PHY 104: Introductory Optics and Modern Physics 2018

SPECTROSCOPY AND ATOMIC PHYSICS

Introduction
Something surrounds you, bombards you, some of which you can’t see, torch or
even feel, every day, everywhere you go, its odorless and tasteless, yet you use it
and depend on it every hour of every day, without it the world you know could not
exist. What is it? – Electromagnetic radiation. This waves spread across the
spectrum from very short gamma (γ –) rays to X – rays, ultraviolet ray, visible
light waves, even longer infrared waves, microwaves, the radio wave which can
measure longer than the mounting range. This spectrum is the foundation of
information age and of our modern world, your radio, remote control, cell phone,
television, microwave oven even a doctor’s X – rays, all depend on waves within
the electromagnetic spectrum.

1.1 The Electromagnetic Spectrum

A spectrum is defined as the distribution of light (electromagnetic radiation) as a
function of its frequency or its wavelength. The entire range of the spectrum is
often broken into specific regions. The subdividing of the entire spectrum into
smaller spectra is done mostly on the basis of how each region of electromagnetic
waves interacts with matter. The diagram below depicts the electromagnetic
spectrum and its various regions.

Radio waves: Radio waves have wavelengths from about 1 m upwards. They are
produced by connecting an electronic oscillator to an antenna. The oscillating
electrons in the antenna then lose energy in the form of electromagnetic waves.
Radio waves are used for radio and television broadcasting and long-distance
communications.

Microwaves: Microwaves are short radio waves with wavelengths down to about
1 mm. They can be produced electronically by methods analogous to the
production of sound waves when you blow across the top of a resonating cavity
such as a bottle. Because microwaves are not absorbed very strongly by the
atmosphere, but are reflected well off solid objects such as buildings and aircraft,
they can be used for radar location of distant objects. Microwaves are also used
extensively for communications but they require direct line-of-sight paths from
transmitter to receiver so that microwave stations are located on top of hills and
tall structures.

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Infrared radiation: The infrared part of the spectrum comprises wavelengths

from 0.1 mm (far-infrared) down to about 700 nm. Infrared radiation is emitted by
excited molecules and hot solids. Much of the energy released by the element of
an electric oven is in the form of infrared radiation. The radiation is very easily
absorbed by most materials so the energy becomes internal energy of the
absorbing body.

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Visible light: Though electromagnetic waves exist in a vast range of wavelengths,

our eyes are sensitive to only a very narrow band. Since this narrow band of
wavelengths is the means by wwhich
hich humans see, we refer to it as the visible light
spectrum.

Dispersion of Light
Even though the spectral nature of light is present in a rainbow, it was not until
1666 that Isaac Newton showed that white light from the sun is composed of a
continuum of colors (frequencies). Newton’s method to measure the spectrum of
light consisted of a small aperture to define a point source of light, a lens to
collimate this into a beam of light, a glass spectrum to disperse the colors and a
screen on which to observe the resulting spectrum
Each color is characteristic of a distinct wavelength; and different wavelengths of
light waves will bend varying amounts upon passage through a prism. For these
reasons, visible light is dispersed upon passage through a prism. The separation of
visible light into its different colors is known as dispersion.

Figure 1.1
1.1: The Dispersion of light

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Dispersion of visible light produces the colors red (R), orange (O), yellow (Y),
green (G), blue (B), and violet (V). The red wavelengths of light are the longer
wavelengths and the violet wavelengths of light are the shorter wavelengths.
Between red and violet, there is a continuous range or spectrum of wavelengths.

Figure 1.2: The approximate range of wavelengths which are associated with the various
perceived colors within the spectrum

The sensation of white is not the result of a single color of light. Rather, the
sensation of white is the result of a mixture of two or more colors of light. Thus,
visible light - the mix of ROYGBIV - is sometimes referred to as white light.
White is not a color at all rather, white is the combination of all the colors of the
visible light spectrum. Once more, black is not actually a color. Black is merely
the absence of the wavelengths of the visible light spectrum. So when you are in a
room with no lights and everything around you appears black, it means that there
are no wavelengths of visible light striking your eye as you sight at the
surroundings. Because of its unbroken nature, such a spectrum is called a
continuous emission spectrum.
Ultraviolet radiation: Ultraviolet ‘light’ has wavelengths less than 400 nm. It is
emitted by excited atoms. The ‘black light’ used to produce fluorescence in light
shows is ultraviolet. Much of the ultraviolet radiation from the sun is absorbed by
the atmosphere but that which gets through can cause sunburn and skin cancers.
Ultraviolet light can also be harmful to the eyes.

