Materials Science and Engineering A313 (2001) 16 – 23

www.elsevier.com/locate/msea

A simple relation for deviation of grey and nodular cast irons

from Hooke’s law
Jan Kohout
Department of Physics, Military Technology Faculty, Military Academy in Brno, Kounico6a St. 65, CZ — 612 00 Brno, Czech Republic

Received 19 January 2000; received in revised form 9 January 2001

Abstract

One of the features of graphite cast irons is the non-linear dependence between stress and strain far below the yield stress. All
theoretical approaches to this non-linearity are based on many simplifying assumptions which are not fulfilled in real cast irons.
Many phenomenological descriptions of the starting part of the stress– strain curve have been published but most are not
applicable to very low stresses and strains. In the present work, a new simple rheological relation is proposed describing the
deviation from Hooke’s law. It was obtained using the derivatives of the starting parts of precisely measured stress– strain curves.
The relation containing the deviation parameter is applied to grey and nodular cast irons but, in principle, it can also be applied
to any other material with non-linear quasi-elastic behaviour under loading. © 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Hooke’s law; Stress–strain curve of cast irons; Non-linear behaviour under loading

1. Introduction Is there any strictly defined upper limit of validity of

While the proportional limit determining the region
of validity of Hooke’s law | =Em is for steels nearly
equal to yield stress, the deviation from linear stress –
strain dependence for cast irons is considerable even at
stresses only a fraction of the yield stress. The deviation
depends on the graphite shape (the deviation is largest
for grey cast iron with flake graphite and the smallest
for nodular cast iron with spheroidal graphite) and on
the cast iron matrix (the deviation is largest for the
ferritic one). It should be noted that besides graphite
particles the non-linear behaviour can also be caused by
the phase transformation of retained austenite [1] (e.g.
in austempered cast iron with a relatively high content
of retained austenite) but the structures containing re-
tained austenite will not be considered here.
There are two basic questions concerning the devia-
tion of cast irons from Hooke’s law:
* Tel.: +420-5-41183283; fax: + 420-5-41182888.
E-mail address: jan.kohout@vabo.cz (J. Kohout).
Hooke’s law?
Is there any simple and suitable relation that de-
scribes the deviation?
Both of these problems can be solved using theoreti-
cal, numerical or phenomenological approaches. The
upper limit of validity of Hooke’s law |H (i.e. the
proportionality limit) can be estimated as the ratio Re /h
of yield stress Re and stress concentration coefficient
h= |max/|n, where |max is the maximum stress in the
matrix in the area of contact with the graphite particle,
and |n is the nominal stress. The heart of the matter
consists, above all, in the determination of coefficient h
but many other features of cast irons (especially those
which decrease the local yield stress) are also important.
2. Theoretical approach
The graphite particle in the matrix must be consid-
ered as an inclusion with mechanical properties differ-
ent from the matrix properties. Its generally
complicated shape is often approximated by a sphere in
the case of a graphite nodule and by a slender or flat
ellipsoid in the case of a graphite flake.

