Professional Documents
Culture Documents
and applications of Biology
Stem cell technology
• Stem cells are undifferentiated biological cells that can differentiate into
specialized cells and can divide (through mitosis) to produce more stem
cells.
• They are the raw material from which all of the body’s cell mature.
• Stem cells give rise to brain cells, nerve cells, heart cells, pancreatic cells,
etc.
• Stem‐cell therapy is the use of stem cells to treat or prevent a disease or
condition. Bone marrow transplant is the most widely used stem‐cell
therapy, but some therapies derived from umbilical cord blood are also in
use.
There are three known accessible sources of autologous adult stem cells in
humans:
1. Bone marrow, which requires extraction by harvesting, that is, drilling
into bone (typically the femur or iliac crest).
2. Adipose tissue (lipid cells), which requires extraction by liposuction.
3. Blood, which requires extraction through apheresis, wherein blood is
drawn from the donor (similar to a blood donation), and passed through a
machine that extracts the stem cells and returns other portions of the
blood to the donor.
How can stem cells treat disease?
In a stem cell transplant, embryonic stem cells are first specialized into the
necessary adult cell type. Then, those mature cells replace tissue that is damaged
by disease or injury. This type of treatment could be used to:
1. Replace neurons damaged by spinal cord injury, stroke, Alzheimer’s
disease, Parkinson’s disease or other neurological problems;
2. Produce insulin that could treat people with diabetes and heart muscle cells
that could repair damage after a heart attack; or
3. Replace virtually any tissue or organ that is injured or diseased.
Peripheral Blood Stem Cells
• While most blood stem cells reside in the bone marrow, a small number are
present in the bloodstream.
• These peripheral blood stem cells, or PBSCs, can be used just like bone
marrow stem cells to treat leukemia, other cancers and various blood
disorders.
• Since they can be obtained from drawn blood, PBSCs are easier to collect
than bone marrow stem cells, which must be extracted from within bones.
• This makes PBSCs a less invasive treatment option than bone marrow stem
cells. PBSCs are sparse in the bloodstream, however, so collecting enough
to perform a transplant can pose a challenge.
Umbilical Cord Blood Stem Cells
• New‐born infants no longer need their umbilical cords, so they have
traditionally been discarded as a by‐product of the birth process.
• In recent years, however, the stem‐cell–rich blood found in the umbilical
cord has proven useful in treating the same types of health problems as
those treated using bone marrow stem cells and PBSCs.
• Umbilical cord blood stem cell transplants are less prone to rejection than
either bone marrow or peripheral blood stem cells.
• This is probably because the cells have not yet developed the features that
can be recognized and attacked by the recipient's immune system.
• Also, because umbilical cord blood lacks well‐developed immune cells,
there is less chance that the transplanted cells will attack the recipient's
body, a problem called graft versus host disease.
Genetically Modified Organisms(GMO)
• A genetically modified organism, or GMO, is an organism that has had its
DNA altered or modified in some way through genetic engineering.
• In most cases, GMOs have been altered with DNA from another organism,
be it a bacterium, plant, virus or animal; these organisms are sometimes
referred to as "transgenic" organisms.
• A gene from a spider that helps the arachnid produce silk, for example,
could be inserted into the DNA of an ordinary goat.That may sound far‐
fetched, but that exact process was used to breed goats that produce silk
proteins in their goat milk. The milk is then harvested and the silk protein is
isolated to make a lightweight, ultra‐strong silk with a wide range of
industrial and medical uses.
Transgenic Organisms
• Most transgenic organisms are generated in the laboratory for research
purposes.
• For example, “knock‐out” mice are transgenic mice that have a particular
gene of interest disabled. By studying the effects of the missing gene,
researchers can better understand the normal function of the gene.
• Transgenic organisms have also been developed for commercial purposes
• Perhaps the most famous examples are food crops like soy and corn that
have been genetically modified for pest and herbicide resistance.
• These crops are widely known as “GMOs” (genetically modified
organisms).
Here are few other examples of transgenic organisms with commercial
value:
1. Golden rice: modified rice that produces beta‐carotene, the precursor
to vitamin A. Vitamin A deficiency is a public health problem for millions
of people around the world, particularly in Africa and Southeast Asia.
Golden rice is still waiting regulatory approval.
2. Goats that produce important proteins in their milk: goats modified to
produce FDA‐approved human antithrombin (ATryn), which is used to
treat a rare blood clotting disorder in humans.
3. Goats have also been genetically modified to produce spider silk,one of
the strongest materials known to man, in their milk .Proposed uses for
this recombinant spider silk range from artificial tendons to bulletproof
vests.
4. Vaccine producing bananas: genetically engineered bananas that
contain a vaccine. Bananas provide an easy means for delivering a vaccine
(especially to children) without the need for a medical professional that is
trained in giving shots. Edible vaccines are still in development.
5. Chymosin producing microorganisms: yeast, fungi, or bacteria modified
to produce the enzyme chymosin, which splits milk to make cheese.
Traditionally, rennet (found in cow stomachs) is used to clot cheese. But,
when the demand for firm cheeses surpassed the amount of rennet
available, recombinant chymosin was developed and is used widely today.
6. Blue roses: roses modified with pansy genes to express a blue color. The
Japanese company Suntory developed the blue rose, which was previously
unattainable through traditional selective breeding approaches. Before
Suntory’s success, blue roses were created by dyeing techniques.
Gene therapy
• Gene therapy is the therapeutic delivery of nucleic acid polymers into a
patient's cells as a drug to treat disease.
• The first attempt at modifying human DNA was performed in 1980
by Martin Cline, but the first successful and approved nuclear gene transfer
in humans was performed in May 1989.
