ST.

JOSEPH COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

SUBJECT CODE: OBT751

SUBJECT NAME: ANALYTICAL METHODS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Regulation: 2017 Year and Semester: IV /VII

UNIT I – SPECTROMETRY

TWO MARKS

1. What is meant by instrumental methods?

The methods of separating and determining Chemical species by efficient
chromatographic and electrophoretic techniques .

2. Define Spectroscopy
 Spectroscopy is a general term for the science of the interactions of radiation with
matter.
 Spectrometry and spectrometric methods refer to the measurement of the intensity of
radiation with a photoelectric transducer or other type of electronic device.

3. Define Amplitude of a wave

The amplitude A of the sinusoidal wave is shown as the length of the electric vector at a
maximum in the wave.

4. Define Period of a wave

The time in seconds required for the passage of successive maxima or minima through a
fixed point in space is called the period p of the radiation.

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 5. Define Frequency of a wave
The frequency n is the number of oscillations of the field that occur per second and is
equal to 1/p, where p is the period of the wave.

6. Define Wave Length of a wave

The wavelength l is the linear distance between any two equivalent points on successive
waves (e.g., successive maxima or minima).

7. Define Velocity of Propagation of a wave

Multiplication of the frequency in cycles per second by the wavelength in meters per
cycle gives the velocity of propagation vi in meters per second

8. Define Wave Number of a wave :

The wavenumber n, which is defined as the reciprocal of the wavelength in centimeters.
The wavenumber is directly proportional to the frequency, and thus the energy, of
radiation.

9. Define Power of a wave :

The power P of radiation is the energy of the beam that reaches a given area per second

10. Define Intensity of a wave :

The intensity I is the power per unit solid angle.

11. Write the mathematical description of a wave:

The wave can be described by the equation for a sine wave.

where
 y is the magnitude of the electric field at time t
 A is the amplitude or maximum value for y
 f is the phase angle
 ω is the angular velocity of the vector

Substitution of this relationship into Equation

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 12. Define principle of superposition of waves :
The principle of superposition states that when two or more waves traverse the same
space, a disturbance occurs that is the sum of the disturbances caused by the individual
waves.
When n electromagnetic waves differing in frequency, amplitude, and phase angle pass
some point in space simultaneously, the principle of superposition can be written as

Where y is the resultant field

13. Define Diffraction

Diffraction, is a process in which a parallel beam of radiation is bent as it passes by a
sharp barrier or through a narrow opening. Diffraction is a wave property that can be
observed not only for electromagnetic radiation but also for mechanical or acoustical
waves.

14. What are the conditions for coherent radiation

The conditions for coherence are that
1) The two sources of radiation must have identical frequencies (or sets of frequencies)
and
2) The phase relationships between the two beams must remain constant with time.

15. Mention the Sources of Electromagnetic radiation that produce coherent sources
 Radio-frequency oscillators,
 Microwave sources,
 Optical lasers.

16. What do you mean by polarization of a wave?

Polarization is the temporary deformation of the electron clouds associated with atoms or
molecules that is brought about by the alternating electromagnetic field of the radiation.

17. What do you mean by dispersion? Mention the different types of dispersion.
The variation in refractive index of a substance with wavelength or frequency is called
its dispersion.
Dispersion plots exhibit two types of regions.
 Normal dispersion region
 Anomalous dispersion
Normal dispersion region : Refractive index increases gradually with increasing
frequency.

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 Anomalous dispersion : Refractive index increases sharply with increasing frequency.

18. How reflection of wave occurs?

When radiation crosses an interface between media that differ in refractive index,
reflection always occurs. The fraction of reflected radiation becomes greater with
increasing differences in refractive index.

19. What is meant by Rayleigh Scattering

Scattering by molecules or aggregates of molecules with dimensions significantly smaller
than the wavelength of the radiation is called Rayleigh scattering.
The intensity of the scattering is proportional to the
 inverse fourth power of the wavelength, the
 dimensions of the scattering particles, and the
 square of the polarisability of the particles

20. Mention the different types of scattering

 Rayleigh Scattering
 Scattering by Large Molecules
 Raman Scattering

21. Mention the different phenomena of optical spectroscopic methods.

 Absorption
 Fluorescence
 Phosphorescence
 Scattering
 Emission
 Chemiluminescence

22. What do you mean by absorption?

Absorption of  electromagnetic radiation  is how matter takes up a photon’s energy  —
and transforms  electromagnetic energy  into  internal energy of the absorber (for
example,  thermal energy).

