FIGURE SCULPTING Volume 1: Planes & Construction ne xs Techniques in Clay he res Ve POH LA PB CIO RASS AE” £E A RALLYFIGURE SCULPTING Volume I: Planes & Construction Techniques in ClayTo Alexis & Madison On the front cover: Vereingetorix in Alesia, © 2012 Philippe Faraut. On the back cover: Male Fearehe,© 2011 Philippe Faraut. Solitude, © 2010 Philippe Faraut. Hand with Tool, © 2011 Philippe Faraut. (Old Man in Planes, © 2012 Philippe Faraut. Hand with Flower, © 2011 Philippe Faraut. (On the title page: Joan of Arc, © 2009 Philippe Faraut Copyright © 2013 by Philippe and Charisse Faraut First published in 2013 by PCF Studios, Inc. [All sights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means—graphic, electronic, oor mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping, or information storage and retrieval systems—without written permission from the publisher. Library of Congress Control Number: 2013905186 Publisher's Cataloging-in-Publication (Provided by Quality Books, Inc) Faraut, Philippe. ‘Figure sculpting : Volume I, Planes & construction techniques in clay / Philippe & Charisse Faraut Isted. p.cm, Includes bibliographical references and index. LCCN 2013905186 ISBN 978-0-9755065-8-5 1. Figure sculpture~Technique. 2. Modeling-~ Technique. 1. Faraut, Charisse. I. Tite IIL Title: Planes & construction techniques in clay. IV. Title: Planes and construction techniques in cla 1NB1930.F38 2013, 731.82 QBI13-600050 First Edition, 2013 Printed and bound in the United States of America on acid-free paper Visit us at wwvephilippefaraut.com for information on seminars and supplies for artists. [Attention colleges and universities: Quantity discounts are available on bulk purchases of this book for edu: For information, please contact: PCF Stupios ine PO Box 722 + Honeoye, NY 14471 585-229-2976 + 585-229-2865 fax info pefstudios.com + www:pefstudios.comFIGURE SCULPTING Volume I: Planes & Construction Techniques in Clay PHILIPPE & CHARISSE FARAUT PCE HonedTABLE OF CONTENTS FOREWORD, vil INTRODUCTION CHAPTER 1: INCEPTION Understanding Clay Options Tools Armacures Reference Lighting Relevant Anatomy CHAPTER 2: THE HEAD & NECK ‘The Head and Neck Bones Muscles Exercise 1: Modeling the Head Neck: Straight Neck: Flexion Neck: Hyperextension in Planes Neck: Hyperextension Refined Neck: Extension with Lateral Flexion Importance of Structure Avoiding Mistakes: Head CHAPTER 3: THE ToRsO ‘The Torso Rib Cage Male Versus ale Pelvis, The Spine Relationship Between Pelvis and Ribs Positioning t 1 Nipple Geometric Shapes within the Back The Serratus Anterior Mid-point of Figure ‘The Inguinal Ligament Iv Vu 34 34 36 Sacral Triangle 9 “The Breasts 50 Mof the Back s Exercise 2: Movement in the Torso 52 Avoiding Mistakes: Torso 58 Digital Sculpting 60 CHAPTER 4: THE ARM & SHOULDER 64 Bones: Arm and Shoulder 66 Muscles of the o Shoulder Muscles 70 Planes of the Arm n Subtle Volumes 7 Hand Rotation Effect on Volumes 76 8 Avoiding Mistakes: Arm 8 CHAPTER 5: THE HAND 80 Bones of the Hand 82 Joints of the Hand 3 Basic Planes 34 Planes of the Palmar and Dorsal Sides 85 Planes of the Knuckl 85 Observations ofthe Hand 86 Curvature ofthe Hand 87 Notches Between the Fingers 87 Male Versus Female Palm 87 Veins of the Hand 88 Refined Planes 89 Planes Versus Finished Hand 90 “The Fist 92 Fingers 94 Volumes of the Bent Finger 95 The Thumb %6 Importance of Light 98 Flexion ofthe Fingers 98 Exercise 3:The Hand 100Baby Hands 106 Baby Feet 159 ‘Twelve-Year-Old’s Hand 107 ‘The Curled Foot 160 Gripping Hand 108 ‘The Raised Foot 161 (Old Maris Hand 109 Avoiding Mistakes: Foot 162 Arthritie Hand 109 Avoiding Mistakes: Hand 10 CHAPTER 8: THE FIGURE 164 Proportions and Measurements 166 CHAPTER 6: THE LEG 112 2] " Comparitive Anatomy 167 Bones ofthe Leg 14 yr Bony Landmarks 168 Muscles ofthe Leg 116 Sketches 169 Exercise 4: The Leg 18 Maquettes 17 The Chief Line 127 lanaging the Consistency of Clay 174 Main Volumes of the Leg 127 Exercise 6:The Figure 175 Subtle Volumes of the Knee a7 ‘The Hollowing Process 191 Rhythm Lines and § Curves 128 Vercingetorix in Alesia 200 Lines of Contrast 129 Modeling a Seared Woman 201 Inside Versus Outside Leg Contours 129 Constructing Lifesize Armature 204 Female Male Leg Comparison 130 Avoiding Mistakes: Figure 212 The Knee 133 ent Boas 4 CHAPTER 9: FINISHING 214 Relaxed Versus Contracted Knee 136 Lew Seay be Hollowing a Complex Piece 216 eee bs Drying and Firing Process 20 Repairing Small Cracks 221 Molds for Plaster, Resin or Bronze 222 CHAPTER 7: THE Foor 140 Patinas Over Fired Clay 2m ‘The Foot 12 Simple Patina Process 2 Planes ofthe Foot 144 Female Foo 146 " BIBLIOGRAPHY 226 Veins ofthe Feet 147 Foot with Gesture 14g INDEX ‘The Toes 149 ECORCHE INDEX 229 “The Big Toe 150 * ILLUSTRATION INDEX 229 “The Middle Toes 152 The Little Toe 153 Exercise 5:The Foot 154 “The Underside ofthe Foot 158De eee eeeFOREWORD Figurative sculpture has been around for over 30,000 years. For countless millennia artists have made tools to carve, chip, mold, or cast the human form. "The most ancient of our figurative efforts were hewn out of bone or wood with a sharp rock. Over time our tools and techniques refined - we mastered carving the figure from marble, building complex armatures, working with clay and wax, casting monumental bronzes. We have created breathtaking sculptures using these techniques but, despite the relentless march of innovation, our sculptural techniques have hardly changed for the last 500 years. That is until now. ‘The digital revolution has changed everything. Everything has gone digital - books, music, photography; learning, and now sculpture. Yes, we now have an entirely new set of tools available to us ~ digital sculpting tools and 3d-printing, These tools - sophisticated 3d sculpting software and input devices - allow for rapid development of sculptural ideas and the generation of unbelievably complex forms. They are ubiquitous in the film and game industry and are making their way into illustration, product design, and manufacturing, These digital sculpting tools have amazing creative potential, but like every tool, they are categorically dependent on the imagination and knowledge of the artist using them, So what does this new generation of digital sculptors need to know about the figure? Exactly the same thing as every other artist. They must be armed with a keen eye for observation and a deep understanding of forms and anatomy of the body. These are the indispensible prerequisites for success and must be learned by every aspiring artist regardless of whether they sculpt with a stylus on the screen or with wooden tools and a 25kg bag of clay Philippe Faraut’s decades of experience as an artist, sculptor, and teacher make him the ideal guide for anyone on this journey of learning. ‘The lessons Philippe presents in this book beautifully illuminate the complex forms of the body. He reduces the body to simple volumes and shows how to achieve the ineffable qualities of pose, balance and gesture. He follows- up with detailed descriptions and illustrations of the critical anatomy that makes a figure believable and compelling. Every lesson is illustrated with photographs of his own work, leaving no guesswork for the student as to the visual appearance of the lesson at hand. ‘The result is a comprehensive visual guide to anatomy and figure sculpture that every artist, digital or traditional, can study and learn from. These lessons embody the artistic foundation that artists from antiquity to present have labored to learn and understand. Even in our hyper-connected, digital world, these very traditional lessons are as relevant today as they were thousands of years ago, so dig in and start learning from a master! Scott Eaton London, March 2013 scott-eaton.com, VIIINTRODUCTION A Learning Methodology The ability to genuinely see and comprebend the complexity and amazing elegance of the human form is not something that necessarily comes naturally For most of lifes ordinary purpose, we do not need to pay particular attention to the way the human bady looks (other than in a general sense) and even less to the effect that the seemingly endless range of mation has on its overall shape, specific bones, muscles, skin or even tendons, After all, itis not necessary life to observe how the body looks or understand how it works Ata practical level, we most often use only a glance or at best a cursory in every da) examination to recognize the identity, shape, position, movement and situation of a person, without the need fer acute scrutiny. Ofcourse, we sometimes find ourselves more attentive to the shape and beauty of a well proportionate “figure. We will also pay more attention to the body types that exceed our concept of average, such as extreme height, weight, short stature or physical deformity. But even then, our observations are only superficial and non-analytical. I is only when we become interested in representing the human figure that the extent of its intricacies of form acted upon by its complex mechanics become apparent. Then our abilities to apprehend forms in three dimensions begin ta evalve from an elementary pragmatic evel to a more acute perceptual state ‘There are numerous approaches to learning the skills of madeling the figure; from the empirical way of playfully modeling from drawings or photographs, to the tedious methodical study of each bone, muscle, rule of (proportion and balance, canon of proportions, to anywhere in between. The reality is that it takes both casual experimentation and serious study, in order to see any significant progress in skills when learning this difficult art form, Fortunately, the casual experimentation is as important as the sometimes-tedious study. The study of anatomy, along with all and more of the above-mentioned subjects is indeed a necessity and cannot be ignored if one’ goal is to reach a high level of skills. These areas of knowledge, that, in fact, constitute the foundation on which everything else depends, can be acquired in conjunction with mechanical skills developed during exercises that are enjoyable. VUIn one of the previous book in this series, (Mastering Portraiture: Advanced Analyses of the Face Sculpted in Clay), the point is made repeatedly that quick exercises consisting of rough sketches made of clay are the _fastest way to develop one’s skills in the areas of structure, planes and proportions of the head and that they help tremendously in developing dexterity. When learning how to model the ull figure the same method of training can be applied. Studia time should be divided betzween studies of anatomy, theory, and exercises focusing on small clay sketches and medium-size maquettes. Being that the human body is so complex, it can be overwhelming to attempt a full sculpture before becoming familiar with its separate parts. The student should spend a few months studying and modeling hands, feet, arms, legs, torsos and heads as well as simple maquettes before attempting larger-size figures. The sketches should always be executed quickly with focus on proportions and gesture only. The details should be left to a minimum at least in the