Delamination in Wood Wood Products and Wood-Based Composites

Delamination in Wood, Wood Products
and Wood-Based Composites

Voichita Bucur
Editor
Delamination in Wood,
Wood Products
and Wood-Based Composites
123
Editor
Dr. Voichita Bucur
CSIRO
Clayton Laboratories
Materials Science and Engineering
Bayview Avenue
3168 Clayton Victoria
Australia
voichita.bucur@csiro.au
ISBN 978-90-481-9549-7 e-ISBN 978-90-481-9550-3

DOI 10.1007/978-90-481-9550-3
Springer Dordrecht Heidelberg London New York
Library of Congress Control Number: 2010938326
© Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011

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Cover image: Intra-ring internal checking in sample (100 × 50 mm – width × thick) of regrowth
Victorian Ash (Eucalyptus delegatensis or E. regnans). Photo taken by Philip Blakemore.
Printed on acid-free paper
Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com)

Foreword
It is with great pleasure that I prepare this foreword. The senior author, Professor
Voichita Bucur, is one the preeminent wood scientists in the world today. She is
well known for her excellent research on acoustics, especially the acoustic prop-
erties of wood and wood-based materials. Her previous books Acoustics of Wood
and Nondestructive Characterization and Imaging of Wood are outstanding ref-
erence documents; they provide a summary of much of the world’s research and
development efforts in these two important technical areas.
Professor Bucur has contacted widely respected technical authorities and asked
them to prepare chapters dealing with various aspects of the formation and detection
of separations and delaminations in wood-based materials.
P. Blackmore – CSIRO Australia, S Blumer Holzinnovationzentrum, Austria,
G Daian Melbourne University, Australia, BSW Dawson – SCION New Zealand,
F Divos – Faculty of Wood Science Sopron, Hungary , L. Donaldson – SCION
New Zealand, T. Gereke ETH Zürich, Switzerland, P.J. Gustafsson Lund University
Sweden, N. Haque – CSIRO Australia, CL Huang – Weyerhauser USA, S. Kazemi-
Najafi – Tarbiat Modares University, Iran, C. Mueller – ETH Zürich, Switzerland,
J. Neuenschwander – Empa Switzerland, P. Niemz – ETH Zürich, Switzerland,
K. Persson – Lund University Sweden, M.S.J. Sanabria Empa, Switzerland,
U. Sennhauser Empa, Switzerland, A. P. Singh – SCION New Zealand, all gra-
ciously agreed and provided excellent technical contributions.
This book is organized into three parts. Part I, General Aspects, presents much
needed basic information, including terminology, the theoretical basis for evalu-
ation of delamination in wood and wood-based materials, and mechanical stress
development in the woody cell wall in response to various stressors. A vibration-
based approach is proposed to evaluate delamination with ultrasonics or with low
frequency vibrations. Crack initiation and growth of delamination is studied with a
fracture mechanics approach. A theoretical model for collapse recovery is proposed.
Part II, Methodology for Delamination Detection and Factors Inducing and
Affecting Delamination, begins by examining a variety of methods for detecting
delamination in wood products, then delves into discussion of the formation of
delamination or separations at several levels – from the microscopic, anatomical
level within solid wood sections to examination of the interface of wood and surface
v
vi Foreword
coatings. The techniques presented for observing separations include confocal laser
scanning microscopy, light microscopy, scanning electron microscopy and ultra-
sonics. Excellent discussions of delamination caused by moisture induced stresses,
including those that form during the drying of wood and lumber products and those
observed with weathered wood surfaces, are included.
Part III, Delamination in Different Products, focuses on practical aspects of
delamination in a wide range of wood products. An excellent discussion of the
industry’s perspective is presented. Practical discussions dealing with the forma-
tion, detection, and performance problems associated with delamination in trees,
logs, laminated panels, composites, glued laminated timbers, and parquet floors are
presented in detail.
The authors prepared this book to serve as a primary reference on subject of
delamination in wood-based materials and products. It was prepared to provide a
concise source of information on the topic to manufacturers and users of wood
products, as well as research scientists. It was made possible through the efforts
of dedicated scientists who spent countless hours in laboratories developing techni-
cal information on this important subject. This book is a tribute to their efforts and
a significant contribution.
This book is a significant contribution to the wood science and technology liter-
ature. Professor Bucur has completed another significant contribution to the wood
science literature.
Project Leader Robert J. Ross, Ph.D.

USDA Forest Products Laboratory
October, 2009
Preface
Delamination occurs in all man made composite materials as well as in natural com-
posites like wood, bones or rocks. Many groups of specialists with widely different
backgrounds and interests need knowledge of factors influencing delamination in
wood, wood products and wood based composites. I was amazed with the lack of
information on the subject and particularly with the way in which the available infor-
mation is scattered in the literature. Out of this amazement arose the idea to write
and edit this book.
Part I of the volume deals with general aspects of delamination, the terms used
for defining delamination in wood science and technology and with the theoretical
aspects in the evaluation of delamination. Part II is directed at the methodology
developed for delamination detection. Factors that induce and affect delamination
are analyzed. Part III is a study of delamination in different products. Extensive
reference is made to the literature. An attempt has been made to select the most
important references for the corresponding chapter. Thus, for any given topic, it
should be easy for the reader to quickly acquaint himself with what has been done
by looking up the listed references. It is also the hope of the authors that this volume
will be a valuable source of information for the practitioner who mostly deal with
the design or evaluation of structures subjected to delamination.
In recent years manufacturers are becoming more aware of the importance of
delamination and other factors that affect the performance of their finished products.
Thus there is an evident need for this type of book.
Experts called upon to render opinions on structure safety are faced with not
only the daunting task of discovering and quantifying structural defects such as
delamination, but also translating those observations into the probability of failure
and determining levels of “unacceptable risk”. Even though the mechanics of wood
failure is better understood today than two decades ago, and the tools for nonde-
structive identification of defects are more accurate and powerful, the fact remains
that deciding what level of defect represent an “unacceptable risk” continues to be a
subjective judgment. This is particularly true for structures with significant but not
severe defects such as delamination and on sites that present high levels of risk (i.e.
snow).
The bibliography of this book is intended to be comprehensive and we hope, an
important contribution of this book (near 1000 references) is to accurately identify
vii
viii Preface
the evolution of ideas in the last decades. All references cited in the text are included
in the reference section at the end of each chapter.
At present, no comparable book exists covering the entire field of delamination
in wood, wood products and wood based composites.
The editor would like to firstly acknowledge the contributions by colleagues act-
ing as authors of the individual chapters, who gave their time and energy to prepare
this excellent text.
I would like to express my sincere thanks to all colleagues and organizations that
have made possible the publication of this volume, to the CSIRO – Commonwealth
Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation – Australia and SCION- Forest
Research Institute, New Zealand, who supported this idea. In preparing such a text
it is very difficult to acknowledge all the help given to the editor. I am indebted
to the three main scientific communities, wood science, mechanical and acousti-
cal communities who have undertaken research and development that is reflected in
the cited publications. This book encompasses a variety of recent research result, a
number of unpublished results and refinement of older material.
This book would certainly not have been possible without the help of my col-
league Nick Ebdon, CSIRO – Clayton, who work very hard on the preparation and
formatting all figures.
Last but not least, I would also thank my family and my Australian friends who
followed with interest and enthusiasm the progress of the manuscript of this book.
Working for this book was for me an extraordinary opportunity to discover the
natural splendors of Australia and the atmosphere of this country, which is a proud
modern civilization.
Melbourne, Victoria Voichita Bucur

October 2009
Acknowledgements
Permission for the figures cited in this book have been granted by Copyright
Clearance Center, (http://www.copyright.com), by different organisations and col-
leagues cited in the corresponding chapters of this book. The authors are very
thankful for their kind permission to reproduce figures.
As editor of this book, I own special thanks to Ms Danila Durante, Information
Specialist, CSIRO Australia, Information Management & Technology Division,
in Melbourne for numerous hours spent together for copyright permissions with
the new electronic system required by Copyright Clearance Center. Many, many
thanks are also addressed to Ms Bee Thia, Information Specialist, CSIRO Australia,
Information Management & Technology Division, for her continuous and enthusi-
astic help in collecting documents and books cited in this volume.
Melbourne, Australia Voichita Bucur
ix
Contents
Part I General Aspects

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Voichita Bucur
2 Terms for Delamination in Wood Science and Technology . . . . . 17
Voichita Bucur
3 Delamination Detection – A Vibration-Based Approach . . . . . . 33
Voichita Bucur
4 Initiation and Growth of Delamination in Wood
and Wood-Based Composites, a Fracture Mechanics Approach . . 51
Voichita Bucur
5 A Theoretical Model of Collapse Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Philip Blakemore
Part II Methodology for Delamination Detection and Factors

Inducing and Affecting Delamination
6 Delamination of Wood at the Microscopic Scale: Current
Knowledge and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Lloyd Donaldson
7 Probing the Wood Coating Interface at High Resolution . . . . . . 145
Adya P. Singh and Bernard S.W. Dawson
8 Delamination in Timber Induced by Microwave Energy . . . . . . 159
Georgiana Daian
9 Delaminations Induced by Weathering in Wood
and Wood-Based Composites Panels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Voichita Bucur
10 Delamination in Timber Induced by Drying . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Nawshad Haque
xi
xii Contents
Part III Delamination in Different Products

11 Industry Prospective of Delamination in Wood and Wood Products 215
Chih Lin Huang
12 Internal Checking During Eucalypt Processing . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Philip Blakemore
13 Acoustic Tomography for Tension Wood Detection in Eucalypts . . 255
Voichita Bucur
14 The Hygroscopic Warping of Cross-Laminated Timber . . . . . . . 269
Thomas Gereke, Per Johan Gustafsson, Kent Persson, and
Peter Niemz
15 Acoustic Emission Activity Induced by Delamination
and Fracture of Wood Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Voichita Bucur
16 Delamination Detection in Wood – Based Composites Panel
Products Using Ultrasonic Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
Voichita Bucur and Saeed Kazemi-Najafi
17 Delamination Evaluation of in-Service Glulam Beams
and other Structural Members Via Ultrasonics . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Ferenc Divos
18 Moisture Induced Stresses and Deformations in Parquet Floors . . 365
Samuel Blumer, Erick Serrano, Per Johan Gustafsson, and
Peter Niemz
19 Glue Line Nondestructive Assessment in Timber Laminates
with an Air-Coupled Ultrasonic Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
Sergio J. Sanabria, Christian Müller, Jürg Neuenschwander,
Peter Niemz, and Urs Sennhauser
20 From Present Researches to Future Developments . . . . . . . . . 389
Voichita Bucur
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
Contributors
Philip Blakemore Division of Materials Science and Engineering, CSIRO,

Clayton laboratories, Clayton South, VIC 3169, Australia,
philip.blackmore@csiro.au
Samuel Blumer b-h-e GmbH, Holzinnovationszentrum 1a, 8740 Zeltweg, Austria,
samuel.blumer@b-h-e.at
Voichita Bucur CSIRO, Materials Science and Engineering Div. Bayview Avenue,
Clayton, Victoria 3168, Australia, voichita.bucur@csiro.au
Georgiana Daian The University of Melbourne, Department of Forest and
Ecosystem Science, Melbourne, VIC 3010, Australia, gdaian@gmail.com
Bernard S.W. Dawson Wood and Biofibre Technologies, Scion Rotorua Te Papa
Tipu Innovation Park, 49 Sala Street Whakarewarewa, 3010, Bay Of Plenty,
New Zealand, dawson@scionresearch.com
Ferenz Divos Faculty of Wood Science, University of West Hungary, Sopron,
Hungary, divos@fmk.nyme.hu; divos@fakopp.com
Lloyd Donaldson Bioproduct Development, Scion - Next Generation
Biomaterials, 49 Sala St. Rotorua, Private Bag 3020, Rotorua 3046, New Zealand,
lloyd.donaldson@scionresearch.com
Thomas Gereke Composites Group, Department of Civil Engineering &
Department of Materials Engineering, The University of British Columbia, 6250
Applied Science Lane, Vancouver, B.C., Canada V6T 1Z4,
thomas.gereke@composites.ubc.ca
Per Johan Gustafsson Division of Structural Mechanics, Lund University,
P.O. Box 118, SE-221 00 Lund, Sweden, per-johan.gustafsson@construction.lth.se
Nawshad Haque Division of Minerals, CSIRO Clayton, Bag 312, Clayton South,
VIC 3169, Australia, Nawshad.Haque@csiro.au
Chih Lin Huang Weyerhaeuser Technology Center, 32901 Weyerhaeuser Way S,
Federal Way, WA 98001, USA, cl.huang@weyerhaeuser.com
xiii
xiv Contributors
Saeed Kazemi–Najafi Wood & Paper Science & Technology Department, Tarbiat
Modares University, Noor, Iran, skazemi@modares.ac.ir
Christian Müller Institute for Building Materials, Wood Physics, ETH Zürich,
Schafmattstrasse 6, CH-8093, Zürich, Switzerland, muellerc@ethz.ch
Jürg Neuenschwander Electronics/Metrology/Reliability Laboratory, Swiss
Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Empa,
Überlandstrasse 129, CH-8600, Dübendorf, Switzerland,
juerg.neuenschwander@empa.ch
Peter Niemz Institute for Building Materials, Wood Physics, ETH Zürich,
Schafmattstrasse 6, CH-8093, Zürich, Switzerland, niemzp@ethz.ch
Kent Persson Division of Structural Mechanics, Lund University, P.O. Box 118,
SE-221 00 Lund, Sweden, kent.persson@construction.lth.se
Robert J. Ross Forest Products Research Laboratory One Gifford Pinchot Drive
Madison, Madison, WI 53726, USA, rjross@fs.fed.us
Sergio J. Sanabria Electronics/Metrology/Reliability Laboratory, Swiss Federal
Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Empa, Überlandstrasse 129,
CH-8600, Dübendorf, Switzerland, sergio.sanabria@empa.ch
Urs Sennhauser Department of Electronics/Metrology/Reliability Laboratory,
Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Empa,
Überlandstrasse 129, CH-8600, Dübendorf, Switzerland, urs.sennhauser@empa.ch
Erik Serrano University of Vaxjo, Lucklings plats 1 SE 35195 Vaxjo, Sweden,
erik.serrano@vxu.se
Adya P. Singh Wood and Biofibre Technologies, Scion Te Papa Tipu Innovation
Park, Rotorua 3010, New Zealand, adya.singh@scionresearch.com
Part I
General Aspects
Chapter 1
Introduction
Voichita Bucur
Contents
1.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Solid Wood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 Wood-Based Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.1 Background
In order to improve the quality of mass produced wood-based composites and in
order to undertake quality assessment of adhesive interfaces in these materials it
is first necessary to develop the theoretical basis describing both qualitatively and
quantitatively, the quality parameters of the composite, and secondly to develop new
non-destructive techniques for their testing and evaluation.
Mechanical integrity of interfaces in wood-based composites plays a major role
in determining the serviceability of structures and their components. New advanced
materials (i.e. parallel-strand lumber, laminated veneer lumber, etc.) are designed
with specialty interfaces to increase fracture resistance of wood-based compos-
ite materials and to accommodate residual stresses. Of particular note is that the
mechanical properties of wood-based composites, used mainly in civil engineering,
may degrade severely in the presence of damage, often with tragic consequences.
Therefore damage detection is a very important issue in the context of structural
health monitoring for mechanical engineering infrastructure with elements in wood
and wood-based composites.
Wood-based composites are complex materials exhibiting important anisotropic
properties. Commonly observed damage in these materials are: delamination
V. Bucur (B)
CSIRO, Materials Science and Engineering Div. Bayview Avenue, Clayton,
Victoria 3168, Australia
e-mail: voichita.bucur@csiro.au
V. Bucur (ed.), Delamination in Wood, Wood Products and Wood-Based Composites, 3

DOI 10.1007/978-90-481-9550-3_1, C Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011
4 V. Bucur
Fig. 1.1 Delamination observed on cross sections of Douglas-fir laminated lumber. Note delam-
ination occurs predominantly in wood elements in the direction of medulary rays, frequently
starting or finishing at the interface between the earlywood and latewood (Vick and Okkonen 2000,
Figure 5a)
between plies, debonding of wood–adhesive layers, or wood fibre fracture.

Delamination, which is a debonding of two adjoining layers in the laminated
wood-based composite, is probably the most frequently observed damage.
Delamination can occur at several scales: Fig. 1.1 shows the cross section of
Douglas – fir lumber laminates with macroscopic delamination, while at a submicro-
scopic scale, delamination can be observed between the S1 and S2 layers in spruce
latewood tracheids, as can be seen in Fig. 1.2.
Delamination may result from manufacturing errors, by imperfect bonding, by
separation of adjoining piles, etc., or, during in service loading such as by acci-
dentally excessive loading produced for example by snow or, by fatigue in cyclical
environmental conditions of temperature and humidity.
Fig. 1.2 Delamination in spruce latewood tracheids between S1 and S2 layers (Zimmermann
et al. 1994, Figure 3)
1 Introduction 5
As noted by Garg (1988) many years ago, the prediction of delamination in com-
posites is a challenge for both scientists and manufacturers. This is due to the large
number of parameters involved in the design of composites and, on the other hand,
to the complexity of the stress state which leads to the initiation and propagation of
delamination.
For the initiation aspect of delamination, the tolerance prediction is based on
semi-empirical criteria, such as point-stress or average stress criteria. Due to the
use of such criteria, industries are led performing numerous tests in order to ensure
the safety margins for delamination failure are not exceeded. The non-propagation
certification relies on fracture mechanics analyses, which are very complex and
introduce difficulties for the characterization of the initial delamination pattern
(Srinivasan 1996; Murata and Masuda 2006).
The last 30 years there have been several important advances toward a better
understanding of the mechanics of laminated composites and of the damage mecha-
nisms, because of their intensive utilisation in aerospace engineering. This progress
concerns the analysis and identification on the micro, macro and meso scales, as
well as the development of advanced anisotropic material models. To be able to rely
on computational models, both academics and manufacturers recognize that a pre-
requisite is to develop a detailed material model with a clear identification procedure
and to validate this model by means of representative experimental tests.
The physics of delamination is governed by interactions among different damage
mechanisms, such as fibre breakage, transverse microcracking and debonding of
the adjacent layers of the cell wall. To understand the physics of delamination in
composite biological materials and more specifically in wood, wood based products
and wood-based composites, it is necessary to have detailed knowledge about the
microstructure of these materials.
As noted by Kelly (1989) in the Concise Encyclopedia of Composite Materials,
“plant cells are a good example of laminated composite material; the shape of the
cells is roughly tubular with various laminae of cellulose microfibrils glued together
to form a wall. Each lamina has a characteristic fibre orientation which can be
random, cross-helical or single-helical. . . . . . These biomaterials are grown under
stress; this means that the loading conditions of the structure as a whole can be
used effectively as blueprints for the most efficient use of fibre reinforcement. By
their very nature, natural fibrous composites are better materials in tension than in
compression and their use in many applications is often limited by this fact. The
excess of tensile strength available can be profitably used to pre-stress in tension
the regions of the structure which are more vulnerable into compressive loads. Also
the presence of water as compression members will result in lighter structures”.
1.2 Solid Wood