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 J. Kohout / Materials Science and Engineering A313 (2001) 16–23
2.1. Inclusion with different stiffnesses
Stress concentration for a spherical inclusion is
given by Goodier [2] and for an ellipsoidal flake it is
described by Eshelby [3]. Stress concentration depends
on the ratio of Young’s moduli of graphite Eg and
matrix Em. Young’s modulus of homogenous graphite
is very low [4], Eg :5 GPa, and then the ratio Eg/
Em B 0.03 is also very low. This means that the inclu-
sion can with sufficient accuracy be considered as an
empty cavity.
In most cases the graphite particle is not formed by
homogeneous graphite. It consists of eutectic graphite
with an envelope of secondary graphite; the tensile
strength of the interface between them is very low.
The same can be said about the particle/matrix inter-
face and, therefore, even the low tensile strength of
homogeneous graphite [5], Rm :20 MPa, cannot be
exploited. This is yet another reason why the graphite
particle can be considered to be an empty cavity, in
particular when tensile loading is applied.
2.2. Empty ca6ity
The stress concentration coefficient for a spherical
empty cavity is given by Southwell [6]
27− 15w 3 model was developed by Gurson [12] and modified by
h= = 1.5 + (1)
2(7− 5w) 7 −5w
where w is Poisson’s ratio of the matrix. Since the
value of Poisson’s ratio is typically 0.3, a linear sim-
plification
3 neous microstructure [15,16] (the term two-scale
h =1.5+ : 2.05 + 0.5(w − 0.3)
5.5−5(w − 0.3)
=1.9+ 0.5w (2)
can be made using the linear term of a Taylor series.
The published values of Poisson’s ratio for cast irons
are 0.211– 0.299 [4] or 0.315 [7], hence h : 2.01–2.06.
This is to say that the stress concentration coefficient
depends only slightly on the value of Poisson’s ratio.
The above range of h is valid for one isolated
spherical cavity. In the case of many spherical cavities
of the same diameter and regular spacing, a lower
value of the stress concentration coefficient, h : 1.7, is
considered [8].
The stress concentration around a triaxial ellip-
soidal cavity was described by Sadowsky and Stern-
berg [9].
3. Numerical approach
3.1. Stress concentration coefficient
General relations for the stress concentration coeffi-
17
cient can only be derived when a relatively simple
(spherical or ellipsoidal) shape of graphite particles is
considered. But in grey cast iron and cast iron with
vermicular graphite these shapes are very complicated
and in nodular cast iron the graphite particles are not
usually of ideal spherical or ellipsoidal shape (it is
sometimes called flower-like or cauliflower-like shape).
Dorazil [10] therefore calculated the stress concentra-
tion coefficient using the FEM (finite elements
method) for a matrix between two cavities of the
shapes typical of real graphite nodules. He assumed a
homogenous and isotropic matrix and the maximum
value he obtained was hmax = 5.39.
3.2. FEM modelling
Very efficient computer programs provide for the
numerical solution of relatively complex models that
even better represent actual microstructural non-uni-
formities of composite and porous materials. FEM
modelling is used most widely in this area. In cast
irons, a very important role is played by the spatial
dispersion, shape and size of graphite particles. Moor-
thy and Ghosh [11] studied ductile matrix composites
using the Voronoi-cell finite element model. Specifi-
cally for porous materials, a continuum constitutive
Tvergaard [13,14] to incorporate the macroscopic ef-
fects of void growth and coalescence. Using the
asymptotic homogenization method, the macroscopic
scale of the structure could be coupled with the mi-
croscopic scale of constituent phases in the heteroge-
analysis is used in this connection). The microstruc-
tural analysis of a representative volume element can
be conducted by the Voronoi-cell finite element
model mentioned above [11,17]. The combination of
these two steps allows an efficient and accurate mod-
elling of the stress–strain behaviour of various non-
uniform heterogeneous microstructures in both the
elastic and the elastic–plastic regions. Lee and
Ghosh [18] present the stress–strain curves for com-
posites and porous materials with homogeneous ma-
trices and with inclusions (or cavities) of different
spatial distributions, sizes, orientations, and shapes
(only ellipsoids are considered). In the figures in Ref.
[18], the range of strain is 0.008 for inclusions and
0.02 for cavities but, in principle, it can be substan-
tially wider.
In comparison with the numerical results of the
FEM modelling mentioned above this paper deals
with a simple but general relation describing the
deviation from Hooke’s law by one deviation
parameter. The relation is only applicable to strains
less than ca 0.002–0.004 (depending on the matrix
structure).
18 J. Kohout / Materials Science and Engineering A313 (2001) 16–23
4. Properties of real cast irons
In real cast irons, the matrix is neither homogeneous
nor isotropic. Not only the shapes of graphite particles
but also their different sizes and spacing irregularities
are important.
4.1. Matrix homogeneity
Matrix homogeneity is most disturbed in interden-
dritic spaces, where large segregation and also shrink-
age occur. The stress concentration around them can be
extremely high. Also, in the immediate neighbourhood
of graphite particles the matrix is inhomogeneous be-
cause it is substantially decarburized here. This decar-
burization decreases the local yield stress. On the other
hand, the grain boundaries do not play any significant
role at low strains.
4.2. Matrix isotropy
The matrix grains (ferritic grains in particular) have
different properties depending on their orientation with
respect to the applied load. This plays an important
differences between the simplified material model and
the real cast irons can be expressed only semi-quantita-
tively. But there is another possibility, namely to mea-
sure accurately the stress–strain curves and then, on the
basis of the measurement, to evaluate the upper limit of
validity of Hooke’s law and to describe the deviation
from Hooke’s law phenomenologically. This approach
has been preferred in the present paper.
5. Survey of phenomenological relations
For the description of the non-linear beginning of the
stress–strain curve many relations have been published
but most have some weak points. Drápal [19] used
Hollomon’s relation [20] for cast irons, which was
originally determined for the whole stress–plastic strain
curve of steels
| = Em n, nB 1 (3)
The validity of this relation was demonstrated using
the linear or piecewise linear dependence log |=
f(log m). The weakness of this relation is the limit
d|
role in the vicinity of graphite particles, where the
grains with easy-deformation orientation substantially