23. What is Phosphoresence?

Phosphoresence is the result of absorption of electromagnetic radiation and then
dissipation of the energy emission of radiation.

24. What is Fluorescence?

Fluorescence is the result of absorption of electromagnetic radiation and then dissipation
of the energy emission of radiation.

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 25. What is the difference between Fluorescence and Phosphoresence ?
The major distinction between fluorescence and phosphorescence is the time scale of
emission, with fluorescence being prompt and phosphorescence being delayed.

26. What is Scattering?

Scattering of electromagnetic radiation is caused by the interaction of radiation with
matter resulting in the reradiation of part of the energy to other directions not along
the path of the incident radiation.  Scattering effectively removes energy from the
incident beam.

27. What do you mean by emission?

The emission spectrum of a chemical element or  is the spectrum of frequencies
of electromagnetic radiation emitted due to an atom  or molecule making
a transition from a high energy state to a lower energy state.

28. Define Chemiluminescence

Chemiluminescence (CL) is defined as the production of
electromagnetic radiation (ultraviolet, visible or infrared). Chemiluminescence (CL) is
observed when a chemical reaction yields an electronically excited intermediate or
product, which luminesces another molecule responsible for the emission,

29. List down the components of optical instruments.

(1) a source of radiant energy;
(2) a container for holding the sample;
(3) a device that isolates a restricted region of the spectrum for measurement;
(4) a radiation detector, which converts radiant energy to a usable electrical signal; and
(5) a signal processor and readout, which displays the transduced signal on a digital
display, a computer screen, or another recording device.

30. Mention the two different types of radiation.

There are two types of sources:
Continuum sources
Line sources
Continuum sources - emits radiation that changes in intensity smoothly as a function of
wavelength.
Line sources - emit a limited number of lines, or bands of radiation, each of which spans
a limited range of wavelengths.

31. Mention the advantages of LASER.

 high intensities,
 narrow bandwidths, and

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  the coherent nature of their outputs

32. What are the four processes of Laser action?

The four processes of Laser action are :
(a) pumping,
(b) spontaneous emission (fluorescence),
(c) stimulated emission, and
(d) absorption.

33. What is a filter?

Filter is an instrument used for wavelength selection in spectroscopic applications.
Filters are classified into two types:
(i) interference filters, which are sometimes called Fabry-Perot filters,
(ii) absorption filters.

34. List out the Properties of the Ideal Transducer:

The ideal transducer must have
 high sensitivity,
 a high signal to-noise ratio,
 a constant response over a considerable range of wavelengths.
 exhibit a fast response time
 no output signal in the absence of illumination.

35. What are the two types of radiation transducers.

 Photon transducers
 Heat transducers

36. What are the different types of Photon Transducers

 Photovoltaic cells
 Phototubes
 Photomultiplier tubes
 Photoconductivity
 Silicon photodiodes
 Charge-transfer transducers

37. Define : Signal to Noise Ratio.

Tthe signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) is a figure of merit for describing the quality of an
analytical method or the performance of an instrument.
Thus, S/N is given by

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 38. Mention the different sources of noise
 Chemical noise
 Instrumental noise.

39. Mention the different types of Instrumental noise

 thermal, or Johnson, noise;
 shot noise;
 flicker, or 1/f, noise; and
 environmental noise.

