Precious C. Chiombe Research (School Curriculum and Zambia)

CURRICULUM AND DEVELOPMENT: AN INVESTIGATION ON THE IMPACT OF
ZAMBIA’S SCHOOL CURRICULUM ON THE COUNTRY’S SOCIO-ECONOMIC
DEVELOPMENT
BY
PRECIOUS.C. CHIOMBE
A research proposal submitted to Zambia Open University in partial fulfilment of
the requirements for the award of the Bachelor of Education in Secondary.
ZAMBIA OPEN UNIVERSITY
1st SEPTEMBER, 2021

DECLARATION
I, Chiombe Precious do solemnly declare that this research is my own work and to my
knowledge, it has not been previously submitted for a degree, diploma or other qualification at
Zambia Open University or other University anywhere in the world.
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DEDICATION
This work is dedicated to all my family members and friends because without their
overwhelming love, I would not reach this far. This work is dedicated especially to my children.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First and foremost, I want to thank Jehovah God for his unfailing love and for giving me this
opportunity to ultimately finish this work. It was not easy but he made it possible for me. During
the writing of this paper, I lost a lot of things including the smart phone I was using for internet
and I thought it was the end for me. But here I am celebrating the ultimate achievement.
Special thanks go to my supervisor Mr. Jacob Kasambala for his caring and comprehensive
comments in my work. Thank you so much sir for your support. Your comments helped me
achieve this work and allow me to mention that your comments were so encouraging because
they helped me realise what was supposed to be included and what was left out. May you
continue with this same spirit with other students.
Other thanks go to my husband for understanding each and every time I explained to him that I
was busy doing the work. I want to thank those friends who guided me and helped me to
interpret and understand some concepts in research. Research is not an easy thing to achieve, but
I did it. Thank you so much to everyone who made this possible.
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ABSTRACT
This study investigated on the impact of Zambia’s school curriculum on socioeconomic