The irradiance of ultraviolet light increases at high altitudes where the atmosphere
is thinner. Part of the concern about the depletion of the atmosphere’s ozone layer
is based on the fact that the ozone layer absorbs ultraviolet radiation from the sun.

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X rays: The wavelengths of x-rays and gamma rays overlap, but the different
names indicate different ways of producing the radiation. X-rays are produced in
processes involving atoms and electrons. For example they can be produced by
bombarding a metal target with high energy electrons. They are also emitted in
some high-energy atomic energy level transitions. X rays usually have
wavelengths less than 10 nm.

Gamma rays: On the other hand the term gamma rays are reserved for
electromagnetic radiation emitted in sub-atomic processes such as the decay of
excited nuclei or collisions between sub-nuclear particles. Gamma radiation
generally has wavelengths less than 0.1 nm. It is emitted by excited nuclei of
atoms.

1.2 Photons
The electromagnetic radiation (γ-ray, X-ray and light) is made up of descrete
particles of “quanta” called photons. According to Maxwell’s equation, the speed
with which electromagnetic radiations move is c = 3 × 108 m/s. The energy of the
photon is related to the frequency and Plank’s constant (h = 6.62 × 10-34 Js)
according to the following equation:
௛௖
∆‫ = ܧ‬ℎ݂ = (1)
ఒ

where λ is the wavelength of the wave. Therefore, γ-ray, X-ray and light are
photons with different energy.

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1.3 The Photoelectric Effect

Photoelectric Effect is the ejection of an electron from a material substance by
electromagnetic radiation incident on that substance. The study of the
photoelectric effect is made possible with an apparatus like that shown
schematically in Figure 1.3. An evacuated tube is arranged so that the highly
polished metal that is to be illuminated, such as sodium, potassium, or zinc, is
made the cathode. When light shines on the metal plate, electrons flow to the
collecting plate (anode), and the ammeter placed in the circuit indicates the
amount of current flowing.

Figure 1.3: An illustration of the photoelectric effect

Several observations can be made as the frequency and intensity of the light
varies:

The light must have some minimum or threshold frequency, ݂௖ , in order for
the current to flow.

Different metals have different threshold frequencies.

If the light striking the metal surface has a frequency greater than ݂௖ , the
electrons are ejected with a kinetic energy that increases with the frequency
of the light.

In explaining this phenomenon Albert Einstein introduced a new theory of light

behaviour, the photon model, according to which

Radiation consists of individual quanta of light called photons.

When a photon is absorbed by a metal, the energy is transferred to a single
electron.

Each individual photon has energy such that hf, where is the frequency of light,
and h is a universal constant called Planck’s constant.

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Concept of Work function

According to Einstein’ss model, the photoelectric phenomenon is due to a single
photon being absorbed by a single electron, which receives the entire frequency-
frequency
dependent energy,

‫ܧ‬௣௛௢௧௢௡ = ℎ݂
݂

Some of this ‘photon

photon energy
energy’ is used in removing the electron from the metal; this
th
is given by the symbol ϕ and is called the work function.. The remaining energy is
transferred to kinetic energy of the electron,
ଶ ଵ
‫ܧܭ‬௠௔௫ = ݉
݉‫ݒ‬௠௔௫
ଶ

We can now deduce that the maximum kinetic energy of a photoelectron as:

‫ܧܭ‬௠௔௫ = ℎ݂ െ ߶
The photoelectric effect formula can be related to the formula for a straight line
graph.

The equation of a straight line graph is; ‫ ݔ݉ = ݕ‬൅ ܾ

This equation is corresponds to; ‫ܧܭ‬௠௔௫ = ℎ݂ െ ߶

Where the three parts of the graph represent:

i. The y – intercept is the work function ((ϕ) of the material

ii. The slope (m) is Planck
Planck’s Constant (h)
iii. The x – intercept is the cut
cut-off frequency of the material.