40. What are the hardware devices and techniques used for enhancing the signal-to-noise
ratio?
 Grounding and Shielding
 Difference and Instrumentation Amplifiers
 Analog Filtering
 Modulation
 Synchronous Demodulation
 Lock-In Amplifiers

41. List down the different software methods for enhancing the signal-to-noise ratio?
The software methods include
 Ensemble Averaging
 Boxcar Averaging
 Digital Filtering
 Correlation Methods
PART – B
1. What is a Monochromator. With the help of neat diagrams discuss about the different types
of Monochromators.
2. Explain the different types of Photoelectric Transducers involved in Spectroscopy
3. Describe the following:
(i) Superposition of waves
(ii) Diffraction
(iii) Coherent Radiation
4. Explain the concepts of Transmission, refraction, Reflection and Scattering of radiations.
5. (i) Explain about the different types of Filters in detail. (6)
(ii) Detail about the signal processors in detail (7)
6. What do you mean by sources. Explain about the Laser Source of radiation
7. Explain the following :

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 (i) Signal to Noise Ratio
(ii) Sources of Noise
8. Explain the various methods for enhancement of signal to noise ratio

UNIT – 2 MOLECULAR SPECTROSCOPY

TWO MARKS

1. What is molecular absorption spectroscopy?

Molecular Absorbance spectroscopy is a molecular spectroscopy method that uses the
wavelength dependent absorption characteristics of materials to identify and quantify
specific substances. The absorbance of a solution increases as the attenuation of the
optical beam increases
Absorption spectroscopy works as an analytical chemistry tool that can determine if a
particular substance is present in a sample and often also quantify how much of the
substance is present.

2. State Beer’s Law

Beer’s law gives the linear relationship between the concentration of the an absorbing
analyte to absorbance.

Where A à Absorbance e à Molar absorptivity

T à Transmittance b à Path length in Centimeters
P0 à Incident radiant power c à Concentration of absorber
P à Transmitted radiant power

3. State the limitations of Beer’s Law:

Real Deviations:
 Absorbance is linearly related to path length
 Deviations from the direct proportionality between the measured absorbance and
concentration frequently occur when b is constant.
Other deviations are
 Instrumental deviations
 Chemical deviations

4. Mention the different types of sources of radiation

The different types of sources are :

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  Deuterium and Hydrogen Lamps
 Tungsten Filament Lamps
 Light-Emitting Diodes
 Xenon Arc Lamps.

5. How Fluorescence and phosphorescence are formed?

Fluorescence and phosphorescence are brought about by absorption of photons.The two
phenomena are often referred to by the more general term photoluminescence.

6. What is the difference between Fluorescence and phosphorescence?

Fluorescence differs from phosphorescence in that the electronic energy transitions
responsible for fluorescence do not involve a change in electron spin.Because of this, the
excited states involved in fluorescence are short-lived (<10-5 s).

7. Define : Pauli exclusion principle

The Pauli exclusion principle states that no two electrons in an atom can have the same
set of four quantum numbers.

8. What is chemiluminescence ?
Chemiluminescence is the third type of luminescence, chemiluminescence, is based on
the emission of radiation by an excited species formed during a chemical reaction.

9. What is resonance fluorescence ?

The type of fluorescence, in which the absorbed radiation is reemitted without a change
in frequency, is known as resonance radiation or resonance fluorescence.

10. State Stoke’s Shift

Molecular fluorescence (or phosphorescence) bands occur at wavelengths longer than the
absorption band. This shift toward longer wavelengths is termed the Stokes shift.

11. What are Singlet, Doublet and Triplet States?

 A molecular state in which all electron spins are paired is called a singlet state.
 The doublet state is the one, which has an unpaired electron. This third electron
imparts slightly different energies to the system.
 When one of a pair of electrons of a molecule is excited to a higher energy level, a
singlet or a triplet state is formed.

12. State quantum yield, or quantum efficiency

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 The quantum yield, or quantum efficiency, for fluorescence or phosphorescence is simply
the ratio of the number of molecules that luminesce to the total number of excited
molecules.

13. What do you mean by quenching?

The term quenching usually refers to nonradiative energy transfer from an excited
species to other molecules.

14. What is Dynamic quenching ?

Dynamic quenching, also called collisional quenching, requires contact between the
excited species and the quenching agent (Q). Dynamic quenching occurs as rapidly as the
collision partners can diffuse together.

15. Mention the two types of vibrations

Vibrations fall into the basic categories
i. stretching and
ii. bending.
Stretching Vibration: A stretching vibration involves a continuous change in the
interatomic distance along the axis of the bond between two atoms.
Bending vibrations : Bending vibrations are characterized by a change in the angle
between two bonds.

16. Mention the variables that influence absorbance

Common variables that influence the absorption spectrum of a substance include :
 Nature of the solvent,
 pH of the solution ,
 temperature,
 high electrolyte concentrations, and
 presence of interfering substances.