Wood is a natural fibrous, layered composite which exhibits a remarkable combina-
tion of properties related to strength, stiffness and toughness (Vincent and Currey
1980; Schniewind 1989). As noted by Schniewind (1981) “wood is composed from
6 V. Bucur
a complex aggregation of cells, of tubes shape, which during the life of the tree had
biological function. The structural features of wood are oriented following the prin-
cipal directions of growth of the tree, namely longitudinal-parallel to the axis of the
tree, radial and tangential – versus the annual rings”
Several models have been proposed to represent wood structure in relation to its
mechanical behaviour, starting with Price (1929), who modelled the cell structure
as an array of parallel cylindrical tubes, of isotropic structure, oriented in the stem
direction.
Another version, proposing also a tubular model, useful for modelling the cell
wall as a laminated composite material is presented in Fig. 1.3. A softwood or
conifer wood cell is essentially a hollow tube of about 30 μm diameter with a multi
layered laminated wall composed generally from four layers – primary wall, S1 , S2
and S3. The S2 layer, is the principal load bearing component of the cell wall and
is close to 80% of the total cell wall area. It contains cellulose components in the
form of microfibrils of about 10–20 nm in diameter. In most cases the microfibrils
lie at an angle to the cell axis and form a steep helix at an angle, ranging between
0◦ and 25◦ and 0◦ and 50◦ for hardwood and softwood respectively. Fibres with low
microfibril angle (10◦ ) posse high tensile strength (400 MPa) and low elongation
(1%). The cells are parallel to the grain direction and are bonded to each other by
an amorphous matrix containing mostly lignin. Nearly 90% of the cells are aligned
in one direction forming a honeycomb structure with highly anisotropic mechanical
properties. The alternation of spring and summer growth (earlywood and latewood
layers in the annual ring) in softwood and ring porous hardwood species from tem-
perate climates produces well known ring patterns which introduce a further element
of complexity.
Fig. 1.3 Layered structure of the cell wall modelled as a laminated composite material
(Mark 1967, Figure 1-7)
1 Introduction 7
A more complex model was proposed by Mark (1981), and consists of a

matrix and framework. The corresponding mechanical properties of the cell wall
material can be derived from the natural polymer constituent (cellulose, hemicel-
lulose and lignin) properties by the rule of mixture. The stiffness and strength
of cellulose itself are considerable, the theoretical value for Young’s modulus
and tensile strength being in the order of 250 GPa and 25 GPa (Mark 1967)
respectively.
Wood mechanical properties are considerably inferior to those of pure cellulose.
Figure 1.4 shows the degradation of Young’s modulus from cellulose to wood. To
E
illustrate this aspect, the ratio σrupture was analysed for several situations and the
smaller the ratio, the better the material will be in resisting crack propagation. In
an ideal solid this ratio is in the order of 10, however this ratio is about 100 in
longitudinal anisotropic direction of wood. The reduction of the Young’s modulus E
from cellulose to wood is due to largely to the very complex structural arrangement
of this material in which the microfibrillar angle plays a very important role.
The development of computation techniques in the last 25 years, and the progress
achieved in mechanical characterisation of solids in general and of composite mate-
rials in particular, affected positively the development of modelling of the wood
structure.
Gibson and Ashby (1988) proposed a cellular structure model with hexagonal
cell shape and used for calculation the principles of cellular solid mechanics. Some
improvements of this approach were given by Kahle and Woodhouse (1994) and
Watanabe et al. (2000, 2002), which considered the cell wall material as transversely
isotropic.
Significant progress in Wood Science has been achieved using multiscale mod-
els which were elaborated by using three-dimensional finite element simulation
of representative softwood related cellular models. In addition data related to the
microstructural characteristics such as the micrifibril angle and the chemical compo-
sition of the cell wall such as lignin, hemicelluloses, water and crystalline cellulose
were also integrated into their models (Harrington et al. 1998; Astley et al. 1998;
Yamamoto 1999; Persson 2000; Watanabe and Norimoto 2000; Yamamoto et al.
2005; Hofstetter et al. 2005, 2006; Fritsch and Hellmich 2007).
Using the experimental observations of wood behaviour at different scales,
Hofstetter et al. (2007) proposed a very original approach considering simultane-
ously the continuum mechanics for the solid-type behaviour of the cell wall and
on the other hand, the unit cell method, for the plate-type behaviour of the soft-
wood microstructure. It was stated that the activation of different load-carrying
mechanisms of cellular structure depends on the loading state of wood, such as
for example:
– the plate-type bending and shear deformations of the cell walls which are dom-
inant in tangential direction, when the transverse shear loading and longitudinal
compression straining are applied on solid wood specimens.
– the solid-type deformations are dominant in longitudinal and radial directions
when longitudinal shearing loading straining are induced on wood specimens.
8 V. Bucur
Fig. 1.4 Schematic representation of the degradation of mechanical properties of wood (expressed
by Young’s modulus) compared to those of pure cellulose (Jeronimidis 1980, Figure 2)
At a cellular scale the plate-like deformation modes were studied combining ran-
dom/periodic multi-step homogenisation with corresponding values obtained from
continuum micromechanics modeling. The average predictive capacity of this model
is low, about 8%, with very large variations depending on the value of the elas-
tic constants. The highest errors were observed on GRT (error can be as high as
290%) and on Poisson’s ratios (error of about 75%). It is very likely that the
1 Introduction 9
predictive capacity of this model could be substantially improved by using more

accurate values of the elastic constants at a microscopic scale, which can be obtained
with the development of specific acoustic microscopic technique as suggested by
Bucur (2003).
All these studies related to the modelling of wood structure clearly suggest that
delamination can occur between different layers at submicroscopic, microscopic and
macroscopic structural levels.
1.3 Wood-Based Composites
With regards to the wood-based composites, the mechanical behaviour of two

groups of products must be analysed: the laminated wood products such as glulam,
plywood, laminated veneer lumber (LVL), parallel-strand timber (PSL), structural
particleboard, oriented strandboard (OSB), the fibre-based products such as fibre-
board particleboard, paper and fiber reinforced composite such as fibre-cement
boards, carbon fibre-reinforced plywood, and wood and glass-fibre composites,
paper, etc.
Performance criteria for wood-based composites relate directly to product end
use. Laminated products are frequently used for structural purposes. This requires
consideration of engineering strength needs, safety and short and long term response
of the material to the service environment. Structural, exterior-grade products have
the most demanding bond-quality requirements, since glue line failure could be
catastrophic to these structures. In these situations glue line strength, durability
and reliability must be assured, by computational analysis and bond quality testing
programs. Computational models to simulate mechanical behaviour of new wood-
based composites are critically needed because of cost-effectiveness. The effects
of varying raw material characteristics on the mechanical properties of prospective
new products can be thoroughly analysed. The intensive and expensive bond quality
testing programs also can be improved by modeling.
The factors affecting the quality of adhesion in wood-based composites are
related to the heterogeneous and anisotropic character of wood reflected in the
anatomical characteristics, permeability, density and moisture content, fibre bonding
sites, and on the other hand in the nature of adhesives (thermosetting or ther-
moplastic). As noted by Schniewind (1981) “bond formation depends upon the
development of physical and chemical interactions both within the bulk adhesive
polymer and at the interface between adhesive and wood. Interactions within the
adhesive accumulate to give cohesive strength while the forces between adhesive
and wood provide adhesive strength. Both should exceed the strength of the wood
allowing substantial wood failure during destructive testing of high-quality bond”.
Optimum bond formation requires intimate contact between adhesive and wood sub-
strates to ensure macromolecular interaction over a large area. Different techniques
(X-ray, NMR, microindentation, etc.) were developed for the mechanical charac-
terisation of the wood-adhesive interface. Figure 1.5 shows the light microscopy
image of a spruce parallel-strand lumber specimen which contains fractured
10 V. Bucur
Fig. 1.5 Transverse section of spruce parallel-strand lumber which contains fractured and delam-
inated zones. The arrows indicate the zones tested via nanoindentation (Konnerth and Gindl 2006,
Figure 1)
and delaminated zones tested with the nanoindentation technique developed by

Konnerth and Gindl (2006).
Modelling of the mechanical behaviour of laminated wood composites for pre-
dicting elasticity and strength has been reported for more than 30 years in numerous
articles. A small snapshot of these include: Hunt and Suddarth (1974) who predicted
the Young’s modulus and the shear modulus of medium-density flakeboard, Okuma
(1976) studied the plywood properties influenced by the glue line, Gerrard (1987)
proposed an equivalent orthotropic elastic model for the properties of plywood,
Shaler and Blakenhorn (1990), Wang and Lam (1998) or Lee and Wu (2003) pre-
dicted the mechanical properties of oriented flakeboard. The mechanical behaviour
of laminated veneer lumber, LVL, has been studied by Bejo and Lang (2004), Castro
and Paganini (2003), Hata et al. (2001), Kamala et al. (1999), Lang et al. (2003),
Park and Fushitani (2006).
Finite element modelling of laminated wood composites as a multilayer system
was proposed by several authors (Triche and Hunt 1993; Suo and Bowyer 1995;
Clouston et al. 1998; Morlier and Valentin 1999; Nafa and Araar 2003; Wu et al.
2004) for predicting tensile, compression or bending strength and stiffness using
failure criteria. Clouston and Lam (2001, 2002) and Clouston (2007) proposed an
advanced methodology for analysing the multiaxial stress states in small specimens
of parallel wood-strand composites, using a 3D non-linear stochastic finite element
model and Monte Carlo simulations. The Tsai-Wu strength theory to predict the
ultimate load carrying capacity of a centre point off-axis bending member made
from Douglas fir laminated veneer, incorporating the size effect was reported by
Clouston et al. (1998).
1 Introduction 11
The behaviour of wood cement composites has been reported from the beginning
of there presence on the market, over 70 years ago as low-density and insulation
material. Today the cement bonded structural flakeboards offer high, fire, insect and
fungal resistance. In addition the quality has improved resulting in better weather-
ability and acoustic insulation (Lee et al. 1987; Mosemi and Pfister 1987; Fan
et al. 1999).
References relating to the modelling of mechanical behaviour of fibre-based
composites are as abundant as those for laminated wood-based composites, but only
several are cited here (Smulski and Ifju 1987; Claisse and Davis 1998; Lopez-Anido
et al. 2000; Moulin et al. 1990; Ogawa 2000; Pirvu et al. 2004; Rowlands et al. 1986;
Tascioglu et al. 2003; Tsai et al. 2005; Xu 2002; Xu et al. 2005; Chakraborty et al.
2006). Mechanical properties of fibre-based composites are influenced by factors
such as: fibre geometry, orientation and distribution, fibres packing in flake of differ-
ent orientation, random distribution of flakes, moisture content, adhesive-type, etc.
Single layer flake models and multilayer mat structures were suggested (Bodig and
Jayne 1982; Steiner and Dai 1993; Dai and Steiner1994; Lenth and Kamke 1996)
to explain the mechanical behaviour of fibre based composites. Several authors
(Ogawa 2000; Tascioglu et al. 2003) reported successful utilisation of hybrid fiber-
reinforced polymer composites – glulam products for structural applications in civil
infrastructures such as beams for bridges stringers, panels for bridge and pier decks.
It was noted that these composites are very resistant to delamination tests during
accelerated exposure to wetting and drying (Pirvu et al. 2004)
Mechanical defibering action produces important structural modifications such
as: internal fibrillation observed as a helical wraps of fibres, cell wall delamination,
external fibrillation which is the peeling off of the fibrils from the fibre surface, with
formation of fines, fibrils or fibrillar lamellae attached to the exterior fibre surface
and fibre shortening, depending on the refining conditions, the fibre type – hard-
wood or softwood – and the pulp type – mechanical or chemical. It is appropriate
to mention here that the hydroxyl groups available on the surface of the cellulose
molecule are the prime means by which fibres and cement, or other material used as
matrix, bond together.
The increasing environmental concern about the wastes from wood, wood prod-
ucts, forest waste and construction waste materials has given rise to the development
of new or improved technological processes such as the water vapour explosion pro-
cess. This process rapidly defibrates wood wastes producing a new raw material for
novel wood cement composites (Wei et al. 2004). Figure 1.6 shows the interfacial
zone between cement and wood fibres, with a delamination of the cell wall near the
wood-cement interface.
As noted by Schneider (1994) the development of fibre-based composites test-
ing methodology was encouraged as part of the efforts being made to control the
performance of low cost building materials for use in developing countries.
The renewed interest in producing new composites with wood fibre began almost
inadvertently in 1960, and Australia was a leading country in this field as noted by
Coutts (2005). In the 21st century a great need still remains to improve the durability
of fibre-based products and to study new, cheaper methods of fibre production and
12 V. Bucur
Fig. 1.6 Interface zone between cement and wood fibres, with delamination of the cell wall near
the interface wood-cement. (Wei et al. 2004, Figure 1C)
low cost processes. Durability of these products is related to matrix formulations,

processing methods and curing regimes. If natural fibre reinforced cement products
are to be readily available for low cost housing much research still remains to be
conducted for improving the durability of the products.
1.4 Summary
Commonly observed damage in wood products and wood-based composites are:
wood fibre fracture, delamination between plies or debonding of wood–adhesive
layers. Delamination which is probably the most frequently observed damage, may
be produced during manufacturing or, during in service loading such as accidental
excessive loading produced for example by snow or, by fatigue in highly variable
environmental conditions of temperature and humidity. Damage detection in general
and delamination in particular is a very important issue in the context of struc-
tural health monitoring for mechanical engineering infrastructure with elements in
wood and wood-based composites. The development of computational techniques
in the last 25 years, and the progress achieved in mechanical characterisation of
solids in general and of composites in particular, affected positively the develop-
ment of the modelling of wood mechanical behaviour in function of its structure.
Related studies clearly suggest that delamination in solid wood can occur between
different layers of the cell wall at submicroscopic, microscopic and macroscopic
structural levels.With respect to wood-based composites, the behaviour of two
groups of products has been analysed: the laminated products (plywood, laminated
veneer lumber, parallel-strand timber, structural particleboard, oriented strandboard,
etc.) and the fibre-based products (fibreboards, fibres-cement composites, carbon
fibre-reinforced plywood, particleboard, wood and glass-fibre composites). Finite
element modelling of laminated wood composites as a multilayer system was
1 Introduction 13
proposed. More recently analysis of the multiaxial stress states in parallel wood-
strand composites, has been proposed using a 3D non-linear stochastic finite element
model and Monte Carlo simulations. The development of fibre-based composites
testing methodologies must be encouraged as part of the efforts being made to
control the performance of low cost building materials.
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Chapter 2
Terms for Delamination in Wood Science
and Technology
Voichita Bucur
Contents
2.1 General Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

2.2 Terms for Delamination in Solid Wood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.3 Terms for the Delamination in the Cell Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.4 Terms for the Delamination in Laminated Wood Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.5 Terms for the Delamination in Wood-Based Fibre and Particle Panels . . . . . . . . 25
2.6 General Classification of Delamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.1 General Terms

In Material Science, delamination is defined as a sub critical damage to the inter-
faces between the plies in a laminate composite that causes a reduction in the load
carrying capacity of composite (Morris 1992).
The terms which describe delamination in wood and wood- based composites
are very numerous and often confusing due to a multitude of reasons (the use of
terms which were considered inappropriate in recent days, new technologies related
to microscopic observation of the structure, etc). A comprehensive understanding of
these terms is essential for the uses of wood products under competitive conditions
of modern technology. This chapter discusses the terms that refer to delamination
in solid wood, in wood cell wall, in laminated products, and in fibrous and particle
board wood-based composites.
V. Bucur (B)

18 V. Bucur
2.2 Terms for Delamination in Solid Wood

Terms which express delamination in solid wood have been defined in very well
known reference textbooks (Kollmann and Cote 1968; Panshin and de Zeeuw
1980) and standards under the label of defects which develop in wood after it has
been cut.
In what follows we quoted the terms as referred in ASTM D9
– Check – a separation of wood along the fibre direction that usually extends across
the rings of annual growth, commonly resulting from stress set up in wood during
seasoning.
◦ End check – a seasoning check occurring on the end of a board or other piece
of wood.
◦ Heart check – a check that extends across the growth layers in one or more
directions from the pith toward, but not to, the surface of a piece of wood. A
synonym is pith check
◦ Roller check – a crack in the wood structure caused by a piece of cupped lumber
being flattened between machine rollers
◦ Star check – a heart check in which the separation extends in more than one
direction from the pith
◦ Surface check – a check occurring on the surface of a piece of wood, usually
on the tangential face not extending through the piece.
◦ Through check – a check that extends through a piece of wood, or from a
surface to the opposite or to an adjoining surface.
– Collapse – the flattening of single cells or rows of cells during drying or pressure
treatment of wood, characterized by a caved or corrugated appearance
– Cracks see shake
– Cross Break – a separation of the wood cells across the grain. Such breaks may be
due to the internal stress resulting from unequal longitudinal shrinkage or external
forces.
– Honeycombing – in lumber and other wood products, is the separation of the
fibers in the interior of the piece, usually along the rays. The failures often are
not visible on the surface, although they can be the extensions of surface and
end checks.
– Shake – a longitudinal separation of the wood. Generally two forms of shake
are recognized, although variations and combinations may be used in industrial
definitions
◦ Heart shake – a shake that starts out at or near the pith and extends radially.
Synonyms are heart cracks, rift crack. A heart shake in which several radial
cracks are presented is termed a star shake
◦ Ring shake – shake occurring in standing trees, in the plane of the growth
rings in the outer position of the latewood for partial or entire encirclement
2 Terms for Delamination in Wood Science and Technology 19
of the pith, occasionally moving radially to an adjacent latewood ring. A syn-

onym is “cup shake”. Meyer and Leney (1968) described ring shakes from
standing conifer trees as compound middle lamella failures, usually in late-
wood, with loose fibres and deposites of extraneous material on their shake
surface.
◦ Handsplit and resawn shakes – a shake having a split face and a sawn back
◦ Tapersplit shake – a shake having two split faces and a natural shingle like taper
◦ Straightsplit shake – a shake having two split faces and with no pronounced
taper
– Split a separation of the wood parallel to the fiber direction, due to the tearing
apart of the wood cells.
2.3 Terms for the Delamination in the Cell Wall
The cell wall has a typical layered structure composing three main layers – S1 ,
S2 , S3 – of variable thickness, in the micron (μm) range, composed of cellulosic
microfibrils embedded in an amorphous matrix. Delamination can occur between
layers as well as inside the same layer, and can be produced by growth related
defects in living trees or can be a defect which develop in wood after it has been
cut. Table 2.1 synthesises the terms related to the cell wall structure, describing
wood delamination at the submicroscopic level.
The spectrum of terminology that has been used in profusion in the numer-
ous articles cited in this table need to be put in concordance with the mechanical
approach proposed in Chapters 3 and 4 of this book, for the description of phenom-
ena related to the delamination in wood and wood – based composites. On the other
hand, as noted by Wilkins (1986) the future nomenclature “needs to remain flexible
and include further terms derived from the development of the tools for wood struc-
ture inspection”. One can speculate about the contribution of new technologies for
higher resolution microscopy in relation to wood ultrastructure which influence its
mechanical behaviour.
2.4 Terms for the Delamination in Laminated Wood Products
Structural laminated products include plywood, various composites of veneer and

of wood based laminates such as laminated veneer lumber, glued laminated lumber,
wood fibre-reinforced polymer composites, etc.
Plywood as defined in ASTM D 1038 – as “usually a crossbanded assembly made
of layers of veneer or veneer in combination with a lumber core or other wood-
based panel material jointed with an adhesive. Plywood is generally constructed of
an odd number of layers with grain of adjacent layers perpendicular to one another.
Outer layers and all odd-numbered layers generally have the grain direction oriented
parallel to the long dimension of the panel”.
20 V. Bucur
Table 2.1 Nomenclature of cell wall deformation as referred in publications until 2007
Term Author Occurrence Description
Buckle Robinson (1920) Buckling of cell, equivalent to