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The electron will have zero kinetic energy when it has received a photon at the
threshold frequency. Electron emission occurs only if the frequency of incident
light, f, exceeds the characteristic cut-off frequency, fo, of the particular metal.
థ
When ‫ܧܭ‬௠௔௫ → 0, ݂ → ݂௖ ⇒ ݂௖ =
௛

Planck’s constant, h
The “smearing out” of particles into fuzzy quantum states becomes important
when size, momentum, energy or time become comparable in size to Planck’s
constant. Planck’s constant (h) has the value 6.6 × 10-34 joule-seconds. The units
are energy × time but are the same as distance × momentum. If you measure the
momentum of an electron in a hydrogen atom, and multiply it by the size of the
atom, the result is about 1 × 10-34 joule-seconds. This is comparable to Planck’s
constant and is why quantum theory must be used to describe this electron.

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2.0 The Line Spectrum of Atomic Hydrogen

In 1814 a German physicist, Joseph von Fraunhofer, noticed a multitude of dark
lines, indicating that certain colors are missing in the solar light spectrum. These
dark lines were caused by the absorption of some of the solar light’s components
by the gases in the Sun’s outer atmosphere.
A series of experiments followed and by the middle of the 19th century it was
understood that gases absorb light (specific frequencies of light) that are
characteristic of the gas constituents.

If white light is shone through a gas that consists of only one kind of atom, the gas
will absorb light of frequency (energy) that is characteristic to that atom. If the
light is then subsequently transmitted through a glass prism, the resulting
spectrum will lack the colors corresponding to the absorbed frequencies. This
spectrum is called the absorption spectrum and the dark lines correspond to the
absorbed frequencies (see the hydrogen absorption spectrum in Figure 2.2). By
1859 Robert Bunsen discovered that sufficiently heated gases also emit light and
an emission spectrum is observed when the emitted light is transmitted through a
glass prism (see the hydrogen emission spectrum in Figure 2.1). The emission
spectrum’s bright lines correspond to the dark lines in the absorption spectrum. At
the same time, his colleague, Gustav Kirchhoff, while analyzing the spectra of
sunlight and heated sodium, realized that the dark lines in the solar spectrum
represented the light frequencies that were absorbed by the sodium atoms in the
solar gases.

The emission and absorption spectra thus represent a “signature” of an atom. The
Kirchhoff–Bunsen discovery was not fully understood until Bohr explained the
transition of electrons between strictly defined orbits (energy levels), but it
represents the beginning of the science of spectroscopy. Spectroscopy is an
optical technique by which we can IDENTIFY a material based on its emission
spectrum. By 1870 spectroscopy is heavily used in Astronomy (to analyze the
chemical compositions of the Sun and the stars) and Remote Sensing.

There are two ways in which one can observe spectral lines from an atomic
species. The first is to excite the atoms and examine the light that is emitted. Such
emission spectra consist of many bright “lines” in a spectrometer. The second
approach is to pass white light with a continuous spectrum through a glass cell
containing the atomic species (in gas form) that we wish to interrogate and
observe the absorbed radiation.

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2.1 Emission Spectrum

Light is given off when electricity passes through a low pressure gas. This light
typically covers a range of wavelengths and, when appropriately dispersed, so that
different wavelengths travel in different directions, it reveals what is known as the
emission spectrum of the substance.

Figure 2.1: Spectra from experimental setups demonstrating emission spectra

Each element has its own distinct pattern of spectral lines. The spectrum emitted
by each of the chemical elements is of particular interest and is known as the
characteristic emission spectrum of the element.

2.2 Absorption Spectrum

When a vapor of atoms or molecules is illuminated by a source having a
continuous spectrum (e.g. white light), the atoms or molecules selectively absorb
certain wavelengths. The pattern of absorbed wavelengths is known as the
absorption spectrum of the atoms or molecules. The observed spectrum
therefore consists of the original continuous spectrum of the source, interrupted by
dark lines which are the characteristic absorption lines of the atoms or molecules
in the vapor.

Figure 2.2: Spectra from experimental setups demonstrating absorption spectra

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Thus, in an emission spectrum, light is separated into characteristic wavelengths.

In an absorption spectrum, a gas absorbs certain wavelengths, which identify the
element. The characteristic pattern of colors is called a spectrum. Each individual
color is called a spectral line because each color appears as a line in a
spectrometer. A spectrometer is a device that spreads light into its different
colors.

Note that the number of spectral lines observed by absorption is less than those
found through emission.