17. List down the common solvents used for IR spectroscopy

The common solvents used for IR spectroscopy are :
 Carbon disulde
 Carbon tetrachloride
 Tetrachloroethylene
 Chloroform
 Dimethylformamide
 Dioxane
 Cyclohexane
 Benzene

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 18. List out the different materials used for windows.
 Sodium chloride
 Potassium bromide
 Potassium chloride
 Cesium iodide
 Fused silica
 Calcium fluoride
 Barium fluoride
 Thallium bromide

19. Draw the Jablonski diagram for a photoluminescent system:

20. What is Raman Spectroscopy?

Raman Spectroscopy is a non-destructive chemical analysis technique which provides
detailed information about chemical structure, phase and polymorphy, crystallinity and

molecular interactions. Raman spectra are acquired by irradiating a sample with a nearly
monochromatic laser source in the visible or near-IR spectral region.

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 21. What are the different types of scattering in Raman Spectroscopy?
 Stokes scattering
 Anti-Stokes scattering
 Rayleigh scattering

22. What are Stokes Anti-Stokes and Rayleigh scattering ?

 When the scattered radiation is of a lower frequency than the excitation radiation,
it is called Stokes scattering.
 Scattered radiation of a higher frequency than the source radiation is called anti-
Stokes scattering.
 Scattered radiation of the same frequency as the source is termed Rayleigh
scattering.

PART – B
1. State Beer’s law. Derive the relationship between Absorbance and transmittance in
Molecular absorption spectroscopy using Beer’s Law.
2. What is Raman Spectroscopy. Explain the theory involved in the Raman Spectroscopy
for analyzing a spectrum .
3. Describe the different types of sources in Molecular absorption spectroscopy
4. Explain the working of Single beam and double beam instruments for molecular
absorption Spectrometry
5. Explain in detail about the occurrence of fluorescence and Phosphorescence and the
variables that affect fluorescence and Phosphorescence
6. Explain the theory of Infrared absorption Spectrometry
7. Explain the working of FT Spectrometer in Detail
8. Explain in detail the working of Raman spectrometer

UNIT III - NMR AND MASS SPECTROMETRY

TWO MARKS

1. What is NMR spectroscopy ?

NMR spectroscopy (Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy) is
spectroscopic technique used to observe local magnetic fields around atomic nuclei. NMR
spectroscopy is one of the most powerful tools available to chemists and biochemists for elucidating the
structure of chemical species.

2. What is the difference in NMR spectroscopy when compared with UltraViolet and Infra
Red Spectroscopy?

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 In case of ultraviolet (UV), visible, and infrared (IR) absorption, the outer electrons are
involved in the absorption process. Whereas in the case of Nuclear magnetic resonance
(NMR) the nuclei of atoms is involved in the absorption process.

3. What are the two basic theories of NMR Spectroscopy?

 Quantum mechanics,
 Classical mechanics
 Quantum mechanics is more useful in relating absorption frequencies to
energy states of nuclei.
 Classical mechanics is more helpful in providing a physical picture of the
absorption process and how it is measured.

4. What are the types of relaxation process in NMR spectroscopy?

Two types of relaxation processes are important in NMR spectroscopy:
(1) spin-lattice, or longitudinal, relaxation and
(2) spin-spin, or transverse, relaxation.

5. What is the basic principle of Fourier Transform NMR?

Nuclei in a strong magnetic field are subjected periodically to very brief pulses of intense
RF radiation

6. Mention the factors on which NMR spectra is categorized?

NMR spectra is classified based on
 kind of instrument used,
 the type of nucleus involved,
 The physical state of the sample,
 the environment of the analyte nucleus, and
 the purpose of the data collection.

7. How do Chemical Shifts arise?

Chemical shifts arise from the secondary magnetic fields produced by the circulation of
electrons in the molecule.

8. Mention the two types of NMR Spectrometers

Two general types of NMR spectrometers are available:
a. Wide-line spectrometers and
b. High-resolution spectrometers.

9. Mention the Applications of Proton NMR

The most important chemical applications of proton NMR spectroscopy is the have been
to the identification and structure of organic, metal-organic, and biochemical molecules.