beginning of the learning process. In performing these tasks, itis preferable to work from a live model. It is hard to overstate the importance of studying from nature, as photographs regardless of their quality, will always provide only a very small portion of the information needed and often a fair amount in misinformation in the form of misleading shadows, foreshortening and focal distortion. Ifa live model is not available the use of plaster casts is highly recommended. This book is the result of a combination of personal observations and experimentations, the studies of publications from many different fields, (anatomy, anthropology, animation, classical drawing and sculptures, illustration, etc.) and the input from numerous students It is aimed at artists who want to acquire a foundation in the portions of human anatomy mast relevant to sculpting, and who need guidance swith the process of modeling the full figure in clay. The approach covered here offers a strong emphasis on the simplification of shapes and development of planes, with the goal of promoting the understanding of the topography and volumes of the body. It should be seen only as one method among others and should leave the creativity of the student intact while allowing him or her to focus predominately on the technical process. P FarautCHAPTER INCERTIONCHAPTER 1: INCEPTION Understanding Clay Options “The typeof clay used when sculpting is a personal choice. Before selecting a medium in which to model the figure, it is helpful to know the options available Most contemporary artists use oil-based clays because they offer the advantage of not drying and, therefore, not shrinking. They do not need to be covered at the end of the day and to some extent allow more versatil- ity whey aking long, thin and complicated shap However, oil-based clays also have some disadvantages. They are much more expensive than water-based clay; they often need to be heated in order to make them soft enough to be pliable; they can be sticky and sometimes have an unpleasant odor. Pethaps their biggest disad vantage is the fact that a mold has to be made in order to preserve the sculpture; a process that is time consum- ing and costly based clay is inexpensive, easy to work and can have a wide range of consisten es depending on its moisture content (which with some practice can be completely controlled). It is also much easier and faster to obtain a refined finish on than on oil-based clay. Most of al, it can be fired to a finished product with- out the hassle of making a mold. This does not mean that a mold cantt be made from this type of clay, either when it is still wet, or af it has been fired. It simply offers more options. Itis an excellent choic especially n most studio for the first few years of training, w time should be spent practicing and studying modeling techniques rather than mold making. Finally, it allows the artist the opportunity to build up a body of work in the most time and cost effective way Its disadvantages, however, should also be considered carefully. In extremely dry areas, it might be difficult (but by no means impossible) to control the moisture content during the modeling process. The work might need to be partially covered in order to prevent the +s such as hands, head and feet from losing moisture. Water-based clay will also shrink during the drying process preventing the use of a per ‘manent rigid armature whieh itself would not shrinkFIGURE SCULPTING and force the clay to fracture. There are several ways to circumvent this problem. They will be demonstrated in subsequent chapters. Also, the maximum size of the sculpture to be fired is determined by the size of the available kiln, which can be limiting. Finally, water- based clay as a medium for modeling might require more time than oil-based clay to master due to its wide range of consistencies. The clay used for the works presented in this book is ow-fire earthenware. It does not contain grog, allowing, for a very smooth texture. However, it might be easier for a beginner to choose a clay body that does contain some grog (clay that has been fired, ground and mixed into wet-clay to reduce shrinkage and give it more body), as itis generally more rigid thus preventing the risk of collapse. The main drawback to this type of clay is that depending on the grog size, the final texture might not be as smooth as the examples shown in this book. The photo on page 2 shows clay without grog on the left. When using water-based clay, the g it as little as possible when building volumes around al is to manipulate the armature, The mass has to be added ot by squash- ing the clay, but by adding it gently in small a Initially, the clay taken from the bag is very soft makes it easy to manipulate and allow for rapid build- up, but when water-based clay is worked in depth, it has a tendency to become even softer and migh reunite ormen gauss tee ae nee 10 be allowed to harden slowly ding the model on which to ing process in order to provide a stable bas develop the final volumes. Tools The tools used to model clay are basic and have changed litte since Michelangelo was modeling the maquette of David. A few wire and wooden tools from any art a few brushes and started. The fol- store, a rib made of metal or plas sponges are all the tools needed to g lowing images show some of tools in useCHAPTER 1: INCEPTION Proportional calipers are used to take measurements from the model and report them at different scales to the sculpture. The position of the pivot can be moved in order to change the ratio