2.3 The Balmer’s formula and the Balmer series

The road to understanding the origins of atomic spectral lines began with a Swiss
school master by the name of Johann Balmer in 1885, who was trying to
understand the spectral lines observed in emission from hydrogen. He noticed that
there were regularities in the wavelengths of the emitted lines and found that he
could determine the wavelengths with the following formula:
ଵ ଵ ଵ ଵ
= ቀଶమ െ ௡మ ቁ (2)
ఒ ఒబ

where n is an integer and takes on the values 3, 4, 5, . . . and λ0 is a constant length

of 364.56 nm. The Balmer series have been denoted by Hα, Hβ, Hγ,…, starting at
the long wavelength end, which is the only hydrogen series with lines in the
visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum.

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2.4 The Rydberge’s formula

The empirical result Equation (2) was generalized by Johannes Rydberg in 1900
to describe all of the observed lines in hydrogen by the following formula:
ଵ ଵ ଵ
= ℛቀ െ ቁ m = 1, 2, 3, … n>m (3)
ఒ ௠మ ௡మ

where ℛ, known as the Rydberg constant, has the value 1.097 × 107 m-1 for
hydrogen. The observed lines of number n have values:

n λH × 10-9 m Lines
3 65 6.211 Red
4 486.071 Blue/Green
5 434.047 Blue/Violet
6 410.121 Violet

Later, a similar series, to be named the Lyman series, was discovered in the
ultraviolet, and several similar series were found in the infrared, named after
Paschen, Brackett, Pfund, Humphreys, Hansen and Strong, and successively less
famous people.

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2.5 Bohr’s Atom and Radiation

Bohr in 1913 proposed the concept of energy levels to explain the spectrum: That
all atomic spectral lines arise from transitions between discrete energy levels.
When the right amount of energy is absorbed, an electron in a hydrogen atom
jumps to a higher energy level (an excited state). When the electron falls back to
lower energy (the ground state) it releases the same amount of energy it absorbed.
The energy comes out of the atom as light of a specific color.

In the hydrogen atom we have an electron with charge –e rotating round a central
proton with charge +Ze. we take the proton as a centre of our system of
coordinates.

rn

Figure 2.3: Uniform circular motion of electron about the nucleus

2.5.1 Angular Momentum is Quantized

And the magnitude of the angular momentum of the electron, ‫ݒ݉ = ܮ‬௡ ‫ݎ‬௡ , is
quantized, that is, restricted to selected, “allowed” values governed by the positive
integers and Planck’s constant ħ, as follows:

‫ݒ݉ = ܮ‬௡ ‫ݎ‬௡ = ݊ℏ; n = 1, 2, 3, 4, …

௡ℏ
⟹ ‫ݒ‬௡ = (4)
௠௥೙

Thus, the electron with mass m and charge e-, moves in a circular orbit of radius rn
with constant tangential velocity, vn.

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2.5.2 Allowed Orbital Radii

Also the centripetal force Fc required to keep the electron in a circular orbit is
given by:
௩మ
‫ܨ‬௖௘௡௧௥ = ݉
௥೙

The electric force of attraction between the positive nucleus (+Ze) and the
negative electron (– e), by Coulomb’s law has the magnitude:
௓௞௘ మ
‫ܨ‬஼ = െ
௥೙మ

The Coulombic force of attraction is balanced by Newtonian centrifugal force.

That is,
௩మ ௓௞௘ మ
݉ =
௥೙ ௥೙మ

௠௩ మ ௓௞௘ మ
⟹ = (5)
ଶ ଶ௥೙

We obtained the allowed radii for electron in circular orbits of hydrogen atom (Z
= 1) using (5) and (4) as follows:
௓௞௘ మ ௓௞௘ మ ௠௥೙ ଶ ௓௞௘ మ ௠௥೙మ
‫ݎ‬௡ = = ቀ ௡ℏ ቁ = ;
௠௩ మ ௠ ௡ మ ℏమ

௡ మ ℏమ
⟹ ‫ݎ‬௡ = = ܽ଴ ݊ଶ (6)
௓௞௘ మ ௠

were ܽ଴ = ݊ଶ ℏଶ /݇݉݁ ଶ = 0.0529 ݊݉ is called the Bohr radius.