development. The main interest of the study was to investigate how school curriculum in Zambia
can enhance socioeconomic development. This study was explored based on the following
objectives: to determine the challenges faced in curriculum implementation in Zambia, to
establish ways in which the school curriculum can respond to the needs and aspirations of
Zambian’s, to evaluate the factors that should be included in the curriculum for it to enhance
social and economic development.
The study used qualitative historical research design. This method was complemented by
document analysis to ascertain what should be done to school curriculum to enhance social and
economic development in Zambia. Analysis showed that involvement of teachers in curriculum
development process, considering culture in the process of curriculum development and
involvement of significant stakeholders in the curriculum development process were among the
major aspects that the government through curriculum development center should consider in
enhancing socioeconomic development.
The researcher recommended that for Zambian school curriculum to bring about socio,
economic, political and any necessary development one may think of, it should be imbibed in the
cultural aspects of the learners. Hence, there is need to consider culture in the development
process of the curriculum. Teachers are the major implementers of the school curriculum,
therefore, if the school curriculum is expected to play an in important role in the development of
Zambia, then there is need to ensure that teachers are involved in the curriculum development
process. If the school curriculum has to meet the needs of the society, then there is need to ensure
that curriculum developers incorporate the views they collect from various stakeholders who
participate in curriculum development process into the curriculum.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION........................................................................................................................................i
DEDICATION...........................................................................................................................................ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.....................................................................................................................iii
ABSTRACT..............................................................................................................................................iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS..........................................................................................................................v
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................1
1.0.0 Overview........................................................................................................................................1
1.0.1 Background to the Study..............................................................................................................1
1.0.2 Statement of the Problem.............................................................................................................5
1.0.3 General Objective.........................................................................................................................6
1.0.4 Research Objectives......................................................................................................................6
1.0.5 Research Questions.......................................................................................................................7
1.0.6 Significance of the Study..............................................................................................................7
1.0.7 Definition of Terms.......................................................................................................................7
1.0.8 Conceptual Framework................................................................................................................8
1.0.9 Theoretical Framework..............................................................................................................10
1.1.0 Chapter Summary......................................................................................................................11
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW.......................................................................................12
2.0 Overview.........................................................................................................................................12
2.1 Zambia’s School Curriculum........................................................................................................12
2.2 CHALLENGES FACED IN THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE SCHOOL
CURRICULUM...................................................................................................................................14
2.3 WAYS IN WHICH THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM CAN RESPOND TO THE NEEDS AND
ASPIRATIONS OF LEARNERS.......................................................................................................15
2.3 FACTORS THAT SHOULD INCLUDED IN THE CURRICULUM.......................................20
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY..............................................................................................22
Overview..............................................................................................................................................22
3.1 Research Design.............................................................................................................................22
3.2 Instrumentation.............................................................................................................................22
3.3 Sampling and Sampling Techniques............................................................................................22
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3.4 Homogenous Sampling..................................................................................................................23
3.5 Data Analysis.................................................................................................................................23
3.6 Ethical Guidelines..........................................................................................................................24
3.7 Reliability and Trustworthiness/Reliability.................................................................................24
3.8 Chapter Summary.........................................................................................................................25
CHAPTER FOUR: PRESENTATION OF THE RESEARCH FINDINGS.......................................26
4.0 Overview.........................................................................................................................................26
4.1 CHALLENGES FACED IN CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTAION IN ZAMBIA..................26
4.3 FACTORS THAT SHOULD BE INCLUDED IN THE CURRICULUM.................................33
4.4 Chapter Summary.........................................................................................................................34
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION OF THE FINDINGS.......................................................................36
5.0 Overview.........................................................................................................................................36
5.1 CHALLENGES FACED IN THE PROCESS OF CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION IN
ZAMBIA..............................................................................................................................................36
5.1.0 Inadequate Learning Facilities..............................................................................................37
5.1.1 Lack of Teaching and Learning Materials............................................................................37
5.1.2 Inadequate Financial Resources and Funding......................................................................38
5.3 The Role of Teachers in Curriculum........................................................................................39
5.4 Consideration of Culture in the Process of Curriculum Development..................................41
5.5 FACTORS THAT SHOULD BE INCLUDED IN THE CURRICULUM.................................42
5.6 Chapter Summary.........................................................................................................................42
CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION........................................................43
6.0 Overview.........................................................................................................................................43
6.1 THE MAIN RESEARCH FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS..................................................43
6.2 RECOMMENDATIONS...............................................................................................................44
REFERENCES........................................................................................................................................45
APPENDIX 1: RESEARCH BUDGET.....................................................................................................i
APPENDIX 2: TIMEFRAME..................................................................................................................ii
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CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.0.0 Overview
This chapter presents the background of the study, statement of the problem, general objective of
the study, specific objectives of the study, general research question, specific research questions,
significance of the study, definition of terms, conceptual framework and theoretical framework.
1.0.1 Background to the Study
The Curriculum is at the heart of the education process: it sets out what is to be learned, and how
and when it is to be taught. It underpins all other parts of the system: it guides the day to day
experiences of the classroom, it forms the basis for teacher training programmes, the content of
textbooks and other materials, it determines how learning is assessed through the examinations
systems, how standards are developed and how performance is monitored through school
inspection and supervision systems. The curriculum is a major determinant of what graduates
from the education system bring to the world of work. An education system’s capacity to
effectively contribute to national social and economic development is therefore shaped by the
curriculum.
Globally, Sťahel (2013) argued that global curriculum development responds to the process of
globalization, which is accompanied by contradictory, qualitative changes gradually it is
permeating all levels of schooling in the world. It is considered to be one of the tools for
attaining comprehensive knowledge on development issues and on the interdependence between
local and global issues, and also a fundamental element of building a knowledge society. Global
curriculum includes, for example, development education, intercultural education, and
environmental education. This type of curriculum represents a sort of effort to convey the whole
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human responsibility, not only for the sustainment of life but, at the same time, also for the
survival of mankind (Svitačová, 2013). Many schools gradually incorporate this new approach
into the educational process, thereby conforming with an appeal from the Council of the
European Union to ensure high-quality curricula and to apply educational methods that take into
account an international dimension (Council of the European Union, 2010: 7).
In terms of African curriculum and development, Ezeanya (2011) observed that the difficulty of
designing viable development strategies in Africa derives from the fact that the region’s modern
development thinking is not the direct descendant nor an adaptation of the principles of the
indigenous communities over which the new nation states have imposed their rule (Woodman
and Bradford 1987). This statement directs attention to the persistence of development problems
in Africa and questions the region’s paradigms of development, which are largely foreign. It has
been established that education must not only be relevant to the needs of the people concerned
and be appropriate to the social and material environments in which it is pursued (Hanushek and
Ludger 2007), it must also be adaptive and cumulative. That is, respond to the exigencies of
situations and be meaningful to the members of the society, taking into account their aspirations
and concepts of development.
In terms of Southern Africa, Ogude (2005) reported that different sectors of society register
complaints about schooling. Given that curriculum reform has a poor record of implementation
in the region, there is clearly a need for research that identifies factors that hinder or facilitate
curriculum implementation in southern Africa region and identify to address the challenges.
Nkomo (2000) argued that in regions like Southern Africa which has history of deprivation, the
nature of the problems that exist in education and training are varied, and it would be simplistic
to expect that there is a single solution (Nkomo, 2000). It is still very important that the
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curriculum should provide benefits to society and the economy through enhancing citizenship,
increasing social and economic productivity, providing specifically skilled/professional people
and transforming and redressing legacies of previous inequity.
In Zambian education system, curriculum is often implemented without carrying out situational
analysis (Mulenga, 2016). Situational analysis process helps curriculum developers to have
ideas, views, opinions and expressions from the public on what should be and what should be
included in the school curriculum. Many times, the education sector adopts and imitates policies
on education from other countries and incorporates them into the education system (Cardless,
2004). However, this has a negative effect on learners and the general public as such policies
conflict with the needs and aspirations of Zambians.
The Zambian government has no say as this is sometimes completely out of its control. This
might be attributed to the fact that Zambia is a developing country and has fewer resources to run
education to the expectation. In addition, Robert et al (2003) argued that funding agencies have
influence on the education sector. This is because some international organisations have
managed to persuade Zambian government to institute curriculum reform in order to include
subjects they have interest in into the school curriculum which have no bearing on the
development of the country.
When the funding agencies fund the education sector of Zambia, the money comes with
conditions attached and these conditions are in form of structural adjustments policies. This has
made the donors dictate the nature of subjects to be added in primary and secondary schools. The
problem here is power relations because the donors play their politics to the Zambian
government and thus no choice rather than accommodating those pressures in the school
curriculum. In addition, Nkyabonaki (2013) asserted that curriculum is an activity of
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international politics. The government would not be interested, but due to inadequate of
resources curriculum is struggling to be implemented. In other words, donor agencies determine
what to teach and what to learn and how to teach indirectly.
Curriculum developers do not pay attention to the needs of each and every province of Zambia.
Yamazaki (2005) pointed out that if curriculum developers consider the economic activities of
each and every part of the country, they will know ideas on the economic factors of each area
and they will know what skills learners should be given. For instance, the ten provinces of
Zambia have different economical activities for example, in Luapula province the economic
activity is fishing, in southern it is cattle rearing, therefore, if the curriculum does not give the
learners skills to utilize the immediate environment for them to earn a living, school drop outs
will not be useful in society because the school curriculum does not prepare them for adult life.
Curriculum development in schools is not greatly influenced by the culture in which the school
situates. Culture is maintained or modified through education by way of curriculum development
(Velkley, 2002) However, the Zambian school curriculum is not a reflection of what people in
the society feel, believe and do. Curriculum is an inevitable aspect of education therefore, there
is no way in which culture can exist without some curriculum, particularly in formal setting in
education.
Furthermore, formal education demands the posing of some simple but fundamental questions
such as what? To whom? When? And how? (Wheeler, 1978). These are curriculum questions. In
order to answer these questions, the curriculum planner must be compelled to survey and
interpret the nature of his own society, its basic stable values and the areas in which it is
changing. He must then be very familiar with the society being served.
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Education is regarded as one of the social institutions of the society. Okeke (1991) sees
education as the process by which society deliberately transmits its cultural heritage through
schools, colleges, universities and other institutions. This means that the content of the
curriculum in schools must be with social, political and economic elements of the society.
Knowledge which is produced in the school system, should be firmly grounded in the aspects
mentioned above. This means that no two societies can have identical educational system.
However, this is not the case with Zambian school curriculum. The CDC (curriculum
development center) develops only one curriculum and implement it in every part of Zambia
regardless of the geographical location, culture, economic activities, social life, and the needs of
each society.
Since the education system is supposed to be the reflection of the society’s needs and aspirations,
the nature of the knowledge available in any given society should be sought in the nature of the
society’s institutions. This is because knowledge is disseminated and acquired so that members
of the society can improve themselves and operate the social institutions of the society.
Having traced the source of the problem from global, Africa, Southern African to Zambia, this
research is here to investigation on the impact of Zambia’s school curriculum on the country’s
socio-economic development.
1.0.2 Statement of the Problem
It is important to acknowledge the fact that Zambia has been among the third world countries and
different stakeholders have taken keen interest in finding out what could be the root cause of the
country to be in that category, and the problem has been attributed to the kind of education
offered. Thus, curriculum and development are inseparable. Marsh (2009) argued that the
development of any country is indebted to the kind of education that is offered to the learners.
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Nevertheless, education itself cannot be education without the focus on the development of the
curriculum. The curriculum development process in Zambia is mostly taken by qualified
specialists. But the problem is that these developers of the curriculum do so without paying a
particular attention to the needs and aspirations of the learners (Mwanza, 2017). If the
curriculum has not paid a particular attention to the needs and aspirations of Zambian people, it
is likely to yield the following problems; it will be irrelevant to the learners, it will not have
impact on the lives of the learners, the intended educational goals will not be achieved, it will not
suit the learners, it will not portray and strengthen cultural identity of learners. It is because of
the above-mentioned problems that the current school curriculum has not fully brought about
socioeconomic development in Zambia. Therefore, it is the main interest of this research to
investigate on the impact of Zambia’s school curriculum on the country’s socio-economic
development.
1.0.3 General Objective
To investigate on the impact of Zambia’s school curriculum on the country’s socio-economic
development.
1.0.4 Research Objectives
The objectives of this study are:
1. To determine the challenges in the implementation of the school curriculum in Zambia.
2. To establish the ways in which the school curriculum can respond to the needs and
aspirations of learners in Zambia.
3. To evaluate the factors that should be included in the curriculum for it to enhance
socioeconomic development.
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1.0.5 Research Questions
The research questions for the study are:
1. What are the challenges faced in the process of school curriculum implementation in
Zambia?
2. In which ways can the school curriculum respond to the needs and aspirations of learners
in Zambians?
3. What factors should be included in the school curriculum for it to enhance Zambia’s
social and economic development?
1.0.6 Significance of the Study
The study may contribute to the existing knowledge on the role of school curriculum in
enhancing Zambia’s development. The study may also make the curriculum developers to realise
their work in the development of the country. In addition to that, the study may awaken teachers
and curriculum developers to revamp their skills in the development of Zambia’s school
curriculum. Last but not the least, the study may enable curriculum developers to realise what
factors should be included in the school curriculum to boost development in Zambia.
1.0.7 Definition of Terms
Education: Mbiti (1981) defined Education as a deliberate attempt to acquire and transmit the
accumulated worthwhile knowledge, skills, attitudes and understanding from one human
generation to the next.
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Curriculum: Tyler (1949) defined curriculum as all learning of students which is planned by
and directed by the school to attain educational course.
Curriculum development: it is a process by which choices are made in designing learning
experiences for the learners, thus curriculum development is a process of planning, designing,
disseminating, implementing and evaluation of a teaching and learning experiences. Ogula
(1998)
Situational analysis: it is a process of examining factors which exist in the environment such as
learners’ needs, learners’ interest, problems encountered by learners, contemporary life,
sociological and psychological factors, so that the curriculum is not completely detached from
the environment where it will be introduced and implemented ( Taba, 1962).
Curriculum implementation: Curriculum implementation according to Hord (2004) is the
process of putting curriculum into practice. This includes instructional scheme of each subject to
be completed in the term, planning the lessons as per the timetable, using the transactional
strategies, providing the learning resources, promoting classroom learning experiences, and
progressive testing.
1.0.8 Conceptual Framework
The researcher conceptualises what should be done to school curriculum to enhance Zambia’s
social and economic development in the framework illustrated in figure 1.0
Figure 1.0 conceptual framework
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cu rriculu m to enh an ce social and
W hat sh o u ld b e d o n e to sch o ol
Considering culture in the
eco n om ic dev elop m et