of opening on both ends, eat In addition to being used to cut off pieces from the original block of clay, a wire elay cutter can be usefull during the 8 of to define planes as shown in the photos above. modeling process to separat A flat-angled wooden tool is used ¢ define planes. Metal gouges of different sizes are practical to define ~ | toes and nails fools can be used for texturi ne and blend volumes. Serrated steel z but also for removing thin layers of clay with precision. Metal or rubber ribs help deFIGURE SCULPTING A plumb line is used throughout the modeling process to compare the pos-__Ttis important to work on a sturdy ture of the model to that of the sculpture. It also helps to better understand sculpting stand. It docs not need how the different sections of the ody relate to one another. Itcan be used to be fancy, but it has to be able tc as the centerline from several angles to observe the position of, for example, rotate. It is also practical to be able the pelvis in relationship to the rib cage or the position of the suprasternal to adjust its height in order to align notch to the medial malleolus of the resting leg, which is eritcal when es- the sculpture with the model fo tablishing the balance of the standing figure. Its a very important tool that silhouette comparisons. must always be on hand. Armatures The traditional armature used to support the clay during, the modeling process for full figures is made of a verti- cal post, @ horizontal rod and aluminum wires bent in the form of a basic skeleton. It is ideal when using oil- based clay of if using water-based clay, when the piece s half-life size and larger. In general when a sculpture s too large to be fired in a kiln, a mold is made out of plaster or rubber in order to cast and save the work. For a figure in water-based clay that is smaller and intended to be fired, a simpler armature is preferable. The more complex the armature is, the more difficult it isto re move in order to hollow the piece. There are numerous types of armatures available from sculpture supply stores that offer the advantage of being ready to use and come in many sizes and degrees of complexities. As demon: strated in the following images armatures are also easy s. The photo to the left shows a maguette that has been lifted off ofits armatureCHAPTER 1: INCEPTION Floating Armature For small sketches 6-8 inches (15-20 em) in height, a % inch soft alun bent to the chosen height (usually at the center of the m wire anchored to a wooden base is torso), to support the figure. It is easy to make and of- fers ample flexibility. For the best core it is advisable to begin with a small piece of clay that has already hard to bare the we ened enoug of the sculpture. From that center, igure can be built. If at any point during the process the l the remaining need to be lengthened or shortened the aluminum is simply bent to the new 6 Sliding Armature ‘The above type of armature ideal for small maquettes up to 18 inches (46 em). In this case, an aluminum wire ‘was not used. The only support is a hemp rope within the legs similar to the one shown in the photo to the right. Itis simply draped over the horizontal bar, For is unnecessary and the a piece of this size, hollowiny hemp rope can remain in place during drying and firing sit will safely burn away.Armature with Torso Support ‘This armature (only limited in size by avail- able kiln space) issimplifed to offer the sion to allow easy acess for the hollowing process, The top is made of a simple loop of aluminum wire fitted into two tubes held side by side with strong tape. The bottom is made of a natural fiber rope such as hemp that will femain inside the clay during the and will simply burn away g.At the top of the vertical pipe, an adjustable horizontal rod can be pushed into the upper part of the torso during the sculpting process to stabilize FIGURE SCULPTING Full Wire Armature ‘This armature was fabricated using plumbing tubi ily available from hardware stores. It is convenient to vertical post using two tubes of different diameters (one fitting into the other), to drill and tap two holes at the top of the larger one and fit them with set bolts in order to adjust the height of the hori zontal rod, This setup allows for more flexibility than a fixed one formed out of aluminum wire 1 with masking tape. This figures that are modeled in 0} The basic shape of the skeleton held to he typical armature for based or water-based c mold will be made. This armature of strong support but does make is known in advance that 1s ¢ hollowing process more difficult the work is to be fired, For larger sculptures, a solid armature made of welded pipes on a sturdy base is recommended. In this case, the position and atti- tude of the figure(s) must be determined precisely (ideally from a ler sculpture or maquette) since it would be difficult to modify during the modeling process. xCHAPTER 1 INCEPTION Reference Ie is not always possible or easy to have a live model besides oneself) available in the studio, but it is still necessary to use reliable references in order not to waste nistakes especially during early ind feet, direct self if not training. For features such as hand: observation with the help of a mirror is accepta always very practical, For the rest of the body, includ ing the head, it is advisable to use quality casts available modeling using plaster casts as reference has been the standard for many schools throughout history from a live model can be For the new student, workin stressful and intimidating, imposing time