its absorption
is independent of wavelength (α < 1; α ≠ f(λ)). This means that it absorbs a fraction of the
incoming thermal radiation, and this fraction remains constant across different wavelengths in a
specific range. In certain wavelength ranges, many real bodies can be considered gray bodies.
 Real Body: A real body is a term used to describe bodies whose absorption behavior depends on
the wavelength of the incident thermal radiation. Their absorption coefficient (α) varies with
different wavelengths (α = f(λ)), making them non-uniform absorbers across the spectrum.

Kirchhoff's Law: In thermodynamic equilibrium, the emission (ε) and absorption (α) ratios of a body are
the same. This is known as Kirchhoff's law. Mathematically, this relationship is represented as ε(T) = α(T)
and ε(λ, T) = α(λ, T), where ε is the emissivity of the body and T is its temperature.

Black Body Realization: To serve as a reference standard for radiation measurements, a black body
needs to exhibit perfect absorption behavior. The slide shows the realization of a black body as an
isothermal hollow enclosure.

 Insulation: The hollow enclosure is well insulated to minimize heat exchange with the
surroundings.
 Heating: The enclosure is heated to a constant temperature.
 Copper Cylinder: A copper cylinder is present within the enclosure to help maintain uniform
temperature distribution.
  Reflected Radiation: The slide mentions reflected radiation, which may arise due to imperfect
internal surface conditions, leading to some radiation being reflected instead of being absorbed.
 Polished Surface: The interior surface of the enclosure is polished to enhance the absorption of
radiation.
 Black Surface: A black surface is used to improve the absorption characteristics further.
 Incident Beam: The incoming radiation enters the enclosure through an incident beam.
 Strongly Absorbing Surface: The last part of the enclosure ensures that any remaining radiation
that manages to escape internal reflections gets absorbed by this surface.

Overall, the slide provides an overview of the classification of bodies based on their absorption behavior,
the concept of gray bodies, and the realization of a black body as a reference standard for radiation
measurements.

Making Use of Wavelength Dependency of Emissive Power

Sunlight Spectrum: Sunlight reaching Earth has a specific spectrum determined by the temperature of
the Sun. The Sun is a very hot object, with a surface temperature of around 5,500°C (9,932°F). Due to
this high temperature, the Sun emits thermal radiation across a broad range of wavelengths, including
the visible, ultraviolet (UV), and infrared (IR) regions. The spectrum of sunlight peaks in the visible range,
which is why we perceive sunlight as white light.

Atmospheric Absorption: As sunlight travels through the Earth's atmosphere, it can undergo partial
absorption. Certain molecules and particles in the atmosphere, such as water vapor, ozone, and
aerosols, have specific absorption properties for different wavelengths of light. This absorption leads to
modifications in the spectrum of sunlight that reaches the Earth's surface. For example, certain
wavelengths of UV radiation are absorbed by the ozone layer, while some IR radiation is absorbed by
water vapor and greenhouse gases.

Emission Spectrum of Technical Surfaces: Technical surfaces, such as those found in buildings or
vehicles, operate at much lower temperatures compared to the Sun. As a result, their emission
spectrum is shifted to longer wavelengths, primarily in the IR range. According to Wien's displacement
law, as the temperature decreases, the peak wavelength of the emitted radiation increases. So,
technical surfaces emit most of their thermal radiation in the form of IR radiation.

Coatings for Technical Surfaces: To optimize the performance and energy efficiency of technical
surfaces, coatings are developed with specific properties. These coatings serve two main purposes:

 Transmission of Sunlight: The coatings are designed to allow a significant portion of sunlight to
pass through them without being absorbed or reflected. This is important for applications where
natural light is desired, such as windows or skylights. By allowing sunlight transmission, the
coatings minimize the loss of visible light entering a space.
 High Reflectivity in the Emission Regime: The coatings are designed to be highly reflective in the
IR range, which corresponds to the emission regime of the technical surfaces. A high reflectivity
means that the coating reflects a large portion of the thermal radiation emitted by the surface.
When a surface has high reflectivity (high ρ), it means that it has low absorption (low α) and low
emissivity (low ε). This reduces the amount of thermal radiation absorbed and emitted by the
surface, resulting in better insulation and energy efficiency.
In summary, coatings for technical surfaces are designed to allow the transmission of sunlight while
being highly reflective in the IR range. This combination optimizes energy efficiency by minimizing the
absorption and emission of thermal radiation from the surfaces. By reflecting a significant portion of the
emitted radiation, the coatings help reduce heat transfer and keep the surfaces cooler, contributing to
improved energy efficiency and thermal management.