process of curriculum
development
Involving teachers in the

process of curriculum
developmet
Upgrade the situational

analysis process
Figure 1.0
Here is an explanation of what is on the figure 1.0
Proper curriculum development is a key to development of any country. This is because
curriculum planning has been by many scholars perceived as the only source that determines true
education. Therefore, there can never be good education without proper curriculum development.
Additionally, education is a means through which young members of society are introduced into
the needs of society. However, it is important to realize that education can introduce children
either to the most important aspects of societal needs or to something irrelevant. It is from this
view point that Erickson (1990) argued that the relevance of education depends on how a school
curriculum is developed. If the school curriculum is developed based on societal needs and
aspirations it is likely to introduce young ones to the needs of their society. However, if it is just
imposed by outsiders then it will not be relevant to learners because it is not developed based on
the learner’s needs and aspirations.
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School curriculum is a means of addressing both the learners and the society in which they live.
It assists both the learners and society to obtain good education (Esu et al, 2006). It has been
established that the society is dynamic in nature. Consequently, the curriculum which serves as
the vehicles for transferring relevant knowledge must also be dynamic.
1.0.9 Theoretical Framework
Constructivist theory
Constructivist theory has a rich history, most famously linked to Dewey (1916)’s progressive
model for teaching and learning. It is also closely associated with the works of Piaget (1972),
Vygotsky (1978) and Bruner (1990). Constructivism is based on the premise that we all
construct our own perspective of the world, based on individual experiences and internal
knowledge. Learning is based on how the individual interprets and creates the meaning of his or
her experiences. Knowledge is constructed by the learner and since everyone has a different set
of experiences and perceptions, learning is unique and different for each person (Robert et al,
2003). This is the logical necessary tool for curriculum developers as it helps them reflect on the
social and cultural experiences of learners who will be the beneficiaries of the curriculum being
developed. However, there is a commonly found reality that curriculum developers who may be
the determinants of learning experiences of the learners are highly influenced with the traditional
way of developing curriculum which has the less or no impact on the lives and experiences of the
pupils.
Curriculum developers are the experts in subject matter. For Dewey, best teaching must support
student engagement, knowledge and practice and promote students’ increasing complexity and
integration of subject matter. At the same time must promote growth in respect for self and
others, in self-control, and in responsibility to the community (Robert et al, 2003). This study
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therefore, examines what should be done to school curriculum for it to enhance social and
economic development in Zambia. The constructive theory is used because it explains the
importance of learning experiences (which is determined by the school curriculum) in enhancing
Zambia’s development.
1.1.0 Chapter Summary
This chapter has presented the background of the study, statement of the problem, general
objective of the study, specific objectives of the study, general research question, specific
research questions, significance of the study, definition of terms, conceptual framework and
theoretical framework. The next chapter presents literature review related this study.
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CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Overview
This chapter reviews the literature related to this study and it is discussed based on the following
subthemes; Zambia’s school curriculum, challenges faced in curriculum implementation process,
ways in which the school curriculum can respond to the needs and aspirations of Zambians,
importance of considering culture in curriculum development process and factors that should be
included in the curriculum.
2.1 Zambia’s School Curriculum
It is important to note that curriculum in Zambia has undergone a number of reforms, the reason
for these reforms has been to ensure that the curriculum used on the learners responds to their
need and aspirations. For instance, the 1977 educational reforms aimed at ensuring that the kind
of education provided to the learners was meeting their needs and aspirations. In the same way
the 1996 education policy addressed the entire field of formal institutional education, paying a
particular attention to democratization, decentralization and productivity. Beside these
educational policies, there is also the latest 2013 curriculum framework. The 2013 curriculum
frame work has also influenced the curriculum due to the number of factors that have been
included in the curriculum. The point here is that Zambia’s curriculum has been changed here
and there to meet the needs of the society (Mulenga, 2015).
Kabombwe and Mulenga (2019) argued that Zambia has had two major curriculum reforms from
the inception of formal education by various missionary groups. The first curriculum which
Zambia was using was a knowledge-based curriculum. Wangeleja (20110) contended that a
knowledge-based curriculum (KBC) focuses on the grasp of knowledge and thus the curriculum
is content-driven. The Tanzania institute of Education (2004) pointed out that a knowledge-based
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curriculum emphasizes on the theoretical content and is rooted in traditional teaching and
learning approaches. Thus, it can be noted that it focused on rote memorization and acquisition
of factual knowledge. In 2013, the Zambian school curriculum was revised. The education
system adopted a competency-based curriculum (CBC) which is an outcomes-based education
(OBE) type (Curriculum Development Center, 2013). Like in other countries, the curriculum was
reformed in a bid to prepare learners for future challenges in the rapidly changing global world
(CDC, 2013). The competency-based curriculum specifically, adopted the UNESCO education
quality framework as part of the standards and evaluation Guidelines and commitment to the
provision of quality education (ZANEC, 2017).
According to UNESCO (2017), a competency-based curriculum is a curriculum that emphasizes
what leaners are expected to do rather than focusing on what they are expected to know. It
implies that learners should acquire and apply the knowledge, skill, values, and attitudes to solve
situations they encounter in everyday life. And across globe. But the question whether these
aspects have been achieved on the part of the learners still remains.
Mosha (2012) also pointed out that a competency-based curriculum contains the specific
outcome of statements that show the competencies to be attained. Furthermore, Fitzpatrick
(1991:18) elaborated that an outcomes-based education type focuses on “what learners should
know at the end of their schooling career, what learners must be able to do, and what do learners
need to feel or believe?” Consequently, a competency-based curriculum capitalizes on
competency-based learning which focuses on understanding the concepts, skills and attitudes
which in turn calls for changes in teaching, learning and assessment approaches (Woods, 2008;
World Bank, 2011; Wangeleja, 2010).
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2.2 CHALLENGES FACED IN THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE SCHOOL
CURRICULUM.
The first objective of this study was to determine the challenges faced in the implementation of
the school curriculum. Before going any further, it is important to first define the term
curriculum implementation. Hord (2004) defined curriculum implementation as the process of
putting curriculum into practice. This includes instructional scheme of each subject to be
completed in the term, planning the lessons as per the timetable, using the transactional
strategies, providing the learning resources, promoting classroom learning experiences, and
progressive testing. The following literatures show the challengers faced in school curriculum
implementation.
The study by kabombwe and Mulenga (2019) teachers of History’s implementation of the
competency-based teaching approaches in the teaching and learning of History in Lusaka
district, Zambia. Revealed that 67% of the teachers of History did not understand the concept of
the competency-based curriculum or outcome-based curriculum. It was also revealed that
teachers of History were not using the competency-based or outcomes-based approaches to a
large extent in the teaching and learning of History in the selected secondary schools because
they did not have the knowledge and skills of the competency-based approaches. Kabombwe and
Mulenga focused specifically on the implementation of history. However, this study focusses on
the curriculum in general. From this study it can be said it can be said that lack of knowledge and
skills by the teachers affect the implementation of the curriculum.
Syomwene (2013) conducted a study factors affecting teachers’ implementation of curriculum
reforms and educational policies in schools. He discovered that during the process of curriculum
implementation, there are obstacles that vary with the curriculum itself, location, political
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situation, economic situation, teacher preparation and facilities are among major factors that
hinder the implementation of school curriculum. Nevertheless, the study was conducted in
Kenya. Thus, the need to conduct it in Zambia.
Furthermore, Benny and Newstead (1999) in their study Obstacles to Implementing a new
Curriculum they discovered that teachers’ resistance to change was among the challenges that
hindered the implementation of school curriculum. They said that when this happens (teachers’
resistance to change), it may be for various reasons such as lack of materials or lack of
knowledge to be able to do what has been prescribed in the curriculum. The study by Benny and
Newstead used mixed method to ascertain the results, but this study uses qualitative research
design. Thus, the need to be conducted.
Having revealed literatures on challenges faced in the process of curriculum implementation, the
following part presents ways in which the school curriculum can respond to the needs and
aspirations of learners.
2.3 WAYS IN WHICH THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM CAN RESPOND TO THE
NEEDS AND ASPIRATIONS OF LEARNERS
The second objective of this lesson is to establish the ways in which the school curriculum can
respond to the needs and aspirations of learners. There are a number of ways in which the
curriculum can respond to the needs and aspirations of Zambians. The following are some of the
ways; considering culture in the process of curriculum development and through consulting
various stake holders such as the teachers, the parents, the elders, traditional leaders and religious
leaders. The literatures below show the ways in which school curriculum can respond to the
needs and aspiration of learners.
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Okeke (1991) in his study Teaching in Nigeria: A Case for Professionalism concluded that it is
important for the curriculum developers to consider the contribution of culture in the process of
curriculum development; this means that curriculum planners must vigorously strive to imbibe
the culture of the society for which the curriculum is being planned. From the study above, it can
be said that culture plays a vital role in curriculum development and if it is not considered in the
process of curriculum development the school curriculum may not respond to the needs and
aspirations of the learners. To add on, Okeke (1991) defined education as the process by which
society deliberately transmit its cultural heritage through schools, colleges, universities and other
institutions and going by this definition, it goes without saying that the content of the school
curriculum must be saturated with cultural elements that reflect the needs and aspirations of the
society. The study by Okeke was conducted in Nigeria. Thus, the need to conduct it in Zambia.
Additionally, Tanner (2007) in his study Curriculum development: Theory into Practice
discovered that education aims at consolidating existing moral standards so that individuals may
enjoy a satisfactory community life and that the school should endeavour to teach knowledge and
skills that are relevant to the needs of changing time. This is to say that curriculum content
should include forms of knowledge, skills, values and attitudes which can motivate and control
the conduct of children in the school community. The knowledge, skills, values, and attitudes
will reflect a culture of that society which in turn will shape a school curriculum.
Esu and Enu (2009) in their study Curriculum Development in Nigeria for Colleges of Education
they concluded that if culture has to respond to the needs and aspirations of the learners it has to
consider culture. Culture is important in curriculum development process as it enables
curriculum developers to plan curriculum through the interview of the significant others in
society, the experienced and exposed elders, who will provide information on their culture,
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values and ethical issues on which to base the curriculum. By so doing, the curriculum will
enhance social development which is an important aspect of development. The study used focus
group discussion as the main data collection tool, but this study will use document analysis as the
method of data collection.
Moving on further, school curriculum can respond to the needs and aspirations of learners if the
curriculum implementers are involved in the process of curriculum development. Therefore, the
following literatures show the role of teachers in curriculum development process. As already
mentioned, for the school curriculum to be relevant to the learners and the country at large, it
should first involve the teachers in its planning because teachers are the key implementers of any
kind of curriculum. As Mwanza quoted Bishop (1985; 190) that “A curriculum is only as good as
the quality of its teachers”. Indeed, the significant role the teacher plays in curriculum
development and implementation cannot be over emphasized. Involvement of teachers in
educational reform and innovation is crucial. Whenever there is a need of curriculum
development, the teacher’s role and involvement come to the fore of necessity (Carl, 2012).
The teacher is, definitely, the heart of the matter. One cannot proceed with any curriculum
development process without the full co-operation of the teachers and local authorities. Teachers