restrictions, and limited control of lighting: In contrast, work- ing from casts allows ample ime for a deep study of anatomy, planes, and a better control of the effect of light on volumes,FIGURE SCULPTING Lighting These images demonstrate the important role that plays in defining the intricacies of volumes. If the source is coming from directly in front (1) the tion of volumes is difficult to see. Depending o direction, volumes that were not visible under one light source become visible under another (2 and 3). Iris important to view the work, as well as the model, under many different lighting conditions during the to not only allow a complete evalu woid mistakes that sculpting ation of the volumes but als. might become visible only later under different lightingCHAPTER 1 INCEPTION Relevant Anatomy This publication does not intend to describe all of the intricacies of human anatomy but to pinpoint the most ant landmarks crea re cd by the bones, muscles and tendons that need to be understood by the artist, in order to make sense of what is seen when the model is observed. There are numerous books available depicting anatomy in more detail and they are essential additional There are some rules of proportions that are helpful to know, if for no other reason than to see how the model differs from what is considered the norm or the UI", When it con the main goal is to become familiar enough with them to avoid gross or to these “rules common mistakes. It is important to remain objective enough to see nature for what it is; variety and diver- sity. The observations described throughout this book are presented only to encourage the student to observe closely what is in front of him or her and to arouse curiosity Infiants can be challenging models as their heads are i tiny bones un ely large and their tiny Bones wi ‘The most challenging task an artist faces is to develop the discipline to analyze and research the anatomy concerning the parts of the figure that are difficult to comprehend, before attempting to render them in clay Artists often do not see the subtle details of the human body until made aware of thei existence.Bones ‘The average adult human skeleton is composed of 206 bones; almost half of which are located in the hands and feet. There are five categories of bones that the art- ist should study: long, short, fla, irregular and sesamoid. Bones are living things that begin their formation in the embryo as small, soft and pliable membranous or cartilage substances that gradually enlarge and harden during what is called the ossification process. It is not completed until the age of twenty-five. Bones constitute the framework of the body. Their rigid state and mechanical connections define the range and limitation of movements and provide strength, stability and mobility. They have specific shapes and propor tions that are fairly constant and provide the artist with ‘numerous landmarks. Some are almost fixed, such as the sternum or the sacrum, and others such as knees and el- bows have enough mobility that they appear to change shape during movements. It is interesting to note that bones do, in some cases change shape, as sometimes in transient illness or with age, as demonstrated in the hand chapter. Long bones in the body include the femur, humerus and tibia, as well as small bones such as metacarpals, phalanges and metatarsals. Their body is longer than it is wide. Both ends are covered by cartilage to aid in shock absorption. The long bones usually serve as levers for the muscles. They have great strength and mobility and provide the artist with valuable landmarks. ‘The short bones of the hands and feet are numerous, ‘The carpal and tarsal bones are bound tightly together by ligaments to provide strong protection from impacts by dissipating their effect through their flexible network in order to prevent fractures. The flat bones primarily protect the most vital and fragile parts of the body. The flat bones, which form the vault of the skull, protect the brain. The ribs and sternum protect the heart, lungs and liver. The flat and strong bones of the pelvis protect the viscera and form the basin, which also bears the weight of the upper body. The scapulas serve as anchors to the shoulders and arms. Their lat shape provide large surfaces for muscle attachment. They ate involved in a wide range of mo- tion. Irregular bones, as their name indicates, do not fit eas~ in the other categories. They protect nerve tissues as in the case of the vertebrae and also provide numerous FIGURE SCULPTING RELEVANT BONES OF THE BODY skull anterior Sipenar ite spine bia fibula ‘medial malleolus muscle attachments. These bones provide valuable land- marks for the artist, In addition to the vertebrae, they include the mandible, sacrum and the hyoid bone, ‘The sesamoid bones are embedded in tendons and are found in the hand, feet and legs. The only relevant cone to the artist isthe patella or kneecap. Its rounded, triangular shape offers a critical landmark and it greatly affects the appearance of the knee. Even though humans have the same amount of bones, some of them such as the skull, pelvis, rib cage et cetera, can vary greatly in size and shape from person to person. In the same way that the shape of the skull defines the topography of the head, the shape of the skeleton con- tributes to the build of a person, iCHAPTER 1: INCEPTION Muscles Muscles are tissues that produce movements throughout the body, Some muscles are not relevant to the artist, such as organ muscles or very deep ones that are not visible on the