SESSION 2:INTRODUCTION

Ethics
Principles of Ethical Behavior

Shared Resources Society

Nature

Morality Standards of Right and

Wrong

COMMUNITY

The Course is organized according to the three main elements of Moral Experience

Reason or Framework

THE HUMAN ACT

Cultural Environmental
Communal

THE NEED TO STUDY ETHICS:

1. Ethics makes clear to us why one act is better than the other.
2. Ethics contributes an orderly social life by providing humanity some basis for agreement, understanding some
principles or rules of procedure.
3. Moral conduct and ethical system both of the past and of the present, must be intelligibly appraised and criticized.
4. Ethics seeks to point out to men the true values of life.

ASSUMPTIONS OF ETHICS:

1. Man is a Rational Being

2. Man as Free
THE OBJECTS OF ETHICS:
1. Physical: The doer of the act.
2. Non Physical: The act done by doer.
HUMAN ACTS- are said to be the formal objects of ethics because they have moral value.
ACTS OF MAN: Involuntary natural acts, Voluntary natural acts, Amoral and Neutral Acts.
ACTS OF MAN
1. INVOLUNTARY NATURAL ACTS: these include the involuntary, intuitive or reflex acts exhibited by man.
2. VOLUNTARY NATURAL ACTS: Non-moral Acts. These acts involves a certain degree of freedom or
voluntariness. However they are categorized under acts of man because they are neither moral nor immoral. \
HUMAN ACTS
These include action that are conscious, deliberate, intentional, voluntary and within the preview of human value
judgment. These acts are either moral or immoral, because these are products of man’s rationality and freedom of choice,
which contain an element that allow for moral judgment and setting for moral responsibility.
CLASSIFICATION OF HUMAN ACTS
1. MORAL OR ETHICAL ACTS: These are moral Acts which observe or conform to a standard or norm of morality.
2. IMMORAL OR UNETHICAL ACTS: These are acts that violate or deviate from a standard of morality.
COMPONENTS OF MORAL ACTS
o Intention: or motive of the act.

o The means of the act: this is the act, object or person employed to carry out the intent of the act.

o The end: The intent of the act is always assumed to be directed towards the desired end or perceived
good.
HUMAN WILL
Moral acts stem from the human will that controls or influences the internal and external actions of man. The will
stirs a person to act or hampers him from acting. It colors the motives for his engaging or disengaging in a certain action.
Living against all odds, hoping in the midst of hopelessness, finding meaning in great loss, selfless sacrifice for
others-these are just few cases that demonstrate the power of the will to motivate the human soul for goodness, hope and
determination or the reverse. It is this art of the soul that affects the freedom and reasoning of the individual. The will is
the agency of choice.
The will may prompt reason to overpower passion or on the other extreme, arouse passion and allow it to overrun
reason. As such, the will is a potential force for both good and evil. The strength and weakness of the will determines the
strength and weakness of a person’s character.
Thus, the will affects one’s action, and that therefore, it must be brought closer to reason and to the proper sense
of morality and goodness. It is morality which directs the will to its proper choice through the instruction of the moral
sense which is borne out of human experience.
DESCRIPTION OF MORAL DIMENSION
Action:
It is the moving of oneself and taking concrete means in view of the goal or end, which is not yet but which
somehow ought to be. It requires man to take the means and to set into motion a course of events, starting from himself
and moving into the world, toward what ought to be , toward some future state of being, which eventually includes
himself and the world. This moral end or goal needs to be made more precise, but in any case, morality is primarily man
taking up action, doing something, realizing something which ought to be.
Freedom:
Morality requires man to act, to realize what he must be and what his very being ought to be. Morality therefore,
presupposes freedom of action. Freedom of choice of the means, Freedom of choice of intermediate goals, Freedom to
follow or not man’s ultimate end, the freedom to determine oneself to be truly he is.
Judgment:
Action can be judge as good or bad; right or wrong, which can be classified as the norms of morality, which refers
to some ideal vision of man, an ideal stage or perfection of man, which serves as the ultimate goal and norm. In this light,
the good seems to be the kind of ultimate norm, the measure of the ultimate meaning and worth of man’s existence.
(Norms: Technical, societal, Aesthetic, Ethical/Moral)
Universality:
The law of universality: “Act only on that maxim through which you can at the same time will that it should
become a universal law, that is: Action is moral in so far as one can say that any man in one’s place should act in the same
way. Morality therefore, of its very nature, is infinitely open and inclusive of any and every human person, placing man in
the context of the community of all fellow human beings. For this reason, equality and justice are the direct corollaries of
moral experience.
Obligation:
The state of being bound or required to do or not to do, a categorical imperative. In this sense, the good is
universally binding and obligatory on man so that his being is an “ought-to-be” and an “ought to act” in view of his very
being. That is the “good”.
MORAL AND NON MORAL STANDARDS
ETHICS
 Ethics is the principles of conduct governing an individual or a group.
An individual may have personal ethics. This will be the rules by which that individual lives his life.
A group such as a Physicians Association may have a code of ethics that is applied to the behavior of its
members.
Ethics is thus a mechanism to control or regulate the behaviors of individuals or groups.
Ethics is also the study of morality. In other words, ethics studies or investigates the morality of some conduct.
MORALITY
It is the standards that an individual or a group has about what is right and wrong, or good and evil.
MORAL STANDARDS
Originally comes from the Latin word moralitas (manner, character, proper behavior)
Is a set of standards/principles derived from how you behave, following a particular philosophy, (but also possibly
could be from a religion or culture), and it can derive from a standard that a person believes should be universal.
The quality of conforming to the principles of good conduct.