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 10. What are the disadvantages of Proton Spectrometry
 The widespread use of NMR spectroscopy for quantitative work has been inhibited by
the cost of the instruments.
 In addition, the probability of overlapping resonances becomes greater as the
complexity of the sample increases.

11. Mention the different types of proton decoupling experiments.

Three primary types of proton decoupling experiments are used in 13C NMR,
i. broadband decoupling;
ii. off-resonance decoupling; and
iii. pulsed, or gated, decoupling.

12. What is Molecular Mass Spectrometry?

Molecular Mass Spectrometry is a powerful analytical technique used to provide
information about
(1) the elemental composition of samples of matter;
(2) the structures of inorganic, organic, and biological molecules;
(3) the qualitative and quantitative composition of complex mixtures;
(4) the structure and composition of solid surfaces; and
(5) isotopic ratios of atoms in samples.

13. What are the different sources used for ion formation ?
 gas-phase sources,
 desorption sources, and
 ambient desorption sources

14. What is the difference between hard source spectra and soft source spectra ?
 Hard-source spectrum provide useful information about the kinds of functional
groups and thus structural information about analytes.
 Soft-source spectra supply accurate information about the molecular mass of the
analyte molecule or molecules.

15. Mention the different Atmospheric Pressure Ionization Methods

 electrospray,
 atmospheric pressure chemical ionization, and
 atmospheric pressure photoionization

16. What are the two types of Mass Spectrometers?

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 a. Quadrapole Spectrometer
b. TOF spectrometer

17. Write the expression for flight time in a Mass Spectrometer?

where
L is the distance from the source to the detector.
v is the velocity of the ion after acceleration.
e is the electronic charge (e = 1.60 x 10-19 C).
z is the charge of the electron
m is the mass of the electron

18. Mention few Applications of Molecular Mass Spectrometry

 Analysis of aerosol particles
 Determination of Pesticide residues in food
 Monitoring volatile organic species in water supplies
 Testing for the presence of drugs in blood in racehorses and in Olympic atheletes

19. What is electron paramagnetic resonance?

Electron Paramagnetic Resonance(EPR) is also called Electron Spin Resonance(ESR) .
This absorption spectroscopy is similar to NMR. It is possible only with molecules having
unpaired electrons. Instead of Radiowaves in NMR. Micowaves are used in ESR

20. What is Zeeman Effect?

An isolated electron, all alone in space without any outside forces, still has an intrinsic
angular momentum called "spin",S̅. In other words, the electron due to its charge and
angular momentum, acts like a little bar magnet, or magnetic dipole, with a magnetic
moment , m̅. The energy differences are predominately due to the interaction of unpaired
electrons in the sample with a magnetic field produced by a magnet in the laboratory.
This effect is called the Zeeman Effect.

PART-B
1. Explain the concept of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectrometry
2. Explain the classical description and quantum description of NMR
3. With the help of neat diagram explain the construction and working of Fourier Transform
NMR.
4. Explain the different types of ion sources in Molecular Mass Spectrometry
5. With the help of neat diagram explain the working of Mass Spectrometer

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 6. Detail about the Electron Paramagnetic resonance
7. Explain the construction and working of Electron Paramagnetic resonance instrumentation.

UNIT IV - SEPARATION METHODS

TWO MARKS

1. What is Chromatography?
Chromatography comprises a group of powerful separation methods that find
applications in all branches of science. Chromatography allows the separation,
identification, and determination of closely related components of complex mixtures.

2. How Chromatographic methods are classified?

Chromatographic methods can be categorized in two ways:
 Column chromatography
 Planar chromatography

3. What is column chromatography?

In column chromatography, the stationary phase is held in a narrow tube through which
the mobile phase is forced under pressure.

4. What is planar chromatography?

In planar chromatography, the stationary phase is supported on a flat plate or in the
interstices of paper. In this arrangement, the mobile phase moves through the stationary
phase by capillary action or under the influence of gravity.

5. Mention the types of chromatography

Three general categories of chromatography are:
a. gas chromatography (GC),
b. liquid chromatography (LC), and
c. supercritical fluid chromatography (SFC).