surface. The artist is mainly interested in the forms, sizes and attachments of ske! muscles. These have great influence on the surface forms and are responsible for every movement within the body A skeletal muscle has two components; the fleshy part, called the belly or body which is made of the muscle cells, and the fibrous part called the tendon or aponcurosis which can either be round like a cord or somewhat flat. The shapes and sizes of muscles va greatly, but they all perform only one active action, which is to contract (by shortening its muscle fibers), In doing so they pro duce movement, for example, by pulling one bone toward another the origin of a muscle is usu: dl ontracts. The around a joint. In simplified terms, ally on a bone that does not move wh insertion of a muscle is attached to the bone that is pulled, Tendons Muscles are encased within thin connective tissues that merge, id consist mostly of tensile protein fibers called collagen. Their fune- usually at each end, to form the tendons. These are very strong, tion is to link muscles to a bone or to another structure such as skin or another muscle. When a large area of attachment is needed, the t-like shape and are then called an connective tissues assume a shi aponeurosis, The collagen fibers forming the tendons extend into the bone at their o: in and insertion points providing an extremely strong bond. Some tendons are easily visible to the artist such as the Achilles tendon at the back of the heel, but most are visible only when the muscle to which they belong is contracted, 12 Toe li insertion points of the sternocle ? led ecorché above shows thFIGURE SCULPTING Volumes For the purpose of training the eye to “see” the subtleties of the human body, a method is required to break down complex vol- ‘umes into simpler shapes. The qualities of these shapes can then be analyzed by asking the following questions; does this volume appear more square, triangular, round, cylindrical, or ovoid? Is this area convex or concave? Most important, is this volume created by bone, muscle, fat, tendon or skin? What adjective best describes its shape; sharp, soft, full, hollow, flowing, sagging, straight, taught or in other words the origin and shape of the volume needs to tense’ be understood. Some volumes on the human figure give an impression of pressure from the inside against the outer surface. In the young body the internal pressure of muscles and bones give a sense of vitality and energy (see photo upper left). This intangible quality is the result o the gravity defying nature of the curvature of volumes (an example could be observed in the difference between the shape o' bubble and a water droplet). In older people (see photo middle lef®), volumes created by bones still give a sense of pressure from the inside, but diminished muscle mass and loose skin are more affected by gravity than by internal pressure. ry surface volume of the body is connected to others in more or less visible ways that can be rendered obvious by the development of planes. When rendered in planes it becomes apparent that most volumes, in a general sense, are separated from others by depres- sions in the forms of grooves, channels and creases. ‘The muscles on the well-defined back (see photo bottom left) exe- ate such a series of volumes separated by grooves and channels that when connected together can be view das a map. This isa different way to visualize the inter-connection of convex muscles, bones and sometimes, fat deposits Anatomical Landmarks Th different surface features, as they become landmarks used to guide al of the artist is to become proficient enough to recognize the progression of the work. Some bony landmarks are highly reliable for taking measurements, such as the sternal notch or the anterior superior iliac spine, as their movements are limited. Others such as the elbow or the ribs are useful but not always visible. As a rule, fleshy landmarks should not be used for measurement, except perhaps for the umbilicus (navel), as they are not reliable due to their tendency to shift easily, however they still need to be re nized and identified for what they a cj muscles, fat, or skin, Fleshy Jandmarks are useful when looking for lines of contrast, rhythm lines, and negative shap curv all of which will be explained in later chapters. 13\ , CHAPTER 2 - THE HEAB-& NECK ACHAPTER 2: THE HEAD & NECK ‘The Head and Neck ‘The human head has been covered extensively in the two previous publications in this series: Portrait Sculpting and Mastering Portraiture, therefore, it will be covered in less detail in this book. ‘The following will give a simplified overview For more information refer to the previous titles, ‘The head and some of the most difficult subjects to specially the face are represent in any medium, whether in drawing, painting, or sculpting As humans we are programmed to recognize, read and interpret any minute variation in the topography of a face. It allows us to identify people we know and read their mood easily It also instinetively makes us highly adept at using facial expressions as a powerful mode of communication when interacting berween ourselves. The challeng face as artists is that this extremely useful innate ability to read and identify faces makes every person an expert and ic, removing any room for error when interpreting it in any medium. Bones Itis necessary to become familiar with the anatomy of the skull in order to easily recognize the areas where the bones influence the volumes of the face the most. ‘These become landmarks that are used