2.5.3 Allowed Orbital Speed

When substituting expression for rn back into equation (4) and solve the resulting
equation for allowed values of vn, we obtain:
௡ℏ ௡ℏ௞௠௘ మ ௞௘ మ
‫ݒ‬௡ = = =
௠௥೙ ௠௡మ ℏమ ௡ℏ

௞௘ మ ଵ ଶ.ଵଽ×ଵ଴ల ௠௦ షభ
= =
ℏ ௡ ௡

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ଶ.ଵଽ×ଵ଴ల ௠௦ షభ
⟹ ‫ݒ‬ଵ = = 2.19 × 10଺ ݉‫ି ݏ‬ଵ
ଵ

ଶ.ଵଽ×ଵ଴ల ௠௦ షభ
‫ݒ‬ଶ = = 1.095 × 10଺ ݉‫ି ݏ‬ଵ
ଶ

ଶ.ଵଽ×ଵ଴ల ௠௦ షభ
‫ݒ‬ଷ = = 0.73 × 10଺ ݉‫ି ݏ‬ଵ
ଷ

Electron moves at a lower speed in higher orbits and vice versa.

2.5.4 Allowed Electron Energies

The potential energy of an electron in an orbit is given by the work done in taking
the electron from the distance rn to infinity against the electrostatic attraction
between the electron and the nucleus.
௥ ଵ
ܷሺ‫ݎ‬ሻ = െ ‫׬‬௥ ‫ܨ‬ሺ‫ݎ‬ሻ ݀‫ ܼ݁݇ = ݎ‬ଶ ‫∞׬‬೙ ݀‫ݎ‬
∞
೙ ௥మ

ଵ ௥೙ ௓௞௘ మ
= െܼ݇݁ ଶ
ቚ =െ (7)
௥ ∞ ௥

The total energy En of the electron in one of its allowed orbits is the sum of its
kinetic energy and its potential energy in the electric field of the nucleus:
௠௩ మ ௓௞௘ మ ௓௞௘ మ ௓௞௘ మ
‫ܧ‬௡ = െ = െ
ଶ ௥೙ ଶ௥೙ ௥೙

௓௞௘ మ ௓ మ ௞௘ మ
=െ =െ
ଶ௥೙ ଶ௔బ ௡మ

where the use of (5) have been made. It will be useful to simplify the energy
formula for a particular state by substitution of constants.
௓ మ ௞௘ మ ሺଵሻమ ሺଽ×ଵ଴వ ሻሺଵ.଺×ଵ଴షభవ ሻమ
‫ܧ‬௡ = െ =െ
ଶ௔బ ௡మ ଶሺ଴.଴ହଶଽ×ଵ଴షవ ሻ௡మ

ଵ ଵଷ.଺
= െ2.17 × 10ିଵ଼ మ
‫=ܬ‬െ ܸ݁
௡ ௡మ

The ground state (n = 1) energy is

‫ܧ‬ଵ = െ13.6 ܸ݁.

This is when all the electrons in hydrogen atom is at its lowest energy level.

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Since physical systems generally tend toward the lowest possible energy state, an
isolated hydrogen atom will normally be found in the lowest allowed energy state
(n = 1) which is called the “ground state.” The minimum energy required to ionize
the hydrogen atom is called the “ionization energy” and is +13.6 eV.

The allowed electron energies at each level can be calculated from (9) as shown in
Figure 2.4 below.

Figure 2.4: schematic representation of the discrete allowed energy levels in the hydrogen atom

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2.5.5 Radiative Transitions

The electron quantum leaps between orbits proposed by the Bohr model
accounted for Plank’s observations that atoms emit or absorb electromagnetic
radiation only in certain units called quanta. The quanta of electromagnetic
radiation, Equation (1) have exactly same energy as the difference in energy
between the orbits jumped by the electron.
If an electron jumps from an outer initial orbit n to an inner final orbit m, then
௛௖
∆‫ܧ = ܧ‬௡ െ ‫ܧ‬௠ =
ఒ

Therefore,
ଵ ா೙ ିா೘ ௓ మ ௞௘ మ ଵ ଵ
= = ቀ െ ௡మ ቁ (10)
ఒ ௛௖ ଶ௔బ ௖௛ ௠మ

Or, in terms of wave number ࣰത௠,௡ we obtain the series as follows:

ଵ ଵ
ࣰത௠,௡ = ℛ ቀ మ
െ ቁ (11)
௠ ௡మ

where for hydrogen atom ℛ = 1.09678 × 107 m-1.