Brush’s (1913) term
“bending”
Buckling Scurfield et al. Buckling of fibres precedes
(1972) macroscopic failure
Buckling Kucera and Bariska Thin walled cells Deformation characterized by
(1982) and tissues coarse transverse folds and
longitudinal cracks in the
inner cell wall layers
Buckling of the cell Wilkins (1986) Observable at Reference of the level of
wall microscopic observation must be made
level
Cell wall crinkle Green (1962) Structural deformation of cell
wall frequently referred to as
slip planes
Cell wall fold Green (1962) Common in trees Cell wall distortion or
and stressed discontinuity which is more
wood pronounced than a cell wall
crinkle. Produced by growth
stress in trees or in wood by
applied perpendicular stress.
Compression crease Wilkins (1986) Observable at Horizontal rows of slip planes
refereed as microscopic
microscopic level
Compression crease, Wilkins (1986) Observable with Horizontal rows of slip planes
refereed as naked eye
macroscopic
Compression wood Keith (1974) Deformation with a marked
and microscopic resemblance to Scurfield et al.
compression (1972) defined as “wrinkling
failure of the cell wall
linings
Corner crinkle Green (1962) Observable with Minute crinkle originating in, or
light confined to, the thickenings at
microscope the corners of tracheids
Corrugation Green (1962) Observable with Cell deformations ranging from
light smooth undulations to sharp
microscope peaked folds
Crack arrested Thuvander and Observable with crack propagation stopped in the
Berglund (2000) light latewood
microscope
Crack growth and Dill-Langer et al. Observable with Progress of crack in early wood
microcracks (2002) confocal Laser
Scanning
Microscope
Crack propagation Fruhmann et al. Observable in Crack initiation and propagation
(2003) ESEM in earlywood
Crinkle Robinson (1920) Spruce wood Local or horizontal bands of cell
wall “crinkles”
Table 2.1 (continued)
Crinkling Bienfait (1926) In earlywood Permanent “telescoping

during early deformation”
gross failure
Fine microscopic Dinwodie (1968) 1 to 2 slip planes in depth,
crease, notes C1 covering more than 2 cell wall
in width
Fine microscopic Dinwoodie (1968) 3 to 6 slip planes in depth
crease, notes C2
Fold Robinson (1920) Spruce earlywood Folding of cell
Fine and transwall Donaldson (1995) Radiate pine Observations with SEM
fractures
First step of crack Sippola and Pinus sylvestris Observations with SEM
propagation Fruhmann (2002)
Fracture surface Reiter et al. (2002) Different species Observations with SEM
Reiter and Sinn
(2002)
Gross compression Bienfait (1926), Tissue with initial Continuous deformation formed
failures with light Dadswell and failure present, after initial failure
microscopy Langlands (1934) also occurs in development
both heart and
truewood of
Eucaliptus
diversicolor
Gross microscopic Dinwoodie (1968) More than 5 slip planes in depth
crease C3
Initial compression Bienfait (1926) Numerous in The lining up of slip planes to
failures earlywood form definite zones of failure
Interwall Côté and Hanna Observable with Slip planes as described by
deformations (1983) SEM Keith and Côté (1968)
Irregular crack Vasic and Stanzl- observable in fracture through vessels
profile Tschegg (2007◦ ) ESEM oak
Macroscopic Côté and Hanna Observable with Buckling of fibres which is
buckling (1983) SEM preceded by cell wall
deformation and related to
slip plane formation
Macroscopic Dinwoodie (1966) Horizontal zone of dislocations,
compression produced by failures in
crease adjacent cell wall.
Macroscopic Keith (1974) Observable with Involves the development of
compression SEM shear planes, buckling of
failure whole fibres and is normally
preceded by slip plane
development and microscopic
compression creases
Macroscopic Kucera and Bariska Observable with Deformation visible to the naked
compression (1982) SEM eye. Multilayered
failure lines or accumulation of the structural
creases deformation pattern
22 V. Bucur
Macroscopic Kisser and Observable with Enlarged microscopic

compression lines Steininger (1952) light compression line which is
microscopy visible to the naked eye
Microscopic Dinwoodie (1966) Severe crinkling of the cell
compression walls, produced by increased
crease loading following
microscopic compression
crease formation
Microscopic Dinwoodie (1966) Distinct rows of dislocations.
compression The second stage in cell wall
crease or line failure following slip plane
formation. May develop
independent to slip planes.
Microscopic Keith and Côté Observable with Closely associated converging
compression (1968) SEM or crossing slip line
failure
Microscopic Kucera and Bariska Observable with Microscopically visible changes
compression (1982) SEM in cell shape as buckling
failure lines or and/or telescopic shortening,
creases type S or U. Type S : double
bending, type U – triple
bending
Microscopic Kisser and Common in most Progression of slip lines
compression lines Steininger (1952) wood species horizontally, from fibres to
fiber
Minute compression Dadswell and Common in brittle A lining up of failures in
failure Langlands (1934) heart adjacent cell wall, and
produced by incipient decay
Minute dislocation Dinwoodie (1966) Common in wood Slip line
species
Multiple slip plane Scurfield et al. Synonymous with “creases”
(1972) defined by Dinwoodie 1968 as
areas where varying numbers
of slip planes are
concentrated. The next stage
following slip plane
formation.
Node Green (1962) Common in Severe type of cell wall fold.
pulped Point of flexing in pupl
tracheids and tracheids
stressed wood
Offset Bienfait (1926) In latewood Bending of fibres from the
during early original axial line
gross failure
Pre-crack Boatright and Macroscopic Crack propagation normal to the
Garrett (1983) crack extension plane of the pre-crack in LT
occurring parallel to the grain
Predominant fracture Donaldson (1995) Radiate pine Differences in fracturing
at S1 /S2 boundary behaviour
Radial dislocations Chafe (1977) Radial dislocations found in the

inner S2 and extending to the
cell lumen. Removal of
growth stress causes cell
shortening and the closer
packing of microfibrils
changes the lumen surface
from smooth to convoluted
Slip planes, and slip Kucera and Bariska Observable with Local deformation or crinkling
lines (1982) SEM of cellulose fibrils in the
whole of the cell wall of one
or two neighbouring cells,
without prominent change in
shape of cell
Slip lines, slip Robinson (1920), Common in most Fine crack lines in the cell wall,
planes, as defined Bienfait (1926), wood species preceding buckling, crinkling
between 1920 and Dadswell and and tension failure. A crinkle
1952 (observed Langlands (1934), in the cell wall. Fine streaks
with light Wardrop and intercrossing at a certain angle
microscope) Dadswell (1947); and extending through the
Kisser and secondary wall
Steininger (1952)
Slip plane in relation Dinwoodie (1968) Dislocation or crinkling of the
to microfibrils fibrils comprising the cell wall
occurring either singly or in
pairs
Slip plane with SEM Wilkins (1986) Observable with All deformation observed as
SEM wrinkled transverse lines
Slip plane, defined Keith and Observable with Non-crossing single line cell
using SEM, after Côté (1968), SEM wall deformation. Possibly a
1960 Keith (1971) stage in microscopic
compression failure and not
always a sectioning
artefact.
Slip planes Wilkins (1986) Observable with The scale of observation and the
light type of microscope used must
microscope or be defined
with SEM
Stress line and Scurfield et al. Pre-cursor of slip plane. Barely
microfibrils (1972) detectable cellulose
microfibril deformation
Stress lines, or thrust Dinwoodie (1968) Precursor of slip planes. Slight
lines dislocation virtually
unobservable by polarization
microscopy or staining, but
observable by electron
microscope
24 V. Bucur
Stress lines or thrust Kucera and Bariska Observable with Wrinkling in the cell wall
lines (1982) SEM towards the lumen, affecting
“cell wall lining”
Telescopic Kucera and Bariska Mainly thick A diversion of cells from their
shortening (1982) walled cells natural axial orientation
Thrust line Kisser and Frenzel Common in most Slight local thickenings of the
(1950) wood species cell walls due to small
deformation of the fibrils.
Pre-slip plane
Thrust lines, slip Wilkins (1986) Observable with May be considered
planes, light morphologically similar
compression microscope or
creases with SEM
Thrust-line or stress Wilkins (1986) Observable only Pre-slip plans deformation,
lines describe only with SEM which are not distinguishable
those slip planes from slip planes when using
not observable SEM .
with light
microscopy
Transverse fracture Sell and High resolution Poly-laminated concentric
surface Zimmermann FE -SEM structure of the cell wall
(1998) layers observed in transverse
surface
Wrinkling of cell Scurfield et al. Involves only the covering lining
wall (1972) the lumina of fibres. It is a
stage after multiple slip plane
formation in the sequence of
events occurring during axial
compression
Delamination effects in plywood, as defined in ASTM D 1038 are noted below:
– Blister in plywood is an elevation of the surface of an adherend (separation

between plies) somewhat resembling in shape a blister on the human skin; its
boundaries may be indefinitely outlined and it may have burst or become flattened.
– Broken Grain (shelling, leafing, grain separation) a separation on veneer surface
between annual rings.
– Closed Surface Checks
– Delamination – the separation of layers in a laminate because of failure of the
adhesive, either in the adhesive itself or at the interface between the adhesive and
the adherent
– Durability as applied to the glue bond – its resistance to deterioration related to
exposure conditions – see also delamination
– Gap – an open joint or split in the inner plies which results when cross band or
centre veneers are broken or not tightly butted
– Open Joint – failure of bond or separation of two adjacent pieces of veneer so as
to leave an opening, usually applied to edge joints between venerers
– Rupturing of some of wood structural elements which forms cavities of various

sizes in radial plane
– Skips or Voids in the glueline of plywood
– Starved Joints – a glue joint that is poorly bonded because of an insufficient
quantity of glue.
– Sunken joint in plywood – a depression in the surface of the face ply directly
above the edge joint in a lumber core or crossband. Usually the result of localized
shrinkage in the edge-jointed layer.
– Wood Failure -
◦ as applied to plywood glueline testing – the area of wood fiber remaining at
the glueline following completion of the specific shear test. Determination is
by means of visual examination and expressed as a percent of the test area
◦ As applied to failure in plywood not directly associated with the adhesive, is a
rupture, shelling, tearing or breaking of wood itself.
The standard ASTM D 1101 refers to the integrity of glue joints in structural
laminated wood products for exterior use and employs the term delamination such
as: “Delamination is a term used to express separation of the wood surfaces at the
glue joints. When the separation takes place in the wood member, even though very
close to the glue joint, it is termed wood failure or checking”. Furthermore it is noted
that since glue joints at knots and knotty areas in general are not detectable under
severe exposures, development of delamination at knots should be disregarded and
not included in the measurements or calculations.
Quantification of the delamination effect in laminated panels is noticed in the
following standards:
– the shear through the thickness of structural panels (ASTM D 2719)

– the shear modulus of wood based laminated structural panels (ASTM D 3044)
– the toughness of wood based structural panels (ASTM D 3499)
– the stresses for structural glued-laminated timber (ASTM D 3737)
– the stresses for structural composite lumber products (ASTM D 5456)
– the accelerated aging test (ASTM 1037, Chapter 7) for the ability of the material
to withstand severe environmental exposure conditions .
2.5 Terms for the Delamination in Wood-Based Fibre

and Particle Panels
ASTM D 1554 gives the terms related to wood-based fibre and particle panels
defined “as a group of board materials manufactured from wood or other ligno-
cellulosic fibres or particles to which binding agents and other materials may be
added during manufacture to obtain or improve certain properties”. Under the
generic name of wood-based fibre and particle panels, two types of panels are
included: the fibrous – felted panels and the particleboards. Fibreboard panels –
is “a board generic term encompassing sheet materials of widely varying densities
26 V. Bucur
manufactured from refined or partially refined wood fibres”(for example: medium

density fibreboard (MDF) having the density between 400 and 800 kg/m3). Particle
board is composed of particles such as: chips, flakes, strands, wood – wool, etc.
“The particle is the aggregate component of a particleboard manufactured by
mechanical means from wood or other lignocelullosic material, comparable to the
aggregate in concrete”.
The delamination effect in wood-based fibre and particle panels is noticed in:
– ASTM D 1037 and is related to the shear test in compression, to the interlaminar
shear test and to the edgewise shear test which is a shear test normal to the plane
of the board
– ASTM D 1038 which recommends the accelerated aging test “used to obtain a
measure of the inherent ability of a material to withstand severe exposure condi-
tions. The cycling exposure to which the material shall be subjected is a simulated
condition developed to determine relatively how a material will stand up under
aging conditions” of high temperature and high relative humidity. The determi-
nation of the cohesive bond strength of the fibres or particles on the surface of
wood – base fibre and particle panels in the direction perpendicular to the plane
of the panel is regulated by ASTM D 5651.
2.6 General Classification of Delamination
The myriad of terms related to delamination in wood and wood–based compos-

ites, presented previously required a new classification, which can support a more
general mechanical approach related to delamination initiation and growth. In the
following we propose to follow the classification suggested by Bolotin (1996)
for engineering artificial composites. The criterion of this classification is the
position of delamination into the member, such as: internal delamination, near
surface delamination and delamination producing multi-cracking of the member
(Fig. 2.1).
Fig. 2.1 Position of delamination in layered composite materials. (Bolotin 1996, Figure 1)
Legend: (a) internal delamination, situated within the bulk of the material, can be studied with
conventional fracture mechanics (b) near – surface, or crack – like defect, very often accompanied
by their buckling, can be studied with the theory of elastic stability (c) multiple cracking – crack
like flow affecting the load carrying capacity of the member and the safe life of the structure
In the context of structural health monitoring, the mechanical behaviour of

composites with delamination can be studied with linear or non linear Fracture
Mechanics, with nondestructive ultrasonic methods and with model dependent
methods implemented by finite element analysis, which are able to provide local
and global damage information.
The internal delamination will be referred to as delamination observed as cracks
and studied with Fracture Mechanics. Internal delamination can be detected in solid
wood as well in as in wood-based composites at submicroscopic, microscopic and
macroscopic scale. For example: in solid wood, between the middle lamella and
the other cell wall layers or between the S1 and S2 layers or between S3 and G
layers as frequently observed for compression wood or tension wood (Fig. 2.2).
At macroscopic scale the delamination occurs in the annual ring between zones of
different densities such as earlywood and latewood, or earlywood and medullary
rays. In wood-based composites such as fibreboards, the fibre adhesive interaction
during manufacturing is random and sometime the fibres remain attached in
bundles, the middle lamella is degraded and large voids between the fibres can be
observed (Fig. 2.3).
Fig. 2.2 Delamination in poplar wood, between the middle lamella and the other cell wall layers
or between the middle lamellae LM, S1 and S2 or between S3 and G due to drying. Bar _________:
10 μm (Clair 2001, Figure 69)
28 V. Bucur
Fig. 2.3 Delamination in fibreboards is observed as large void between the fibers Murmanis
et al. (1986, Figure 4) Legend: V = vessel, P = parenchyma, F = fibers, ML = middle lamella
(a) Wet formed hardboards, high density with 0.5% phenol – formaldehyde. The dark granular
material is scattered between cells. White zones are voids. Arrow shows the softened mid-
dle lamella (ML). Microphotograph×4760. (b) Wet formed hardboards, high density with 0.5%
phenol – formaldehyde. Because of the pressure ML is in the fiber lumen. White zones are
voids. Microphotograph×5300. (c) Dry-formed hardboard, high density with 0.5% phenol –
formaldehyde. Parenchyma (P), vessel (V) and fibres (F) are present. White zones are voids.
Microphotograph×3040.
Near surface delamination is situated just near the member surface and is
always accompanied by buckling such as blisters in plywood originating from the
manufacturing process. Its growth is observed as interlaminar damage.
Delamination producing multiple cracking through the whole thickness of the
member, without separation of the layers is typical for seasoning checks in solid
wood. In fibrous composites this defect is very frequent and is induced during
the manufacturing process by thermal factors. In structural layered wood-based
composites multiple cracks can be observed in LVL or in glulam structural mem-
bers in service, used in civil engineering (i.e. houses, bridges, sport halls, etc.).
Technological instabilities in the fabrication process, shrinkage produced by thermal
and chemical factors, biological degradation, etc., are sources of initiation of mul-
tiple delaminations. Local instability and crack growth in glued laminated timber
may produce the global instability of large structural components which in extreme
cases may even result in failure of the whole structure with the potential to cause
loss of life.
The implementation of damage detection strategies must be a constant object
of preoccupation for engineers and wood technologists for permanent structural
health monitoring of buildings and structures incorporating wood or wood-based
composites. Reliable information regarding the integrity of the structure can help
in the prognosis of these structures under current environmental conditions and
estimate the remaining useful life of the system.
2.7 Summary
In Material Science, delamination is defined as a sub critical damage to the inter-

faces between the plies in a laminate composite that causes a reduction in the load
carrying capacity of composite (Morris 1992). The terms which describe delam-
ination in wood and wood- based composites are numerous and often confusing
for multiple reasons (the use of terms which were previously considered inappro-
priate, new technologies related to microscopic observation of the structure, etc).
A comprehensive understanding of these terms is essential for the uses of wood
products under competitive conditions of modern technology. A new classifica-
tion of the delamination in wood, wood products and wood-based composites is
proposed, depending on its position in the member, such as: internal delamination,
near surface delamination and delamination producing multi-cracking of the mem-
ber. Fracture Mechanics is an useful tool for the study of initiation of cracks and
growth of delamination in wood and wood-based composites.
In the context of structural health monitoring, the detection of damage induced
by delamination in wood-based composites can be achieved with nondestructive
ultrasonic methods and with model dependent methods implemented by finite
element analysis. These methods are able to provide local and global damage
information, as can be seen in Chapter 3.
References
American Society for Testing and Materials (2007) Standard terminology relating to wood and
wood-based products. ASTM D 9 – 05. Philadelphia, PA
American Society for Testing and Materials (2007) Standard test methods for evaluating properties
of wood - base fibre particle panel material. ASTM D 1037-06a. Philadelphia, PA
30 V. Bucur
American Society for Testing and Materials (2007) Standard terminology relating to veneer and
plywood. ASTM D 1038- 83 (2005) Philadelphia, PA
American Society for Testing and Materials (2007) Standard terminology relating to wood-based
fibre and particle panel material ASTM D 1554 - 01 (2005) Philadelphia, PA
American Society for Testing and Materials (2007) test methods for structural panels in shear
through the thickness. ASTM D 2719 – 89 (2007) Philadelphia, PA
American Society for Testing and Materials (2007) Standard test method for shear modulus of
wood-based structural panels. ASTM D 3044 – 94 (2006) Philadelphia, PA
American Society for Testing and Materials (2007) Standard test method for toughness wood-based
structural panels. ASTM D 3499 – 94 (2005) Philadelphia, PA
American Society for Testing and Materials (2007) Standard practice for establishing allowable
properties of structural glued-laminated timber (glulam). ASTM D 3737- 07 Philadelphia, PA
American Society for Testing and Materials (2007) Specification for evaluation of structural
composite lumber. ASTM D 5456-06 Philadelphia, PA
American Society for Testing and Materials (2007) Standard test method for surface bond strength
of wood-based fibre and particle panel material ASTM D 5651 – 95a (2002) Philadelphia, PA
American Society for Testing and Materials (2007) Standard guide for evaluating mechani-
cal and physical properties of wood-plastic composites products ASTM D 7031 -04 (2004)
Philadelphia, PA
ASTM D1101 - 97a (2006) Standard Test Methods for Integrity of Adhesive Joints in Structural
Laminated Wood Products for Exterior Use
Bienfait JL (1926) Relation of the manner of failure to the structure of wood under compression
parallel to the grain. J Agri Res 33:183–194
Boatright SWJ, Garrett GG (1983) The effect of microstructure and stress state on the fracture
behaviour of wood. J Mat Sci 18:2181–2199
Bolotin VV (1996) Delaminations in composite structures: its origin, buckling, growth and
stability. Composites: Part B, 27B:129–145
Brush WD (1913) A microscopic study of the mechanical failure of wood. U.S. Depart Agri Rev
Forest Serv 2:33–38
Chafe SC (1977) Radial dislocations in the fiber wall of Eucalyptus regnans trees of high growth
stress. Wood Sci Techn 11:69–77
Clair B (2001) Etudes des proprietes mecaniques et du retrait au sechage du bois a l`echelle de la
paroi cellulaire . PhD thesis Universite de Montpellier II. France
Côté WA, Hanna RB (1983) Ultrastructural characteristics of wood fracture surfaces. Wood Fiber
Sci 15:135–163
Dadswell HE, Langlands I (1934) Brittle heart in Australian timbers: a preliminary study. J Couns
Sci Ind Res Australia 7:190–196
Dinwoodie JM (1966) Introduction of cell wall dislocations (slip planes) during the preparation of
microscopic sections of wood. Nature 212:525–527
Dinwoodie JM (1968) Failure in timber. Part I. Microscopic changes in cell wall structure
associated with compression failure. J Inst Wood Sci 4:37–53
Dill-Langer G, Lutze S, Aicher S (2002) Microfracture in wood monitored by confocal laser
scanning microscopy. Wood Sci Technol 36:487–499
Donaldson LA (1995) Cell wall fracture properties in relation to lignin distribution and cell
dimensions among three genetic groups of radiate pine. Wood Sci Techn 29:51–63
Fruhmann K, Burgert I, Stanzl-Tschegg SE, Tschegg EK Mode I (2003) Fracture behaviour on the
growth ring scale and cellular level of spruce and beech loaded in the TR crack propagation
system. Holzforschung, 57:653–660
Green HV (1962) Compression caused transverse discontinuities in tracheids. Pulp Paper Mag
Canada 63(3):T 155 – T 168
Jacard P (1910) Etude anatomique des bois comprimés. Mitt Schw. Centralanstalt. Forst.
Versuchwessen 10:53–101
Keith CT (1971) The anatomy of compression failure in relation to creep – inducing stresses. Wood
Sci 4:71–82
Keith CT (1974) Longitudinal compressive creep and failure development in white spruce
compression wood. Wood Sci 7:1–12
Keith CT, Côté Jr. WA (1968) Microscopic characterization of lip lines and compression failures
in wood cell walls. Forest Prod J 18:67–74
Kisser J, Frenzel H (1950) Mikroskopische Veränderungen der Holzstruktur bei mechanischer
Überbeansprucging von Holz in der Faserrichtung. Schr Österr. Ges. Holzforschung 2:3–27
Kisser J, Frenzel H (1952) Makroscopische und microsckopische Strukturänderungen bei der
Biegebeanspruchung von Holz. Holz Roh- und Werkstoff 10:415–421
Kucera LJ, Bariska M (1982) On the fracture morphology in wood. Part I: A SEM - study of defor-
mations in wood of spruce and aspen upon ultimate axial compression load. Wood SciTechnol
16:241–259
Meyer RV, Leney L (1968) Shake in coniferous woods – an anatomical study. Forest Prod J
18(2):51–56
Morris C (ed) (1992) Dictionary of science and technology. Academic, Sandiego, p 604
Murmanis L, Youngquist JA, Myers GC (1986) Electron microscopy study of hardboards. Wood
Fiber Sci 18(3):369–375
Reiter A, Sinn G (2002) Facture behaviour of modified spruce wood: a study using linear and non
linear fracture mechanics. Holzforschung 56:191–198
Reiter A, Sinn G, Stanzl-Tschegg SE (2002) Fracture characteristics of different wood species
under mode I loading perpendicular to the grain. Mater Sci Eng A 332:29–36
Robinson W (1920) The microscopical features of mechanical strains in timber and the bearing of
these on the structure of the cell wall in plants. Phil Trans R Soc 210 B:49–82
Scurfield G, Silva SR, Wold MB (1972) Failure of wood under load applied parallel to grain. A
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Sell J, Zimmermann T (1998) The fine structure of the cell wall of hardwoods on transverse fracture
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Thuvander F, Berglund LA (2000) In situ observations of fracture mechanisms for radial cracks in
wood. J Mat Sci 35:6277–6283
Tschegg EK, Fruhmann K, Stanzl-Tschegg SE (2001) Damage and fracture mechanisms during
mode I and mode III loading of wood. Holzforschung 55:525–533
Vasic S, Stanzl-Tschegg SE (2007) Experimental and numerical investigation of wood fracture
mechanisms at different humidity levels. Holzforschung 61:367–374
Wardrop AB, Dadswell HE (1947) The occurrence, structure and properties of certain cell wall
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Wilkins AP (1986) The nomenclature of cell wall deformations. Wood Sci Technol 20:97–109
Chapter 3
Delamination Detection – A Vibration-Based
Approach
Voichita Bucur
Contents
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.2 Delamination Detection with an Ultrasonic Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.3 Delamination Detection with a Model-Based Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.3.1 Linear Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.3.2 Nonlinear Behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.4 Some Practical Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.1 Introduction
In this chapter we shall describe the aspects related to delamination in composites

revealed by a vibration-based approach and related to the local and global damage
detection. The local damage detection is performed with an ultrasonic technique,
with Lamb waves, while the global damage detection is based on a model – based
method using low frequency vibrations and undertaking the analysis of structural
models implemented by finite element analysis. In this chapter the delamination
detection studies are commented in the context of structural health monitoring,
which is referred as the process of implementing a damage detection strategy for
mechanical engineering infrastructures or for other purposes.
3.2 Delamination Detection with an Ultrasonic Technique
Interfaces play an important role in determining the performance of laminated com-

posite materials on a wide variety of scales, from interlaminar bonds to adhesive
V. Bucur (B)

