University of Tripoli

Faculty of Engineering
Department of Geological Engineering

Remote Sensing
(GEOE 477)

Dr. Nureddin Saadi

Introduction to Remote Sensing
 Definition of Remote Sensing

The science and art of obtaining

information about features or
phenomena from data acquired by a
device that records reflected, emitted,
or diffracted electromagnetic energy,
and is not in direct contact with the
features or phenomena under
investigation.
 History of Remote Sensing
• Born in 1839, photography was first used in topographic
surveying in 1840’s.
• First aerial photograph was taken from a balloon in 1858.
• Three-Color photographic process was developed in 1861.
• Invented in 1903, airplane was first used as a camera platform
in 1909.
• Aerial photography was extensively used for observation
during World War I.
• Photo interpretation and photogrammetric mapping techniques
and instruments were greatly developed during World War II.
• The lunar missions in 1960’s marked the era of space imaging.
• First imaging satellites were launched in early 1970’s.
 History of Remote Sensing
Early aerial photography
(before planes):
balloons, pigeons, and
mountain tops

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Remote Sensing Process
 Radiation Principles

Basic Wave Theory

• Electromagnetic Spectrum
• Particle Theory
• Sources of Electromagnetic Energy
• Stephan Boltzmann Law
• Blackbody Radiator
• Wien’s Displacement Law
 Electromagnetic Waves

Radiation
Source

• Energy from the sun travels to Earth through space as

electric and magnetic waves, or electromagnetic
radiation.
• The range of electromagnetic radiation of various
wavelengths and frequencies, extending from cosmic waves
to radio waves, is known as the electromagnetic spectrum.
 Electromagnetic Waves


V = Frequency

Wave motion
 Basic Wave Theory
• Electromagnetic energy travels at the speed of light in
a harmonic sinusoidal fashion.
• Wave frequency (v) is the number of peaks passing a
point in space per unit time.
• The wavelength () is the distance between two
successive Peeks.

Sine Wave: The direction of propagation of this wave is along the t axis.
 Wavelength and Frequency

• Wavelength: Wavelengthh
Wavelengt
– Distance between two Amplitude

successive peaks
• Frequency:
– Number of peaks (crests) 4 cycles
that pass a given point in
space per unit time
• Amplitude: 8 cycles
– Height of peak Frequency
1 Second
 Wavelength Measurements Units

• Angstrom (Å) = 10-10 m or one 10 billionth of a meter

• Nanometer (nm) = 10-9 m or one billionth of a meter
• Micrometer (µm) = 10-6 m or one millionth of a meter
• Millimeter (mm) = 10-3 m or one thousandth of a meter
• Centimeter (cm) = 10-2 m or one hundredth of a meter
• Decimeter (dm) = 10-1 m or one tenth of a meter
• Meters (m) = 100 m or one meter
• Kilometer (km) = 103 m or one thousand meter
Frequency Measurements Units

• Hertz (Hz) =
one cycle per second
• Kilohertz (KHz) =
1000 cycles per second
• Megahertz (MHz) =
106 Hz or million Hz
• Gigahertz (GHz) =
109 Hz or billion Hz
 Basic Wave Equation

C = v
Where:
C = Speed of light
 = Wavelength
v = Wave frequency

v is inversely related to 
The longer the wavelength the lower the frequency
 Particle Theory

Electromagnetic radiation is composed of many

discrete units called photons or quanta

E = hv
Where:
E = Energy of a photon
h = Planck’s constant (h = 6.62607015 ×10−34 J . S)
v = Wave frequency
 Energy/Wavelength Relationship

C = v ------ 1
E = hv ------ 2
From Equation 1 & 2
E = hC / 
The photon energy is inversely related to 
The longer the wavelength the lower its energy content
Energy/Frequency/Wavelength
Relationship

17
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Sources of Electromagnetic Energy

• The Sun

• All matter at temperature above absolute zero

(zero degree K or -273 degree C)

Examples are terrestrial objects

 Black-body Radiation
• The definition of a blackbody is simply that all
incident radiation is absorbed and not that it cannot
emit any radiation itself! It can emitted radiation lies in
the non-visible wavelength range (infrared radiation).
The object therefore initially appears black to the eye,
which is why it is called a black-body.