Plant – Heat Transfer Mechanisms for Parabolic Trough

Certainly! The solutions mentioned in the context of the Parabolic Trough system, as presented by
Tagle-Salazar et al. in 2020, aim to optimize heat transfer mechanisms for improved performance. Let's
go through each solution:

Coating of Fluid-Guiding Tube: In a Parabolic Trough system, a fluid-guiding tube is used to carry the
heat-transfer fluid (usually a thermal oil or water) that absorbs the concentrated solar energy from the
parabolic reflectors. To optimize absorption and minimize emission of thermal radiation, a coating is
applied to the inner surface of the fluid-guiding tube. This coating is designed to enhance the absorption
of solar radiation and reduce the emission of thermal radiation. By improving absorption and reducing
emission, more of the solar energy can be efficiently transferred to the heat-transfer fluid.

Concentric (Evacuated) Shield Tube: The Parabolic Trough system includes a heat-absorbing tube, which
is usually placed within a larger, concentric tube called the shield tube. The shield tube is designed to
minimize convective heat transfer between the heat-absorbing tube and the ambient air. One way to
achieve this is by creating a vacuum within the annular space between the heat-absorbing tube and the
shield tube, hence the term "evacuated." By creating a vacuum, heat transfer through convection is
greatly reduced since the absence of air or gas molecules eliminates the medium through which heat
can be carried away. This helps to maintain higher temperatures within the heat-absorbing tube and
improves the overall thermal efficiency of the system.

Insulation of Holding Brackets: The Parabolic Trough system requires brackets to support and hold the
parabolic reflectors in place. These brackets are typically in direct contact with the supporting structure,
which can act as a heat sink and facilitate heat conduction away from the system. To minimize heat
conduction and maintain higher temperatures within the system, the holding brackets are insulated.
Insulation materials with low thermal conductivity are used to reduce the transfer of heat from the
brackets to the supporting structure. By minimizing heat conduction away from the system, more
thermal energy can be retained and utilized for efficient heat transfer.

Overall, the mentioned solutions aim to optimize the Parabolic Trough system's heat transfer
mechanisms. The coating of the fluid-guiding tube enhances absorption and reduces emission, the
concentric shield tube minimizes convective heat transfer, and the insulation of holding brackets
reduces heat conduction away from the system. These measures help maximize the capture and
utilization of solar energy, ultimately improving the system's efficiency and performance.

Gases & Liquids

Gases: Gases, like solids, emit and absorb thermal radiation, but to a much lower degree. This is
primarily due to the low volumetric density of gas molecules. As a result, the impact of gas radiation
effects is usually negligible, especially at low pressures. Noble gases and elementary gases such as
hydrogen (H2), oxygen (O2), and nitrogen (N2) are transparent to thermal radiation. However,
compound gases have specific wavelength regimes in which they emit and absorb radiation.

High-temperature ovens: In high-temperature ovens, where temperatures are elevated, gas radiation
effects can become technically relevant. The presence of particles, such as soot, can further complicate
the problem by contributing to the complexity of radiation heat transfer.

Liquids: Discussions about radiation related to liquids are relatively scarce in the literature. This may be
because most liquids evaporate at temperatures where radiation heat transfer becomes significant.
Similar to gases, the emission and absorption behavior of liquids depend on their molecular structure.
When liquids are present between solid surfaces, their absorption spectra must be taken into account. If
liquids strongly absorb radiation, the energy is further transferred by conduction and/or convection. On
the other hand, if the absorption is minimal, radiation heat transfer between the adjacent solid surfaces
cannot be neglected, particularly when there are significant temperature differences involved.

In summary, while gases have a relatively small impact on thermal radiation due to their low density,
they can become relevant in specific scenarios such as high-temperature ovens. Liquids, on the other
hand, are not extensively discussed in the context of radiation due to their tendency to evaporate at
temperatures where radiation becomes important. However, when liquids are present between solid
surfaces, their absorption behavior should be considered, as it can affect the overall heat transfer
process.