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Chapter -2
STRUCTURE OF ATOM
 The experimental observations made by scientists towards the end of nineteenth and beginning
of twentieth century established that atoms are made of sub-atomic particles, i.e., electrons,
protons and neutrons
 Table 2.1 Properties of Fundamental Particles

Different atomic models were proposed to explain the distributions of these charged particles in
an atom.

 Dual Nature of Light

 Light is the form of radiation.
 There are some experimental phenomena of light like reflection, refraction, interference,
diffraction etc., which can be explained only on the basis of wave theory of light, i.e.
these phenomena verify the wave nature of light.
 There are some experimental phenomena of light itself like photoelectric effect, Compton
effect Raman effect , black body radiations etc which can be explained only on the basis
of the particle nature of light (i.e. quantum theory) i.e. these phenomenon verify the
particle nature of light .
 It is now accepted that Light has dual behaviour. Its behavior depends upon
experimental conditions.
 Maxwell Electromagnetic Waves Theory
 The main points of this theory are
(i) The energy is emitted from any source (like heated rod or filament of bulb etc.)
continuously in the form of the forms of waves called electromagnetic waves or
electromagnetic radiation.

(ii) The radiation consists of electric and magnetic fields oscillating perpendicular to
each other and both are perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the wave.

(iii) Electromagnetic waves do not require medium and can move in vacuum
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(iv) There are many types of electromagnetic radiations, which differ from one another
in wavelength (or frequency).
(v) In vacuum all types of electromagnetic radiations, regardless of wavelength, travel at
the same speed, i.e., 3.0 108 m s-1 (2.997925 x 108 m s-1, to be precise). This is called
speed of light.

The speed of light in a medium is always slower the speed of light in a vacuum.
The speed of anything with mass is always less than the speed of light in a vacuum.
Simplified picture of electromagnetic wave is shown in Fig.2.6

 Characteristics of a wave
o One wave consists of a crest and a trough.

o Wave-Length (λ). : The distance between the two consecutive troughs or crests
It is denoted by λ (Lambda). Its SI units is meter (m)
o Frequency (ν ): The number of waves that pass a given point in one second is
called Frequency. It is denoted by ν (nu). Its unit is hertz (Hz).
o Velocity (c) : The distance travelled by a wave in one second is called Velocity

C=νλ
o Wave number : It is defined as the number of wavelengths per unit length. Its
units are reciprocal of wavelength unit, i.e., m-1. It is denoted by

o Amplitude ‘a’ : It is the height of the crest or depth of a trough of a wave. It is

generally expressed by the letter ‘a’.
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o Period (T) is the length of time it takes for one wavelength to pass by a given
point in space. T = 1/f
Mathematically, the period is simply the reciprocal of the wave’s frequency (f).
The units of period are seconds (s).

 Electromagnetic spectrum
The arrangement of all the electromagnetic radiation in increasing order of their wavelength or
decreasing order of their frequencies is called electromagnetic spectrum.

 Atomic Spectrum
When white light is passed through a prism it splits into seven different colours described as
VIBGYOR [Violet Indigo Blue Green Yellow Orange Red ] .

The phenomenon of splitting of a beam white light into radiation of different frequencies after
passing through the prism is known as dispersion and the pattern obtained after dispersion of
beam is called continuous spectrum or simply spectrum

 Atomic Spectrums are of two types: -

(i)Emission Spectra:
When some volatile salt ( e.g. NaCl ) is placed in the Bunsen flame or an electric
discharge is passed through a gas at low temperature , they emit light only at specific
wavelengths with dark spaces between them. Such spectra are called Emission
Spectra or Line Spectra or Atomic Spectra because the emitted radiation is identified
by the appearance of bright lines in the spectra.
For example, sodium always gives two yellow lines corresponding to wavelengths 5890
and 5896 Å .
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Similarly, the spectrum of mercury has prominent lines, which correspond to a

wavelength of 435.8 nm
Thus, each element has a unique line spectrum and no two elements emit the same spectral lines,
(ii)Absorption Spectra:
When white is passed through a tube containing vapours or solution of a substance and
the transmitted light is analyzed. It is observed that the spectrum contains a number of
dark lines.
These dark lines are at the same place where coloured lines are obtained in the emission
spectra for the same substance. This confirms that the wavelength absorbed were same
as were emitted in emission spectra.