• All earth surface features are not ideal radiators.

• A hypothetical ideal radiator that totally absorbs and

re-emits all energy incident upon it.
 Black-body Radiation

It could not be explained why a complete absorption of radiant energy leads to a

thermal equilibrium at some point! Even if by definition a blackbody absorbs all
incident radiation, it still emits radiation. This is not reflected radiation, but
radiation which the body emits “from inside” due to the oscillation of the atoms.
See the article Stefan-Boltzmann law.
 Black-body Radiation
• Only if the temperature is increased very strongly and the
body starts to glow, radiation in the visible wavelength range
is emitted. Even if the body now has a color depending on the
temperature, this object is still called a blackbody by
definition, since all incident radiation is still absorbed. So a
blackbody does not necessarily have to be black! An
impressive example is the sun. In fact, the sun is an almost
perfect black body. Only due to the enormous temperature of
5778 K it appears glowing in the sky.
 Stefan–Boltzmann Law

M = s T4
Where:
M = Total radiant from the surface
s = Boltzmann constant (s = 1.380×10−23 J K−1)
T = Absolute temperature
Total energy increases very rapidly
with increase in temperature
 Wien's Displacement Law

m = A/T
Where:
m = Wavelength of maximum spectral radiant
A = Wien's displacement constant (A= 2898 μm⋅K)
T = Absolute temperature
Wavelength and temperature are inversely related
Spectral distribution of the intensity of the radiation of a blackbody
(Planck spectrum)
The wavelength spectrum of blackbody radiation depends
only on the temperature and not on the material!

Animation: Blackbody radiation as a function of temperature

27
Much of a person's energy is radiated away in the form
of infrared light. Some materials are transparent in the
infrared, but opaque to visible light, as is the plastic bag in this
infrared image (bottom). Other materials are transparent to
visible light, but opaque or reflective in the infrared,
noticeable by the darkness of the man's glasses.
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Energy Interaction with the
Atmosphere and Earth
Surface Features
 Energy Interaction with the
Atmosphere & Earth Features

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 Scattering

• Unpredicted diffusion of radiation by particles in

the atmosphere

• Three types of scatter:

1. Rayleigh scatter
2. Mie scatter
3. Non-selective scatter

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 1. Rayleigh Scattering

• Atmospheric molecules and tiny particles are

much smaller in diameter than wavelength of
the interacting radiation

- Example is a blue sky

32
 1. Rayleigh Scattering
Figure showing the greater proportion of
blue light scattered by the atmosphere
relative to red light.
From space, the sky is black!
Rayleigh scattering causes
clouds to appear colored.
In this picture, it is due to
the scattering of light on
smoke particles during the
2021 Mexico forest fire. 33
 2. Mie Scattering

• Atmospheric molecule and particle diameters

are equal to the wavelength of the interacting
radiation

- Water vapor and dust are major causes

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 2. Mie Scattering
Effect of a dielectric sphere (technically
a disk, as the simulation is in 2D) on an
incident plane wave as a function of the
radius. The patterns you see flashing in
are the Mie resonances. The incident
plane wave is coming from the bottom.
The change of sky color at sunset (red
nearest the sun, blue furthest away) is
caused by Rayleigh scattering by
atmospheric gas particles, which are much
smaller than the wavelengths of visible
light. The grey/white color of the clouds is
caused by Mie scattering by water
droplets, which are of a comparable size to
the wavelengths of visible light. 35
 2. Mie Scattering

The Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on

NASA’s Aqua satellite acquired the above image of the dust storm 36
 3. Non-Selective Scattering

• Atmospheric molecule and particle diameters

are much larger than the wavelength of the
interacting radiation
• Water droplets scatter all visible and near-to-mid
infrared wavelengths equally

- Examples are fog and white clouds

This type of scattering causes fog and clouds to appear
white to our eyes because blue, green, and red light are
all scattered in approximately equal quantities
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 3. Non-Selective Scattering