are the most critical resources in the provision of any formal education anywhere in the world.
Careless (1997), Kyriakides (1997) and Mulat (2003) further emphasized that teachers’
perceptions, attitudes and beliefs about the curriculum reform play a crucial role in the adoption,
reinvention or rejection of a new or revised curriculum. Teachers therefore play a very important
role in the facilitation of the learner’s acquisition of the desirable knowledge, skills, values and
attitudes (Mulenga, 2015).
17
Teacher skills and attitudes count for a great deal more in curriculum development than do
changes in content and methods (Bishop, 1985). It is crucial that teachers are involved and
participate fully in the entire curriculum development process due to the vital role and
responsibility placed on them during curriculum implementation. Carl (2012;193) emphasized
the need ‘to bring the teacher as implementer together with the institution or person involved
with the design so that mutual co-operation may be brought about. There must be teacher input;
it should not be otherwise.’ Teachers having the knowledge and class experience must contribute
to the process by conveying their ideas and transmitting the know-how; they must be in the
planning stage of what they are going to implement (Beane and Apple, 2007).
Teacher voice and ownership of curriculum change provide a key to understanding the perennial
problem of the transformation of innovative ideas from conception to implementation (Kirk and
Macdonald, 2001). Full teacher participation in curriculum development is a necessity which
once ignored cannot go without long lasting effects on the developed curriculum. The success of
any curriculum depends on how it is interpreted by its implementers who are the teachers.
Batwini (2010; 89) noted that “teachers’ perceptions and beliefs influence and shape the
meanings that the teachers eventually attach to the new reforms, which in turn play a vital role in
their acceptance and classroom implementation.” Teachers therefore can only interpret the
curriculum correctly if they have a full understanding of it which can only come forth if they are
fully involved in curriculum development. Gorsuch (2000) noted that the attitudes and beliefs of
the teachers are the single strongest guiding influence on teaching and learning. Getting views of
the actual teachers on how they experience the entire curriculum development is significant to
have a thorough understanding on the consequent curriculum implementation. This study
therefore sought to inquire from the actual teachers on their involvement in curriculum
18
development process and further analyse the possible roles that teachers could play in developing
the curriculum.
More so, school curriculum attains the needs and aspirations of the learners if the parents are
considered in the process of curriculum development. Debby (2005) in his study the Role of
Stakeholders in Curriculum Development Process established that if the school curriculum has to
meet the needs and aspirations of the people, then it should involve the parents of the children
who go to school. Parents always have a projection of what they want their children to become in
future. Therefore, curriculum developers should have an idea of different goals that translate into
real and practical differences as parents and families sought to raise their children within a
particular set of ideas. Adults’ goals for children reflect in the numerous ways in which they
support children’s development. By learning more about the goals that parents have for their
children, and about the types of behaviour or practices that parents prioritise, can help curriculum
developers to develop a curriculum that will be a solution to the needs and expectations of the
parents. The study by Debby is important to this study because for the curriculum to meet the
needs and aspirations of the learners, its development process needs to involve the parents who
take their children to school. The study was conducted in Kenya. Therefore, the need that it
should be conducted in Zambia.
Another study by Pinar (2004) entitled What is Curriculum Theory? Postulated that traditional
leaders are extremely important to be involved in curriculum development because they are key
custodians of cultural heritage. Furthermore, it is important that this cultural heritage is
incorporated into the school curriculum as the means of preserving it. The study used snowball
sampling in the selection of participants. However, this study used homogenous purposive
sampling of books to be reviewed and discussed.
19
Furthermore, the curriculum framework (2013) policy on education states that other stakeholders
shall be involved in the provision of education. In Zambia there are religious denominations that
are actively participating in the provision of education for example, the Catholic Church,
Seventh day Adventist church and many more. Therefore, it is important that religious
representatives of denominations are involved in education provision. These stakeholders may
help in as far the formulation subjects such as religious education and civic education is
concerned.
Having reviewed the literatures on the ways that school curriculum can meet the needs and
aspirations of the learners, the study now reviews the literatures on the last objective, which is
factors that should be included in the school curriculum.
2.3 FACTORS THAT SHOULD INCLUDED IN THE CURRICULUM
To begin with, Delpit (1999) in his work The Silenced Dialogue: Power and Pedagogy in
Educating: Other People’s Children reviewed that school education relies almost exclusively on
predetermined sets of competencies to be acquired through rote memorization, thereby denying
children opportunities to exercise their innate thinking capabilities and their individual creativity.
Thus, factors such as socio-cultural, political to economic factors must be included in the school
curriculum to make the curriculum more relevant to the learners. It is important to note that
Zambia’s classroom pedagogy deprives children opportunities to learn in a collaborative,
reflective manner that would have at least helped them acquire basic social skills. Zambia’s
outdated system of examination has contributed to a mad rush for ranks, seats and jobs making.
It is in this context that the Curriculum Development Centre should be given a mandate to look
into the what, the why and the how of inculcating political, socio-cultural and economic values
through the school curriculum. In the same vein, Arvizu (1994) argued that a department
20
responsible for curriculum development should suggest ways of enhancing the quality of socio-
cultural, economic and politic awareness among school going children.
Therefore, this research conceptualizes the following as important factors that should be included
in the Zambia’s school curriculum for it to bring about socioeconomic development in the
country. These factors include; socio-cultural, political, economic, moral and aesthetic factors. It
is important to state that these factors are actually incorporated in the school curriculum but their
value is not clear, therefore, it is important to enhance their importance in the curriculum.
2.4 Chapter Summary
The chapter has reviewed literatures on Zambia’s curriculum, challenges in the implementation
of the curriculum, ways in which the school curriculum can respond to the needs and aspirations
of Zambians, and the factors that should be included in the school curriculum for it to meet the
needs and aspirations of Zambians.
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CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
Overview
This chapter presents the methodology to be used in this study and it is discussed under the
following themes, research design, instrumentation, sample and sampling procedures, data
collection, data analysis, ethical guidelines and Reliability and Trustworthiness/Reliability.
3.1 Research Design
In this study, a historical case study is used. Such a design helps “the researcher to explore a
single entity or phenomenon bound by time and activity and collects detailed information by
using a variety of data collection procedures during a sustained period of time” (Creswell, 1994:
12). A qualitative research approach such as a historical case study is appropriate for the study
that explore the role of school curriculum in enhancing Zambia’s development. The advantage
of a study with historical orientation is that the past and the chronology of events are
reconstructed during historical analysis of data using a narrative technique that places special
emphasis on the process of change (Mouton, 2001).
3.2 Instrumentation
The research instrument that is used in this study is document analysis. The purpose of using this
instrument is that it is an efficient and effective way of gathering data since documents are
manageable and practical resources. The other reason is that the nature of the study needs more
of the written records on the school curriculum unlike primary sources. Apart from that, the
information which is used or accessed using document analysis may be not accessed if it was to
be inquired from primary sources.
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3.3 Sampling and Sampling Techniques
A sample is a subset of a population selected to participate in the study. When addressing the
issue
of selection of the research sites, the researcher scouts for possible places and people that might
be subjects of sources of data. For the nature of this study, the literatures are standing in place of
people and places.
3.4 Homogenous Sampling
The study used homogeneous sampling because the researcher wanted to select the literatures
with similar topics about the study under discussion. In homogeneous sampling the researcher
purposefully samples the literatures based on membership in a subgroup that have defining
characteristics.
Homogeneous sampling is a purposive sampling technique that aims to achieve a homogeneous
sample; that is, a sample whose units (for example, people, cases, and others) share the same (or
very similar) characteristics or traits (for example, a group of people that are similar in terms of
background, occupation, practice, beliefs and others). A homogeneous sample is often chosen
when the research questions used were specific to the characteristics of the particular group of
interest. Therefore, homogenous sampling was used to select the literatures to be analyzed in this
study. The documents that were selected include, articles, books, conference meeting minutes
and education policies (such 2013 curriculum framework). The documents used were accessed
through google scholar and through the journal websites such academia and research gate.
23
3.5 Data Analysis
Data was analysed by categorising and extraction of emerging themes from the data collected
from different literatures. Such an approach is common when the researcher is trying to make
sense out of history through what Mouton (2001) describes as inductive method, which is
favourable to qualitative research paradigm. Another approach that is used in document analysis
is content analysis, “which is the qualitative analysis of what is in the documents. Instead of
directly observing, or interviewing, we deal with something produced for the purposes of our
enquiry, we also deal with something produced for some other purpose” (Robson, 202: 348).
Content analysis has its own merits and weaknesses. One of the advantages is that “you can
analyse the content of documents which have been collected directly for the purpose of your
research by making replicable and valid inferences from data to their context” (ibid). In addition,
it is important to note that documents are non-reactive in that they are not affected by the fact
that you are using them. However, the weakness with content analysis is with unstructured
material with different purposes, which may demand understanding and interpretation of content
for evidence that would suit new purpose. Reliability and validity of documents also emerges as
concerns in content analysis.
3.6 Ethical Guidelines
Singh (2006) cautioned that a researcher should not mention the name of subjects anywhere in
the report and if possible, names of institutions where sample subjects have selected for data
collection should not be mentioned even in the appendix. Instead, the code number should be
used for this purpose. Singh further pointed out that as a general rule, the researcher must respect
the human sample subjects selected in his/her specific research study. For the purpose of this
24
study, no letter was collected and no names of participants have been mentioned because the
study is entirely based on document analysis. In document analysis there are no questionnaires
administered and no interview guide. Therefore, ethical considerations were exercised by
acknowledging all the documents used in the study.
3.7 Reliability and Trustworthiness/Reliability
Reliability and Trustworthiness is important in research to avoid distorting respondents’ views.
‘Validity has to do with the accuracy and precision of data and whether a study can yield the
same results when repeated’ (Chola, 2016: 35). Validity in research is simply the ability of using
instruments in an impartially and expansively manner to represent elements under study.
‘Reliability is concerned with the consistency of the results obtained from a measuring
instruments’ (Chola, 2016:35). To ensure validity and reliability in this study, several documents
were read and tried to find if the results can still be the same if the same study was conducted by
another person in Zambia.
3.8 Chapter Summary
This chapter presented the methodology to be used in this study and it is discussed under the
following themes, research design, instrumentation, sample and sampling procedures, data
collection, data analysis, ethical guidelines and Reliability and Trustworthiness/Reliability.
25
CHAPTER FOUR: PRESENTATION OF THE RESEARCH FINDINGS
4.0 Overview
This chapter provides an overview of the findings of the study which aims at investigating on the
impact of Zambia’s school curriculum on the country’s socio-economic development. The views
were collected from various literatures. Therefore, the views presented reflect what has been
documented by various scholars. The views from various documents are presented in line with
the objectives of the study which include; the challenges faced in the implementation of the
school curriculum, the ways in which the curriculum can respond to needs and aspiration of
Zambians and the factors that should be included in the curriculum. Using the historical research
design method, the study relied on qualitative analysis of data.
4.1 CHALLENGES FACED IN CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTAION IN ZAMBIA
Various documents were analyzed and produced the following as the main challenges faced in
curriculum implementation in Zambia. To start with Mkandawire (2020:1) in his article
Impediments to Curriculum Implementation in Learning Institutions stated the following:
inadequate teaching and learning materials, lack of funding,

