The Behavior of Light: A Wave or a Particle?

What is light? This is a tougher question than you may think.

Event #1: In 1704, Newton publishes optics textbook saying

light is a particle. This is the standard for 100+ years.

Event #2: In 1865, James C. Maxwell publishes a treatise on

E&M, says light is a wave through electromagnetic field.

Event #3: In 1888, Heinrich Hertz produces and detects

radio waves, a prediction of Maxwell’s theory.
Ch. 5.1
The Behavior of Light: A Wave? 5
Light is a wave phenomenon. Sound is also a wave phenomenon (“sound
waves”). Let’s think about how they are the same, and how they differ.

Pause-and-Think MC Question:

Which of these statements is true?

1) Light and sound can both travel through empty space.

2) Only light can travel through empty space.
3) Only sound can travel through empty space.
4) Neither light nor sound can travel through empty space.

Ch. 5.1
The Behavior of Light: A Wave? 6

Both waves carry energy from one location to another.

Sound waves require particles in the air to be compressed

parallel to the direction of movement. Light waves create
disturbances that are perpendicular to the motion.

Animation: http://www.acs.psu.edu/drussell/demos.html

“Light” is another term for electromagnetic radiation, or the

transmission of electromagnetic energy. Not just visible light!
Ch. 5.1
The Behavior of Light: A Wave? 7

All waves can be described using a few key properties.

Wavelength (λ “lambda”):
a measure of the distance between like points on a wave.
Measured in meters (m).
Frequency (f):
a count of the number of waves
passing a point in one second.
Measured in Hertz (Hz).
Ch. 5.1
The Behavior of Light: A Wave? 8

We can write a simple relation between wave properties:

Speed = f * λ. For EM radiation, the speed that light waves
travel is the same for all forms of light. It is called the
speed of light and given the symbol “c” such that c = f * λ.
● Wavelength (λ “lambda”, in meters): distance between like points on a wave
● Frequency (f, in Hertz): the number of waves passing a point in one second
● Speed of light (c, in m/s): the physical speed when light waves pass through
a vacuum. All forms of light travel at speed “c” in space. You don’t need to
know the value, but c = 300,000,000 meters/s = 186,000 miles/s.

Ch. 5.1
The Behavior of Light: A Wave? 9

Pause-and-Think MC Question(s):

If the distance between wave crests is increased, the wavelength of the wave is:
1) not changed.
2) increased.
3) decreased.

If the distance between wave crests is increased, the frequency of the wave is:
1) not changed.
2) increased.
3) decreased.

Ch. 5.1
The Behavior of Light: A Wave and a Particle 10
In the late 1800’s a couple of experiments were devised which the wave theory of
light could not explain:

● Black body radiation (BBR)

● Photoelectric effect

In 1900, Max Planck explained BBR by proposing that light is emitted from
matter in quantized (not continuous) amounts.

In 1905, Albert Einstein explained the photoelectric effect by proposing that light
is absorbed by matter in quantized amounts. Of all the things that Einstein is
known for, he only won the Nobel prize for this work on the photoelectric effect.

Photoelectric Effect from Openstax Chemistry 2e, CC-BY 4.0 Ch. 5.1
The Behavior of Light: A Wave and a Particle 11
As it turns out, light can act as a wave AND a particle! When light interacts with
light, it acts like a wave. When light interacts with matter, it acts like a particle.

A particle of light is called a photon. Photons carry energy just like waves, or any
material particle. They just don’t have any mass. Photons still move at the
speed of light c, they are light.

We can think of the brightness of an

object as how many photons it produces
each second (absolute brightness) or
how many photons a detector measures
each second (apparent brightness).

Ch. 5.1
The Behavior of Light: A Wave and a Particle 12

The energy carried by a single photon is related to the

frequency of the type of light.

Although we will not do many calculations with this, it is a

good summary of the relationships between E, f, and λ.

High frequency light waves have short wavelengths and high

energy (e.g. gamma rays, Ultraviolet light).
Ch. 5.1
EM Spectrum: Putting Forms of Light in Order 13

The range of all possible wave frequencies and wavelengths

is called the electromagnetic spectrum (“EM spectrum”).
Which of the following is NOT a form of light?
1) Radio waves
2) Microwaves
3) X-rays
4) All of the above are forms of light
5) None of the above is a form of light

Ch. 5.2
EM Spectrum: Putting Forms of Light in Order 14

Image: "Electromagnetic Spectrum" by AdvancedPhotonSource is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 2.0 Ch. 5.2
EM Spectrum: Putting Forms of Light in Order 15

Sometimes short
wavelengths are
shown on the right
(previous slide).
Often it is in the
other direction.
Always look at the
labeling if you find
diagrams online.
EM Spectrum from Openstax Chemistry 2e, CC-BY 4.0 Ch. 5.2
EM Spectrum 16

There are only a few

forms of light (EM
radiation) that make
it through Earth’s
atmosphere.
More on how this
affects telescopes
and observatories in
Chapter 6!
Ch. 5.2
Light and the Electromagnetic Spectrum 17

Pause-and-Think Questions:

Which of the types of light that we have discussed...