decrease the local yield stress.
4.3. Size and spacing of graphite particles
All theoretical conclusions are made for cast irons
with graphite particles that have identical size, identical
simple shape and regular spacing. Different sizes and
irregular spacing generally increase the stress concentra-
tion coefficient.
4.4. Consequence of real properties
The deviations of real cast irons from the simplified
material model fall into two groups:
1. All deviations concerning the matrix, in particular
the matrix decarburization in the vicinity of graphite
particles and the presence of the grains with easy-de-
formation orientation in the same places, decrease
the local yield stress.
2. All deviations concerning the graphite particles
(other than spherical or ellipsoidal shape, different
sizes, irregular spacing) and also the presence of
shrinkages increase the stress concentration
coefficient.
The consequence of these two deviations is the same
— the decrease in the Re /h ratio, which gives approxi-
mately the upper limit of validity of Hooke’s law |H,
which can be as small as several percent of the nominal
yield stress. Determining any exact value of the limit is
very difficult because the influence of most of the above
E0 = “ (4)
dm |“0
which means that Young’s modulus at the beginning of
the stress–strain curve is infinite. Svoboda [21] chose as
the best phenomenological relation from among many
others
1
|= , n\ 0 (5)
a+ bm − n
which has the same weakness for nB 1 and E0 =0 for
n \ 1 (only for n= 1 can the value of E0 be nonzero
and finite). For relations that are being determined for
low stress values these weaknesses are not acceptable.
To make the structure of the stress–strain curve
more expressive, the derivatives of that curve are used
[22]. It can be shown that the dependence d|/dm =f(|)
gives a better resolution than the dependence d|/dm =
f(m). Fang [23] prefers the dependence dm/d| =f(m)
while, in principle, the dependence dm/d| =f(|) can
also be used.
6. Materials and methods
Samples of 20 mm (grey cast iron) and 6 mm (nodu-
lar cast iron) in diameter and with chemical composi-
tion as given in Table 1 were used for the tensile tests.
The tests were performed using a Zwick 1486 testing
device with a strain rate of approx. 5× 10 − 4 s − 1. The
accuracy of measured quantities was better than 0.1%,
i.e. better than 0.1–0.5 MPa for the stress, and better
than 10 − 5 for the strain (the strain was measured
 J. Kohout / Materials Science and Engineering A313 (2001) 16–23
separately, see below). A graphical record of the stress–
strain diagrams was made with a resolution that did not
decrease the above accuracy of measured quantities.
The as-cast grey iron had a fully pearlitic matrix with
graphite flakes of 60– 120 mm in length and it was not
preloaded before testing. Nodular cast iron with nod-
ules of 30–60 mm in diameter was thermally treated to
obtain fully ferritic (900°C 3 h, cooling to 860°C at a
rate of 20°C h − 1, then cooling to 680°C at 10°C h − 1,
and then water bath) and nearly fully pearlitic (900°C 3
h, air cooling) matrices. Some were tested without
preload and others with preloads that caused a plastic
strain of 0.05% (230 MPa ferrite, 533 MPa pearlite) and
0.2% (270 MPa ferrite, 600 MPa pearlite).
The determination of the upper limit of the validity
of Hooke’s law can hardly be done if extensometers
mounted on tested samples are used. They regularly
give stress– strain diagrams with certain imperfections
at the very beginning, which are due to the slackness of
sensors and their mounting. The strain was therefore
measured by electric resistance strain gauges. Two
gauges were firmly glued on the sample tested and
another two gauges, glued on an unloaded sample, were
used for the compensation of the temperature depen-
dence of the gauge resistance in the so-called full-bridge
circuit (a Hottinger KWS/T-5 device was used). The
tensile tests were stopped before a strain value of 1%
was reached. There the temperature increase caused by
plastic deformation was estimated to be lower than
Table 1
Chemical composition of cast irons tested, in wt.%
Cast iron C Si Mn P S
Grey 3.24 1.61 0.76 0.233 0.074
Nodular 3.46 2.11 0.24 0.054 0.021
Fig. 1. Stress – strain diagrams of pearlitic and ferritic nodular cast
irons and grey cast iron (without preload).
19
0.002°C and the error of strain measurement caused by
the temperature increase was lower than 6×10 − 6%.
Such strain measurement fully eliminated the initial
imperfections of the stress–strain diagrams. An exam-
ple of the stress–strain diagrams of nodular and grey
cast irons (all samples without any preload) is shown in
Fig. 1.
7. Analysis of results
7.1. Upper limit of 6alidity of Hooke’s law
First the question of the upper limit of Hooke’s law
validity was solved. The stress–strain curves were fitted
for all cast irons using the regression function
|
m = + f(| − |H ) + (6)
E
where f(| − |H) + = 0 for |− |H 5 0. None of the
many different types of function f(| − |H) + (altogether
more than 20 functions were tested) led to finding the
positive value |H with S.D. (mean square error) D|H B
|H. Thus it can be said that no cast iron (neither with
a preload nor without it) has a real upper limit of
Hooke’s law validity that could be determined unam-
biguously on the basis of measurement. In view of
measurement inaccuracy, the non-linear deviation thus
begins in fact at the very beginning of loading.
7.2. Simple relation describing the de6iation
Searching for a relation describing the non-linear
behaviour of cast irons under loading started with the
Mg dependence of the derivatives (d|/dm, dm/d|) of stress –
strain curves on m, | (all four combinations were con-
– sidered) which allows a more detailed study of these
0.058
curves [22–24]. In the case of the validity of Hooke’s
law the derivatives are equal to constant values E or
1/E, where E is Young’s modulus. In Figs. 2 and 3, it
can be seen that in the region of low stresses and low
strains the derivatives mentioned above are general
linear functions of strain or stress (the region of linear
derivatives).
The derivatives were obtained by numerical differen-
tiation of smoothed stress–strain curves. The smooth-
ing was obtained by the five-point formula of the
second order, by cubic splines and by Akima’s proce-
dure [25]. In the first case the differentiation was also
made by the five-point formula of the second order, in
the other cases analytically. All three methods led to
the same curves (the difference in the curves obtained
by different methods was less than the usual thickness
of lines in graphs).
The linear dependence of derivatives on the stress
and strain can be described by linear equations (Figs. 2
and 3)
20 J. Kohout / Materials Science and Engineering A313 (2001) 16–23