34 V. Bucur
bonds. The defects expected to be present at the interface are cracks at the interfaces
of different oriented plies, inter-ply delamination, adhesion weakness at interfaces
between plies or between a ply and an adhesive layer. In all cases the basic pur-
pose of the nondestructive evaluation methods is the determination of the integrity
of bonds. The efficiency of ultrasonic methods is related to the understanding of the
relationship between the measured parameters and the interface mechanical proper-
ties, which is dependent on the theoretical approach used to predict the behavior
of the interface, according to the specific kind of defect expected to be present
Combining the experimental data with the theoretical knowledge (Hirsekorn 2001)
it is possible to gain important information about the linear or non linear interface
behavior (Krohn et al. 2002; Solodov et al. 2002).
In the years 1970–1990 stress was put on the damage identification and health
monitoring of laminated composites through the overall mechanical characteris-
tics of the structure by measuring the stiffness matrix, the viscoelastic parameters,
etc. determined with ultrasonic waves. Theoretical models for plane wave propaga-
tion in layered anisotropic composites were developed in a very impressive amount
of articles and reference books. Because space limitation only several references
has been selected (Green 1985–2006; Chimenti 1981–2006; Bunsell 1988; Nayfeh
and Chimenti 1988; Hosten et al. 1987; Rose et al. 1990; Alleyne and Cawley
1992; Deschamps and Hosten 1992; Rokhlin and Wang 1992; Potel and de Belleval
1993a, b; Saravanos et al. 1994; Lavrentyev and Rokhlin 1998).
In that follows our attention is focused on the ultrasonic method based on Lamb
waves. Lamb waves are defined as mechanical waves corresponding to vibration
modes of plates having the thickness of the same order of magnitude as their
wavelength. Lamb waves are suitable for the nondestructive evaluation of large
structural elements, due to their prominent characteristic - the long range propa-
gation, with low dispersion energy, even in materials with high attenuation ratio.
The Lamb waves are able to put in evidence the presence of defects, as noted
in a very extensive body of literature from which several references has been
extracted (Rokhlin 1979, 1980; Pilarski and Rose 1987; Auld 1980, Chimenti and
Martin 1991; Nagy 1992; Ogilvy 1995; Huber et al. 1997; Cawley and Alleyne
1996; Wright et al. 1996; Kazys R and Svilainis 1997; Maslov and Kundu 1997;
Singer 1997; Delsanto et al.1998; Delsanto and Scalerandi 1998; Kundu et al.1998;
Rokhlin and Wang 1998; Royer and Dieulesaint 2000; Hayashi and Kawashima
2002; Kessler et al. 2002a; Stoessel et al. 2002; Su et al. 2002; Sohn et al. 2004;
Simonetti 2004; Shkerdin and Glorieux 2004, 2005; Toyama and Okabe 2004;
Beadle et al. 2005; Fritzen and Mengelkamp 2005; Giurgiutiu et al. 2005; Hera
et al. 2005; Konstantinidis et al. 2005; Lucero and Taha 2005; Nieuwenhuis et al.
2005; Raghavan and Cesnik 2005; Sundararaman et al. 2005; Terrien et al. 2007).
Lamb wave characteristics such as dispersion curves, phase velocity, attenuation,
reflection and transmission coefficients has been used to detect delamination, poros-
ity, matrix cracking, and other surface defects. Interaction of Lamb wave modes with
defects is an extremely valuable tool in providing quantitative information on the
interface flaws and bond quality. Under different propagation modes Lamb waves
generate high normal and shear stresses at different plate depth and consequently
3 Delamination Detection – A Vibration-Based Approach 35
some modes should be more sensitive to the interface defects and its stiffness vari-
ation than other modes. Terrien et al. (2007) investigated the interaction of Lamb
modes with micro-defects with a simulation combining a finite element approach
and a modal decomposition method. The region around the defects is described by
the finite element mesh. The numerical simulation required first, the finite element
modeling with an explicit algorithm for solving the transient wave propagation, sec-
ond, the modal decomposition which allows to plot dispersive curves and to define
the real, the evanescent and the leaky Lamb modes that exists at a given frequency
and third, the analytical propagation of Lamb waves which are phase velocity and
frequency dependent.
The experimental setup for Lamb wave generation and detection on an aluminum
plate of 1 m long, 300 mm wide and 2 mm thick, with notched of different sizes is
shown in Fig. 3.1. The measured ultrasonic signals at different times and distances
from the source are shown in Fig. 3.2 in which the A1 are Lamb modes transmitted
by the notch, and S0 and A0 are incident modes produced by mode conversion.
(Note : Si – symmetric modes and Ai antisymmetric modes). The reflections from
the notch are clearly visible on Fig. 3.2a. The velocities of different Lamb modes
transmitted by the notch can by identified as can be seen from Fig. 3.2b–d. All
the modes which can propagate at different frequencies are shown in Fig. 3.3. (i.e
green rectangle for excitation window at 2.25 MHz frequency , with a tone burst of
5 cycles at 66◦ incidence angle). In Fig. 3.4 are represented the incident waves, the
transmitted waves, the reflections and the mesh used to identify the mode conversion
with 2D Fourier transform technique. Figure 3.5 shows the modes A0, A1 and S0 of
Lamb wave at 2.25 MHz in a 3 mm thick steel plate in a sound zone and in a zone
with 1.5 mm deep notch.
Fig. 3.1 Experimental setup for Lamb wave generation in a plate with two main defects, a large
notch and a defect assimilated to a crack produced by 5 thin notches. (Terrien et al. 2007, Figure 18)
36 V. Bucur
Fig. 3.2 Signals measured at different points: (a) 80 mm in front of a notch of 500 μm depth and
700 μm width, (b) 20 mm, (c) 45 mm, (d) 165 mm from the notch (Terrien et al. 2007, Figure 19)
As noted by Terrien et al. (2007), “knowing the modal expansion of the wave
propagating on the right of the notch and the waveform of the displacement normal
to the plate” it is possible to predict the waveform at any distance from the source.
The method described here is elegant and has evident advantages such as the pos-
sibility to extract the mode conversion produced by the defects, and to predict the
waveform quite far from the damaged area, if the depth of the defects is smaller then
one half of the plate thickness.
Fig. 3.3 Corresponding dispersion curves of symmetric (solid lines) and antisymmetric (dashed
lines) propagating Lamb modes. Legend: the excitation window is shown by the rectangle is for
2.25 MHz tone burst of 5 cycles and 66◦ incidence angle). (Terrien et al. 2007, Figure 21)
Fig. 3.4 Incident, transmitted and reflected waves and the mesh used to identify the mode con-
version of Lamb waves with 2D Fourier transform technique. (Terrien et al. 2007, Figure 15)
Despite of the evident advantages of the ultrasonic method described here for
the nondestructive inspection and evaluation of structural elements, drawbacks and
limitations are evident, when this method is applied to real – time health monitoring.
This method is local in nature, passive and labor intensive.
However, it is to note that the development of the time reversal concept in modern
acoustics (Fink 1992, 1997; Cassereau and Fink 1992; Wu et al. 1992) brings new
prospective for the utilization of guided Lamb waves for the aerospace structures
(Sohn et al. 2005) and for different civil and medical applications.
38 V. Bucur
Fig. 3.5 The modes A0, A1 and S0 of Lamb wave at 2.25 MHz in a 3 mm thick steel plate in a
sound zone (a) and in a zone with 1.5 mm deep notch (b) (Terrien et al. 2007, Figure 16)
3.3 Delamination Detection with a Model-Based Method
Successful application of damage detection and health monitoring of structures

using the measured structural dynamic response and mathematical models has been
possible with the advance in computer science and technology. Compared with
the nondestructive testing and evaluation procedures, the model-based methods
using low frequency vibrations have a more rigorous mathematical background,
but also several limitations related to the interpretation of the physical meanings
of the detected results and the precise numerical representation of the structures.
The mechanical behavior of a damaged structure can be studied in two hypotheses,
the linear or the non linear mechanical behavior. In that follows both aspects will be
succinctly described.
3.3.1 Linear Behavior
Model – based methods implemented by finite element analysis under static or

dynamic loading, assume that the linear monitored structure responds can be accu-
rately described by finite element analysis. It is assumed that the behavior of the
structure is linear before and after damage. The composites are usually modeled as
beams (Euler beam, Timoshenko beam) with through-width delaminations parallel
to the beam surface located arbitrarily, or shells.
Kim et al. (1997) proposed an analytical solution for predicting delamination
buckling and growth of a thin fiber reinforced plastic layer in laminated wood
beams under static bending. It was noted that the delamination growth is related
to an explicit form of strain-energy release rate and the critical load can be accu-
rately predicted. Simulation of the delamination indicated an unstable growth of the
delamination after buckling of the delaminated sub-laminate, followed by arrested
delamination growth.
For the vibrating beams, the foundation of linear analysis is based on the concept
of linear normal mode and the principle of superposition. Linear normal modes
are synchronous harmonic particular solutions of the homogeneous linear system

(Vakakis 1996). The vibration phenomena of beams have been studied for the case
of a single or multiple delamination through the beam thickness.
Model-based methods under dynamic loading have been extensively com-
mented and remarkably reviewed, periodically, by numerous authors (Salawu 1997;
Doebling et al. 1997, 1998; Zou et al. 2000; Sohn et al. 2003; Montalvao et al. 2006).
The dynamic model - based methods use changes in vibrational modal properties
(i.e. modal frequencies, modal damping values and mode shapes) to infer changes
in mechanical properties of the structure. The impulse or continuous excitation tech-
niques can be used for vibrating the structure. Commonly hammer technique is
used for impulse excitation (Fig. 3.6).The utilization of a non-contact scanning laser
vibrometer system allows acquisition of a large number of measurement points for
a better definition of the mode shapes. Continuous sine excitation can be produced
by using PZT – lead-zirconate-titanate - ceramic wafers as actuator (Fig 3.7).
The dynamic model – dependent methods can be subdivided into: modal analysis,
frequency domain, time domain and impedance domain, according to the dynamic
response parameters analyzed. Frequencies, mode shapes, curvature mode shapes
and modal damping, which are function of the physical properties of the struc-
ture (mass, damping and stiffness), are the most commonly measured parameters,
when the dynamic model - based methods are used. Modification of physical prop-
erties of the structure, such as for example reduction of stiffness resulting from
cracks or delamination, will implicitly cause detectable changes in modal param-
eters. Furthermore, these changes must be used as indicators of damage, and the
process of vibration - based damage detection reduced to some form of pattern
recognition problem, as can be seen from the references cited below and extracted
from a huge literature (Adams et al. 1978; Cawley 1990; Cawley and Adams 1979,
1987; Wang et al. 1982; Tracy and Pardoen 1989; Nagesh and Hanagud 1990;
Fig. 3.6 Experimental equipment for the excitation of flexural vibrations in a cantilever beam
using a hammer. The beam response is detected by the laser vibrometer. (Berthelot and Sefrani
2004, Figure 1)
40 V. Bucur
Fig. 3.7 Experimental equipment for testing a free-free beam and measurements of modal fre-
quencies and damping. The excitation can be induced by a shaker or by a piezoelectric actuator
(PZT5) glued on the surface of the specimen, near the free end. (Chrysuchoidis and Saravanos
2004, Figure 2)
Paolozzi and Peroni 1990; Petyt 1990; Hanagud et al. 1990, 1992; Pandey et al.
1991; Tenek et al. 1993; Luo and Hanagud 1996; Messina et al. 1998; Sampaio
et al. 1999; Wahl et al. 1999; Lestari and Hanagud 1999; D’Ambrogio and Fregolent
2000; Brandinelli and Massabo 2002; Kessler et al. 2002b; Lee et al. 2003; Berthelot
and Sefrani 2004; Chrysochoidis and Saravanos 2004; Della and Shu 2005; Ghoshal
et al. 2005; Coutellier et al. 2006; de Borst and Remmers 2006; Ladevèze et al. 2006;
Lestari et al. 2007).
Because of the fact that the damage is a typical local phenomenon, several
difficulties can arise in its detection and location such as:
– higher frequency modes are able to capture local responses, whereas lower
frequency modes capture the global response of the structure
– for the excitation of higher modes more energy is required than for the excitation
of lower modes and loss of information can result from the reduction of time
history measurements
– shifting from the linear to nonlinear response.
For damage identification and health monitoring of structures, many different

issues are critical, such as: the excitation and measurement configurations, the selec-
tion of the type of sensors and their location, the signal processing performing such
as: Fast Fourier analysis, time – frequency analysis, or wavelet analysis (Castro et al.
2007).
3.3.2 Nonlinear Behaviour
Nonlinear damage is observed in the case when the initially linear-elastic structure
behaves nonlinearly after the damage has been produced. Nonlinear normal modes
are defined as some synchronous periodic particular solutions of the homogeneous

nonlinear system under which all degrees of freedom undergo the extreme position
at the same time (Vakakis 1996).
The most frequent nonlinearities in a delaminated beam are introduced by: the
nonlinear geometric effects such as axial stretch effects; the deflection – dependent
interactions in both longitudinal and transverse directions; the intermittent contacts
between the segments during vibration, the delaminated segments constraining the
movement of each other or the growth of delamination.
From the existing literature in this field several articles were selected to illustrate
the approach with nonparametric – models (Tseng and Dugundji 1971; Abhyankar
et al. 1993; Hanagud and Luo 1994, 1997; Gammadi and Hanagud 1995; Nayfeh
et al. 1995; Luo and Hanagud 1997a, b, c, 2000; Lestari and Hanagud 2001; Lu
et al. 2001; Caron et al. 2006; Wang and Yu 2006; Perel 2006; Wang and Yu 2006;
Friswell 2007; Wang and He 2007).
The existing of the “delamination modes” was demonstrated by Hanagud and
Luo (1994) and Luo and Hanagud (2000). Modeling of the delamination effects
is shown in Fig. 3.8. After delamination the composite beam is represented as
a combination of four beams connected at the delamination boundaries, having
the characteristics denoted in the previous figure. Luo and Hanagud (2000) noted
that the effect between the laminated surfaces depend on the relative position
between the sublaminates during vibration. Some constraints between the upper
and lower delamination surfaces still exist. Under a small amplitude vibration of
the delaminated beam at a frequency corresponding to a delamination opening
mode, the effect between delaminated sublaminates can be modeled as a distributed
soft spring between them. When the amplitude exceeds a certain level, the spring
effect becomes zero because the delamination opens beyond the small amplitude
constraints. On the other hand, when the vibration mode does not tend to open
Fig. 3.8 Modeling of the delamination effects in a representative composite beam (Luo and
Hanagud 2000, Figure 1). Legend: b is the beam width, H is the beam height, L is the beam
length, and respectively mi , Di , Si , Ai (i = 1, 2, 3, 4) the mass density per unit length, bending
stiffness, cross sectional shear stiffness and extensional stiffness of four beams. H2 and H3 are the
distances between the neutral axis of delaminated beam and the neutral axis of intact beam
42 V. Bucur
Fig. 3.9 The nonlinear spring model describing the behavior of the effects between the delam-
inated sublaminates as shown with the dashed line (Luo and Hanagud 2000, Figure 2). Legend:
do – relative displacement; w2 - displacement of the beam 2, w3 – displacement of the beam 3
the delamination, the delaminated sublaminates have the same flexural displace-
ment and slopes. Thus, the effects between the delaminated sublaminates may be
described by a nonlinear spring model as shown qualitatively in Fig. 3.9 by a dashed
line. Furthermore this nonlinear model was reduced into a piecewise linear model
depending on the relative displacement, expressed as w2 − w3 . Three situations can
be observed:
(a) w2 − w3 > 0 the delamination tends to open in vibration, the distributed contact
force is zero. The spring model is represented by the solid line OA.
(b) w2 − w3 = at a fix value, the delamination is completely closed during the
vibration. The spring model is represented by the solid line BC
(c) - do < w2 − w3 < 0 the delamination beam is vibrating in a small amount of
relative displacement. The spring model is represented by the solid line OB.
With the above considerations and from the solutions of the governing equations
of motion of delaminated structures in different stages of vibration it was possible
to synthesized the nonlinear dynamic response, through a nonlinear modal analysis
technique developed by Luo and Hanagud (1997c). Figure 3.10 shows a typical
mode of a transverse isotropic beam with interface 3, 3-inch delamination, and it is
to note that the prediction is closed to the model. In conclusion, it is to note that the
nonlinear dynamic response of the studied structure is precisely predicted with the
proposed piecewise-linear model by Luo and Hanagud (2000).
The reader interested in the case of multiple delaminations is invited to read the
articles published by:
– Gummadi and Hanagud (1995) for vibration characteristics of beams with

multiple delaminations
– Lestari and Hanagud (1999) for multiple delamination dynamics in composite
beams, using the Euler – Bernoulli beam theory in connection with piecewise –
linear springs to simulate the open and closed behaviour between the delaminated
layers.
– Della and Shu (2005), which studied the case of a beam with overlapping
delaminations.
Fig. 3.10 Comparison between the experimental data and the prediction data based on the non-
linear model (Luo and Hanagud 2000, Figure 13). Legend: (a) vibration of the composite beam
with interface 3, 3-inch delamination, experimental data provided by Shen and Grady (1992)
(b) prediction based in the nonlinear mode
– Sridharan (2008) – for delamination behaviour of composites.