to take measurements and as guides in developing the planes and establishing the likeness, 16 RELEVANT BONES OF THE SKULL fog ee parietal bone temporal lige supercilny arch olabeta pare cortital cavity nasal cavity mandible angle of mandible ‘mental protruberance RELEVANT MUSCLES OF THE HEAD & NECKRELEVANT BONES OF THE SKULL: LATERAL parietal bone cranial sutures temporal = "bone Jrontal bane c f: ss temporal ridge ~ ES x brow ridge a erbial cavity nasal bone sygomatic bone —¥ zygomatic arch ao ee coronaid process fae ‘ofmandible external ‘uditory meatus ‘mastod process ‘mandible RELEVANT MUSCLES OF THE HEAD & NECK: LATERAL FIGURE SCULPTING The most important landmarks are: the frontal bone, the glabella, the zygomatic bi and zygomatic arch, the temporal ridges, the mental protuberance, and the angle of the mandible. There are cases some of these landmarks en by facial hair or fat. The in whi are hid visible bones of the neck are the vical vertebra and the seventh c clavicles. Muscles Having solid know! understanding of facial muscles and their effect on the topography of the face is critical in rendering realistic expressions. The most visible are the frontalis, the masseter, the orbicularis oris and the mentalis, wuscles In the neck, the prominent are the sternocleidomastoids and the trapezius. These in addition to the trachea define the overall shape of the neck regardless of its position, TRACHEA thyroid ‘cartage tracheaCHAPTER 2: THE HEAD & NECK wrapped around the paper, then Exercise 1: Modeling the Head 2..A slab of clay 1. If the head is n aball .deled independently from the body, owel provides a sul artist the option to f paper on le setup give ulpt from the armature to fit it on the body. 3.The volumes of the mandible and the back of the cranium are added,FIGURE SCULPTING 1 cylinders of the neck, as well as some of the 5. In profile, the definition of th nlumes of the trapezius muscles form the base is established at this time ge of the mandible 6. There are fives volumes that form the anterior The back of the neck s defined by the volume of the part of the neck: the trachea in the center, the trapezius muscles rernocleidomastoid muscles that wrap around the eertical column and the clavicles in the form of an upside down coat hanger at the base 19CHAPTER 2: THE HEAD & NECK 8,9. Even when only the structure is roughed in, the differences between female and male heads should be obvious as demonstrated in the above photos, 10, Lines are traced on the clay to define the divisions of the head vertically and horizontally for the placement of the ey the base of the nose. 20FIGURE SCULPTING 11, 12. Using both hands to control the symmetry, the zygomatic arches, and brow tid 14, "The volume of the chin is added and the masseters are defined 21CHAPTER 2: THE HEAD & NECK 15. Ifthe volumes and planes of the barrel of the mouth have been prepared properly, splitting the volume horizontally in half will form the lips 16. The height of the ears vertically should be between the eyebrow and the base of the nose. Horizontally, the ear falls behind the vertical line of the mandible. Once in place, their volumes should be defined in the forms of planes. It is beneficial to py through this geometric stay and the value of planes (see right) modeling and to refine them to better under 22FIGURE SCULPTING of the model is not apparent at and refining the surface ay. will not improv 23CHAPTER 2: THE HEAD & NECK ing the eyeballs, the details of the rea must be resolved. Here, the volumes just 18, Before p surroundi of the lachrymal under the brow bone. Note that th volume ral corner of the cavity, is located on the upper form of an olive is pressed and 19. A ball of clay in rounded inside the orbital cavity ipe of the eye is impressed with a wooden 24FIGURE SCULPTING 21. At this stag defined in the form of 22.'The edges of the iris are imprinted with a round wire loop tool. 25| CHAPTER 2: THE HEAD & NECK iw | 23, 24, 25. The design of the ear is as personal and unique as a fingerprint. It must be analyzed carefully and developed in the form of planes. Knowing the names of the separate parts of the ear helps in triangular fossa understanding and memorizing its intricate anatomy. ral utr meatus oro)FIGURE SCULPTING including the nal heads, we been 26. Here the planes of the neck muscles plified slightly in order to illustrate their structure en the head is straight. (0 note, that when the head is rotated (as seen above urd in relationship to the sternal When the head 29, 30. Ic is impe rnocleidor 1), the mastoid process is side of rotation is clearly visible. _notch.’The angle of the sternocleid vid opposite is then reversed from the angle other one almost disappears seen in the photo above center:CHAPTER 2: THE HEAD & NECK 32, Planes are developed to define the direction of the hair. 31. For this bust, a coil of clay is applied on top of the cranium to form Mohawk. Itis best to moisten the surface when adding new clay to an that might be drier The texture is then softened 33, Strands of hair are separated 34, The entire surface is roughed 3 with a plane tool out with a stiff brush to blend the with moistened thumbs. volumes together 28FIGURE SCULPTINGCHAPTER 2: THE HEAD & NECK Neck: Straight Female necks are generally proportionally thinner than males’ but can display the same degree of details. Note the general angle of the neck and the relationship between the jawline, the trachea and the different muscles, 30FIGURE SCULPTING Neck: Flexion When the head is tilted forward, the neck appears of the sternal notch is