inadequate school facilities, inadequate quality and quantity of
26
teaching staff, distance to school and unfriendly conditions of
service.
Another document by Kabombwe and Mulenga (2019:1) which investigated teachers of
History’s implementation of the competency-based teaching approaches in the teaching and
learning of History in Lusaka district, Zambia. Presented the following as the challenge faced in
the implementation of school curriculum in Zambia.
The findings of the study revealed that 67% of the teachers of

History did not understand the concept of the competency-based
curriculum or outcome-based curriculum. It was also revealed that
teachers of History were not using the competency-based or
outcomes-based approaches to a large extent in the teaching and
learning of History in the selected secondary schools because they
did not have the knowledge and skills of the competency-based
approaches.
The other challenge faced in curriculum implementation in Zambia was discovered in the
dissertation written by Mwanza (2017:iv). The dissertation aimed to analyse teacher involvement
in curriculum development in selected secondary schools in Lusaka Urban in Zambia. The
following was the conclusion from the study:
Teachers were not adequately involved in the curriculum

development process with their role being mainly to implement the
already developed curriculum. Consequently, most teachers’
encountered challenges when implementing the developed
curriculum. A majority of teachers felt they can play important
roles in the curriculum development process apart from the actual
curriculum implementation.
27
Furthermore, challenges in the process of curriculum implementation can as well be accessed
from the document written by Nalwimba (2019:21) the aim of the study was to show how
teachers are affectively involved in implementing the English language curriculum at selected
primary schools in Lusaka. The following is the presentation of the challenge faced in the
curriculum implementation:
The findings of the study clearly suggested that teachers were

dissatisfied with the existing practice of curriculum development
which insignificantly involved them. The majority of primary
school teachers in selected parts of Lusaka had never participated
in the development of the curriculum and this thought was the
main reason as to why they faced challenges with implementing it
effectively. It was further revealed that curriculum materials such
as textbooks were of poor quality.
The other challenge of curriculum implementation can be seen in article by Mwamba and Hachi
(2005) Curriculum Development for Schools. Zambia. The following is the analysis from their
document:
Lack of vision is the hindrance to the implementation of school

curriculum. This is because without an appropriate vision,
transformation effort can easily dissolve into a list of confusing,
incompatible and time-consuming projects. The biggest mistake
done by leaders when implementing a curriculum change is to
plunge ahead and implement before crafting a vision as to how the
implementation will go about, that is, without making an
implementation plan with expected projections. A school cannot
function without a vision; the vision must be communicated to all
stakeholders so that everyone remains focused. The principal
should have a vision about where he/she wants the school to be in
28
a certain period of time and work as a team with teachers for the
attainment of the vision.
Lastly, backwash is another hindrance in school curriculum implementation as presented by