● has the least energy?

● has the shortest wavelength?
● has the lowest frequency?
● travels the slowest?

Ch. 5.2
Light and the Electromagnetic Spectrum 18

Pause-and-Think MC Question:

Which of the following would be true about comparing

X-rays and radio waves?
1) Radio waves have greater energy and shorter wavelength than X-rays.
2) Radio waves have higher frequency and travel the same speed as X-rays.
3) Radio waves have lower frequency and would travel faster than X-rays.
4) Radio waves have less energy and would travel slower than X-rays.
5) Radio waves have longer wavelength and travel the same speed as X-rays.

Ch. 5.2
Visible Light and the Rainbow 20

Newton’s ideas of light being a

particle came from using a prism.

White light is many colors

combined!

Ch. 5.3
Visible Light and the Rainbow 21

When the light from a star is spread out by wavelength like

Newton did with his prism, astronomers can learn a lot more
about a star. We will focus our upcoming discussion of
stellar spectra (the plural of spectrum) on looking at this
rainbow of colors in two ways:

1. spectral curves (sometimes known as blackbody curves)

2. spectral lines (absorption lines or emission lines)

Ch. 5.3
Spectral Curves: Blackbody Radiation 22
To get started, we must make sure we understand the concepts of heat
and temperature.

Heat: A form of energy. It is the energy associated with the motion of the
atoms or molecules that make an object.

Temperature: A measure of the average speed of the atoms (or

molecules) in an object or gas. Motion is due to heat energy.

Absolute Zero: the temperature at which there is no heat energy, all

motion stops.

Ch. 5.3
Spectral Curves: Blackbody Radiation 23
Temperature Scales:

● Fahrenheit: Not used in science. Water freezes 32°F, boils 212°F.

● Celsius (Centigrade): Standard metric scale. Water freezes 0°C, boils 100°C.
● Kelvin (Absolute Scale): Water freezes 273 K, boils 373 K.

The temperature of absolute zero is defined to be zero Kelvin. This is equivalent to

–273°C and –460°F.

Astronomers use the Kelvin scale. The temperature is a measure of the average
motion of the particles. In our study of the universe, we will see temperatures that
range from 3 K to 1014 K.

Ch. 5.3
Spectral Curves: Blackbody Radiation 24

Dense objects with temperatures above absolute zero create

electromagnetic radiation (atoms move, bump each other).

This glow is called blackbody radiation (BBR).

If an object is hot enough, the majority of the radiation will be

in the visible region of the spectrum, and the body will glow
in a way that we can see it. But even at colder temperatures,
solid objects can produce this BBR.

Ch. 5.3
Spectral Curves: Blackbody Radiation 25
Incandescent bulbs are
blackbody emitters.

They are so inefficient

because most of their
energy emitted is not in
the visible range!

Video:
https://www.youtube.com
/watch?v=-1weRQo2nqM

Image by Mpfiz/Wikimedia, found at https://www.scienceinschool.org/content/starlight-inside-light-bulb Ch. 5.3

Blackbody Radiation and Star Colors 26
Blackbody radiation is still light (electromagnetic radiation). Any source of EM
radiation which has these three special properties is called blackbody radiation:

● There is a peak intensity,

and the wavelength where
this occurs depends on the
temperature of the body.
● The energy distribution has
a particular shape (curve).
● The total amount of energy
radiated depends on the
temperature (T4).
Ch. 5.3
Blackbody Radiation and Star Colors 27
If star has a high temperature, it will
produce more blue light than red light,
so it looks blue.

If a star has a temperature like 6000

K, it will produce roughly equal blue
and red, so it looks yellowish-white.

If a star has a low temperature, it will

make more red than blue, so it looks
red.
Ch. 5.3
Blackbody Radiation and Star Colors 28

It is important to recognize that while stars can absolutely

look red or blue, it tends to be a “washed out” color.

Temperatures are shown here in Kelvin. The Sun is 5800 K.

Color Temperature By Bhutajata CC-BY 4.0 Ch. 5.3
Blackbody Radiation and Star Colors 29

Pause-and-Think MC Question:
A piece of metal is heated to a high temperature. Another
piece of metal that is twice as large is heated to a lower
temperature. Which appears redder?
1) The cooler piece of metal appears redder.
2) The hotter piece of metal appears redder.
3) Both pieces look the same color.
4) Cannot tell which piece looks redder.
Ch. 5.3
Spectral Lines: Types of Spectra 30

Real stars, however, are not just

a simple blackbody curve. We will
learn more about types of stars in
future chapters.