shorter and thicker. The holl The trapezius muscle attaches a more pronouns the base of the skull and sometimes forms two vis eventh cervical vertebra is more visible bent forward. columns, Th when the neCHAPTER 2: THE HEAD & NECK Neck: Hyperextension in Planes st the ching up of When the head is thrown back, the vertebrae pr internal anatomy of the neck. This, added to the cru the trapezius muscle, makes this area appear thicker.Neck: At this an and some Typerextension Refined , both sternocleiodomastoid muscles are well defined veins protrude due to the pressure from inside. On the back, there is bunching-up of the skin at the top of the trapezius muscles. FIGURE SCULPTING 33CHAPTER 2: THE HEAD & NECK Nec Here is the =xtension with Lateral Flexion sme piece where the head is thrust up and forward. In this position the neck is thinner and the muscles highly visible. Importance of Structure The representation of the human face is considered one of the most challenging subjects in both two and three dimensional art. It is, therefore, the most important and first skill to learn. Once mastered, any other subject matter will seem easy. There are too many mistakes made by beginner and intermediate students to list, but it is safe to say that all of them have their root in the structure. The word structure in this ca! encompas the entire head, as well as each feature. Establishing the rructure of the nose, eyes or hair is as important as establishing the structure of the skull. The biggest mistake that any student of sculpture could make, would be to underestimate the importance that a methodical and technical approach can have on future success, especially in the be; of the learning process. 34CHAPTER 2: THE HEAD & NECK AVOIDING MISTAKES: HEAD The following is a checklist to consult during the modeling process or even better, to memorize. * The structure of the entire head with the nose, and at least the beginning of the neck, must be completed in planes before adding eyes, ears or mouth. * The likeness to the model must be apparent or even undeniable at the structure stage. ifthe likeness is not evident in the bone structure and planar stage, the addition of the features is not going to improve upon it * Once the bone structure has been established, it must ‘not be modified except for surface texture or details. + The size of all of the features must be modeled proportionally to the bone structure and if necessary ‘modified to the correct size, but inno case should the bone structure be modified to fit disproportionate features + The planes should be well developed and visible until the end.FIGURE SCULPTINGCHAPTER 2: THE HEAD & NECKFIGURE SCULPTINGCHAPTER 3 PHETORS®@1 CHAPTER 3: THE TORSO RELEVANT ANTERIOR BONES OF THE TORSO cervical vertebra clavile scapula ribcage thoracic arch iliac bone sschial tuberosity ‘The Torso The torso is a very expressive part of the body that can introduce emotion, sensuality, grace, strength or frailty to the overall mood of a sculpture. It can be muscular, bony, round, thin, thick, rugged, soft or hard. First becoming familiar with the torso's structure and anatomy is important be inderstanding how the components ofits frame interact, that its range and limitation of motion can be accurately rendered. “The bony components of the torso are the rib cage, the pelvis the spine, the shoulder girdles and the clavicles. ‘They are intimately linked together and act on the surface topography immensely. 42 fstrib acromion process ‘manutrium of sternum body of stemum iphoid process vertebral column iliac crest anterior superior ia Spine ‘The pelvis is the bony structure formed by the two iliac bones (hipbones), the sacrum and the coceyx. It is the strong structure that divides the weight of the upper body between the right and left legs, with the sacrum serving as a pedestal for the spine. Even though it is made of four distinct bones, it isa solid block that moves as a single unit. Only a few bony landmarks are sometimes visible; the sacral triangle, the two posterior superior iliac spines and the two anterior superior iliac spines. The iliac crest is sometimes indicated by a groove called the iliac furrow and can be considered as a bony landmark.RELEVANT POSTERIOR BONES OF THE TORSO FEMALE PELVIS posterior superior ia spine anterar superior Tee spe MALE PELVIS FIGURE SCULPTING Rib Cage All but four ribs extend to the front of the body to attach to the sternum by costal cartilage. In the process, they form the thoracic arch that can become well defined when a person is stretching upward.'The two bottom ribs, commonly known as floating ribs, do not attach to the sternum. The sternum is a flat bone consisting of three sections; the ‘manubrium to which the clavicles are attached is at the top and forms the lower ridge of the suprasternal notch, the body of the sternum to which the cartilage of the ribs are attached and the xiphoid process at the bottom. The sternum is an important landmark that represents the central axis of the torso. In profile, its angle defines the thickness of the rib cage. When it is visible, the lower margin of the rib cage can become a useful landmark as well. Male Versus Female Pelvis The male pelvis is narrower and more compact, the female wider and more spacious. The male pelvis is noticeably taller than the female ‘The female pelvis has a slight forward tilt with a sacrum that angles-out much more than the male. These differences manifest themselves in wider hips and a more pronounced inside curvature of the lower spine, noticeable in ‘women's profiles 43