2k3E 20m+ 1− 1 | k3
|= l m= + | 2 (10)
k3E0 E0 2
1 e k4| − 1
|= ln(k4E0m+ 1)lm= (11)
k4 k4E0
None of the above expressions is simple enough to be
suitable for practical application. Therefore all relations
| = fi (m) and m= gi (|) with i= 1,…, 4 (see Eqs. (8)–
(11)) were expanded into Maclaurin’s series and their
arithmetic means
1
| =f( (m)= [ f1(m)+ f2(m)+ f3(m)+ f4(m)]
4
1
m= ḡ(|)= [g1(|)+ g2(|)+ g3(|)+ g4(|)] (12)
4
were calculated. Then the general relations |=f(m) and
Fig. 2. Stress and strain dependences of the derivative of the stress – m= g(|) were sought to fulfil the next requirements, i.e.
strain curve (ferritic nodular cast iron without preload). to agree with arithmetic means (Eq. (12)) as much as
possible,
to be as simple as possible,
to be mutually inverse.
As a result, these two relations were found
E0m |
|= and m= (13)
1+ sm E0 − s|
where the dimensionless parameter s
k1 k2 k E2 k E
s= = = 3 0= 4 0 (14)
2 2E0 2 2
was called the parameter of the de6iation from Hooke’s
law. Its absolute value describes the degree of deviation.
For s= 0 Hooke’s law is valid.
Eq. (13) can be rewritten in the form
 