For now, we will start to think

about the dips in the curves, or
the dark lines that appear in the
rainbows, called spectral lines.
N. Vogt, NMSU (link to image: http://astronomy.nmsu.edu/geas/lectures/lecture20/slide01.html) Ch. 5.3
Spectral Lines: Types of Spectra 31

A blackbody curve
is a continuous
spectrum.

Let’s consider
these three types:
1. Continuous
2. Emission
3. Absorption
Diagram created by Lauren Woolsey for these slides (CC-BY 4.0) Ch. 5.3
Spectral Lines: Types of Spectra 32

Ch. 5.3
Spectral Lines: Types of Spectra 33

Pause-and-Think MC Question:

If you analyze the glow from a low density object (such

as a cloud of interstellar gas), which type of spectrum do
you see?

1) Continuous spectrum
2) “bright line” Emission spectrum
3) “dark line” Absorption spectrum

Ch. 5.3
Spectral Lines: Types of Spectra 34
Pause-and-Think MC:

Which is produced by the

Sun?
1) Continuous spectrum
2) “bright line” Emission
spectrum
3) “dark line” Absorption
spectrum

Can we tell the location of

the peak wavelength?

Graph of solar irradiance from Openstax Chemistry 2e, CC-BY 4.0 Ch. 5.3
Spectral Lines and Spectral Curves 35
As a reminder, we now have discussed the following information:

● A star is a hot object that produces blackbody radiation, which peaks at a

wavelength based on the temperature of the star.
● This blackbody radiation is a continuous spectrum when it is created in the
hot, dense core of the star.
● As the light travels through the low density outer layers of the star, it
becomes an absorption spectrum based on the atoms that are there.

The spectral curve tells us something about a star’s temperature. The spectral
lines of a star will tell us what atoms it contains. This is what we’ll focus on in the
next section! We will discover that each atom has its own spectral fingerprint.

Ch. 5.3
Structure of the Atom: The Basics 37
Atoms have two main parts:

● Nucleus – Massive central part having a positive electric charge.

Contains:
○ Protons – positively charged particles.
○ Neutrons – like protons, but no electric charge.

● Electron Cloud – electrons “in orbit” about the nucleus.

An atom is mostly empty space. The electrons are bound to the nucleus
by the electric force, due to their opposite charge from protons.
Ch. 5.4
Structure of the Atom: The Basics 38

Atoms are the smallest possible sample of a chemical

element. The number of protons in the atom’s nucleus
determines the atom’s chemical element. This is also its
chemical number.
Hydrogen (H) has one proton.
Helium (He) has two protons.
Carbon (C) has six protons.
Oxygen (O) has eight protons.

Ch. 5.4
Structure of the Atom: The Basics 39
The nucleus of an atom usually also contains neutrons for stability. Two atoms
with the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons are called
isotopes. Hydrogen isotopes are common enough to be given names. More
generally, isotope number is the total number of protons and neutrons.

Ch. 5.4
Structure of the Atom: The Basics 40

Number of protons determines the chemical element.

Number of neutrons determines the isotope (“version”).

So what does number of electrons determine?

When the number of electrons and protons is equal, we have a neutral atom.
Electrons can be removed (or added) to a nucleus fairly easily.
When this has happened the atom is ionized and it is called an ion.

An atom with too few electrons is a positive ion. (More p+ than e-)
An atom with too many electrons is a negative ion. (More e- than p+)
Ch. 5.4
Electrons and Energy Levels 41
Along with ionization, the movement of electrons closer or further from the
nucleus means the electrons have different amounts of energy. This is what
astronomers care about.

PSA: In this class, we will use a simple model of an atom called the Bohr Model.
This is much, much too simple for chemists to use. Just like our “not-to-scale”
solar system pictures, we have to remember that reality is more complex than our
simplified models.

In the simple Bohr model, we can think of electrons “orbiting” the nucleus at a
certain distance if we draw circles, but it’s best to remember they are energy
levels, like rungs of a ladder.

Ch. 5.5
Electrons and Energy Levels 42

Each atom is
unique, like a
fingerprint.

Now we can
think more
about what
makes spectral
lines.
Ch. 5.5
Electrons and Energy Levels 43
Electrons change energy levels by
absorbing or emitting photons. The
energy of the photon must exactly
match the difference in energy levels.

When a photon (light energy) is

absorbed, an electron jumps up to a
higher energy orbital.

When the electron jumps down to a

lower energy orbital, a photon (light
energy) is emitted.