(Please note that these recommendations reflect only my opinion when these
pages have been written).
Chattopadhyay et al. (1999) reported the nonlinear response of a delaminated

smart composite cross – ply beams. The theory is implemented through finite
element method including nonlinear induced strain effects. The numerical results
indicate changes in the dynamic responses of the beam due to dilamination.
44 V. Bucur
Fig. 3.11 The nonlinear

response of a smart
composite cross – ply
cantilever beam with
delamination at the first mode
of vibration (Chattopadhyay
Figure 3.11 shows the nonlinear response of a smart composite cross – ply cantilever
beam with delamination at the first mode of vibration.
Another group of methods used for the implementation of nonparametric- models
methods and based on the identification of the nonlinear response of the structure
are the neural-network-based methods (Luo and Hanagud 1997c).These methods
are not commented here.
Prognosis with statistical model development for feature discrimination is also a
group of methods recently developed for structural health monitoring and damage
detection (Montalvao et al. 2006). These methods are not commented here.
3.4 Some Practical Aspects

As noted by Sohn et al. (2003) the implementation of a structural health monitor-
ing systems must answer questions, related to the presence of damage and to the
operational evaluation, such as:
– the damage detection (existence of damage in the system), the damage location
(where is the damage), the type of damage (what kind of damage), the extent
of damage (how severe is the damage) and the prognosis (how much useful life
remains).
– the operational and the environmental condition which referees to the safety and
economic motivations for performing the monitoring, and on the other hand which
are the limitation on acquiring data.
The structural health monitoring process of big wood laminated structures, in

light of normal aging and degradation resulting from operational environments,
must involve the periodic inspection of the system using:
– sampled dynamic response measurements from an array of transducers, estab-

lishing their number, resolution, bandwidth, data acquisition (periodically or
continuously), storage and transmittal hardware;
– extraction of the damage – sensitive features, normalization of data by the
measured inputs or by environmental cycles (summer, winter);
– statistical analysis of data to determine the current state of the system.
After catastrophic events such as earthquakes, excessive snow loading, etc, the
structural health monitoring process must provide reliable information about the
integrity of the structure.
The review of the theoretical ideas proposed in this chapter where expressed
in order to perceive and identify for the future, the research directions able to
identify the damage detection induced by delamination in wood products and in
wood-based composites using ultrasonic and vibration measurements, for a practical
implemented technology. This imply three main aspects : the understanding of the
theoretical aspects related to the physical phenomena for delamination initiation and
growth , the development of models and testing procedures, and the developments
and validation of specific codes.
3.5 Summary
In this chapter the damage detection studies in composite materials were sum-
marized in the context of structural health monitoring, which is referred as the
process of implementing a damage detection strategy for mechanical engineering
infrastructure (Allix and Blanchard 2006).
The review of the theoretical aspects related to the detection of damages induced
by delamination in composites was oriented in two main directions:
– the nondestructive evaluation method using an ultrasonic technique with Lamb

waves, which is an experimental method able to provide local damage information
– the model dependent method, undertaken analysis of structural models imple-
mented by finite element analysis and able to provide global damage information,
for linear and non-linear mechanical behavior of the system
The structural health monitoring process of big wood laminated structures, in

light of normal aging and degradation resulting from operational environments,
must involve the periodic inspection of the system using:
– sampled dynamic response measurements from an array of transducers, estab-

lishing their number, resolution, bandwidth, data acquisition (periodically or
continuously), storage and transmittal hardware;
– extraction of the damage – sensitive features, normalization of data by the
measured inputs or by environmental cycles (summer, winter);
– statistical analysis of data to determine the current state of the system.
46 V. Bucur
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Chapter 4
Initiation and Growth of Delamination in Wood
and Wood-Based Composites, a Fracture
Mechanics Approach
Voichita Bucur
Contents
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.2 Links with Fracture Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.2.1 Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4.2.2 Nonlinear Fracture Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4.3 Micro-structural Aspects in Wood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.4 Micro-structural Aspects in Wood-Based Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.5 Fracture Mechanics Parameters for Ecological Relevance . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
4.1 Introduction
Fracture Mechanics concept has been applied to wood material as reported during
more than fourthly years, by numerous references, review articles and books. Some
of them are cited below. (Attack et al. 1961; Porter 1964; Boyd 1973; Schniewind
and Centeno 1973; Schniewind and Lyon 1971, 1973; Schniewind and Pozniak
1971; Leicester 1971, 1973, 1974; Pearson 1974; Jeronimidis 1976, 1980;
Schniewind 1977; Barrett 1976, 1981; Schniewind et al. 1982; Valentin and
Morlier P 1982; Jung and Murphy 1983; Petterson and Bodig 1983; Boatright
and Garrett 1983, Triboulot et al. 1982, 1984; Tschegg 1986; Patton – Mallory
and Cramer 1987; Gustafsson 1985; Boström 1988, Akande and Kyanka 1990;
Valentin et al. 1991; Aicher 1992; Aicher et al. 1993, 1998; Stanzl-Tschegg et al.
1994, 1995, Zink et al. 1994, 1995; Renaud et al. 1996; Gibson and Ashby 1997,
Bodner et al.1997; Thuvander and Berglund 1998; Tschegg et al. 2001; Sippola and
Frühmann 2002; Cotterell 2002; Reiterer and Sinn 2002; Smith et al. 2003; Vasic
V. Bucur (B)

52 V. Bucur
and Smith 2002, 2003; Conrad et al. 2003; Nairn 2006; Vasic and Stanzl-Tschegg
2007; Nairn 2007a, b, c; Hofstetter et al. 2007).
The increasing interest on the physical phenomena which lead to the onset of
delamination, its development and its interaction with other damage mechanisms
is determined by the expected economical benefits for wood products and various
wood-based composites structures. In order to avoid over dimensioning in struc-
tural elements design, it is necessary to understand as deep as possible, the physics
behind the damage mechanisms and to develop theories and tools (analytical or
numerical) able to take into account the onset and growth of delamination from
the earliest phases of design. The applications of wood-based laminated composites
are limited by delaminations which can be introduced during the fabrication pro-
cess or later in service life. The presence of delaminations degrades the stiffness,
strength and fatigue characteristics of structural elements and has the potential to
cause catastrophic failure of the structures.
In this chapter are analysed the basic concepts related to fracture mechanics
which allow the understanding of initiation and growth of delamination in wood
and wood-based composites. Basic theoretical approaches and the state of the art
for characterization and predicting delamination are outlined.
4.2 Links with Fracture Mechanics
The initiation of delamination is due to the initiation and growth of cracks. As

described by Williams (1989) the crack is “a planar discontinuity which is not capa-
ble of transmitting a load normal to its faces. When it grows, new surface area
is created, which is of fundamental importance in determining behaviour”. The
conditions for crack growth have been studied with Griffith theory (Griffith 1920)
and with modern fracture theory using the concepts of linear or nonlinear Fracture
Mechanics.
Figure 4.1 gives the schematic representation of a crack, located in a plate (2D
representation) and the corresponding two dimensional stress states. Any deforma-
tion of the crack can be described through a combination of three fracture modes
(Fig. 4.2):
– the opening mode in tension – Mode I – opening

– the in plane shear mode – Mode II – sliding
– the out of plane shear mode – Mode III – tearing shear
Fig. 4.1 Schematic representation of a crack in a plate and in an infinite solid (Triboulot et al.
1984, Figure 7)
4 Initiation and Growth of Delamination 53
Fig. 4.2 Three fracture

modes: Mode I – tension;
Mode II – in plane shear;
Mode III out of plane shear
The definition of the damage zone ahead of a crack tip is crucial for the studies
of wood fracture (Vasic et al. 2002).
Because of the anisotropic nature of wood, defined with three principal axes L,
R and T (longitudinal, radial and tangential) six different fracture system orienta-
tions can be defined such as: for crack propagation in L direction, the systems RL
and TL, for crack propagation in direction R the systems LR and TR, and for crack
propagation in T direction, the systems RT and LT. Note that the first letter indicates
the direction normal to the crack plane and the second letter indicates the direction
of crack propagation. In practice the crack’s path is very complex. The crack path
for the systems RL and TL propagates always parallel to grain. However, the crack
path for transverse directions TR and RT could propagates in any direction. When
cracks propagation in R direction, two situations were observed, the path toward
the bark or toward the pith. As reported by Attack et al. (1961) the toughness in
green spruce in TR was 100 J/m2 and 180 J/m2 in RT direction. Schniewind and
Centeno (1973) reported no differences between both directions in the stress inten-
sity factor in air-dried Douglas –fir (0.35 MPam–2 ). Dill – Langer et al. (2002) noted
that in softwoods crack growths in TR system in tension perpendicular to the grain
is not steady and rupture of earlywood cell walls was observed. Another mecha-
nism of rupture was observed when the crack growths in the RT system, namely
the rupture between adjacent tracheids. Thuvander and Berglund (2000) observed
the crack arrest in earlywood. Ashby et al. (1985) noted that in low density wood
such as balsa the fracture propagates by cell wall rupture, while in high density
wood species the fracture between cell walls, by peeling the middle lamellae was
observed.
Most studies on wood fracture mechanics rely on the concept of linear elastic
fracture mechanics (LEFM), because of the simplicity of this approach.
The concept of linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM) is based on the rela-
tionships existing between the stress in the vicinity of a crack tip and different
characteristics of the structure such as: the nominal stress applied, the material
mechanical and physical properties, the size, shape and orientation of existing flaws.
This theory stipulates that the stress level in the vicinity of the crack tip tends toward
infinity. In real materials, obviously there is a zone where the elastic solution breaks
down. The size of the plastic zone dp at the crack tip in a material with σ Y yield
strength, can be written such as:
2
1 K
dp =
nπ σY
54 V. Bucur
where n = 1 for plane stress and n = 3 for plane strain;

K is the stress intensity factor and is defined as:
√ a
K = σ π a.F
W
where: σ is the representative stress, a is the crack length and F(a/W) is a function
of the geometry of the specimen
LEFM can be applied if the size of the plastic zone is small compared with the
dimensions of the specimen.
The final scope of LEFM approach is the prediction of crack propagation condi-
tions under the hypothesis that the material exhibits a linear elastic behaviour right
up to the point where fracture occurs.
Two relevant parameters for fracture phenomena studies were developed:
– the stress intensity factor (K) which is based on the local stress distribution around
a crack tip. Critical intensity factor (KC ) is considered a material parameter that
defines the resistance to crack growth (referred also as fracture toughness of the
material).
– the strain energy release rate (G), which is based on the global energy balance
The stress intensity factor (K) and strain energy release rate (G) will be described
in that follows.
The stress field around a crack tip has been documented in many reference books
and we cite only the most recent (Sandford 2003; Anderson 2005). Using the nota-
tions from Fig. 4.1, the stress field in the immediate vicinity of a crack tip, for an
isotropic solid, can be written such as:

KI θ θ 3θ
σx = √ cos 1 − sin sin
2π r 2 2 2
(4.1)
KII θ θ 3θ
−√ sin 2 + cos cos
2π r 2 2 2

KI θ θ 3θ
σy = √ cos 1 + sin sin
2π r 2 2 2
(4.2)
KII θ θ 3θ
−√ sin cos cos
2π r 2 2 2

KI θ θ 3θ
τxy = √ cos sin cos
2π r 2 2 2
(4.3)
KII θ θ 3θ
+√ cos 1 − sin sin
2π r 2 2 2
σz = 0 for plane stress (4.4)
and

σz = ν σx + σy for plane strain conditions (4.5)

KIII θ
τyz = √ cos (4.6)
2π r 2

KIII θ
τzx = √ sin (4.7)
2π r 2
The constants KI , KII , KIII are termed stress-intensity factors for the Modes I, II
or III and describe the intensity of the stress field as a measure of the severity of
the crack. The stresses are singular at the crack tip for r = 0 and have a square root
singularity.
The displacements (u, v) under stress conditions can be written as:

KI r θ θ
u= cos k − 1 + 2 sin2
2μ 2π 2 2

(4.8)
KII r θ 2 θ
+ sin k + 1 + 2 cos
2μ 2π 2 2

KI r θ 2 θ
v= sin k − 1 + 2 cos
2μ 2π 2 2

(4.9)
KII r θ θ
− cos k − 1 − 2 sin2
2μ 2π 2 2

2KIII r θ
w= sin (4.10)
μ 2π 2
where
μ is the shear modulus,
ν is the Poisson’s ratio,
k = (3 − v)/(1 + v) for plane stress and k = (3 − 4v) for plane strain.
The strain energy release rate G is related to the work required to close a crack
of length a + a to a length a, and is based on the Irwin’s crack closure concept
(Irwin 1957). The total strain energy release rate G is expressed such as:
KI2 K2 K2
G = GI + GII + GIII = + II + (1 + ν) III (4.11)
E E E
where G I , G II , GIII are strain energy release for the modes I, II, III and E = E
in plane stress and E = E/(1 − v2 ) in plane strain, E = Young’s modulus of the
isotropic material. For orthotropic materials these parameters must be corrected with
the corresponding elastic constants.
56 V. Bucur
For cracks in orthotropic materials, the stress distribution is much more complex,
as described by Wu (1967), Walsh (1972), Wang (1984), Tada et al. (2000), Raju and
O’Brien (2008), and Sridharan (2008) .
It was generally admitted, that under short load duration the dry wood exhibits
brittle fracture and linear elastic behaviour. This statement implicitly requires the
theory of linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM) for the description of wood
behavior.
The main limitations of (LEFM) are:
– the necessity of assuming the existence of a crack,
– the effects of fracture process zone are in the vicinity of the crack tip,
– the available energy goes into the creation of a single new fracture zone.
However the linear elastic assumption is not suitable for examining the viscoelas-
tic behaviour of wood, the mechano-sorptive effect, the scale effect, the mechanical
behaviour under long term loading, the microstructural phenomena, etc. For these
cases the quasi – brittle fracture is assumed and the phenomena are studied with the
nonlinear fracture mechanics.
The nonlinear fracture mechanics (NLEFM) introduces the notion of planar pro-
cess zone where cohesive stresses are assumed to occur (Boström 1988, 1992;
Patton – Mallory and Cramer 1987; Gustafsson 1985, 1988; Vasic and Smith 2002).
In such materials, the fracture is preceded by localized phenomena in the plastic
zone, the damage is assumed to occur on a surface, and a nonlinear region can be
detected prior to the peak load, followed by strain softening region after the peak.
The crack tip opening displacement (CTOD) can integrate these phenomena and can
be used to model fracture under conditions of large plastic deformation. For fracture
to occur there must be a critical crack tip opening (δ) which can be calculated as:
4 K2
δ= (4.12)
π EσY
The stability of a crack depends on the interaction of the applied loads and the
material toughness. When unstable the cracks can growth with different velocities.
However, it is the whole system which has the property of stability and not the crack
itself. Crack initiation and crack propagation are best characterized by the fracture
energy, whereas the stress intensity factor only gives information on crack initiation.
In wood like in other solids, the fracturing under mechanical loading takes place
in three steps namely, crack initiation, crack propagation and fracture. During crack
initiation a process zone is formed in front of the crack tip, with numerous micro-
cracks. The microcracks constitute the delamination front which profuse micro
cracking ahead of the delamination front. The coalescence of existing microcracks
forms macrocracks which propagate. During crack propagation, in the weak zone,
behind the crack tips bridging effect takes place, which becomes gradually weaker
until rupture occurs, as the complete separation of fracture surfaces. In solid wood
and wood-based composites bridging process induces energy dissipation which
strongly influences their fracture behaviour.
Smith and Vasic (2003) noted that in wood mechanically loaded, “cracks start
to grow from microscopic defects in the cell walls and cell boundaries. As these
small cracks accumulates, the compliance of the material increases. Prior to peak
load there is a localisation process in which the damage that causes failure becomes
more confined to a narrow region. By the time peak load is reached, a critical crack
accompanied by a fracture process zone has been established, and strain softening
can occur. The reason the fracture is not sudden, is that toughening mechanisms have
been mobilised near the crack tip, causing energy to be dissipated more gradually”.
The concepts developed with NLEFM are:
(a) crack tip opening displacement

(b) crack growth resistance curve or R-curve, the energy required for the propaga-
tion of a crack of unit area [J/m2 ] (Yoshihara 2001, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006a, b;
Morel et al. 2002, 2003, 2005; Coureau et al. 2006).
Figure 4.3 explains theoretical behaviour of materials exhibiting bridging zone.

Bridging zone can extend from the initial crack tip x0 to the notch root at xroot
a b
Fig. 4.3 J-integral paths and softening curves. (a) J-integral analysis along the path 1 . . . 6 . The
bridging zone develops from the crack tip at x0 to the notch root at x root . (Nairn 2009, Figure 1); (b)
in bridging modelling, the crack opening displacements normal and tangential to the crack surface
can be described by different softening functions such as : A – linear elastic, B – linear elastic brittle
C – triangular with initial linear regime followed by a linear softening regime (Dourado et al. 2004),
D – arbitrary traction, often approximated with a cubic function, E- linear softening, F-nonlinear
softening function (Schmidt and Kallske 2007, Figure 2); (c) crack opening with microcracking
and bridging components (Stanzl-Tschegg et al. 1995, Figure 2)
58 V. Bucur
and can be analysed with J-integral paths noted i (Fig. 4.3a). The J-integral
[energy/unit area, or J/m2 ] is the path contour integral at crack tip which takes into
consideration the stress vector acting perpendicular to the contour, the displacement
vector and the strain energy density.
It is to note that tractions act normal and tangential to the crack surfaces. The
traction forces depend on the corresponding crack opening displacements, increas-
ing to a peak (or cohesive stress) and decreases to zero when the tractions fails
(corresponding to critical opening displacement). Materials can exhibit softening
behaviour as shown in Fig. 4.3b. In case of wood, most frequently the bilinear
and the polynomial functions were used. Figure 4.4c shows the bilinear soften-
ing model which explains the development of the microcracking component and
the bridging component as suggested by Stanzl-Tschegg et al. (1995). Some other
functions were used in finite element simulation of crack growths such as bilinear
and trilinear (Douardo et al. 2004; Coureau et al. 2006a) or nonlinear (Schmidt and
Kallske 2007).
(c) energy release rate expressed by J integral is the energy that is extracted through
the crack tip singularity.
Fig. 4.4 Theoretical behaviour of materials exhibiting bridging zone, with J integral paths
(Coureau et al., 2006). zone 1 – onset of softening behaviour at GR (a0 ), the resistance GR defining
the onset of the crack propagation of the equivalent elastic crack; zone II – progressive increase
of the resistance to crack growth au. R-curve depends on the sharp of the softening behaviour, the
ultimate load depends on the slope of the softening curve; zone III – crack propagation at constant
resistance GR (a > ac ) = GRc ; zone IV – propagation at constant resistance to crack growth, when
successive failures of interface element located ahead of the crack tip. (Note that the experiments
were with spruce, Figure 12)
Figure 4.4 illustrates the influence of different parameters describing the soften-
ing behaviour on three curves, namely COD –load curve (Fig. 4.4a), Rcurve − GR
(GR is energy release rate from LEFM) curve (Fig. 4.4b) and, w (relative displace-
ment in tangential direction of the interface obtained from the upper and lower
substrates) – σ curve (Fig. 4.4c).
Coureau et al. (2006) described four zones:
zone I – onset of softening behaviour at GR (a0 ), the resistance GR defining the
onset of the crack propagation of the equivalent elastic crack
zone II – progressive increase of the resistance to crack growth au . R-curve
depends on the sharp of the softening behavior, the ultimate load depends on
the slope of the softening curve.
zone III – crack propagation at constant resistance GR (a > ac ) = GRc
zone IV – propagation at constant resistance to crack growth, when successive
failures of interface element located ahead of the crack tip. (Note that the
experiments were with spruce)
From COD –load curve (Fig. 4.4a) one can see the evolution of compliance (λ)
as a function of initial crack length (a0 ) and critical crack length (ac ). Crack propa-
gates at G = GRc ∀a. The levelling of Rcurve (Fig. 4.4b) might indicate that in wood,
the toughness mechanism do not tends to infinite, where crack bridging requires
sufficient deformation to produce closing forces (Smith, Landis et al. 2003). The
softening behaviour of the cohesive crack is shown in (Fig. 4.4c). The normal stress
transmitted by the interface decreases progressively from the interfacial normal
strength (ft ) to 0, when critical opening displacement (wc ) is generated.
Numerical methods can be used to evaluate the J- integral for any crack, type
of loading and body configuration (Atluri 1986; Anderson 2005). Since numerical
analyses are time consuming, simplified approaches for engineering calculations
have been developed (Berto and Lazzarin 2007).
The limitations of NLFM are related to J integral. Theoretically, the utilisation of
this parameter is based on the elastic response of the material. However it is assumed
that the nonlinear elastic material will not have permanent deformation. J integral is
appropriate for monotonic loading conditions (where material unloading behaviour
is not significant) and for small newly form process zone when crack advances due
to the creation of stress free surfaces.
A compromise between the LEFM and NLEFM has been proposed through the
development of Damage Mechanics which is a phenomenological approach for
material that do not exhibit plastic deformation and can not de characterized by
brittle rupture. In such materials the formation of microcracks, defined as damages,
induced stiffness decreasing which can be quantified by a damage variable which
express the magnitude of this stiffness decreasing. Using Damage Mechanics (DM)
approach Daudeville (1999) simulated the fracture in wood, by treating the problem
of crack initiation in “originally uncraked “ structure of spruce specimens loaded in
bending and by comparing the load displacement curves obtained with LEFM and
DM. Both approaches correctly predicted the load-displacement curves. Moreover,
the critical energy rate (parameter of LEFM) and the fracture energy (parameter of
60 V. Bucur
DM) where compared with the experimentally determined dissipated energy to frac-
ture of the specimens. It was demonstrated that in both approaches fracture energy
is the major parameter that governs crack propagation in wood.
In that follows concepts related to LEFM and NLEFM will be discussed in more
details in view of application to solid wood and wood-based composites.
4.2.1 Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics
The development of the concepts related to the application of LEFM required sev-
eral hypotheses (Stanzl-Tschegg et al. 1995; Tschegg et al. 2001; Vasic et al. 2002;
Vasic and Smith 2002; Jensen 2005a, b, c; Keunecke et al. 2007) such as:
– the homogeneity of the linear elastic material in which fracture takes place
– the pre-existing crack propagates always along one direction
– crack-tip displacement is associated with three principal pure modes of fracture,
Mode I, Mode II, Mode III.
– the intensity of stress distribution in the vicinity of the single crack tip is fully
characterized by the stress intensity factors by three intensity factors, KI , KII , KIII ,
associated with three principal pure modes of fracture
– crack surfaces are traction free at all stages of loading
– the crack propagates dynamically at a certain velocity once the critical fracture
toughness (KC ) or strain energy (GC ), release has been reached
– the inelastic process zone is limited to a small volume at crack tip.
The experimental conditions that influence the fracture process in wood are:
the geometry of the specimens, the loading orientation and rate, and the moisture
content. Wood fracture toughness is also strongly dependent on wood species and
density.
The most common geometry of specimens used for the measurements of fracture
toughness in Mode I and Mode II are shown in Fig. 4.5. The specimens can be tested
in tension, bending, or shear.
The effect of loading rate on wood fracture toughness has been studied by Conrad
et al. (2003) and Vasic, Ceccotti et al. (2009). Conrad et al. (2003) noted that sub-
stantial crack growth can take place at low strain rate, whereas at high strain rates
higher toughness values were measured. In this late case, the dissipation of energy
is slow down because of the relatively short time of the process. Vasic, Ceccotti
et al. (2008) noted that the fracture resistance curves at deformation speed between
0.05 and 200 m/min is influenced by the structural inertial effect. The twice-as-high
fracture resistance at 200 m/min deformation rate proves the existence of a critical
deformation rate above which the viscoelastic response of wood is suppressed. This
phenomenon can characterize the ductile brittle transition limit for wood.
As regards the loading orientation Table 4.1 gives some experimental values of
fracture toughness in Mode I and Mode II determined for different species. As can
be seen from this table, wood anisotropy is well expressed by the values of KIc . For
example, for Mode I, for Douglas fir the values are such as:
LR
KIc· > KIc·
LT
> KIc·
RL
> KIc·
TR
= KIc
RT
> KIc·
TL
b1 b2
Fig. 4.5 (continued)