Mkandawire (2020:4) in his article Impediments to Curriculum Implementation in Learning
Institutions he stated the following:
Backwash effects on national examinations can be described as

teaching learners to pass examinations without considering
whether the skills needed for their lives, values and moral
development are attained or not. The term backwash means the
unpleasant result of an event or the negative aspects of something
and some dictionaries define it as a filter. The backwash effects of
national examinations are a serious impediment to curriculum
implementation due to the nature and the negative effects it has on
the education system. When teachers in schools decide to focus
much on helping pupils pass examinations by all means necessary
without helping them to be better citizens with expected aims and
goals of the national curriculum, they are doing so at the detriment
of the nation. Such teachers once found should not be tolerated or
allowed in the teaching fraternity. They should be dismissed
without impunities as they are destroying the education system.
From the finding presented above, the challenges faced in the process of curriculum
implementation in Zambia include the following: lack of interest among the curriculum
implementers, inadequate teaching and learning materials, lack of funding, inadequate school
facilities, inadequate quality and quantity of teaching staff, distance to school and unfriendly
conditions of service, disinterestedness among the teachers and lack of vision.
29
Having presented the findings for the first objective, the following part presents the findings for
the second objective which aimed at establishing the ways in which the school curriculum can
respond to the needs and aspirations of learners.
This was the second objective of the study which aimed at establishing the ways in which the
school curriculum can respond to the needs and aspirations of learners. The following findings
were collected from documents written from Zambian context.
The first way of ensuring that school curriculum respond to the needs and aspiration of Zambians
is by involving teachers in the process of curriculum development. The information analysed
from Mwanza (2017:22) is presented below:
A good curriculum requires careful planning and development and

it is worthless and ineffectual if teachers are not alert and receptive
to what is required of them and if they cannot see how the
innovation can be successfully applied in their own classrooms.
Teachers’ understanding of the principles underlying reform
strategies plays a significant role in the degree of implementation
of an innovation because teachers with a low degree of
understanding may generate a low degree of implementation. It is
reported that teachers often show resistance and lack of
commitment to the implementation of curriculum reform precisely
because they are seldom involved in the development or in
establishing how best to implement them. Teacher involvement in
the conceptual and development stages of the reforms will
therefore facilitate their understanding of the crux of the new
curriculum and its necessity as well as the expected end results.
30
This entails that teachers’ non-involvement in the development of
the curriculum may result in a sense of lack of ownership, which
may consequently make the school curriculum irrelevant and not to
respond to the needs and aspirations of the learners.
In addition to the above presentation, Manyimbo (2018:22) argued that:
The significant role that teachers play in curriculum reform must

not be unnoticed if curriculum implementation is to be successful.
The repeated failure of curriculum reform to achieve the desired
outcomes is because curriculum developers overlook the social
issues that surround teachers, school or district. Teachers as agents
of change in education reform because they are able to greatly
influence the end result.
The other way of ensuring that school curriculum responds to the needs and aspirations of the
learners can be traced from the document by Mulenga (2008:23) the title of the document is
Curriculum Development Foundations and Principles. Here is the presentation:
In order to ensure that school curriculum has achieved the needs

and aspiration of learners in Zambia, MOE has come up with a
curriculum, which has several definitions. Basing on the stated
aims and goals of education above which are found in the ideal or
recommended curriculum offered in the mainstream education.
The ideal or recommended curriculum is what is proposed by
scholars, researchers and evaluators as a solution to meet a need or
needs of the society and is consequently perceived as the most
appropriate curriculum for learners. It is what a nation aspires to
achieve. Due to several factors affecting the implementation of the
curriculum, the ideal curriculum cannot be 100 per cent
implemented because of factors such as the backwash effects of the
national examinations. In the end, most educational systems
around the world end up with achieved curriculum or experiential
31
curriculum which goes to a certain percentage in terms of
implementation. The achieved curriculum is what learners have
actually learnt as a result of their interaction with the implemented
curriculum. What learners have experienced as a result of what
they have learnt and interaction with the teacher. What the learner
has achieved is seen when the teacher gives a test and other forms
of assessments.
Furthermore, Mkandawire (2020:3) in his article Impediments to Curriculum

Implementation in Learning Institutions presents the following points as the way
of ensuring that the curriculum responds to the needs and aspirations of learners
in Zambia:
An ideal implementation of a curriculum should make learners feel

educated and informed. Learners after being exposed to learning
should show that they have acquired attitudes and values towards
social trends and ideologies, and this can contribute to the
development of a country. In this way, education becomes
important for a learner he or she should not just acquire knowledge
but acquire other aspects as stated in the aims of education.
He further says that:
Curriculum should be developed in such a way that it enables

learners to appreciate the relationship between scientific thought,
action and technology with sustenance of the quality of life.
Another educational aim looks at developing the qualities of
character of an individual that society regards as important. The
goal for such an aim is that the individual can freely express his or
her own ideas and also exercise tolerance for other people. The
individual can cherish and safeguard his or her own liberties and
also promote the human rights. The other aim looks at giving scope
to the individuals in order for their potential to be developed. In
having such an aim, the goal of making the individual maintain,
32
observe discipline and hard work as the foundation of personal and
national development is achieved. All these aims should be
imparted in the learners through the teacher without focusing on
examinations which disregard these important aspects thereby
serving as a challenge and an impediment to curriculum
implementation.
Last but not the least, the school curriculum can meet the needs and aspirations of the learners in
Zambia by considering culture in the process of curriculum development as Mulenga (2015:66)
alluded in his study English Language Teacher Education Curriculum Designing. The following
is the data obtained:
It is important that the concept and the field of curriculum is not

limited to the purposes, content and method in educational process
but rather, it should be extended to examine those critical factors in
the social cultural, sociopolitical, social-economic, and social
ecological environment in which schooling takes place. The school
curriculum will be a selection from the culture of the society and
its critical reflection on the peculiarities of the most stable values
of the society, the dynamics of members of the society and
portions of the society’s cultural heritage that deserves to be
propagated. Hence, it is very important that curriculum developers
have knowledge about the culture of the beneficiaries of the
curriculum.
From the data that has been presented above, it can be said that involvement of teachers in
curriculum development process, careful planning and development, following the several MOE
definitions of what the education system should be, making learners feel educated and informed,
ensuring that the learners appreciate the relationship between scientific thought, action and
technology with substance of the quality of life and considering culture in the process of
33
curriculum development are among the ways through which the school curriculum can respond
to needs and aspirations of the learners in Zambia.
4.3 FACTORS THAT SHOULD BE INCLUDED IN THE CURRICULUM
This is the third objective of the study. Before going any further, it is important to note that
different scholars worldwide have suggested different factors that should be included in the
school curriculum. These factors are believed to change the beliefs, ideologies and economic
well-being of the learners thereby improving their standard of living.
To start with, Mkandawire (2017:13) in his study Familiar Language Based Instruction versus
Unfamiliar Language for the Teaching of Reading and Writing Skills: A Focus on Zambian
Languages and English at two Primary Schools in Lusaka. Postulated the following:
Language is an important aspect as it determines the