m+
1 E 
E
· | − 0 = − 02 (15)
s s s
Fig. 3. Stress and strain dependences of the reciprocal derivative of
the stress – strain curve (ferritic nodular cast iron without preload). which is the equation of an increasing rectangular
hyperbola with the asymptotes
1 E0
d| d| dm 1 m= − , |= (16)
= E0 −k1|, =E0 −k2m, = +k3|, s s
dm dm d| E0
dm 1 (Fig. 4). The slope of the tangent in the grid origin is
= +k4m (7) E0. For m=1/s the slope of the tangent is E0/4 while the
d| E0
slope of the secant going through the points with the
where E0 is Young’s modulus at the very beginning of abscissae 0 and 1/s is E0/2. Therefore, a secant with the
the stress– strain curve as well as in Eq. (2), and ki are slope equal to half the slope of the tangent going
the parameters describing the deviation from Hooke’s through the grid origin can be used for the estimation
law. The solution of differential Eq. (7) gives the ex- of the deviation parameter value.
pressions for stress | and strain m
E0 1 E0 7.3. Determination of the 6alue of de6iation parameter
|= (1− e − k1m) lm = ln (8)
k1 k1 E0 −k1|
The numerical evaluation of parameter s was made
k E −
E 20 −2k2| by regression of the stress–strain curves using the re-
|= E0m− 2 m 2 lm = 0 (9)
2 k2 gression function
 