62 V. Bucur
c1
c2
Fig. 4.5 Specimens geometry for fracture testing (a) fracture testing in mode I (Figure 4.5.a1)
and mode II (Figure 4.5.a2) Yoshihara (2006, Figures 3 and 4). (b) Splitting test for macroscopic
studies (Figure 4.5b) (Tschegg 1986, patent AT 390328) (c) splitting test for micromechanical
studies in SEM chamber (Vasic et al. 2002, Figure 2) Figure 4.5.c1 loading device. Figure 4.5 c2
specimen
Table 4.1 Experimental values of fracture toughness in Mode I and Mode II determined for
different species
Species Crack system Fracture toughness References
Plane kNm–3/2
Mode I
Douglas fir TL 309 Schniewind and Centeno (1971)
RL 410
TR 355
RT 355
LT 2417
LR 2692
Western white pine TL 190 Johnson (1973)
Western red cedar TL 185 Johnson (1973)
Hoop pine TL 494 Walsh (1971)
Hard maple TL 492 Johnson (1973)
Paper birch TL 564 Johnson (1973)
Red oak TL 407 Johnson (1973)
Lauan TL 478 Johnson (1973)
Messymate stringbark TL 505 Walsh (1971)
Maiden’s gum TL 681 Walsh (1971)
Balsa TL and RL 112 Wu (1963) cited in Wood
handbook (1999)
Mode II
White spruce TL 1890 Barrett (1981)
Lodgepole pine TL 2187 Barrett (1981)
Amabilis fir TL 1626 Barrett (1981)
Douglas fir TL 2143 Barrett (1981)
RL 2230 Wood handbook (1999)
Red spruce TL 2190 Wood handbook (1999)
RL 1665 Wood handbook (1999)
Balsa TL 159 Wu (1963) cited in Wood
handbook (1999)
The highest value of KLR Ic is explained by the fact that when crack propagates
in R direction in LR plane, the transversal section of rays and tracheids is the major
obstacle for crack propagation. Moreover KTL Ic has the smallest value because of
the weakest split behaviour of wood in this plane; in this case it is suppose that
the crack is initiated and then propagates in the middle lamella rich in amorphous
lignin and poor in cellulose. As noted by Boatright and Garrett (1983) because of
anisotropic and heterogeneous structure of wood, the TL system is “weak” and the
LT system is “tough”. Similar remarks can be pointed out when fracture energy to
failure (GC ) in tension perpendicular to grain is calculated for softwoods (Table 4.2).
It was observed that always GRL C > GC and the ratio GC /GC is between 1.26
TL RL TL
and 1.55.
It is generally admitted that Mode I cracks propagate in a brittle manner
with low energy consumption, whereas for Mode II cracking much energy is
consumed in creating and breaking the hairy fragments that have been seen on the
microfractographic images on the crack surfaces.
64 V. Bucur
Table 4.2 Mechanical and fracture characteristics of some species determined with splitting
technique and FEA (data from Reiterer et al. 2002)
√
Young’s moduli (GPa) Kinitial (N/m) KIc (MPa m ) Gf (J/m2 )
EL ER ET RL TL RL TL RL TL
Spruce 10 0.8 0.45 1.44 1.01 0.49 0.31 337 213

Alder 11.7 1.1 0.6 2.33 0.95 0.67 0.33 244 155
Oak 13 1.6 0.9 2.58 1.31 0.83 0.41 348 271
Ash 15.8 1.5 0.8 3.57 1.60 1.16 0.65 551 345
It is to note that for real structures the Mixed Mode is dominant and conse-
quently this mode is of major interest for the studies related to health monitoring
of structures. In wood very often a Mixed Mode I/II is possible because of the fact
that cracks propagates along the fibres, irrespective of original crack orientation.
Jernkvist (2001) proposed a theoretical model for a Mixed Mode I/II based on the
fact that ” the Mixed Mode loading is supposed to displace the microcrack zone to
one side of the main crack plane, and the coalescence of the microcracks with the
parent crack may in this case require transverse cutting of tracheids walls. This pro-
cess will create a rough crack surface which does not follow the fibre directions as
can be seen in the simulation shown in Fig. 4.6.
The quality of the surface observed in-situ with ESEM for spruce specimens
loaded in Mode I in TR system by splitting technique is shown in Fig. 4.7. The
wood structure depicted in this figure is perfectly localized on the load-displacement
diagrams. The arrow at position 3a indicates the crack tip at – 20 N shortly before
loading. The crack was located in the early wood zone with a razor blade. The crack
front is widened, but no propagation occurred. The profile of the crack mouth open-
ing is parabolic, wider in earlywood than in latewood. This image corresponds to
the initial step – no crack propagation. At position 3b, in spruce the first propagation
event occurs, the load dropped, the crack penetrated the latewood and stopped in the
earlywood zone of the next ring. For beech specimens, the initial position is shown
at the position 3c, corresponding to – 52 N. The profile of the crack is parabolic.
For beech, the first propagation occurred at – 65 N at position 3d. In TR system and
Mode I the behavior of spruce is different than that of beech.
The behavior of different species (ash, oak, alder and spruce) related to the crack
propagation in RL and LT, Mode I is shown in Fig. 4.8 with load displacement
curves obtained by the wedge splitting test. In hardwoods a macrocrack initiation
takes place at the maximum splitting force, followed by unstable crack propagation
and several steps for crack arresting. The spruce specimens behaved very differently,
showing a continuous load-displacement curve, with a maximum load peak related
to a deviation from the linear behaviour. It was noted that “spruce displays more
ductile and the hardwoods more linear elastic and brittle behaviour. Table 4.2 gives
some fracture mechanics parameters deduced for ash, oak, alder and spruce with
FEA. For all species the fracture RL parameters are higher then TL parameters and
this is explained by the higher proportion of medulary rays. Table 4.3 gives the value
Fig. 4.6 Crack growths along the fibres in pure Mode I and in Mixed Mode I/II – theoretical
models (Jernkvist 2001, Figure 5)
of fracture energy Gf in tension perpendicular to grain in different orientations, for

spruce, fir and Sitka spruce. The ratio between the values in RL system and TL
system is between 1.33 and 1.37.
The fracture parameters are strongly influences by the density (Forest Products
Laboratory 1999; Reiter et al. 2002). Figure 4.9a shows the variation of fracture
toughness for different species with density. Fracture toughness in Mode I increases
with density. The density range was between 100 kg/m3 and 800 kg/m3 and the frac-
ture toughness was measured parallel and perpendicular to the grain. More refined
studies were reported by Donaldson (1997) related to the variation of microdensity
in fractured zones. Figure 4.9b, c shows the microdensity variation in a transwall
fracture zone in the middle lamella region. There is a linear decrease of microdensity
in the vicinity of the fractured surface.
Studies related to Mode III in wood were possible with the development of a
specific experimental devices as for example those proposed by Tschegg (1986),
Ehart et al. (1998, 1999), Tschegg et al. (2001). It was point out by Tschegg et al.
(2001) that for larch and beech, crack initiation energy in Mode III is over twice
as high as Mode I in RL and TL fracture systems, because of a much larger frac-
ture process zone in Mode III than in Mode I. Moreover the Mode III crack has
66 V. Bucur
Fig. 4.7 Load-displacement diagrams in situ and specimens of spruce and beech loaded in Mode I,
inside the chamber of an environmental scanning electron microscope loaded in Mode I in the TR
crack propagation system (Frühmann et al. 2003, Figures 2 and 3). The arrows show the position
a, b, c, d on the load displacement diagrams when the corresponding images were taken such as: a
and b for spruce and c and d for beech
ten times higher crack growth resistance compared to Mode I. “Under pure Mode
III load, crack initiation takes place under Mode III in beech as well as in larch.
More advanced cracks, however, propagate predominantly as Mode I. The change
of the fracture mode takes place preferentially in RL orientation in beech and in TL
orientation in larch” (Tschegg et al. 2001). This behaviour is related to the pres-
ence of medullary rays, much more numerous and important in size in beech than
in larch.
The influence of wood moisture content on fracture characteristics was thor-
oughly reviewed by Wang et al. (2003). The maximum fracture toughness was
Fig. 4.8 Mode I,

Load-displacement curves
obtained by the wedge
splitting test in RL and TL
system for ash, oak, alder and
spruce (Reiterer et al. 2002,
Figure 5)
reported at 17% wood moisture content. King et al. (1999) noted that the mode I
fracture toughness was lower for wet wood, in all fracture directions, (Table 4.4)
than for dry wood (radiata pine specimens) tested in bending (three point bend-
ing and single edge notched). In situ examination with environmental scanning
Table 4.3 Fracture energy Gf in tension perpendicular to grain and in three point bending test, for
specimens with constant width (b = 45 mm) [data from Daudeville 1999]
Orientation Fracture energy Gc (J /m2 )
Species Plan Mean Minimum Maximum Coeff. Variation (%)
Spruce RL 220 159 345 19

TL 160 100 247 29
Ratio RL/TL 1.37 1.59 1.39 −
Fir RL 210 126 367 26
TL 157 97 236 37
Ratio RL/TL 1.33 1.29 1.55 −
Sitka spruce RL 220 157 248 16
TL 164 136 196 16
Ratio RL/TL 1.34 1.15 1.26 −
68 V. Bucur

Fig. 4.9 √Influence of density on fracture behaviour. (a) Variation of fracture toughness, Mode I
KIc (MPa m) versus density (Conrad et al. 2003, Figure 5) (b) fractured zone in middle lamella
region (Donaldson 1997, Figure 5) (c) Microdensity variation in a fractured zone (Donaldson 1997,
Figure 6)
microscope has shown that in green wood water droplets moved away from the cell
lumen around the crack tip. During drying microcracks were observed. Crack bridg-
ing is part of toughening mechanisms. Based on in-situ experiments with ESEM,
Vasic and Stanzl-Tschegg (2007) have shown the influence of moisture content
on fracture toughness and fracture energy (Fig. 4.10) on several European species.
Three main regions of moisture content can be observed, in which the influence of
wood structure is obvious.
– region between 5% and 12%, in which

◦ Gf decrease for beech and oak and increased for pine and spruce
◦ KIc decreased for beech, oak spruce and pine
Table 4.4 Fracture toughness in Mode I and Mode II for dry and wet Pinus radiata specimens
(data from King et al. 1999)
√
Fracture toughness [MPa m]
Fracture Wood RL RT TL TR LT LR
Mode I Dry 0.486 0.351 0.282 0.195 2.69 2.39

Wet 0.214 0.236 0.270 0.235 2.21 1.88
Test Student( t) Dry/wet ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ ns ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗
Mode II Dry 2.826 1.088 2.664 1.228 – –
Wet 2.328 0.458 1.905 0.443 – –
Test Student (t) Dry/wet ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ ∗∗∗ – –
NB: Test Student ∗∗∗ confidence level 90%

70 V. Bucur
Fig. 4.10 Influence of moisture content on some fracture parameters in RL crack propagation
(Vasic and Stanzl-Tschegg 2007, Figure 7). (a) total fracture energy Gf (N/m) versus moisture
content; (b) fracture toughness KIc (kNm−3/2 ) versus moisture content
– region between 12% and 18 %, in which

◦ Gf increased for all species
◦ KIc increased for beech and oak but decreased for spruce and pine
– region between 18% and 30%, in which

◦ Gf is relatively constant for oak and spruce and decreased for beech
◦ KIc decreased for spruce and pine
From this data it seems evident that the moisture content has the ability to change
wood fracture mechanism from brittle to ductile.
Vasic and Stanzl-Tschegg (2007) noted that the stress gradient at the crack tip
might have a significant effect on the local moisture distribution, free water flow
and vapour diffusion in the vicinity of the crack. Experiments on green wood and
modelling with discrete finite elements (Frühmann et al. 2003; Vasic and Stanzl-
Tschegg 2005, 2008; Sedighi – Gilani and Navi P 2007) has shown that the process
zones are confined to one or only a few cell rows, and the lattice fracture model
shown distributed damage in the most stressed regions between the area where a
concentrated force is applied and, the notch plane where the fracture is initiated.
The aspects discussed previously have proved the limitations of LEFM concepts
(synthesized in Table 4.5) and the necessity to introduce new concepts.
Table 4.5 Limitation of LEFM for wood fracture studies (data from Vasic et al. (2002)
Linear elastic fracture mechanics Comments
1 Wood is a homogeneous linear elastic Wood is heterogeneous, cylindrically

medium (isotropic or orthotropic) orthotropic with discontinuities on macro
and micro structural levels. Brittle fracture
occurs in an elastic range
2 The pre-existing crack always propagates The crack does not grow along the original
along the original crack direction orientation. The initial crack extension is
always parallel to the grain, even when
starter crack lies across the grain. At
microscopic level fractured surfaces are
irregular and tortuous
3 Crack tip displacements can be separated into Only displacements can be separated into
three different modes (Mode I – in plane three independent modes
tension, Mode II – in plane shear, Mode III
– out of plane shear)
4 The stress intensity factors KI, KII KIII fully The simplicity of K characterization with
characterize the intensity of stress only one parameter for all complex fracture
distribution in the vicinity of the single phenomena is no more acceptable
crack tip
5 The inelastic zone is confined to a small The inelastic zone is not small
volume of crack tip
6 Crack surface are traction free at all stages of The crack surfaces are not traction free and
loading, and the crack tip is anatomically not anatomically sharp. See the
sharp “ligamentary bridging “of fibres. Crack
bridging is part of toughening mechanisms
7 The crack propagates dynamically at some The stability and rate of crack velocity can be
terminal velocity controlled through appropriate choice of
the rate of loading and experimental
configuration.
72 V. Bucur
4.2.2 Nonlinear Fracture Mechanics

Nonlinear Fracture Mechanics (NLEFM) is more appropriate the LEFM to describe
wood behaviour in several practical situations such as: fracture beyond initial crack-
ing, creep rupture effects, size-effect on small clear specimens, adhesive joints, etc.
To estimate the level of non linearity either fracture energy methods or stress-based
concepts can be applied.
Comparative studies on linear and non linear fracture mechanics on wood have
been performed by Patton-Mallory and Cremer (1987), Boström (1992), Stanzl-
Tschegg et al. (1995), Tan et al. (1995), Reiter and Sinn (2002), and Vasic and
Smith (2002), using non linear energy based fracture theory in order to quantify the
relevance of deviations from the theoretical brittle response.
It was admitted that wood has a softening behaviour (Vasic and Smith 1996a, b,
1998, 1999a, b). The apparent non linearity in the fracture response beyond the
peak load is attributed to the gradual development of damage and microcraking in a
fracture process zone around the crack tip. Stanzl-Tschegg et al. (1995) noted also
that the fracture mechanism in wood is not purely brittle. Vasic and Smith (2002)
explained the non linear behaviour of spruce in Mode I, by fibres bridging behind
the crack tip, in the presence of stress concentrations. The bridging crack model
propose by Vasic and Smith (2002) assumed that the sharp crack tip coexist with a
bridging zone behind the tip crack (Fig. 4.11a, b). The variation of energy release
rate and fracture toughness versus the crack length is shown in Figs. 4.12 and 4.13
on which “the influence of bridging stresses clearly increases with any increase in
the crack length, if the maximum bridging stress is kept constant“. The fracture
parameters reach a maximum at 4 mm which corresponds to the tracheids length of
spruce. Vasic and Smith (2002) demonstrated that bridging of the fibres behind the
crack tip is a major factor in toughening mechanism in wood. They confirmed the
previous statements of Boström (1992) and Tan et al. (1995) that wood in fracture
has a non linear behaviour similar to concrete. “The nonlinearity beyond the peak
load was attributed to gradual development of damage in a fracture process zone
around the crack tip”.
Fig. 4.11 SEM micrograph (Eastern Canadian spruce) of a crack tip (Vasic and Smith 2002,
Figures 2, 4) (a) the crack tip coexists with a bridging zone behind the tip crack, towards the end
of the experiment. The bar line is 100 μm. (b) Fibers bridging. The bar line is 100 μm
Fig. 4.12 Energy release rate Gfc versus crack size for end-tapered DCB specoimen (Vasic and
Smith 2002, Figure 11)
Table 4.6 synthesizes the crack models suggested for wood fracture studies with
nonlinear fracture mechanics at overall macroscopic level. As underlined by Landis
and Navi (2009), these models break away from classic continuum framework,
referred to the cross grain fracture of wood, represent material heterogeneity and
used FEA with different stress – crack opening functions (linear, bilinear, trilinear,
non linear). All these models ask for high computational expenses.
Fig. 4.13 Fracture toughness versus crack length for end-tapered DCB specimen (Vasic and Smith
2002, Figure 12)
74 V. Bucur
Table 4.6 Crack models, with a crack interface element, for wood NLEFM studies
Model description Comments References
1 – fictitious model – existing of a cohesive zone Hillerborg et al. (1976)

– Cracks closing stresses act – FEA Hillerborg (1991)
as a function of crack – the model is simple and Homberg et al. (1999)
separation distance incorporates the
– Stress and crack opening are nonlinearities in to the
related by Gf closing stress function
– the fracture energy is
predicted from the area
under the closing stress
versus opening function
2 – post peak softening – pine specimens Boström (1988, 1992)
parameter and fracture – FEA
energy
3 – separate the microcracking – wedge-splitting tests Stanzl-Tschegg et al. (1995)
from crack bridging – FEA
contribution to fracture – softening curve with
energy bilinear representation of
– the bridging components in stress-crack opening
RL > TL, due to rays relationship
normal to the crack plane
4 – bridging model – Canadian spruce specimens, Vasic and Smith (2002)
– bridging stress occur on the Mode I
crack faces close to the – in situ ESEM
crack tip – the strength of the bridging
– bridging zone length = stress determine whether
4 mm = tracheids length, fracture is brittle,
which is the intrinsic quasi-ductile or ductile
material length scale to a – combination on FEA and
continuum fracture model ESEM observations
5 – crack propagation occurs – pine and spruce specimens, Dourado et al. (2004, 2008)
when peak tensile stress is Mode I
reached – bilinear and trilinear
– crack interface element constitutive relationship for
represents the closing crack interface element
stresses – in trilinear model the
– whole fracture process zone softening is broken down
is lumped into a crack line into microcracking and
and is characterized by the bridging phenomena
stress-crack opening law – load displacement curves
which exhibits softening and R curves
– FEA
– cohesive crack simulations
6 – crack face friction is – Mode II and Mixed Mode Silva et al. (2006)
negligible – measured values for GIc and
GIIc
– bilinear constitutive
relationship for crack
interface element
-
Model description Comments References
7 – cohesive crack model – spruce specimens, crack Coureau et al. (2006a, b)