1. NORMS- these are the kinds of actions we believe are morally right and wrong. These norms are usually expressed as
general rules or statements.
“Do
“Do your
your
personal
personal
best at
best at all
all
times”
times”

“Always tell
“Always tell NORMS
NORMS “Be on time”
“Be on time”
the
the truth”
truth”

“It is wrong
“It is wrong to
to
steal”
steal”

2. VALUES- These are the judgments, in terms of good and bad, we put on objects.

“Injustice is bad.”

“Honesty is good”

SOURCES OF MORAL STANDARDS: WHERE DO MORAL STANDARDS COME FROM?

We learn about these standards through the socialization process as we grow up from childhood to adulthood.
When we become adults, experience, learning, and intellectual development may lead us to revise these standards. We
may even discard some moral standards and adopt new ones as we mature. Notice that we do not always live up to the
moral standards we hold. In other words, we do not always do what we believe is morally right. Also, we do not always
pursue what we believe is morally good.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF MORAL STANDARD
deals with matters that can seriously injure or benefit human beings.
Example: A drug company does not tell the side effects of its medications

1. Moral standards are not established or changed by the decisions of particular authoritative bodies.
2. Preferred to other values, particularly self-interest.

Moral standards are based on impartial

this means one should not be biased or prejudiced when making a decision. For example, a judge should
not judge on the basis of friendship. He does, then his judgment will be partial, not impartial.
NON-MORAL STANDARD
Standards about behavior or practices with no serious or immediate effects upon human well-being
CHARACTERISTICS OF NON-MORAL STANDARD
 Govern individual life, aspirations and desires and may decide a person’s place in his group.
 The standards by which we judge what is good or bad or right or wrong in a non-moral way.
 Standards of etiquette by which we judge manners as good or bad.
 Standards we call the law by which we judge legal right and wrong.
 Standards of aesthetics – good or bad art
 The athletic standards – how well a game is being played?
 Moral Standards
Deals with matters that can seriously injure or benefit human beings.
Not established or changed by the decisions of particular authoritative bodies.
Preferred to other values, particularly self-interest.
based on impartiality
Moral Standards are associated with special emotions and vocabulary

Non Moral Standards

Govern individual life, aspirations and desires and may decide a person’s place in his group.
The standards by which we judge what is good or bad or right or wrong in a non-moral way.
Examples of Non-moral standards include:
Standards of etiquette by which we judge manners as good or bad.
Standards we call the law by which we judge legal right and wrong.
Standards of aesthetics – good or bad art.
The athletic standards – how well a game is being played?

MORAL DILEMMA
MORAL Case That
To Do Not To Do
Needs Decision Making
Moral Moral
Reasons Conflict Reasons
Unclear Moral Values
Unclear Immediate
Rights Duties Goods Obligation Action Rights Duties Goods Obligation

INDICATION OF MORAL COMPLEXITY

Three Levels of Moral Dilemma

A DILEMMA is a situation in which a difficult choices has to be made between two different things.
A MORAL DILEMMA is a conflict in which you have to choose between two or more actions and have moral reasons
for choosing each action.
LEVELS OF MORAL DILEMMA

STRUCTURAL
ORGANIZATIONAL
INDIVIDUAL
INDIVIDUAL DILEMMA
an individual dilemma occurs in a situation in which individuals could do better if they either changed their
strategies or changed the rules being practiced.
ORGANIZATIONAL DILEMMA
It is all about on how to reconcile inconsistency between individual needs and aspirations on hand and the
collective purpose of the organization on the other.
A. Business Dilemma
Exist when an organization faces a choice to make a decision to choose between two or more options that impacts
on
a. The organizational profitability and competitiveness and
b. Its stakeholders
B. Dilemmas Physician’s Faced
These are three possible areas of decision making had been identified:
a. Using all possible means to keep the patients alive (ordinary and extra-ordinary)
b.Surgeons experiences ethical dilemmas in deciding, the right treatment in different situations
c. Taking some positive steps to hasten individual’s death.
STRUCTURAL DILEMMA
Finding a satisfactory system of roles and relationships is an ongoing, universal struggle. Managers confront
enduring structural dilemmas, tough trade – offs without easy answers.
The organizations structure is the way the company is organized to perform work. Symbolically in the Westbrook
Stevens Drivers of Change Model the organization is the house-like structure and segregates the internal environment from
the external environment. Implementing the structure can take many shapes.
Freedom as Foundation for Moral Acts
FREEDOM
 The power or right to act, speak, or think as one wants without hindrance or restraint
 The state of not being imprisoned or enslaved.
 The state of being free or at liberty rather than in confinement or under physical restraint.