6. What is a chromatogram?
Solute concentration placed at the end of the column and its signal is plotted as function
of time (or of volume of the added mobile phase), a series of peaks is obtained, Such a
plot, called a chromatogram, is useful for both qualitative and quantitative analysis. The
positions of peaks on the time axis can be used to identify the components of the sample;
the areas under the peaks provide a quantitative measure of the amount of each
component.

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 7. What is resolution?
Resolution refers to the extent of separation of the peaks of interest on a chromatogram.
Resolution RS is a quantitative measure of the ability of the column under specific
operating conditions to separate (or resolve) two analyte peaks.

8. What is Partition Chromarography?

Partition chromatography is a type of chromatography. It is a method of separation in
which the components present in the mixture get distributed more likely into two liquid
phases because of differences in partition coefficients. It is based on differences in
retention factor K as well as distribution coefficient Kd of the analytes using liquid for
both stationary as well as the mobile phase.

9. Define Retention Factor or Capacity Factor

The retention factor or capacity factor (k) is defined as the ratio of time an analyte is
retained in the stationary phase to the time it is retained in the mobile phase.

10. Define Distribution coefficient

Distribution coefficient Kd  is a ratio of solid phase to solute concentrations.

11. What are the types of Partition chromatography?

Partition chromatography can be divided into
1) liquid-liquid chromatography and
2) bonded-phase liquid chromatography.

12. Mention the applications of Partition Chromatography.

Pharmaceuticals – Antibiotics, Sedatives, Steroids
BioChemical – Amino Acids, proteins, carbohydrates, lipids
Food Products – Artificial sweeteners, anti oxidants, aflatoxins, additives
Industrial Chemicals – Condensed Aromatics, surfactants, propellants, dyes

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 13. What is adsorption chromatography?
Adsorption chromatography is a type of LC in which chemicals are retained based on
their adsorption and desorption at the surface of the support, which also acts as the stationary
phase.. This method is also sometimes referred to as liquid- solid chromatography.

14. What is ion exchange chromatography?

Ion exchange chromatography (or ion chromatography) is a process that allows the
separation of ions and polar molecules based on their affinity to ion exchangers. There
are two types of ion exchangers i.e., cationic and anionic exchangers 

15. Mention the four steps of ion exchange chromatography?

The 4 basic steps of ion exchange chromatography:-
1. Equilibration
2. Sample application and wash
3. Elution
4. Regeneration

16. What are anion exchangers?

The anion exchangers have positively charged exchanger with negatively charged mobile
counter ion available for exchange. If the basic functional groups are introduced, the resin
becomes anion exchanger.
Tertiary amines- Strong anion exchangers
Secondary amines- Weak anion exchangers

17. What are cation exchangers?

The cation exchangers have negatively charged exchanger with positively charged mobile
counter ion available for exchange. If the acidic functional groups are introduced, then
the resin becomes cation exchanger.
Sulphonic acid- Strong anion exchangers
Carboxylic amines- Weak anion exchangers

18. List down the applications of ion exchange chromatography.

 Softening of hard water
 Demineralization of water
 To analyze base composition of nucleic acid
 To concentrate the metal ions in the sample
 To measure the additives in food and drug sample
 To separate protein mixtures

19. What is size exclusion chromatography?

Size exclusion chromatography (SEC) separates molecules based on their size by
filtration through a gel. The gel consists of spherical beads containing pores of a

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 specific size distribution. Separation occurs when molecules of different sizes are
included or excluded from the pores within the matrix.

20. What is affinity chromatography?

Affinity Chromatography is a technique in which the difference in absorption depends on
the specific affinity between a substance fixed in the separation material (the absorbent)
and the desired component in the mixture ( the ligand).

21. What is Gas chromatography?

Gas chromatography (GC) is an analytical technique used to separate the chemical
components of a sample mixture and then detect them to determine their presence or
absence and/or how much is present. These chemical components are usually organic
molecules or gases.

22. Mention the two types of gas chromatography.

There are two types of gas chromatography:
a. gas-liquid chromatography (GLC) and
b. gas-solid chromatography (GSC).

UNIT V ELECTRO ANALYSIS AND SURFACE MICROSCOPY

TWO MARKS

1. What is an electrochemical cell?

A DC electrochemical cell converts chemical energy into electrical energy.