The most prominent example of non-selective scattering is that we see clouds as white bodies.
A cloud consists of water droplets; since they scatter light of every wavelength equally, a cloud
appears white. A remote sensor like our eye cannot “see through” clouds. Moreover, clouds
have a further limiting effect on optical RS: clouds cast shadows (satellite image on the right). 38
 Absorption

• Effective loss of electromagnetic waves energy

by atmospheric substance.
Absorption band is a range of wavelengths in the
electromagnetic spectrum within which radiant
energy is absorbed by a substance
• Most efficient absorbers are:
 Water vapor
 Ozone
 Carbon dioxide
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• Not all wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation from the sun reach the
earth and not all wavelengths emitted by the earth reach into space. The
atmosphere absorbs some this energy while allowing other wavelengths
to pass through.
• Most of the sun's energy comes from visible light and the near infrared
portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. All of the outgoing energy
emitted by the earth is infrared. 40
 Atmospheric Windows from radio to X-ray wavelengths.
Figure created by NASA (https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/).
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 Reflection

Energy incident on an element are reflected,

absorbed, and/or transmitted

EI () = ER () + EA () + ET ()

Where:
EI () = Incident energy
ER () = Reflected energy
EA () = Absorbed energy
ET () = Transmitted energy

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 Reflection
EI () = Incident energy

ER () = Reflected energy

EA () = Absorbed energy ET () = Transmitted energy

Reflection is mainly affected by the following factors:

1. Wavelength of incident radiation
2. Angle of incidence
3. Surface's roughness 43
 Reflection
ER () = EI () - [EA () + ET ()]
The geometric manner in which objects reflect
energy is a function of surface roughness
1. Specular reflection
2. Diffuse (or Lambertian) reflection
3. In-between (near specular, spread, near diffuse)
Examples are earth surface features

44
 1. Specular Reflection
Angle of Angle of
Reflection Incidence

r i

i=r
Flat Surface that Manifest Mirror-like
Reflection 45
 1. Specular Reflection

Specular reflection on an image: This type occurs when the reflective

surface is smooth and acts like a mirror, such as still water and some types
of soil and rocks, and the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of
reflection. This reflection is not useful in remote sensing because it appears
in the satellite images as dazzling light, which reduces the possibility of
distinguishing between different types of Earth's surface. 46
 2. Diffuse (Lambertian) Reflection

Diffuse reflection occurs when the surface is rough and the

energy is reflected almost uniformly in all directions
Diffuse reflectance of earth surfaces are very important in remote sensing
because only diffuse reflections contain spectral information on the
"color" of the reflecting surface. Specular reflections do not. 47
48
Most earth surface features lie somewhere between perfectly specular or
perfectly diffuse reflectors. Whether a particular target reflects specularly or
diffusely, or somewhere in between, depends on the surface roughness of the
feature in comparison to the wavelength of the incoming radiation. If the
wavelengths are much smaller than the surface variations or the particle
sizes that make up the surface, diffuse reflection will dominate.

Example 1: fine-grained sand would appear fairly smooth to long

wavelength microwaves but would appear quite rough to the visible
wavelengths.

Example 2: longer wavelength visible and near infrared radiation is

absorbed more by water than shorter visible wavelengths. Thus water
typically looks blue or blue-green due to stronger reflectance at these shorter
wavelengths, and darker if viewed at red or near infrared wavelengths.
Chlorophyll in algae absorbs more of the blue wavelengths and reflects the
green, making the water appear more green in color when algae is present.
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Atmospheric Correction removes the scattering and absorption effects from the
atmosphere to obtain an obvious image. Atmospheric modelling is perhaps the most
sophisticated method to correct atmospheric disturbances.
For atmospheric correction, dark object subtraction is often recommended. The dark
object subtraction technique is the simplest and most used for image atmospheric
correction. This method assumes the existence of zero or small surface reflectance. The
minimum DN value in the histogram from an entire scene is subtracted from all pixels.

The left image shows uncorrected Landsat image with apparent haze
and dull colors. The right image shows atmospheric corrected Landsat
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data with resultant high contrast and color saturation.