• The first therapeutic use of gene transfer as well as the first direct insertion
of human DNA into the nuclear genome was performed by French
Anderson in a trial starting in September 1990.
• Gene therapy is a way to fix a genetic problem at its source. The polymers
are either translated into proteins, interfere with target gene expression, or
possibly correct genetic mutations.
Gene therapy may be classified into two types:
Somatic
• In somatic cell gene therapy (SCGT), the therapeutic genes are transferred
into any cell other than a gamete, germ cell, gametocyte or
undifferentiated stem cell.
• Any such modifications affect the individual patient only, and are not
inherited by offspring.
• Somatic gene therapy represents mainstream basic and clinical research, in
which therapeutic DNA is used to treat disease.
• Most focus is on severe genetic disorders,
including immunodeficiencies, haemophilia, thalassaemia and cystic
fibrosis.
• Such single gene disorders are good candidates for somatic cell therapy.
Germline
• In germline gene therapy (GGT), germ cells (sperm or eggs) are modified by
the introduction of functional genes into their genomes.
• Modifying a germ cell causes all the organism's cells to contain the
modified gene.
• The change is therefore heritable and passed on to later generations.
Vectors in gene therapy
• The delivery of DNA into cells can be accomplished by multiple methods.
The two major classes are:
• recombinant viruses (sometimes called biological nanoparticles or viral
vectors) and
• naked DNA or DNA complexes (non‐viral methods).
Viral vectors
• In order to replicate, viruses introduce their genetic material into the host
cell, tricking the host's cellular machinery into using it as blueprints for viral
proteins.
• Scientists exploit this by substituting a virus's genetic material with
therapeutic DNA.
• A number of viruses have been used for human gene therapy,
including retrovirus, adenovirus, lentivirus, herpes
simplex, vaccinia and adeno‐associated virus.
• Like the genetic material (DNA or RNA) in viruses, therapeutic DNA can be
designed to simply serve as a temporary blueprint that is degraded
naturally or (at least theoretically) to enter the host's genome, becoming a
permanent part of the host's DNA in infected cells
Non‐viral vectors
• Non‐viral methods present certain advantages over viral methods, such as
large scale production and low host immunogenicity.
• However, non‐viral methods initially produced lower levels
of transfection and gene expression, and thus lower therapeutic efficacy.
Later technology remedied this deficiency.
• Methods for non‐viral gene therapy include the injection of naked
DNA, electroporation, the gene gun, sonoporation, magnetofection, the
use of oligonucleotides, lipoplexes, dendrimers, and inorganic
nanoparticles.
Speculative uses
• Fertility
• Gene doping
• Human genetic engineering
Biosensors
• A biosensor is an analytical device which converts a biological response into
an electrical signal.
• The term 'biosensor' is often used to cover sensor devices used in order to
determine the concentration of substances and other parameters of
biological interest even where they do not utilise a biological system
directly.
A successful biosensor must possess at least some of the following
beneficial features:
1. The biocatalyst must be highly specific for the purpose of the analyses, be
stable under normal storage conditions and, except in the case of
colorimetric enzyme strips and dipsticks (see later), show good stability
over a large number of assays (i.e. much greater than 100).
2. The reaction should be as independent of such physical parameters as
stirring, pH and temperature as is manageable. This would allow the
analysis of samples with minimal pre‐treatment. If the reaction involves
cofactors or coenzymes these should, preferably, also be co‐immobilised
with the enzyme.
3. The response should be accurate, precise, reproducible and linear over the
useful analytical range, without dilution or concentration. It should also be
free from electrical noise.
4. If the biosensor is to be used for invasive monitoring in clinical situations,
the probe must be tiny and biocompatible, having no toxic or antigenic
effects. If it is to be used in fermenters it should be sterilisable. This is
preferably performed by autoclaving but no biosensor enzymes can
presently withstand such drastic wet‐heat treatment. In either case, the
biosensor should not be prone to fouling or proteolysis.
5. The complete biosensor should be cheap, small, portable and capable of
being used by semi‐skilled operators.
6. There should be a market for the biosensor. There is clearly little purpose
developing a biosensor if other factors (e.g. government subsidies, the
continued employment of skilled analysts, or poor customer perception)
encourage the use of traditional methods and discourage the
decentralisation of laboratory testing.
Schematic diagram showing the main components of a biosensor. The biocatalyst (a)
converts the substrate to product. This reaction is determined by the transducer (b)
which converts it to an electrical signal. The output from the transducer is amplified (c),
processed (d) and displayed (e).
‘Generations' of biosensors
There are three so‐called 'generations' of biosensors;
• First generation biosensors where the normal product of the reaction
diffuses to the transducer and causes the electrical response,
• second generation biosensors which involve specific 'mediators' between
the reaction and the transducer in order to generate improved response,
and
• third generation biosensors where the reaction itself causes the response
and no product or mediator diffusion is directly involved.
Applications:
• Glucose monitoring in diabetes patients
• Other medical health related targets
• Environmental applications e.g. the detection of pesticides and river water
contaminants such as heavy metal ions.
• Remote sensing of airborne bacteria e.g. in counter‐bioterrorist activities
• Remote sensing of water quality in coastal waters by describing online
different aspects of clam ethology (biological rhythms, growth rates,
spawning or death records) in groups of abandoned bivalves around the
world
• Detection of pathogens
• Determining levels of toxic substances before and after bioremediation
• Detection and determining of organophosphate
• Routine analytical measurement of folic acid, biotin, vitamin
B12 and pantothenic acid as an alternative to microbiological assay
• Determination of drug residues in food, such as antibiotics and growth
promoters, particularly meat and honey.
• Drug discovery and evaluation of biological activity of new compounds.
• Protein engineering in biosensors
• Detection of toxic metabolites such as mycotoxins