communication between teachers and pupils. Therefore, the
teaching-learning process should make use of a variety of home
tongues, dialects and other local languages. The teaching-learning
process should make the best use of the diversity of local
languages. For the primary stage of school education, the mother
tongue should be the medium of instruction so that children do not
feel threatened by an alien language thrust upon them. This will
ensure that the thinking processes of the child, which happens in
the mother or home tongues do not get hindered. However, the
Zambian primary school curriculum has already integrated this
aspect though local language is used as a medium of instruction
from grade one to four.
From the above argument, it can be said that language is important to be included in the school
curriculum. However, it is important that this aspect should continue up to grade seven.
34
The research has further, conceptualized the following as important factors that should be
included in the Zambia’s school curriculum for it to bring about the development in the country.
These factors include; socio-cultural, political, economic, moral and aesthetic factors. It
important to state that these factors are actually incorporated in the school curriculum but their
value is not clear, therefore, it is important to enhance their importance in the curriculum.
4.4 Chapter Summary
The chapter has presented the findings and discussed them based on the following main themes;
the challenges of implementing school curriculum, the ways in which the school curriculum can
respond to the needs and aspirations of Zambians and the factors that should be included in the
curriculum to make it for effective and respond to the needs of the society. The next chapter
presents chapter five.
35
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION OF THE FINDINGS
5.0 Overview
This chapter presents a discussion of the findings and their implications on the impact of school
curriculum on Zambia’s socio-economic development. The findings are discussed in relation to
the research objectives and the existing knowledge on curriculum and development. The findings
obtained from Zambian literatures are discussed in relation with what was reviewed in chapter
two of this study to see the gap and similarities.
5.1 CHALLENGES FACED IN THE PROCESS OF CURRICULUM
IMPLEMENTATION IN ZAMBIA
This was the first objective of the study. The objective was important as it sought to examine the
challenges faced in the process of curriculum implementation. From the findings, it was
discovered that lack of interest among the curriculum implementers, inadequate teaching and
learning materials, lack of funding, inadequate school facilities, inadequate quality and quantity
36
of teaching staff, distance to school and unfriendly conditions of service, lack of vision and
backwash were among the challenges faced in the process curriculum implementation.
The findings had similarities with what was reviewed in the literature with the only difference
that in the literature the aspect of backwash was not reviewed and it was not mentioned which
creates the gap between the findings and the literature. In typical analysis of the aspects
mentioned above, the following are the themes that emerged on the challenges that are faced in
the process of curriculum development: Inadequate Learning facilities, Lack of Teaching and
Learning Materials, Inadequate Financial Resources and Funding.
5.1.0 Inadequate Learning Facilities
Unavailability of school facilities and equipment like classrooms, libraries, resource centres,
offices, desks, schools’ halls and others. The fact that the education sector is under-funded by the
government means that the availability and quality or facilities in learning institutions is affected
negatively. It has been observed that in most government schools in Zambia with an exception of
the newly built, infrastructure is in a deplorable condition, Kelly (1999:196) describes the
buildings as “dilapidated, unsafe and sometimes unusable.” In certain instances, some schools
have inadequate classroom accommodation, which gives rise to double or triple shift in order to
give all eligible children an opportunity to learn. Meanwhile, some schools, especially in remote
areas, have no buildings at all. Furniture is also inadequate in most schools and in some cases the
seats and desks are battered or totally absent (Kelly 1996). However, the face of infrastructure
has been improved in some schools with the help of donor funding such as ‘sector pool’. The
absence of teaching and learning materials in schools imply that effective implementation of the
curriculum is hampered (Tambulukani, 2004).
37
5.1.1 Lack of Teaching and Learning Materials
The absence of or inadequacy of teaching and learning resources can be a serious impediment to
curriculum implementation. There is limited procurement and supply of these resources in
schools. Instructional materials and equipment are all in short supply or may not be available at
all – no books or writing material, no chalk, no science apparatus, inadequate or out of-date
library (Kelly 1999). Worse still, with population explosion, classrooms are overcrowded and
learners are made to share whatever little stocks of material and furniture available. In such
situations, teacher effectiveness is hampered and it becomes almost impossible for the teacher to
render individual pupil attention because of large numbers of pupils in classes – over enrolment.
This kind of situation in institutions of learning will make it very difficult for curriculum
implementers to carry out their roles effectively. In the absence of teaching and learning
materials such as books for pupils and teachers, pamphlets, and journal articles, the teaching and
learning processes will be hampered.
5.1.2 Inadequate Financial Resources and Funding
Financial resources and inadequate funding can have devastating effects on curriculum
implementation. It is very difficult to implement a curriculum successfully if the education
system has limited financial resources. Money does not always make things work but it makes
things move smoothly and better with a little motivation from drivers. Instead of teaching and
learning, some schools especially those in the rural, take pupils during learning time to go and do
some piece work to raise funds to address certain issues in the school. This practice has negative
effect on curriculum implementation and government needs to adequately fund schools in order
to stay afloat.
38
Having discussed the first objective, the paper moves to the second objective whose aim was to
establish the way in which school curriculum can achieve the needs and aspirations of learners in
Zambia.
This was the second objective of the study and it aimed at establishing the ways in which the
school curriculum can respond to the needs and aspirations of learners. Findings from various
literatures were gathered and presented the following as the ways: Involvement of teachers in
curriculum development process, careful planning and development, following the several MOE
definitions of what the education system should be, making learners feel educated and informed,
ensuring that the learners appreciate the relationship between scientific thought, action and
technology with substance of the quality of life and considering culture in the process of
curriculum development.
The involvement of teachers in the process of curriculum development and considering culture in
the process of curriculum development tallied with what was alluded to in the literature review,
while following the several MOE definitions of what the education system should be, making
learners feel educated and informed, ensuring that the learners appreciate the relationship
between scientific thought, action and technology with substance of the quality of life, were not
mentioned in the literature review which entails the importance of conducting this study. In
trying to make it more relevant and expand on the analysis built above, the following themes
emerged in the discussion of the findings: The role of teachers in curriculum development and
the importance of considering culture in the process of curriculum development.
39
5.3 The Role of Teachers in Curriculum
One of the ways in which the school curriculum can respond to the needs and aspirations of the
people is through involving teachers in the process of curriculum development. To begin with,
Alsubaie (2016) without doubt, the most important person in the curriculum implementation
process is the teacher. With their knowledge, experiences and competencies, teachers are central
to any curriculum development effort. Better teachers support better learning because they are
most knowledgeable about the practice of teaching and are responsible for introducing the
curriculum in the classroom. If another party has already developed the curriculum, the teachers
have to make an effort to know and understand it. So, teachers should be involved in curriculum
development. For example, teacher’s opinions and ideas should be incorporated into the
curriculum for development. On the other hand, the curriculum development team has to
consider the teacher as part of the environment that affects curriculum (Carl, 2009). Hence,
teacher involvement is important for successful and meaningful curriculum development.
Teachers being the implementers are part of the last stage of the curriculum development
process.
Additionally, Ramparsad (2000) postulated that the teachers’ involvement in the curriculum
development process is essential in meeting the needs of society. The process of curriculum
development requires teachers to act and reflect on society's needs in each stage of the
development process.
Furthermore, the teacher involvement in curriculum organization has many roles and
responsibilities. Teachers want to enjoy teaching and watching their students develop interests
and skills in their interest area. The teacher may need to create lesson plans and syllabi within the
framework of the given curriculum since the teacher's responsibilities are to implement the
40
curriculum to meet student needs (Carl, 2009). Many studies support empowerment of teachers
through participation of curriculum development. For example, Fullan (1991) found that the
level of teacher involvement as a center of curriculum development leads to effective
achievement of educational reform. Therefore, the teacher is an important factor in the success of
curriculum development including the steps of implication and evaluation. Handler (2010) also
found that there is a need for teacher involvement in the development of curriculum. Teachers
can contribute by collaboratively and effectively working with curriculum development teams
and specialists to arrange and compose martial, textbooks, and content. Teacher involvement in
the process of curriculum development is important to align content of curriculum with students
needs in the classroom.
According to Carl (2002), Connely and Clandinin (1986) and McDonald (2003), teachers are to
be actively involved in the design of the new curricula and are expected to have the capacity to
interpret, criticize and implement current curriculum innovations. Clandinin (1986) further
argued that teachers are to be regarded as integral part of the curriculum development process
and not merely as translating other’s intentions and ideologies into practice. They maintained
that teacher knowledge is an essential component in improving practice and underpins the
transformation of curriculum targets into classroom activities through planning and
implementation. This can only be actualized if teachers are fully involved in the entire
curriculum development process (Mwanza, 2017).
5.4 Consideration of Culture in the Process of Curriculum Development
The other way in which the school curriculum can respond to the needs and aspiration of the
people is the consideration of culture in the curriculum development process. To start with,
Banks (2004) postulated that considering culture in curriculum development process enables
41
curriculum developers to have a better understanding when conceptualizing socio-cultural
context of school curriculum. In this way, curriculum developers attempt to analyze and evaluate
the schooling process against the influence of the numerous forces or factors in the social
environment bearing in mind that the knowledge which the school transmits derives from sort of
ideologists’ values, philosophies, beliefs and norms all of which are peculiar to various socio-
cultural groups.
Culture is the nucleus of curriculum in any society Fang (1996) argued. The cultural elements
include values, norms, beliefs, taboos, traditions, language, music, customs, occupations, skills
arts, aesthetics and other attributes which are societal oriented and locally acquired through
socialisation. Furthermore, every society has its own mode of solving problems. Therefore,
culture should be the basis of every element that reflect in a school curriculum.
Furthermore, it is important to consider culture in curriculum development process because
children acquire cultural knowledge from the day they are born (Au, 1993). Put another way,
children enter early head start and head start with understandings already acquired from
interactions and experiences with family and community members. The term background
knowledge refers to the specific factual and social information that children can have at any age.
The second objective is discussed, and the discussion that follows presents the third objective
which aimed at evaluating the factors that should be included in the school curriculum for it to
enhance socioeconomic development.
5.5 FACTORS THAT SHOULD BE INCLUDED IN THE CURRICULUM
This was the third and last objective of the study and it aimed at evaluating the factors that
should be included in the school curriculum for it to enhance socioeconomic development.
42
The findings discovered that language was among the major factors that should be included in
the curriculum. This was in consistence with what was reviewed in the literature. Thus, this
objective had almost the same findings with what was in the literature.
5.6 Chapter Summary
The chapter has presented the findings and discussed them based on the following main themes;
the challenges of implementing school curriculum, the ways in which the school curriculum can
respond to the needs and aspirations of Zambians and the factors that should be included in the
curriculum to make it for effective and respond to the needs of the society. The research has
concluded that Zambia need to be awakened as far as the development of the school curriculum
is concerned. The intended purposes of education will never be attained if there is no special
attention given to the process of curriculum development.
CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
6.0 Overview
This chapter presents the conclusion of the study and recommendations drawn from the findings
of the study which aimed at investigating on the impact of Zambia’s school curriculum on the
country’s socio-economic development.
6.1 THE MAIN RESEARCH FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS
As a reminder to the reader, the research aimed at investigating on the impact of Zambia’s school
curriculum on the country’s socio-economic development. Following the first objective which
was to determine the challenges faced in school curriculum implementation in Zambia, it was
discovered that lack of interest among the curriculum implementers, inadequate teaching and
43
learning materials, lack of funding, inadequate school facilities, inadequate quality and quantity
of teaching staff, distance to school and unfriendly conditions of service, disinterestedness
among the teachers, lack of vision in the implementation of school curriculum and backwash
were the major challenges faces in the process of curriculum implementation.
In line with the second objective which was to determine ways in which the school curriculum
could respond to the needs and aspirations of Zambians, the research concluded that,
involvement of teachers in curriculum development process, careful planning and development,
following the several MOE definitions of what the education system should be, making learners
feel educated and informed, ensuring that the learners appreciate the relationship between
scientific thought, action and technology with substance of the quality of life and considering
culture in the process of curriculum development, were among the ways that school curriculum
can respond to the needs and aspirations of the learners.
Following the third objective which was to examine the factors that should be included in the
curriculum, the research found that language, culture, political values and aesthetic values were
among the keys that could improve the lives of the learners.
6.2 RECOMMENDATIONS
1. For Zambian school curriculum to bring about socio, economic, political and any
necessary development one may think of, it should be imbibed in the cultural aspects of
the learners. Hence, there is need to consider culture in the development process of the
curriculum.
44
2. Teachers are the major implementers of the school curriculum, therefore, if the school
curriculum is expected to play an in important role in the development of Zambia, then
there is need to ensure that teachers are involved in the curriculum development process.
3. If the school curriculum has to meet the needs of the society, then there is need to ensure
that curriculum developers incorporate the views they collect from various stakeholders
who participate in curriculum development process into the curriculum
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51
APPENDIX 1: RESEARCH BUDGET
DESCRIPTION OF ITEM DESCRIPTION UNIT PRICE
For downloading documents K250
on the internet.
Internet
For giving someone to type the K300.00
work since I do not have a