– elastic layer model RL, Mode I and
– tensile strength σt and – stress opening relationship Lespine (2007)
overall fracture energy Gf , is initial linear elastic
are the most important regime – brittle law
properties of the cohesive – the peak load of a lod –crack
zone opening displacement curve
– the fracture energy related is strongly affected by the
to the constitutive law and slope of softening
must correspond to the behaviour
plateau value of the – the roughness is related to
R-curve the microstructural features
– crack resistance of R-curve and toughness
behaviour is related to the– the effect of crack closing
roughness of fracture stress function, the load
surface crack opening displacement
and R curve are related
quantitatively
– FEA
8 – 3D anisotropic constitutive – nonlinear, continuous Schmidt and Kallske (2007)
law is implemented, which softening stress- crack
could opening function – realistic
incorporate damage and load loaded and unloaded
history behaviour
– FEA
Morphological based models – lattice models and material point model – has
been developed to understand the structural complexity of wood and to relate micro
and macro mechanical behavior. Lattice models have been developed by Landis
et al. (2003), Davids et al. (2003), Wittel et al. (2005), Vasic and Stanzl-Tschegg
(2007), Mishnaevsky and Qing (2008), and Landis and Navi (2009).
Material point model (MPM) is a very recent and promising model that
discretized the solid in an array of points, developed by Nairn (2006–2009),
Guo and Nairn (2006). Figure 4.14 shows the numerical modeling of wood
structure when fracture occurs in TR plane. Figure 4.15 shows a digitized
image of Douglas fir specimen with a notch (a), the corresponding MPM con-
verted image for radial direction on a scale of 0◦ –90◦ from white to black
(b), the crack growth started with an initial kink (c) and the simulated crack
growth (d).
With MPM to each point specific properties such as stiffness and toughness can
be assigned. In a numerical study of the transverse modulus of wood as a function
of grain orientation and properties including heterogeneity and anisotropy Nairn
(2007b, c) demonstrated in a very elegant manner the feasibility of the material
point model using different degrees of complexity for the mechanical behaviour
of wood, ranging from the simplest transverse isotropic hypothesis to the more
76 V. Bucur
complex heterogeneous cylindrical orthotropy (Table 4.7). The material point model
requires data for reliable mechanical parameters of wood structural element that
can be obtained through the development of new methodology such as acous-
tic microscopy (Bucur et al. 1995; Clair et al. 2000; Bucur 2003, 2005) or other
ultrasonic techniques as demonstrated by Bucur et al. (1994).
As a conclusion of this section, it can be noted that analytical and numerical
models have been successfully developed for wood structure and fracture mechanics
studies.
Gibson and Ashby (1997) derived an analytical model for wood structure
described as a regular array of hexagonal cells and derived results for initiation of
fracture by either elastic or plastic buckling. This is a 2D model and mimics only
the softwood structure.
The numerical modelling of wood structure is more complex and includes the
finite element analysis, the lattice method and the material point method.
Finite element analysis reduces the analysis to an idealized structure. The
limitations of this approach are described by Smith, Landis et al. (2003) such as:
– the wood structure is very complex, difficult to discretized into an FEA mesh
– the common practice of reducing analysis to a small idealized structure limits its
value for numerical modelling of the details of failure mechanisms,
– the number of elements required to accurately mesh realistic wood morphology is
computationally expensive
– the difficulty to consider the contact between cells and the large deformations
Fig. 4.14 Material point

numerical modelling of wood
structure (Nairn 2007a,
Figure 2)
Fig. 4.15 Crack growths with Material Point numerical modeling (Nairn 2007c, Figure 2,
Figure 3) (a) digitized image of Douglas fir specimen with a notch (b) the corresponding MPM
converted image for radial direction on a scale of 0–90◦ from white to black (c) the crack growth
started with an initial kink (d) the simulated crack growth
The lattice methods – for which the wood structure is replaced by a model of
rod and spring elements is limited to linear elastic material properties. Variations
in wood structure have been introduced by allowing strength and/or stiffness prop-
erties of the elements to be statistical quantities. Lattice models have focused on
longitudinal properties of wood where the rods are wood fibres and springs repre-
sent transverse properties. In principle lattice models could be applied to transverse
properties or 3D modelling, but that capability has not been demonstrated.
78 V. Bucur
Table 4.7 Some hypotheses for wood structure modelling and fracture mechanics studies at
annual ring level with material point method
Model Characteristics Comments
1 Transverse isotropic – described by 5 elastic constants, – the simplest model

material – Young’s moduli are as – valid mostly for tropical trees
EL >> (10 . . . 20)ER ; . ER = ET . – miss low transverse shear
– Finite Element Analysis modulus GRT
– data from Nairn 2007 b – miss ring curvature and
structure, EW, LW properties
2 Rectilinear – described by 9 elastic constants – miss ring curvature and
orthotropic – simplify the analysis by aligning structure EW, LW properties
material coordinates of the anisotropy with – mesh generation relatively
the rectilinear natural axes L,R,T simple
– allow a low transverse shear
modulus GRT
– can describe the off-axis loading
– Finite Element Analysis – data
from Nairn 2007 b
3 Homogenized – accounts for growth rings curvature – complicate mesh generation,
cylindrical within a specimen, compared to rectilinear
orthotropy – simplifies the analysis by using orthotropic material
homogenized properties in
transversal plane.
– one can use large elements where
stress gradients are small
– small elements are required
throughout the specimen in order
to resolve orientation of material
axes along curved growth rings.
– can approximate effective
mechanical properties, account for
differences between pith and
periphery boards, and account for
size effects.
– Finite Element Analysis – data
from Nairn 2007 b
4 Heterogeneous – accounts for both growth ring – the closest approximation of
cylindrical curvature within a specimen and real wood structure
orthotropy variation in material properties – needs new methodology for
such as EW and LW reliable values of
– fine mesh is required to resolve the EW, LW mechanical properties
structure of wood (acoustic microscopy Bucur
– is recommended for modelling et al. 1995; Clair et al. 2000,
failure processes induced by Bucur 2003; Bucur 2005 or
localized stresses – EW, LW other ultrasonic techniques
– Finite Element Analysis – data Bucur et al. 1994)
from Nairn 2007 b
5 Monoclinc symmetry – described by 21 constants (Bucur – never used until now – 2009)
and Rasolofosaon 1998)
The material point method for numerical modelling of wood structure is capable
of modelling wood anatomy in more details than the methods described previously.
The advantages of this method can be such as:
– the facility to discretize realistic wood structures via a process of digitization of

an image into pixels.
– automatically handles contact and thus can be extended to high strain without
numerical difficulty
– can handle the specificity of the internal configuration of wood structure, the large
deformations and the large calculations in relatively short time.
– the material point model requires data for reliable mechanical parameters of
wood structural element that can be obtained through the development of new
methodology such as acoustic microscopy
4.3 Micro-structural Aspects in Wood
In this section detailed micro-structural aspects of delamination in solid wood will

be discussed. We have seen that the space – time multi-scale nature of the delamina-
tion process in wood can be related to the prediction of crack nucleation, growth and
arrest. The initiation of failure can be marked by the first acoustic signal (Lee et al.
1995; Dill – Langer and Aicher 2000; Dill – Langer et al. 2002; Reiter et al. 2000;
Bucur 2005), or by the non-linearity point on the load/displacement curve (Tschegg
2001; Frühmann et al. 2003). Crack initiation, crack growth and crack arrest emerge
as natural outcomes of the imposed load. In all these processes wood microstruc-
ture plays a very important role. Studies on wood fracture in relation to its structure
using optical microscopy have been published since several decades (Mark 1967;
Debaise et al. 1966, 1972; Dinwoodie 1966, 1968, 1974; Jeronimidis 1976, 1980).
Gordon and Jeronimidis (1980) suggested that the cells in the vicinity of the
fracture zone can absorb a great quantity of energy before breaking. The helical
structure of the cellulose microfibrils in the S2 and the helically wound pattern of
the microfibrils induces a specific form of buckling failure in tension, which causes a
high energy absorption during fracture (Jeronimidis 1980a, b). In his previous work,
Jeronimidis (1976) emphasises the essential part played by the S2 layer in the frac-
ture process upon longitudinal tension. Keith and Côté (1968) described the layer
boundary S1–S2 of the secondary wall as the place where intra-wall failure arises as
a result of shear strains. Experimental studies on hollow cylindrical tubes scale mod-
els with helical fibres at different winding angles showed that the optimal trade-off
between stiffness and toughness can be observed at a microfibril angle of about 15◦
(Gordon and Jeronimidis 1980). Kucera and Bariska (1982) using tube multilayered
model specimens for direct observation of the formation of failure in longitudinal
compression noted that “cracks do not occur until the reduction in specimen length
reaches a stage where the wall folds fill the whole lumen of the tube. They always
arise parallel to the axis across one or more folds in the longitudinal direction, and
80 V. Bucur
starting on the outside they traverse groups of lamellae or the entire wall”. Thus, to
identify the specific behaviour of hierarchical microstructure of wood is essential
for further developments of advanced models of damage and fracture.
During the 1980s a new step in understanding wood behaviour and delamina-
tion was achieved with fractographic studies using scanning electron microscope,
ex-situ (Borgin 1971; Kucera and Bariska 1982; Bariska 1994; Bodner et al. 1996;
Zimmermann et al. 1994; Donaldson 1997; Seel and Ziemmermann 1998; Ando
and Ohta 1999). Some micrographs ex-situ are shown in Fig. 4.16 for spruce and in
Fig. 4.17 for beech. In spruce loaded on Mode I and impact bending, brittle frac-
ture was observed in latewood tracheids as well as delamination between S1 and S2 .
Ductile fracture was observed in fracture in long term bending with specimens at
20◦ C and 65% relative humidity. The microfibrils are pulled out of the secondary
Fig. 4.16 Fracture morphology in spruce. (Zimmermann et al. 1994, Figures 3, 6, 8, 11) frac-
ture in impact bending, with specimens at 20◦ C and 35% relative humidity. Latewood tracheids,
brittle fracture with S2 clean surface. Delamination between S1 and S2 . (a) fracture in long term
bending with specimens at 20◦ C and 65% relative humidity. Latewood tracheids, ductile fracture
the microfibrils are pulled out of the secondary wall (b) fracture in impact bending, with speci-
mens at 20◦ C and 35% relative humidity. Delamination of middle lamella (matrix) and secondary
wall composed from microfibrils. (c) fracture in impact bending, with specimens at 20◦ C and 35%
relative humidity. Latewood tracheids. “A fast and very brittle fracture led to a partially smooth
fracture surface whereas the remaining part of the fracture was more ductile and exhibits a rough
surface with a certain separation of microfibrils and matrix”
Fig. 4.17 Fracture morphology in beech in static bending and in impact bending (Seel and
Zimmermann 1998, Figures 1, 2) (a) libriform fiber after short time static bending, strong deforma-
tion in tension zone of the cell wall with radial agglomerations (arrows) on S2 (b) libriform fiber
after impact bending. Brittle fracture with delamination in fibril/matrix structure. Some microfibrils
are oriented radially and some others are arranged in a layered structure
wall. Delamination was observed between the middle lamella (matrix) and S2 . The
ductile fracture led to a relatively rough fracture surface. In beech libriform fiber
in fracture in impact bending, brittle fracture with delamination between microfibril
and matrix was observed. Some microfibrils are oriented radially and some oth-
ers are arranged in a layered structure. Donaldson (1997) reported the aspects of the
ultrastructure of transwall fracture surfaces in Radiata pine wood using transmission
electron microscopy. The fracture initiation and growth was studied under tensile
stress parallel to the cell wall layers. Figure 4.18 shows a tangential fracture of two
adjacent cells in Pinus radiata loaded in tension. A delamination is observed where
Fig. 4.18 Tangential

fractures of two adjacent cells
in Pinus radiata loaded in
tension (scanning electron
micrograph). A delamination
is observed where intra-wall
fracturing undergoes a
transition between cell walls
layers (Donaldson 1997,
Figure 1)
82 V. Bucur
intra-wall fracturing undergoes a transition between cell walls layers. Donaldson

(1997) noted that the transwall fractures are on tangential surfaces and are more
common outside the juvenile wood rings, This fractures are due to changes in cell
dimensions and microfibril angle with cambial age (Donaldson 1996). “Transwall
fractures are favoured by large cell size and by low microfibril angles, and occur
only on tangential wood fractures in Pinus radiata. Radial wood fractures are exclu-
sively intrawall due to the favourable energy conditions provided by the alignment
of tracheids in radial files”. Most of the transwall fractures observed had an irregular
aspect. In contrast, the intrawall paths tend to follow the lamellate structure of the
cell wall matrix, producing smooth surfaces. These aspects are described in Fig. 4.19
and in Fig. 4.20. More details related to fracture and wood anatomy are given in
the outstanding contribution of Donaldson et al. (1996) – Rotorua Laboratory, New
Zealand.
The development of the equipment for in-situ studies with ESEM (Bodner et al.
1996; Vasic et al. 2002; Smith and Vasic 2003; Turkulin et al. 2005; Vasic and
Stanzl-Tschegg 2008) has been a big step towards the understanding of crack ini-
tiation and propagation in wood during loading. The equipment allowed loading
operation very precisely. Small inconvenient can be introduced by the action of
electronic beam which weakened the cell wall in S3 (Hoffmeyer and Hanna 1989).
Electronic beam damage induced fractures have very characteristic patterns, dif-
ferent from the other mechanical fractures. Bodner et al. (1996), for tension tests
on Norway spruce observed that” in samples with parallel growth rings cracks
propagated with jumps”, (probably the system LR was tested). In specimens with
perpendicular growth rings, “the initial cracks developed into the final fracture erup-
tively and, without intermission”. Serrated (saw tooth) fracture pattern occurs in S2
and S3 , the microfibrils are pulled out.
Thuvander and Berglund (2000) described the micromechanics of fracture in
radial growth cracks in green pine (Pinus sylvestris) specimens with in-situ optical
microscope. Figure 4.21 shows the morphology of the radial cracks. At the cells
Fig. 4.19 Higher

magnification (transmission
electron micrograph) of the
cross section of the transwall
fracture. S2 follows the line
of least resistance while S1
and S3 layers protrude from
the fracture zone. The
intrawall fracture is seen
along the ML surface
(Donaldson 1997, Figure 2)
Fig. 4.20 Transwall fracture

in cross section with
transmission electron
technique (Donaldson 1997,
Figure 3). (a) the smoothness
of the intrawall fracture
compared to the roughness of
the transwall fracture.
Transwall fractures (short
arrows) are separated by
intervening intrawall fractures
(long arrows) between S1 and
S2 and S1 and ML. (b) the
irregular sawtooth fracture
surface in a transwall
fracture
level the crack tip propagates by separating cell walls at the middle lamella in a
splitting or peeling mode. At the annual ring level “stick-slip type” of crack growth
was observed. Because of non-uniform stress distribution, the cracks deviate from
the pure radial direction namely in earlywood zone. The latewood fracture mostly is
without plane deviation. When crack propagation in earlywood approaches the late-
wood zone, its growth rate decreases and could be arrested in earlywood. Latewood
failure occurred mostly by cell splitting because of weak middle lamella. Dill-
Langer et al. (2002) studied the in-situ the damage mechanisms of crack propagation
in tension perpendicular to the grain, in spruce micro specimens (12 mm3 ) with
initial notch. For spruce at 12% moisture content two different mechanisms were
identified: the rupture of earlywood cell walls when crack propagation is in tangen-
tial direction, and debonding between adjacent tracheids, when crack propagates
in radial direction. The cell wall rupture is related to the meso-scale behaviour of
annual ring structure while the debonding mechanism is very brittle and related to
the micro-scale wood behaviour.
The development of in-situ techniques will serve to the modelling approaches and
for implementation of non linear and anisotropic laws in different fracture models
of wood and wood-based composites.
84 V. Bucur
Fig. 4.21 Fracture morphology for radial cracks in green sapwood of Pinus sylvestris observed in
situ with under tension loading (Thuvander and Berglund 2000, Figures, 4, 7, 8, 10) (a) TR crack
arrested in latewood (b) Two cracks are linked and the bridging zone is torn (c) Crack alignment
in R direction because of the rays (d) TR crack tip in the middle lamella of earlywood. (mode of
crack growth: cell splitting or peeling)
4.4 Micro-structural Aspects in Wood-Based Composites
The structure of wood-based composites is spatially much more complex than that
of wood as can be seen from Figs. 4.22 and 4.23 for the fracture surfaces of wood-
based composites tested in tension fracture Mode I (Niemz and Diener 1999).
The failure of adhesive layers introduces new problems in old and new structures.
A delamination test for structural wood adhesives used in thick joints has been
proposed by Lavisci et al. (2001). While the technology to produce wood-based
composites has advanced significantly in last decades, the theories for predicting the
behaviour of these materials advanced less. The industry needs reliable and specific
Fig. 4.22 Fracture surfaces of wood-based composites on ASTM E 399 – 1994 specimens type
tested in tension fracture Mode I (Niemz and Diener 1999, Figure 1, Figure 2, Figure 3) (I) Front
view of: (a)- OSB split parallel to the particle orientation; (b) a- OSB split perpendicular to the
particle orientation; (c) MDF ; (d) plywood – 7 layers (II ) Fracture surfaces of (a)- OSB split
parallel to the particle orientation; (b) a- OSB split perpendicular to the particle orientation; (c)
MDF ; (d) plywood – 7 layers (III) ASTM E 399 Specimen used for delamination testing in wood
based composites
86 V. Bucur

Fig. 4.23 MDF specimens size and orientation (Matsumoto and Nairn 2008, Figure 1); (a) com-
pact tension specimen a= 30.48 mm w= 76.2 mm = 31.75 mm. Note = 0 for the ASTM
specimen (b) orientation of specimens in a panel. The first letter indicates the normal to the crack
and the second one the crack propagation direction
modelling techniques to predict the influence of species, size, engineering properties

of the constituents, etc., on wood-based composites properties.
Under normal conditions, strengths of wood-based composites are directionally
dependent on the structural features and, on the other hand, are time dependent and
sensitive to moisture content. Their heterogeneity is also their main source of weak-
ness, irrespective of the nature of the constituents. As en example, in glulam, the
interface between fibers and adhesive layer is critical for damage onset and devel-
opment. The damage mechanisms themselves are numerous and closely connected.
In many situations the most critical damage mechanism for composites design is
the delamination between adjacent layers. Whatever the cause the delaminations,
they can be very dangerous and can easily lead to a premature collapse of the
structures.
The physical phenomena behind delamination onset in wood-based composites
can have the following causes:
– the residual stress induced during manufacturing