Layman’s series: When an electron jumps from an outer orbit to the first orbit
(ground state), the spectral lines obtained are in the ultraviolet region; m = 1, n =
2, 3, 4, …
ଵ ଵ
ࣰതଵ,ଶ = ℛ ቀ మ െ మቁ =
ଵ ଶ

ଵ ଵ
ࣰതଵ,ଷ = ℛ ቀ మ െ మቁ =
ଵ ଷ

ଵ ଵ
ࣰതଵ,∞ = ℛ ቀ మ െ ቁ=
ଵ ∞మ

Balmer’s series: If the transition is from an outer orbit to the second orbit, the
spectral lines obtained lie in the visible region; m = 2, n = 3, 4, 5, …
ଵ ଵ
ࣰതଶ,ଷ = ℛ ቀ మ െ మቁ =
ଶ ଷ

ଵ ଵ
ࣰതଶ,ସ = ℛ ቀ మ െ ቁ=
ଶ ସమ

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Paschen’s series: When an electron jumps from an outer orbit to the third orbit, the
spectral lines obtained are in the infrared region; m = 3, n = 4, 5, 6, …
ଵ ଵ
ࣰതଷ,ସ = ℛ ቀ మ െ ቁ=
ଷ ସమ

ଵ ଵ
ࣰതଷ,ହ = ℛ ቀ మ െ మቁ =
ଷ ହ

ଵ ଵ
ࣰതଷ,∞ = ℛ ቀ మ െ ቁ=
ଷ ∞మ

Bracket series: Putting m = 4, n = 5, 6, 7, … one obtains the wave numbers of

spectral lines of Bracket series in the infrared region:
ଵ ଵ
ࣰതସ,ହ = ℛ ቀ మ െ మቁ =
ସ ହ

ଵ ଵ
ࣰതସ,଺ = ℛ ቀ మ െ మቁ =
ସ ଺

ଵ ଵ
ࣰതସ,∞ = ℛ ቀ మ െ ቁ=
ସ ∞మ

Pfund’s series: Putting m = 5, n = 6, 7, 8, … one obtains the wave numbers of

spectral lines of Pfund series in the infrared region;
ଵ ଵ
ࣰതହ,଺ = ℛ ቀ మ െ మቁ =
ହ ଺

ଵ ଵ
ࣰതହ,଻ = ℛ ቀ మ െ మቁ =
ହ ଻

ଵ ଵ
ࣰതହ,∞ = ℛ ቀ మ െ ቁ=
ହ ∞మ

Thus, the Bohr’s formula can be used to generate the wave numbers of the lines in
each of these series; ni = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6… for the Lyman, Balmer, Paschen,
Brackett, Pfund, Humphreys… series.

The particular color in the series depends on the higher orbital from which the
electron jumped.

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Figure 2.5: An energy level diagram for the hydrogen atom indicating the various series in the
line spectrum

2.5.6 Explaining spectral lines

The specific colors of the spectral lines correspond to the differences in energy
between the energy levels. The energy in atoms changes in little jumps which
Bohr called quanta. For electrons, it’s an-all-or-nothing jump between energy
levels that releases quantities of energy as colors of light. Light is a form of pure
energy. The amount of energy depends on the color of the light. Red light has low
energy and blue light has higher energy. Green and yellow light have energy
between red and blue. Other atomic species have line spectra, which can be used
as a “fingerprint” to identify the element.

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2.6 Ionization and Excitation

Ionization or excitation of the atoms occurs when a photon or a charged particle
(electron, α, proton) collides with an orbital electron, thereby transferring energy
to and changing the energy level of the electron. Ionization refers to the case in
which the transferred energy causes the ejection of an electron, while in the case
of excitation the electron simply moves to a higher energy orbital. This is an
important concept in health physics as it represents the mechanism through which
energy is transferred from radiation to tissue.

2.6.1 The ionization energy

The ionization energy of an atom is the amount of energy required to remove the
least tightly bound electron from the atom. To remove a second electron requires
remarkably more energy and the removal of each subsequent electron becomes
increasingly more difficult. For most elements, the first ionization potential is on
the order of several eV. The first ionization potential of the hydrogen atom is
described in Section 1.5.1. When a photon with energy greater than the ionization
energy collides with a bound electron of an atom, the photon vanishes and the
electron is ejected from the atom with a kinetic energy, KEmax, equal to the
difference between the photon’s initial energy and the ionization potential:

‫ܧܭ‬௠௔௫ = ℎ݂ െ ߶
This mechanism is called the photoelectric effect and is described in section 1.3.