FREEDOM----MORALITY
Freedom is essential for morality
MOTIVE FOR REASON ALONE --- FREE ----To Act Autonomously is to Act Motivated by Reason
EMOTION INTERFERE ---- UNFREE ----To Act Freely is to Act with the Motive of Reason Alone
FREEDOM AND RESPONSIBILITY
PLENTY DEFINITION OF FREEDOM

Freewill
Liberty
Rights
Freedom of speech
Freedom of choice
Autonomy
FREEDOM – the power or rights to act, speak, or think as one wants without hindrances or restraint.

TYPES OF FREEDOM
Internal freedom
External freedom
Collective freedom
Spiritual freedom
Political freedom
Self-freedom
1. Internal Freedom
The first and most basic type of freedom is embodied by the chap in jail.
Is of the greatest personal intimacy and secretiveness, indeed it is the hidden core of our being and
unknowable by others.
Some people call this moral freedom. But this kind of freedom is not in itself moral.
2. External Freedom
This refers to the normal and common freedoms expected in daily life, in most countries, throughout
history.
Sometimes called “freedom from...”
It implies immunity from undue interference by authority, especially by government.
3. Collective Freedom
Sometimes called “freedom for…”
Based on an ideology of collective unity that prescribes distinct social and moral values and objectives for
all.
Example, often under this ideal of freedom the state is allowed to control the production of all basic
citizen needs, thus giving them freedom-from-want.
4. Spiritual Freedom
In its purest form this type of freedom comes from striving for a complete identification with God to
arrive at a condition of soul that transcends the confusion and disharmony of the self and the material
world.
For this type, strict control if not denial of the allurements of the body leads to complete freedom of the
spirit.
5. Political Freedom
Sometimes called “freedom to...”
Has to do with establishing certain rights of action and limits to government power that help to guarantee
the practice of those rights.
The right to speak freely, to associate with people of your choice, to own property, to worship.
6. Self-Freedom
In the sense of learning how to escape the ever-present danger of enslavement by our own passions and
ignorance.
practice of self-control, restraint, and balance to achieve the admired master slave relationship of soul
over body
“to find myself”
RESPONSIBILITY
A duty or obligation to satisfactorily perform or complete a task (assigned by someone, or circumstances) that one
must fulfill, and which has a consequent penalty for failure.
RESPONSIBILITY CONTEXT
LEGAL
What can be established in a court on the basis of evidence?
Subject to additional legal criteria
MORAL
What the person actually did (truth, discovery)
Subject to further moral criteria
RESPONSIBILITY AND JUSTICE
a distinction between the objects of justice

GOODS
The traditional concern of distributive justice.
e.g. wealth, income, liberty, rights, happiness.
BADS
The traditional concern of theories of punishment (“retributive justice”)
poverty, deprivation, constraint, ill-treatment, misery

AN ASYMMETRY DESSERT
Deserving a “good” need not entail responsibility (mugging victim deserves compensation; patient deserves
medical care; everyone deserves respect; even a criminal deserves a fair trial)
Deserving a “bad” does seem to require responsibility (as in punishment )

FOUR KINDS OF RESPONSIBILITY

Role Responsibility- The duties one has for doing various things which come with occupying a certain role in
society
Causal Responsibility- what caused something to happen?
Liability Responsibility- Who is liable for something’s happening
Capacity Responsibility- The capacity of a person to be held liability responsible for their actions
THE RELATA OF RESPONSIBILITY
The Agent of Responsibility
The Agent of Responsibility
The Party the Agent is Responsible to

CULTURE AND MORAL BEHAVIOR

CULTURE
 Culture is the center of a society and without culture no society can even exist.
 It is the main difference between human beings and animals.
 It is a heritage transmitted from one generation to another. It includes all the ways and behaviors in social life.
 Culture is everything which is socially shared and learned by the members of a society.
 It is that complex whole including beliefs, arts, region, values, norms, ideas, laws, taught knowledge, customs,
and other capabilities acquired a man as a member of society.
 It is the totality of human experience acquired during transmission of heritage from one generation to another and
to learn the ways of learning, drinking, behaving, walking, dressing and working is the culture of man.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE
Culture is learned.
Culture is social.
Culture is shared.
Culture is continuous.
Culture is accumulative.
 Culture is integrated
Culture is changing.
Culture varies from one
Society to society.
Culture is responsive
Culture is gratifying
Culture is linked with society.
Components of Culture

1. Norms
-an authoritative standard
2. Beliefs
-an idea of how man thinks reality is “real”
-an assertion or conviction of how one believes that things are the way they are.
3. Knowledge
-is information and understanding about a subject which a person has, or which all people have
4. Folkways
-standards of behavior that are socially approved but not morally significant.
5. Mores
-strict norms that control moral and ethical behavior
6. Laws
-strict set of guidelines drafted and enacted by people who were given power.
7. Ideology
-system of ideas which attempts to explain reality
Two major aspects of culture
Material
Non-material
Moral Behavior- acting in ways consistent with what society and individuals typically think are good values.