a) Typing
computer.
60 pages× 5 per page

K 550
Total
i
APPENDIX 2: TIMEFRAME
ACTIVITY MONTH YEAR
Submission of the first draft March 2021
proposal
Submission of second draft May 2021
Submission of the first report July 2021
Submission of the last draft August 2021
ii

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CURRICULUM AND DEVELOPMENT: AN INVESTIGATION ON THE IMPACT OF

ZAMBIA’S SCHOOL CURRICULUM ON THE COUNTRY’S SOCIO-ECONOMIC

A research proposal submitted to Zambia Open University in partial fulfilment of

the requirements for the award of the Bachelor of Education in Secondary.

ZAMBIA OPEN UNIVERSITY

1st SEPTEMBER, 2021

Zambia Open University or other University anywhere in the world.

continue with this same spirit with other students.

This study investigated on the impact of Zambia’s school curriculum on socioeconomic

1.0.1 Background to the Study

globalization, which is accompanied by contradictory, qualitative changes gradually it is

attaining comprehensive knowledge on development issues and on the interdependence between

curriculum includes, for example, development education, intercultural education, and

account an international dimension (Council of the European Union, 2010: 7).

and concepts of development.

increasing social and economic productivity, providing specifically skilled/professional people

and transforming and redressing legacies of previous inequity.

conflict with the needs and aspirations of Zambians.

managed to persuade Zambian government to institute curriculum reform in order to include

development of the country.

curriculum. In addition, Nkyabonaki (2013) asserted that curriculum is an activity of

resources curriculum is struggling to be implemented. In other words, donor agencies determine

what to teach and what to learn and how to teach indirectly.

situates. Culture is maintained or modified through education by way of curriculum development

1.0.2 Statement of the Problem

curriculum. The curriculum development process in Zambia is mostly taken by qualified

socioeconomic development in Zambia. Therefore, it is the main interest of this research to

investigate on the impact of Zambia’s school curriculum on the country’s socio-economic

1.0.3 General Objective

To investigate on the impact of Zambia’s school curriculum on the country’s socio-economic

1.0.4 Research Objectives

The objectives of this study are:

1. To determine the challenges in the implementation of the school curriculum in Zambia.

aspirations of learners in Zambia.

The research questions for the study are:

social and economic development?

1.0.6 Significance of the Study

factors should be included in the school curriculum to boost development in Zambia.

1.0.7 Definition of Terms

generation to the next.

and directed by the school to attain educational course.

Curriculum development: it is a process by which choices are made in designing learning

disseminating, implementing and evaluation of a teaching and learning experiences. Ogula

learners’ needs, learners’ interest, problems encountered by learners, contemporary life,

the environment where it will be introduced and implemented ( Taba, 1962).

Curriculum implementation: Curriculum implementation according to Hord (2004) is the

1.0.8 Conceptual Framework

social and economic development in the framework illustrated in figure 1.0

Figure 1.0 conceptual framework

eco n om ic dev elop m et

Involving teachers in the

Upgrade the situational

Here is an explanation of what is on the figure 1.0

Proper curriculum development is a key to development of any country. This is because

the learner’s needs and aspirations.

the vehicles for transferring relevant knowledge must also be dynamic.

1.0.9 Theoretical Framework

importance of learning experiences (which is determined by the school curriculum) in enhancing

1.1.0 Chapter Summary

subthemes; Zambia’s school curriculum, challenges faced in curriculum implementation process,

included in the curriculum.

2.1 Zambia’s School Curriculum

particular attention to democratization, decentralization and productivity. Beside these