 Application of Atomic Spectra

German chemist, Robert Bunsen (1811-1899) use line spectra to identify elements. The
characteristic lines in atomic spectra can be used in chemical analysis to identify unknown
atoms in the same way as finger prints are used to identify people.
The exact matching of lines of the emission spectrum of the atoms of a known element with the
lines from an unknown sample quickly establishes the identity of the latter.
Elements like rubidium (Rb), caesium (Cs) thallium (Tl), indium (In), gallium (Ga) and
scandium (Sc) were discovered when their minerals were analysed by spectroscopic methods.
The element helium (He) was discovered in the sun by spectroscopic method.

 Plank Quantum Theory of Radiation

This theory is also known as Quantum Theory of Radiations or Plank’s quantum
theory which was further extended by Einstein in 1905.
o The main points of this theory are
( i) Radiant energy is emitted or absorbed discontinuously in the form of small
packets of energy called QUANTA which is associated with definite amount of
energy.
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In case of light, the quantum is known as PHOTON

(ii) The amount of energy associated with a quantum of radiation is proportional
to the frequency of radiations
E α ν Or E = h ν =h c / λ

[Here, h= Planck’s constant = 6.626×10-34 J s]

(iii) A body can emit or absorb energy only in terms of integral multiples of
quantum ( not in fraction) i.e E = nhν
 Black Body Radiation:
An ideal body, which emits and absorbs radiations of all frequencies uniformly, is
called a black body and the radiation emitted by such a body is called black
body radiation.
In practice, no such body exists. Carbon black approximates fairly closely to black
body.
Properties of black body
o A black body is also a perfect radiator of radiant energy.
o It is in thermal equilibrium with its surroundings. It radiates same amount of
energy per unit area as it absorbs from its surrounding in any given
time.
o The amount of light emitted (intensity of radiation) from a black body and its
spectral distribution depends only on its temperature.
o On increasing temperature wave length (λ) decreases and frequency( ν )
increases
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o
 Photoelectric Effect
Photoelectric effect may be defined as the phenomenon of ejection of electrons
from the surface of a metal ((like potassium, rubidium, caesium etc.) when light
of suitable frequency strikes it.
The electrons thus, ejected are called photoelectrons

o The results observed in this experiment were:

(i) The electrons are ejected from the metal surface as soon as the beam
of light strikes the surface, i.e., there is no time lag between the striking
of light beam and the ejection of electrons from the metal surface.

(ii) The number of electrons (n) ejected is proportional to the intensity ( I)

or brightness of light. [ n α I]

(iii) For each metal, there is a characteristic minimum frequency, ν0 (also

known as threshold frequency) below which photoelectric effect is not
observed. At a frequency ν >ν0, the ejected electrons come out with
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certain kinetic energy. The kinetic energies of these electrons increase

with the increase of frequency of the light used. [ K. E α ν]

For example, the threshold frequency (ν0) for potassium metal is

5.0 x 1014 Hz.
Thus, red light [ν = (4.3 to 4.6) x 1014 Hz] of any brightness (intensity)
may shine on a piece of potassium metal for hours but no photoelectrons
are ejected. But, as soon as even a very weak yellow light
(ν = 5.1-5.2 x 1014 Hz) shines on the potassium metal, the photoelectric
effect is observed.
 Einstein explain the photoelectric effect
According to him, electron in metals are held by some weak attracting forces. To
overcome these forces certain minimum amount energy is required which is the
characteristic of metal and known as Work function [W0= hν0 ]

When a photon of sufficient energy [greater than W0 = hν0] strikes an electron in the
atom of the metal, it transfers its energy instantaneously and the electron is ejected (on
collision) without any time lag or delay.
The difference in energy (hν – hν0 ) is transferred as the kinetic energy of
the photoelectron.