J. Kohout / Materials Science and Engineering A313 (2001) 16–23 21

| | n
m= + (17) 8. Discussion of the results
E0 −s| B
which was used instead of the usually used Ramberg– 8.1. General considerations
Osgood equation [26]
|
m= +
|  n
(18)
The conclusion that the non-linear behaviour of cast
irons under loading begins in fact (with the obtained
E B measurement accuracy) at the very beginning of loading
is very important. The most decisive evidence of this
Only the initial portions of curves that were limited fact are the derivatives of stress–strain curves, which
from above were used for the regression so as not to are not constant but increase or decrease from the very
give systematic differences between the real curve and beginning (Figs. 2 and 3). It is only using the smoothing
its fitting. The results for all irons with and without procedures that can, in principle, cause certain uncer-
preload are given in Table 2 (two values and their tainty of this conclusion but considering the record step
mean). of the stress–strain curves and the measure of smooth-
The present method of determining the deviation ing, the uncertainty is negligible.
parameter was verified using the stress– strain diagrams A consequence of the non-linear behaviour of cast
of samples prepared from spring steels. Its values were irons from the very beginning of loading is that no
negligibly small and substantially lower than their stan- reasonable value of proportional limit can be deter-
dard deviations. This means that in view of measure- mined. Generally, the proportional limit is extremely
ment inaccuracy the values are zero and Hooke’s law is dependent on the accuracy of measuring the stress–
valid. Practically the same results were obtained when strain curve. Usually the accuracy of strain measure-
various structural steels were tested. ment is the limiting factor and, therefore, resistance
strain gauges glued firmly on tested samples were used.
The proportional limit values for structural steels can
only be determined with relatively high standard devia-
tions and for spring steels they cannot be determined
very exactly either.
The relations in Eq. (13) describe the deviation from
Hooke’s law and define the deviation parameter. Their
derivation was based on the linear dependence of the
derivatives of the stress–strain curve beginnings on the
stress and strain. They seem to be a suitable and
experimentally supported compromise to describe very
simply and at the same time accurately enough the
non-linear behaviour of cast irons (as well as all other
materials) with a concave shape of the stress–strain
diagrams. Applications to convex shapes of the stress–
Fig. 4. Schematics of the hyperbola (Eq. (15)) showing the asymp-
strain diagrams (typically for rubbers) have not been
totes, slopes of tangents to the hyperbola and slope of its secant. verified.
On the other hand, the relations in Eq. (13) were
Table 2 used for the stress–strain diagrams of some structural
Deviation parameter s for different cast irons and different degrees of and spring steels. The deviation parameter values deter-
preloading mined for these steels were small positive or negative
Cast iron Grey Nodular
numbers (in absolute values substantially less than 0.1),
i.e. practically equal to zero. This is evidence that the
Preloading No Pearlite Ferrite Pearlite above procedure of determining the deviation parame-
ter can also be used in this case, in which it confirms
0 1 7159 23 237 9 36 189 2 the validity of Hooke’s law.
2 7129 34 2179 27 139 2
Mean 714 9 19 224 9 22 16 91
The method using the derivatives of experimental
curves to visualize their fine structure is a general
|0.05 1 – 729 33 11 9 2
method suitable for cases when exact measurement was
2 – 49 30 8 92
Mean – 35922 10 91 made or when the experimental dependence was slightly
smoothed. This procedure was also useful in the case of
|0.2 1 – 29 3 349 2
2 – 109 4 269 2
the stress–strain curves because it is the increasing or
Mean – 592 309 1 decreasing derivatives at the beginning of this curve
that give explicit evidence of the fact that the deviation
22 J. Kohout / Materials Science and Engineering A313 (2001) 16–23
from Hooke’s law starts at the very beginning of this
curve. A rather complicated derivation starting from
the linear dependence of the derivatives of stress–strain
curves (see Eqs. (8)– (11)) led in the end to the very
simple resultant relations in Eq. (13).
The basis of the deviation of cast irons from Hooke’s
law consists without any doubt in the stress concentra-
tion around the graphite particles, which depends on
their shapes. They can be very complicated — graphite
nodules can substantially differ from ideal spherical
shape and graphite flakes in grey cast iron have ex-
tremely irregular shapes. But many other specific fea-
tures of cast irons concerning the matrix (its
heterogeneity and anisotropy) and collective properties
of graphite particles (their various sizes and spacing)
result in the fact that the deviation from Hooke’s law
cannot be explained only by the stress concentration
around the graphite particles even if their real shapes
are considered. The above experimental approach