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 PHY 104: Introductory Optics and Modern Physics 2018

Example:
1. Calculate the shortest and longest wavelength in H spectrum of Lyman series.
[ℛ = 1.09678 × 107 m-1]

(a) 911.7 Å, 1215.67 Å (b) 9117 Å, 1215.67 Å

(c) 91.17 Å, 121567 Å (d) 911.7 Å, 121.567 Å

Solution: To calculate the shortest and longest wavelength in H spectrum we use

the relation:
ଵ ଵ ଵ
= ࣰത௠,௡ = ℛ ቀ െ ቁ
ఒ ௠మ ௡మ

Given ℛ = 1.09678 × 107 m-1 and for Lyman series m = 1, n = 2, 3, 4, …

The shortest λ of Lyman series is when n = ∞. Therefore,

ଵ ଵ
ࣰതଵ,∞ = ℛ ቀ మ െ ቁ = ℛሺ1 െ 0ሻ = ℛ = 1.09678 × 10଻ ݉ିଵ
ଵ ∞మ

ଵ
⟹ ߣ= = 9.117 × 10ି଼ ݉ = 911.7 × 10ିଵ଴ ݉
ଵ.଴ଽ଺଻଼×ଵ଴ళ ௠షభ

The longest λ of Lyman series is when n = 2. Therefore,

ଵ ଵ ଵ ଵ ଷ
ࣰതଵ,ଶ = ℛ ቀ మ െ మቁ = ℛ ቀ െ ቁ = ℛ
ଵ ଶ ଵ ସ ସ

ଷ
= ቀ ቁ 1.09678 × 10଻ ݉ିଵ = 8.22585 × 10଻ ݉ିଵ
ସ

ଵ
⟹ ߣ= = 1.21567 × 10ି଻ ݉ = 1215.67 × 10ିଵ଴ ݉
଼.ଶଶହ଼ହ×ଵ଴ళ ௠షభ

Hence answer is (a)

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 PHY 104: Introductory Optics and Modern Physics 2018

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

1 Bohr’s quantum postulate stated that one of the following quantities came in discrete units of ℏ:
(a) linear momentum (b) energy (c) position (d) angular momentum (e) mass

2. Shortest wavelength in Lyman series is equal to

(a) R (b) R/2 (c) 1/R (d) 2/(3R)

2. “An electron can never be found inside nucleus”, this statement is according to
(a) Heisenberg uncertainty principle (b) Bernoulli’s equation
(c) Bohrs model (d) both (a) and (b)

3. Potential energy source for inducing fusion reaction is

(a) x-ray (b) laser (c) ultraviolet (d) microwave

4. During x-ray formation, if voltage is increased, then

(a) min wave length decreases (b) min wave length increases
(c) intensity decreases (d) intensity increases

5. Ionization energy of hydrogen atom in ground state is

(a) 13.5 J (a) 13.6 eV (a) 14 eV (a) 13.6 MeV

6. Hydrogen atom doesn’t emit x-rays because

(a) energy levels are close (b) energy levels are far
(c) it has small mass (d) it has single electron

7. To excite its atom, a photon must have energy

(a) greater than energy between two shells (b) equal to energy between two shells
(c) less than energy between two shells (d) both a and b

8. In an x-ray tube, intensity of emitted x-ray beam is increased by

(a) increasing filament current (b) decreasing filament current
(c) increasing target potential (d) decreasing target potential

9. Ballmer series in region of electromagnetic spectrum is in

(a) infrared region (b) ultraviolet region (c) visible region (d) x-ray region

10. Rest mass of x-ray photon is

(a) 9.1 × 10-31 kg (a) 8.1 × 10-31 kg (a) infinite (a) zero

11. Velocity of electron in second Bohr’s orbit as compared to velocity in first orbit is
(a) equal (b) one half (c) 2 times (d) one fourth

12. With increasing quantum number, energy difference between adjacent levels in atoms
(a) decreases (b) increases (c) remain constant (d) zero

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 PHY 104: Introductory Optics and Modern Physics 2018

13. Bohr’s atomic model is based upon

(a) Einstein’s relativistic theory (b) classical theory
(c) planks quantum theory (d) both (b) and (c)