Where me is the mass of the electron and v is the velocity associated with the ejected
electron.
NUMERICALS
Problem-1 The Vividh Bharati station of All India Radio, Delhi, broadcasts on a
frequency of 1,368 kHz (kilo hertz). Calculate the wavelength of the electromagnetic
radiation emitted by transmitter. Which part of the electromagnetic spectrum does it
belong to?
Solution
The wavelength, λ, is equal to c/ν , where c is the speed of electromagnetic radiation in
vacuum and ν is the frequency. Substituting the given values, we have
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λ = c/v = (3.00 x 10  ms ) /1368 kHz
= (3.00 x 108 ms-1)/(1368 x103 s-1)
= 219.3m
This is a characteristic radio wave wavelength.
Problem -2.
The wavelength range of the visible spectrum extends from violet (400 nm) to red
(750 nm). Express these wavelengths in frequencies (Hz). (1nm = 10-9 m)
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Solution
The frequency of violet light
v=c/λ
= (3.00 x 108 m s-1)/(400 x 10-9m)
= 7.50 x 1014 Hz
Frequency of red light
v = c/λ
= (3.00 x 108 m s-1)/(750 x 10-9m)
= 4.00 x 1014 Hz
The range of visible spectrum is from 4.0 x 1014 to 7.5 1014 Hz in terms of frequency units.
Problem 3
Calculate (a) wavenumber and (b) frequency of yellow radiation having wavelength 5800 Å.
Solution

(a) Calculation of wavenumber (  )

λ =5800Å =5800 × 10-8 cm = 5800 ×10-10 m
ν = 1/λ = 1/(5800 ×10-10 m)
= 1.724 x 10-10m-1 = 1.724×104
(b) Calculation of the frequency (ν )
ν = 1/λ
= (3 x 108 ms-1)/(5800×10-10 m)
=5.172×1014 s-1
Problem 4
Calculate energy of one mole of photons of radiation whose frequency is 5 ×1014 Hz.
Solution
Energy (E) of one mole of photon is given by the expression
E = hν NA
h = 6.626 x 10-34 J s , ν = 5×1014 s-1 (given) , NA=6.022 x 1023 mol-1
E = (6.626 x 10-34 J s) (5 x1014 s-1) x (6.022 x 1023 mol-1)
= 199.51 kJ mol-1
Problem 5
A 100 watt bulb emits monochromatic light of wavelength 400 nm. Calculate the number
of photons emitted per second by the bulb.
Solution
Power of the bulb = 100 watt = 100 J s-1
Energy of one photon
E = hν = hc/λ
= (6.626 x 10-34 J s x 3 x 108 m s-1) / (400×10-9 m)
= 4.969 ×10-19 J
Number of photons emitted
=100 J s-1/ (4.969 x 10-19 J)
= 2.012 x1020 s-1
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Problem 6
The threshold frequency ν0 for a metal is 7.0 ×1014 s-1. Calculate the kinetic energy of
an electron emitted when radiation of frequency ν =1.0 ×1015 s-1 hits the metal.
Solution
According to Einstein’s equation Kinetic energy
K = mev2 = h (ν – ν0 )
= (6.626 ×10-34 J s) (1.0 × 1015 s-1 – 7.0 ×1014 s-1)
= (6.626 ×10-34 J s) (10.0 ×1014 s-1 – 7.0 ×1014 s-1)
= (6.626 ×10-34 J s) (3.0 ×1014 s-1)
= 1.988 ×10-19 J
 Bohr Model
First Postulate :
The electrons (negatively charged) revolve around the positively charged nucleus in a
circular path of fixed radius and energy called orbits, stationary states or allowed
energy states.