seems to be substantially simpler and more reliable than
any attempt to include all specific features of cast irons
into a theoretical model.
8.2. Discussion of the de6iation parameter 6alues
A comparison of the deviation parameter values of
different cast irons shows that the maximum values
were obtained for grey cast iron and the minimum
values for ferritic nodular cast iron after a maximum
preload. In the case of the tests with no preload, the
influence of the matrix as well as the shape of graphite
particles can be shown (Table 2). Comparing pearlitic
grey cast iron and ferritic nodular cast iron of compara-
ble tensile strength, the notch effect of graphite flakes in
grey cast iron is manifested by a three times higher
value of the deviation parameter. On the other hand,
nodular cast iron with ferritic and pearlitic matrices
(having the same shape of graphite particles) differ
substantially in the deviation parameter values. For the
pearlitic matrix of a higher tensile strength this value is
lower than for the ferritic matrix of a lower tensile
strength. The same (or even stronger) effect can be
observed, if grey cast irons with different matrices are
loaded.
With an increasing preload (applied only to nodular
cast irons) the deviation parameter decreases for the
ferritic iron while it changes non-monotonically for the
pearlitic one (Table 2). As the preloads applied to both
irons were equal directly to their yield points for 0.05
and 0.2% of plastic strain, the different behaviour of
the deviation parameter of ferritic and pearlitic irons
with increasing preload cannot be explained by the
difference of their yield points. The explanation must
be based on other differences in the two irons. It seems
that different strain hardening plays the most important
role here.
During the deformation of cast irons, which are very
heterogeneous, the local stress can exceed the yield
stress while the nominal stress is well below the yield
stress. In a ferritic matrix with low yield stress and very
low strain hardening the notch effect of graphite nod-
ules decreases very quickly with increasing strain and,
therefore, the deviation parameter also decreases. A
preload equal to the yield stress causes plastic flow
nearly over the whole load-bearing cross section and
plastic blunting eliminates the notch effect of nodules
almost fully. Then the deviation parameter has a very
low value.
The high strain hardening of the pearlitic matrix is
the reason why after a preload equal to the yield stress
only a part of the cross section is plasticized and,
therefore, the deviation parameter has a higher value.
The non-monotonic dependence of the deviation
parameter on the preload could be a consequence of a
slight damage to the skeleton structure of pearlite filled
up with graphite particles and the trace amounts of
ferrite around the particles (skeleton structure in the
sense of Hornbogen [27]).
The non-linear behaviour of cast irons under loading
(i.e. the stress dependence of Young’s modulus) has
many inconvenient consequences. One is the problem-
atic calculation of fracture toughness using the J-inte-
gral value because this conversion is based on the
assumption that Young’s modulus was constant and
independent of stress.
9. Conclusions
Although the level of stress concentration around the
inclusions and cavities of various shapes is known, the
non-linear behaviour of cast irons under loading cannot
be described satisfactorily. The reason is the substantial
difference between the structure of real cast irons and
their simplified theoretical models.
On the basis of measurement, the deviation from
Hooke’s law of grey and nodular cast irons can be
taken into consideration from the very beginning of the
stress–strain curve. No exact upper limit of the validity
of Hooke’s law can be determined experimentally.
Many published and often used relations for the
description of the non-linear behaviour of cast irons
cannot be used for the very beginning of the stress–
strain curve, since the tangents to the curves belonging
to these relations are of zero or infinite slope.
For the description of the deviation from Hooke’s
law, the following simple and suitable rheological
relations
E0m |
|= and m=
1+ sm E0 − s|
 J. Kohout / Materials Science and Engineering A313 (2001) 16–23
have been found. The deviation is described by a
deviation parameter s, which is zero if Hooke’s law is
valid.
The value of the deviation parameter s depends on
the shape of graphite particles and the type of matrix. If
no preload is applied, the parameter is maximum for
grey cast iron and minimum for the nodular cast iron
with a pearlitic matrix.
The value of the deviation parameter decreases sub-
stantially with increasing preload of the samples of
ferritic nodular cast iron tested. For pearlitic nodular
cast iron this dependence is non-monotonous, which
can be a consequence of its skeleton structure.
The procedure described above can be used for any
other material with non-linear behaviour under loading.
Acknowledgements
The work was partially supported by grant project
MO 83171199106 of the Ministry of Defence of the
Czech Republic.
References
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