2. State Fataday’s law

Faraday’s law, states that the amount of chemical reaction that occurs at an electrode
is proportional to the current, called a faradaic current.

3. Mention the three mechanisms that bring mass transfer in an electrochemical cell.
Three mechanisms bring about this mass transfer:
 convection,
 migration, and
 diffusion.

4. What is the potential of an electrochemical cell?

The potential of an electrochemical cell is the difference between the potential of one
of the electrodes and the potential of the other.This potential is a measure of an
electrode’s electron energy.

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 5. What is Standard Hydrogen Electrode ?
 It is a reference electrode against which the electrode potentials of all electrodes are
measured. The Standard Hydrogen Electrode is often abbreviated to SHE, and its
standard electrode potential is declared to be 0 at a temperature of 298K. This is
because it acts as a reference for comparison with any other electrode.

6. Define : Electrode Potential

An electrode potential is defined as the potential of a cell in which the electrode under
investigation is the right-hand electrode and the SHE is the left-hand electrode . Electrode
potentials could more properly be called relative electrode potentials .

7. What is Potentiometry?
Potentiometry is one of the methods of electro analytical chemistry. It is usually
employed to find the concentration of a solute in solution. In potentiometric
measurements, the potential between two electrodes is measured using a high
impedance voltmeter.

8. What is calomel reference electrode?

Calomel reference electrodes consist of mercury in contact with a solution that is
saturated with mercury(I) chloride (calomel) and that also contains a known
concentration of potassium chloride. Calomel half-cells can be represented as
follows:
where x represents the molar concentration of potassium chloride in the solution.

9. Mention the components of potentiometric methods.

 indicator electrode,
 a reference electrode, and
 a potential measuring device.

10. Draw the potentiometric cell.

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 11. What are the advantages of ISFETs over membrane electrodes?
Ruggedness, small size, inertness toward harsh environments, rapid response, and low
electrical impedance. In contrast to membrane electrodes, ISFETs do not require hydration
before use and can be stored indefinitely in the dry state.

12. What are the two types of Membrane materials used in Gas Permeable Membranes?
a. Microporous and
b. homogeneous.
13. Where did biosensors find applications?
Determination of biological and biochemical compounds such as enzymes, DNA, antigens,
antibodies, bacteria, cells, and whole samples of animal and plant tissue.

14. What is Voltammetry?

Voltammetry is an electrochemical technique in which a varying potential is applied to a
working electrode in an electrochemical system, and the corresponding current is measured.

15. What is Amperometry?

In amperometry, current proportional to analyte concentration is monitored at a fixed
potential.

16. What is the purpose of Voltammetry?

Voltammetry is widely used by inorganic, physical, and biological chemists for nonanalytical
purposes, including

DEPARTMENT OF EEE J.JAYASHREE AP/EEE

 a. Fundamental studies of oxidation and reduction processes in various media,
b. adsorption processes on surfaces, and
c. electron-transfer mechanisms at chemically modified electrode surfaces.

17. What is cyclic voltammetry?

In cyclic voltammetry (CV), the current response of a small stationary electrode in an
unstirred solution is excited by a triangular voltage waveform, such as that shown in Figure
below:

18. Write the Randles- Sevcik equation?

where ip is the peak current (A),

A is the electrode area (cm2),
D is the diffusion coefficient (cm2/s),
c is the concentration (mol/cm3), and
v is the scan rate (V/s).

19. What are the two important pulse techniques in pulse voltammetry?
The two most important pulse techniques are
a. Differential- pulse voltammetry and
b. square-wave voltammetry.

20. What is a surface?

A surface is defined as the boundary layer between a solid, or sometimes a liquid, and a
vacuum, a gas, or a liquid.

PART – B
1. Explain with a neat diagrams about the theory of potentiometer.

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 2. Discuss about ion selective and molecular selective electrodes
3. Describe about the various instruments used for potentiometric studies
4. Discuss about the concepts of Voltammetry in detail
5. Explain the following:
(i) Pulse Voltammetry
(ii) Cyclic Voltammetry
6. What are the applications of Voltammetry. Explain any three applications.
7. Elaborate about scanning probe microscopes in detail.

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