Energy levels from Openstax Chemistry 2e, CC-BY 4.0 Ch. 5.5
Electrons and Energy Levels 44

Only when a photon’s energy matches the difference in

energy levels available to an electron will it be absorbed. The
electron will jump to the higher energy level and the photon is
absorbed entirely.

An atom with an electron in an upper energy level is called an

excited atom. Atoms do not stay in the excited state.
Electrons want to always be in the ground state, i.e. at the
lowest energy levels that are allowed.
Ch. 5.5
Electrons and Energy Levels 45
Hydrogen atoms can
produce a specific set
of visible-light
spectral lines based
on the location of
energy levels.

These transitions to
the n=2 level are
called the Balmer
Series and are shown
in this image.
Ch. 5.5
Electrons and Energy Levels 46

Pause-and-Think MC Question:
Energy is released from atoms in the form of light when
electrons
1) move in their orbit around the nucleus.
2) are emitted by the atom.
3) are absorbed by atoms.
4) move from low energy levels to high energy levels.
5) move from high energy levels to low energy levels.
Ch. 5.5
Doppler Effect Introduction 49

Doppler Effect is the apparent shift in the frequency and

wavelength of a wave, due to relative motion between
source and observer.

The speed of the object is related to the amount of the shift

in the wavelength of the light we receive from it.

The direction toward or away of the object is related to the

direction (blueshift or redshift) of the change in the wave.

Ch. 5.6
Doppler Effect On Earth 50

In our everyday lives, the Doppler Effect can be observed in

the sound waves from car horns or fire engine sirens.

We perceive a change in pitch (frequency) due to the motion

of the vehicle as it makes noise. High pitch means it is
moving toward us, lower pitch means it is moving away.
Interactive: http://astro.unl.edu/classaction/animations/light/dopplershift.html

By Charly Whisky, CC BY-SA 3.0, (https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1606823) Ch. 5.6

Doppler Effect On Earth 51

Pause-and-Think Discussion Question:

Can you think of other “everyday” situations where we

might use the Doppler shift to track motion of an object?

There are many possible answers you may have considered!

● Police radar to check car velocity
● Medical ultrasonography
● Doppler radar for weather systems
Ch. 5.6
Doppler Effect in Astronomy 52
For the Doppler Effect (also
called Doppler Shift) in
astronomy, we use the
terms redshift and
blueshift.

The changes are often

small, so we are always
looking at the shifting of
spectral line patterns.

Public Domain Image, source: Christopher S. Baird. Found at this website. (CC-0) Ch. 5.6
Doppler Effect in Astronomy 53

Doppler Shift
LAB SPECTRUM
does not (AT REST)
change the
overall color
of the object.

Here, we see
GALAXY
a redshift SPECTRUM
illustrated. (MOVING AWAY)

Georg Wiora (Dr. Schorsch), CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=12881381 Ch. 5.6

Doppler Effect in Astronomy 54

We will try to explore a couple of ways to think about this

shift and what it can and cannot tell us about a star.

The most important things to keep in mind:

● To notice a shift, we must have something to compare to
● Motion toward causes a shift to shorter wavelengths
● Motion away causes a shift to longer wavelengths
● Faster motion causes bigger shifts
● Slower motion causes smaller shifts
Ch. 5.6
Doppler Effect in Astronomy 55

Remember that we always need a

comparison. That might be a lab
spectrum (shown at top here), a
known wavelength (next slide), or a
star that we state is at rest.

Let’s consider this set of example

stars. The next slide has some
questions to consider.
Diagram created by Matt Reynier for these slides (CC-BY 4.0) Ch. 5.6
Doppler Effect in Astronomy 56

Pause-and-Think Questions:

Question 1: which stars are

moving away from us?

Question 2: which star is moving

the slowest?

Question 3: can we tell the color

of any of these stars?
Diagram created by Matt Reynier for these slides (CC-BY 4.0) Ch. 5.6
Doppler Effect in Astronomy 57

Here’s a new situation: a prominent spectral line for hydrogen

is known to be at 410 nanometers (nm) in laboratory
experiments.
Star Observed Wavelength of
Absorption Line
Question 1: which stars are
moving toward us? A 407 nm

B 421 nm
Question 2: which star is
C 402 nm
moving the fastest?
D 415 nm

Ch. 5.6
Doppler Effect in Astronomy 58

A prominent spectral line for hydrogen is known to be at 410

nanometers (nm) in laboratory experiments.
Question 3: can we tell Star Observed Wavelength of
which stars are red in color? Absorption Line

If so, which ones? A 407 nm

Question 4: can we tell
which star is closest to us?
If so, which one?
B 421 nm
C 402 nm
D 415 nm

Ch. 5.6