14. Series that lie in infrared region of electromagnetic spectrum is

(a). Lyman series (b) Ballmer series (c) bracket series (d) both a and b

15. For an electron to be confined to a nucleus, its speed relative to speed of light would have to be
(a) equal (b) less (c) greater (d) equal to infinity

16. Atomic spectra is an example of

(a) line spectra (b) continuous spectra (c) band spectra (d) both a and b

17. According to Bohr’s atomic model, angular momentum of electron in n th orbit is equal to an
integral multiple of
(a) 2h/π (b) h/2π (c) h/π (d) nh/2π

18. Electron in atom are held in atom due to

(a) coulombs force (b) nuclear force (c) atomic force (d) both a and b

19. Bohr’s model for the hydrogen atom predicts that the absorption spectra involves
(a) accelerating electrons (b) same wavelengths as emission spectra
(c) electrons going to higher energy levels (d) electrons dropping to lower energy levels

20. Which of the following characteristics of hydrogen atoms was most difficult for classical
physics to interpret:
(a) mass (b) charge (c) line spectra (d) ionization (e) size

21. Which of the following transitions would give the shortest wavelength emission line:
(a) n = 1 to n = 2 (b) n = 1 to n = 3 (c) n = 3 to n = 1 (d) n = 4 to n = 2

22. The total energy of the electron in the nth orbit of hydrogen atom is
(a) – ke2/rn (a) ke2/2rn (a) – ke2/4rn (a) – ke2/2rn

23. If the radius of the first orbit in hydrogen atom is 0.05 nm, the radius of the first orbit in helium
atom is
(a) 0.025 nm (b) 0.05 nm (c) 1 nm (d) none of these

24. The numerical value of the radius of the first orbit of hydrogen is
(a) 0.529 nm (b) 0.0529 Å (c) 5.29 Å (d) 0.0529 nm

25. The total energy of the electron in hydrogen atom is

(a) – (13.6/n) eV (b) (13.6/n) eV (c) – (13.6/n2) eV (d) (13.6/n2) eV

26. When an electron jumps from the fourth orbit to the second orbit, one gets
(a) the first line of Pfund series (b) second line of Lyman series
(c) second line of Paschen series (d) second line of Balmer series
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 PHY 104: Introductory Optics and Modern Physics 2018

27. The ionization energy of hydrogen atom is

(a) 0.52 eV (b) 13.6 eV (c) –13.6 eV (d) – 0.52 eV

28. The Rydberg constant for hydrogen is

(a) 109677 cm–1 (b) 109.677 cm–1 (c) 10.9677 cm–1 (d) 1.09677 cm–1

29. The photoelectric effect was explained by Albert Einstein by assuming that:
(a) light is a wave (b) light is a particle
(c) an electron behaves as a wave (d) an electron behaves as a particle

30. When an electron falls from an orbit where n = 2 to n = 1:

(a) A photon is emitted (b) A photon is absorbed
(c) No change in atomic energy (d) The atomic energy decreases to zero

31. The photoelectric effect was explained by Albert Einstein by assuming that
(a) light is a wave (b) light is a particle
(c) an electron behaves as a wave (d) an electron behaves as a particle

32. The kinetic energy of photoelectrons depends on the

(a) speed of light (b) intensity of the light
(c) number of incident photons (d) photon frequency.

33. The photoelectric effect was explained by Albert Einstein by assuming that:
(a) light is a wave (b) light is a particle
(c) an electron behaves as a particle (d) light does not interact with matter

34. The maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons depends on which of the following?
I. The light intensity II. The frequency of the light III. The material of the photoelectric cell
(a) Only I (b) Only II (c) Only III (d) Only II and III

35. The maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons depends on which of the following?
(a) The light intensity (b) The angle of illumination
(c) The speed of light (d) The frequency of the light

36. An optical technique by which we can IDENTIFY a material based on its emission spectrum is
called
(a) Spectroscopy (b) Atomic Physics (c) Spectrum (d) Photoelectric Effect

37. A device that spreads light into its different colors is called
(a) Spectrometer (b) multiplier (c) Spectrum (d) Photocell

38. The ejection of an electron from a material substance by electromagnetic radiation incident on
that substance
(a) Photoelectric Effect (b) Compton Effect (c) black body radiation (d) Photosynthesis

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