In such orbits, the centrifugal force (which repels the electron away from the nucleus)
and centripetal force (which attracts the electron towards the nucleus) balance each
other and, hence, electron maintains its path of revolution around the nucleus
mv 2
Centrifugal force =
r

Therefore,

---- (ii)
Second Postulate:
An electron can move only in those orbits for which its angular momentum is integral
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multiple of h/2π. Angular momentum

Where n= 1,2,3,----or K,L,M-----

Third Postulate:
The energy of an electron in the orbit does not change with time and the energy of its
stationary state is also called as the ground state.
( a ) When the electron will move from a lower stationary state to a higher stationary
state the required amount of energy is absorbed by the electron
( b ) when electron moves from higher stationary state to lower stationary state, energy
is emitted.
(c) Change in energy ΔE = E2 – E1 = hѴ
Where h = Planck’s constant
=6.62 X 10-27 erg. sec
Ѵ= frequency of radiation
Fourth Postulate:
Maximum number of electrons in a shell equals to 2n2
(A)Merits of Bohr Model
(i)Calculation of Velocity of electron
Z
Velocity V = 2.186 x 108 n cm/ s
Thus, as n increases the velocity of electron decreases.
As Z increases the velocity of electron increases.
(ii)Calculation of Radius of electron

As n increases r increases and Z increases the value of r decreases.

(iii)Energy of Electron:

Energy Level Energy

1 -13.6 eV

2 -3.4 eV

3 -1.51 eV
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4 -.85 eV

5 -.54 eV

Significance of negative sign:

When the electron is free from the influence of nucleus, the energy is taken as zero.
When the electron is attracted by the nucleus and is present in orbit n, the energy is emitted
and its energy is lowered. That is the reason for the presence of negative sign in equation and
depicts its stability relative to the reference state of zero energy and n = ∞. In hydrogen atom.
 Line Spectrum of Hydrogen
Of all the elements, hydrogen atom has the simplest line spectrum.
 When an electric discharge is passed through gaseous hydrogen, the H2 molecules
dissociate and the energetically excited hydrogen atoms are produced.
 Because an electron can stay in excited state only for 10-8 seconds and free to drop to
any of the lower energy level available to it. Thus, a large number of transition, each
corresponding to a spectral line, may take place.
Thus, hydrogen atomic spectrum consists of a large number of lines, though it contains
only one electron.
 Spectral Line Series
 The various Spectral lines obtained in hydrogen spectrum have been grouped into five
series named after their discoverers. (see fig)
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 Balmer’s formula for the wavelength of this series is as follows.

where n is an integer equal to or greater than 3 (i.e., n = 3,4,5,….) and

RH is Rydberg constant whose value equals to 109,677 cm-1 
The wavenumbers (  ) of this series is as follows.

This is also called Rydberg Formula

 Limitations of BOHR'S Model
Bohr’s theory was unable to explain the following observations;
(i). Bohr’s Model could not explain the spectra of atoms containing more than one electron.
(ii). It could not explain the Zeeman effect. In presence of magnetic field, each spectral line
gets split up into fine lines, the phenomenon, is known as Zeeman effect.
(iii). It could not explain the Stark effect.In presence of electric field, each spectral line gets
split up into fine lines, the phenomenon, is known as Stark effect.
( iv ) It could not explain the ability of atoms to form molecules by chemical bonds
Problem 7
What are the frequency and wavelength of a photon emitted during a transition from n =
5 state to the n = 2 state in the hydrogen atom?
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Solution
Since ni = 5 and nf = 2, this transition gives rise to a spectral line in the visible region of
the Balmer series.
ΔE = 2.18 x10-18 J [1/52 - 1/22]
= 4.58 x 10-19 J
It is an emission energy. The frequency of the photon (taking energy in terms of
magnitude) is given by
v = ΔE/h
= 4.58×10-19 J/6.626×10-34 Js
= 6.91 x 1014 Hz
λ = c/v
= 3.0 x 108 ms-1/6.91 x 1014 HZ
= 434 nm
Problem 8
Calculate the energy associated with the first orbit of He+ . What is the radius of this
orbit?
Solution
En = -(2.18 x 10-18 J)Z2/n2 atom-1
For He+, n = 1, Z = 2
E1 = (2.18 x 10-18 J)22/12 
= -8.72 x 102.18 x 10-18 J
The radius of the orbit is
rn = (0.0529 nm)n2/Z (Since n = 1, and Z = 2 )
2
rn = (0.0529 nm)1 / 2 = 0.02645 nm