– the environmental conditions, such as moisture content and temperature gradients
– machining and drilling producing peel-off of the uppermost plies and heat gen-
eration; the angle of penetration, the drill geometry, the fibre orientation, lay-up
sequence are factors of influence
– the geometrical configuration – free edge interlaminar stress, skin debonding,
joints, tapered structures
– the inclusions such as bolt, holes and notches
The physical phenomena behind delaminations growth are induced by the appli-
cation of any type of load – compression, tensile in joints, bending or fatigue.
Fracture mechanics is the best tool for the identification of a threshold level for
the growth of delaminations and have a fundamental importance in understanding
the real mechanical behaviour of delaminated composite structures. When design-
ing with wood-based composites the causes associated with the delamination failure
88 V. Bucur
must be taken into account. Delamination management approaches can also strongly
influence the lifecycle costs and the maintenance costs of structures.
In order to efficiently exploit the potential of wood-based composite materials in
structural applications the delaminations initiation and growth must be adequately
predicted and controlled. Multi-scale approaches simulating delamination related
physical phenomena at different levels of detail with different degrees of accuracy
were suggested by Ladis et al. (2002), Smith and Vasic (2003), Moses and Prion
(2004), Smith et al. (2007), and Stanzl-Tschegg and Navi (2009).
Since delamination and fracture process in wood-based composites is with fibers
bridging across the crack plane, the general preferred approaches are based on
energy release rate and not on stress intensity factor.
Crack resistance curves (Ehart et al. 1996, 1998, 1999) were determined for some
wood-based composites (particleboards, MDF, Parallam, etc) with wedge splitting
technique, under the assumption of linear elastic material behavior. Difficulties
determined by the frontal process zone and bridging zone and the measurements of
crack length required the calculation of an effective crack length by normalization
and comparison with an equivalent linear elastic material with no crack tip process
zone. Two models were derived, the plastic energy model and the microcracking
model which relies an effective crack length.
Matsumoto and Nairn (2008) developed an original new energy based method
for crack growth detection in MDF. For crack growth under continuous loading,
detection image correlation method has been developed with simultaneous optical
detection of crack length. In Fig. 4.23 are shown the specimens for four orthogonal
crack directions in a MDF panel. The increment of crack growth Δa was mea-
sured, between two successive images from the shift in the strain profile (Fig. 4.24).
In the case of MDF the unloading curves after crack propagation do not return to
the origin probably because of residual stresses, plasticity or crack-plane interfer-
ence. “Crack-plane interference means the bridging material left in the wake of
the crack cannot be unloaded back to the original specimen configuration. Instead,
Fig. 4.24 Axial strain as a

function of the position along
the crack line with DIC and
measurement of increment
crack growth a (Matsumoto
and Nairn 2008, Figure 2)
Curve 1 – prior to crack
growth, Curves 2 . . . 7
profiles after subsequent
increments in crack growth,
a = the crack growth
between two point in the test,
the shift between curves
Fig. 4.25 R-curve revised method (Matsumoto and Nairn 2008, Figure 4) (a) – integral transfor-
mation of force and crack length data as a function of displacement (b) – energy area to crack
length (c)– R-curve as found from the slope of energy area
the bridging material is crushed, causing the unloading compliance to be lower,

resulting in a residual displacement”. To take into consideration the bridging zone,
material point method and CRAMP – cracks in the material point method – (Nairn
2003, 2006; Guo and Nairn 2004, 2006) have been developed as summarized in
Fig. 4.25. R-curve with fiber bridging process zone was calculated from the slope
of energy area. The slop of the cumulative energy released per unit thickness is
deduced by integrating force displacement data up to some displacement and sub-
tracting the area under an assumed elastic return to the origin. Figure 4.26 shows the
Fig. 4.26 R-curve (J/m2 )

versus a (mm), the crack
growth between two point in
the test for LT fracture with
discrete and revised analysis,
for MDF specimen 12 mm
and 609 kg/m3 (Matsumoto
and Nairn 2008, Figure 5)
90 V. Bucur
Table 4.8 Average values for the initiation toughness (Gc ), the slope of rising R – curve for MDF
specimens and σ c for MDF (Matsumoto and Nairn 2008)
Crack Panel thickness 12 mm Panel thickness 19 mm t

Panel
density Type Gc Slope σc Gc Slope σc
(kg/m3 ) – J/m2 J/m3 MPa J/m2 J/m3 MPa

609 // 2062 21700 0.78 2233 10500 0.43
54 222 0.038 48.2 296 0.056
737 // 4153 59600 2.55 4452 18400 0.66
75.3 814 0.14 48.4 303 0.10
good agreement between discrete and revised analyses of the R-curve for LT frac-
ture for MDF specimens, 19 mm thickness and 609 kg/m3 density. Table 4.8 gives
the initiation toughness (Gc ) and the slope of rising R – curve for MDF specimens
in which the effect of panel density and thickness and of the crack orientation has
been demonstrated.
The originality of the model “material point model” proposed by Nairn and
co-workers compared with previous approaches, started with machined notch, for
which the subsequent process zone does not influence the initial crack growth
(Niemz et al. 1997, 1999, Morris et al 1999, Ehart et al. 1996) is related to the
following points:
– the introduction of an explicit crack,

– the crack tip energy release rate was calculated including bridging effect,
– the total fracture energy released was calculated at the time of crack propagation,
– the COD – crack opening displacement – along the crack surface was calculated,
the bridging fibers failed whenever COD > δc , the calculation can be performed
until crack length reached the end of the specimen,
– fracture mechanics methods were used to model crack tip processes and traction
law methods were used to model the bridging zone, inserted only as the crack
propagated.
Another experimental approach for crack propagation detection was proposed by

Watanabe and Landis (2007) with 3D micro tomography.
Cutting and drilling of MDF are often required for boards used in the manufac-
ture of furniture, cabinets and flooring. Delamination is one of the major defects
observed with cutting and drilling. Digital image analysis was used by Davim et al.
(2007) to study the delamination in an MDF plate with coating layers induced by
drilling. An empirical factor has been proposed to characterize the delamination at
the entrance and exit surfaces of the hole produced by drilling. The digital image
analysis shows a typically brittle fracture on the coating layer. The damage area at
the drill entrance is slightly larger than at the drill exit. Higher cutting speed should
be used to induce minimal delamination and to obtain greater material removal
during drilling.
4.5 Fracture Mechanics Parameters for Ecological Relevance

Fracture mechanics criteria have been developed by Mattheck (1996, 2004),
Mattheck and Bethge (1991), Matthek et al. (1995), Mattheck and Kubler (1997)
to describe failure modes of trees. Strong winds (hurricanes, cyclones, etc) cause
extensive damage to forests, world-vide every year. Considerable research has been
carried out to understand the physical processes involved in order to improve the
sylvicultural practice. Spectral analysis was used to identify the dynamic behaviour
of trees (Guitard and Castera 1995; Gardiner 1995). “Wind affects the growth rate
of the tree and determines the occurrence of windthrow in the later years of the
development of a forest. Consequently the forecast of the financial viability of any
forest project is dependent upon an accurate assessment of the wind speed” and of
the modelling of trees behaviour (Gardiner 1995).
Fracture mechanics parameters have been used to put in evidence potential influ-
ence of air pollution on wood quality in Europe and Canada (Grosser et al. 1985;
Bondietti et al. 1990; Niemz et al. 1990; Koch et al. 1996; Stanzl-Tschegg, Filion
et al. 1999; Beismann et al. 2000; Beismann et al. 2002). Unfortunately no unified
methodology was used and the results have been ambiguous. Only tendencies have
been observed.
In spruce, exposed to SO2 emission, the fracture morphology (Koch et al. (1996)
has shown short fibres, and crack initiation with bent tracheids in the vicinity of
rays. Stanzl-Tschegg, Filion et al. (1999) described the SO2 pollution in spruce with
the notch-tensile strength via ring width and density. A pronounced influence was
observed on trees grown between 1970 and 1985, and a subsequent recovery in trees
that had survived this period.
Beismann et al. (2002) noted the response of stems of 6 to 7 year old spruce and
beech trees studied after 4 years growth in elevated atmospheric CO2 in combination
with a nitrogen treatment and on two different soil types. The fracture toughness,
modulus of elasticity (EL ) and wood density were strongly influenced.
Smith and Chui (1994) observed differences in Mode I fracture energy of pre-
mature plantation grown red pine for crack growth in the L direction. Differences
in bending properties of plantation grown white spruce have been reported by Zho
and Smith (1991). Differences in fracture energy of Pinus radiata wood from dif-
ferent plantations were reported by King and Vincent (1998). Donaldson (1995) put
in evidence cell wall fracture properties in relation to lignin distribution and cell
dimensions among three genetic groups of radiate pine.
As a conclusion it can be suggested that the environmental influences on wood
quality require the development of specific techniques for wood microstructural
studies.
4.6 Summary
Reliable prediction of delamination growth is still proving to be problematic, lead-

ing to the use of large safety factors and reticence in using wood-based composites
92 V. Bucur
in safety critical applications. This has led to composite structures being perceived
as expensive to fabricate and needing frequent inspection and repair. The recog-
nise approach to study delamination has been the fracture mechanics. The theory
of fracture mechanics has been successfully applied to wood, wood products and
wood-based composites since more than 50 years and provided valuable concepts
for evaluation of the influence of cracks, notches or other stress raisers in struc-
tural elements. The space – time multi-scale nature of the delamination process in
wood can be related to the prediction of crack nucleation, growth and arrest. Crack
tip displacement is related to crack growth and propagation. The definition of the
damage zone ahead of a crack tip is crucial for the studies of wood fracture. If
the fracture process zone is small compared to the length of the crack, linear elas-
tic fracture mechanics (LEFM) methods yield an accurate prediction of the load
level at which a crack in a structural component will grow. Any deformation of the
crack can be described through a combination of three fracture pure modes: Mode
I – opening mode in tension, Mode II – the in plane shear mode and, Mode III –
the out of plane shear mode. However, mixed fracture modes can be recognised
also. The anisotropic nature of wood allows the development of six different frac-
ture system orientations. For the situations where the fracture process zone is not
small compared with the length of a crack, the energy methods and the concepts
of nonlinear fracture mechanics (NLEFM) can be used. This approach can be used
to accurate prediction of wood fracture behaviour through laboratory tests and in
reliable interpretation of the mechanical capacities of notched small dimension tim-
bers, or structures with mechanical connections made with fastenings (nails, bolts,
shear plates, split rings), etc. A range of failure criteria have been developed based
on the physics of delamination fracture in wood and in wood-based composites.
These criteria included parameters that relate to the influence of loading, material
characteristics and environmental factors. Experimental investigation and predic-
tive (analytical and numerical) modeling are linked through microfractographic
studies.
The fundamental knowledge on fracture behaviour of wood can have relevance
for structural use of timber, in pulping industry, for wood drying technology, or in
processes of machining and cutting.
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Chapter 5
A Theoretical Model of Collapse Recovery
Philip Blakemore
Contents
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

5.2 Repeating Cell Unit Model with Cyclical Constrains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
5.2.1 Cell Wall Layer Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
5.2.2 Circular Based Cell Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
5.2.3 Squared Based Cell Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
5.3 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
5.1 Introduction
The theory that is thought to best explain the recovery of collapse reconditioning
supposes that the S1 and S3 layers are largely responsible for providing restoring
the cells to the un-collapsed shape. This is because these two layers are particu-
larly important in providing circumferential stiffness to each individual cell lumen.
Hence, it is the potential energy stored in these layers that principally provides the
force to restore the cell shape. In contrast, the S2 layer is considered to be the most
important for providing the inelastic material properties required to hold the cell in
the collapsed or deformed state. While moisture content is important for its effect on
the cell wall material properties (i.e. stiffness, creep, mechano-sorptive creep), the
uptake or movement of moisture within the cell walls is not thought to be critical for
collapse recovery. In this sense, the recovery phenomenon can largely be attributed
to a thermal effect (Blakemore and Langrish, 2008), and hence it is the relationships
with temperature for the various material properties which are critical for this mod-
elling work. The effect of heat then is to soften the S2 layer, which is holding the
cell in the deformed shape, allowing the stored mechanical energy in the S1 and S3
layers to restore the cell shape.
P. Blakemore (B)
Department of Materials Science and Engineering, CSIRO, Clayton South, VIC 3169, Australia
e-mail: philip.blackmore@csiro.au
102 P. Blakemore
The intention of this chapter is to outline the development of a numerical model

to assess the importance of the different secondary cell wall layers for both collapse
and recovery, to demonstrate if the proposed collapse recovery mechanism is plausi-
ble. The model presented was developed using a model that Innes (1995) originally
created. As the name implies, collapse is essentially a structural or mechanical phe-
nomenon. Currently, the most appropriate tool for numerically modelling this type
of problem is to use Finite Element Analysis (FEA) or Modelling (FEM). A repeat-
ing cell unit model with cylindrical constraints is proposed, firstly with a circular
based cell model and secondly with a square based cell model, and is discussed.
5.2 Repeating Cell Unit Model with Cyclical Constrains
5.2.1 Cell Wall Layer Properties
The three dimensional ultrastructure of the secondary and primary layers in the cell
wall, and the corresponding microfibril orientations, are shown in Fig. 5.1 The FEM
developed tries to incorporate as many of the basic features of this structure as pos-
sible. One of the primary limiations of the Innes (1995) was that it was only for a
single three layered cell in isolation. For the model developed here it was important
to incorporate a double cell wall (S3 , S2 , S1 , CML, S1 , S2 , S3 ).
As introduced above, the important characteristics for collapse recovery are the
effect of temperature on the stiffness properties of the S1 and S3 layers, and the
effect of heat on the plastic properties of the S2 layer. The orthotropic orientation of
Fig. 5.1 Three-dimensional

representation of microfibril
orientation in the primary cell
wall (P) and the secondary
cell wall (S) of a typical fibre
or tracheid (Wardrop and
Bland, 1959)
5 A Theoretical Model of Collapse Recovery 103
these properties within the layers is also crucial. For these reasons, an orthotropic
viscoelastic material model is used for the S1 and S3 layers, while an isotropic
elastic–plastic material model is used for the S2 layer and the CML. Given that
in the S2 layer the radial and tangential properties are thought to be very similar,
this simplification is thought to be acceptable.
In that follows we discuss the viscoelastic material model (S1 , and S3 ) and the
non-linear (elastic plastic) material properties (S2 , and CML).
5.2.1.1 Viscoelastic Material Model (S1 , and S3 )

The FEM package used for this modelling was MSC.Marc, which is a good solver
for non-linear problems. The viscoelastic material model it uses is based on a de
Prony-series that relates E, K or G against time at a certain temperature. For exam-
ple, the de Prony-Series for E is shown in Eq. (5.2) The basic effect of temperature
on E∞ was based on Eq. (5.1) (Innes 1996). A shift function is then used to adjust
the creep curves for other temperatures. One of the more common forms of the
shift function for polymers is the Williams-Landel-Ferry (WLF) equation (Williams
et al. 1955) (Eq. (5.3)). In this instance, the shift factor and estimates of C1 and
C2 were fitted such that the creep curves produced in a simple uniaxial tension
model matched the creep model developed by Oliver (1991). Full details of the
Oliver (1991) model, and how the appropriate MSC. Marc parameters were fitted to
provide a match, are outlined in Chapter 6 of Blakemore (2008).
Egreen = exp(4.206 + 0.003265BD − 0.03029T) (5.1)

N
−t
E(t) = E∞ + En exp (5.2)
λn
n=1
where
En = Modulus constant for series n
λn = Relaxation time constant for series n – h
t = Time – h
−C1 (T − Ts )
log [αT ] = (5.3)
C2 + (T − Ts )
where
αT = Shift Factor
C1 = Constant (Specific to Ts )
C2 = Constant (Specific to Ts )
T = Measurement temperature – K
Ts = Reference temperature – K
λnT
αT = (5.4)
λnTs
104 P. Blakemore
where
λnT = Relaxation time constant for series n at the temperature T
λnTs = Relaxation time constant for series n at the reference temperature Ts
5.2.1.2 The Non-linear (Elastic plastic) Material Properties (S2 , and CML)
Innes (1995, 1996) used a non-linear elastic stress-strain relationship in his three
layer, orthotropic, single-cell collapse model. The relationship was essentially bro-
ken into two parts: an initial linear relationship, and then a non-linear relationship.
While MSC.Nastran can handle this form of non-linear relationship reasonably eas-
ily, MSC.Marc had no such capacity. However, given the large strains involved,
in reality some of that strain is likely to be plastic strain and so using an elastic-
plastic relationship, which MSC.Marc can employ readily, seemed appropriate.
This is despite the fact that this material type is mainly used to model smaller
strain behaviour in metals. The MSC.Marc elastic-plastic relationship is by default
isotropic. So unfortunately no orthotropic behaviour could be modelled. The match
between the MSC.Marc elastic-plastic relationship and Innes (1996) used a non-
linear elastic stress-strain relationship can be found in Chapter 6 of Blakemore
(2008).
5.2.2 Circular Based Cell Model
For any cell scale model to be representative of macroscopic behaviour, it needs to

be based on a geometrically representative unit with cyclically repeating boundary
conditions. This ensures that many such models could be joined together in both
directions and the behaviour would still be consistent at a macro scale. Based on the
perfectly cylindrical nature of the single cell model initially used by Innes (1995,
1996), the simplest repeating unit, based on this, is a hexagon (Fig. 5.2). Given the
circular simplicity of the secondary cell wall layers, it is geometrically implausi-
ble that the cell would collapse flat on its own under a uniform hydrostatic tension
pressure alone. Hence, a lateral displacement was applied to the model to force the
cell into a non-circular shape. This was done by displacing (3 μm) the left and right
edges inwards towards each other. Node displacements, and not edge forces, were
used as otherwise the edge forces would have to be specified so as to maintain the
straight edges required for the model to be cyclically repeating. There is some basis
for this compressive force in reality as drying stresses can, and do, contribute to
the occurrence of collapse, and for many cells these stresses will occur primarily in
one axis only. To maintain cyclical constraints in the y-axis direction, it was neces-
sary that the horizontal lines above and below the central whole cell should remain
as a straight edge and horizontal (to prevent free body rotation). The simplest way
of doing this was to tie the Y degree of freedom (DOF) for all the nodes on each
line to the Y DOF to that of the central node (coloured red in Fig. 5.4). The hori-
zontal compression was applied with a load case whereby all the nodes on the left
and right edges were incrementally and linearly displaced towards each other over a
Fig. 5.2 Multi–cellular collapse model in MSC.Mentat showing areas of different material
properties as developed in previous sections. (Blakemore 2008)
given time period. The increments had to be small enough to allow the solver to con-
verge on the intermittent solutions, particularly to be able to calculate the non-linear
plastic strain in the S2 layer and the CML. Given the temperature dependence of
the properties in both the viscoelastic and elastic-plastic material models, a coupled
solution was undertaken where the node temperatures were fixed at a given temper-
ature for each increment. The internal negative pressure was also loaded linearly in
the same loadcase. Once the full load had been applied, a second loadcase, which
lasted for 16 hrs in total, was undertaken to observe the stress relaxation that occurs
because of the viscoelastic behaviour of the S1 and S3 layers.
In the first instance, a small-strain solver solution was obtained (Fig. 5.3) high-
lighting the first problem with this model, which is, the large amount of plastic shear
strain occurring in the CML between the central cell and the four outer quarter cells.
Using a large strain (Total Lagrange) solver, which is a more realistic method, the
problem becomes even more evident (Fig. 5.4) since there is a large amount of shear
occurring along the axis joining the centre of the four outer quarter cells and in the
centre of the central whole cell, related to these geometric weak points (Fig. 5.2).
Even if the geometry was changed so that the S1 layers shared at least one node
along the centre joining lines, there would still be a large area of CML filling in the
106 P. Blakemore
Fig. 5.3 Cylindrical cell model obtained with the small strain solver. Highlighted in the close up
section is the point between the cells where a large amount of plastic strain is predicted to occur in
the CML. (Blakemore 2008)
gaps between any three adjoining cells. It should be noted that this sharing of nodes
in the above model was not done as it would produce a long thin element of CML
on either sides of the shared node. As a general rule, elements are more likely to
provide a good solution if they are composed of approximately even-length sides.
5.2.3 Squared Based Cell Model
The next improvement to the model then was to base the cells more on a square
shape, as shown in Fig. 5.5. This square shape is also possibly more realistic
of the type of lumen shape that occurs in the collapse prone group of eucalypts
(Fig. 5.6). One of the reasons that a cylindrical model was attempted first was that
the orthotropic orientations for the viscoelastic model are most easily assigned in
terms of a cylindrical co-ordinate system. Fortunately, in meshing the central cell
shown in Fig. 5.5, the quad elements were generated in a cylindrical pattern such that
a given edge was always on the inside. The orientations of the orthotropic properties
were then transformed to be relative to that edge. To apply a simple compressive dis-
placement to the edge nodes in a similar manner to the previous model would still
produce a similar problem, possibly even worse, of shear planes in the four corners,
Fig. 5.4 Cylindrical cell model obtained with large strain (Total Lagrange option) solver.
(Blakemore 2008)
and a non-realistic collapsed shape. Instead of this then, a shear displacement in the
y-axis was forced onto the model. A shear force in the x-axis would result in similar
problems to that of applying a compressive force in this direction; except it would
only occur in two opposing corners and not in all four. Given the longer unsup-
ported edges at the top and bottom of the central cell, these edges are inherently
more likely to buckle or collapse and hence the y-axis shearing is the more realistic
for this base model.
The shear displacements were applied to the highlighted nodes (black circles –
Fig. 5.5) on the y-axis mid-plane. A shear displacement, instead of a shear force,
was applied for similar reasons as in the previous stage of the model development
(Fig. 5.4), where a compressive displacement was used instead of a compressive
force. The compressive displacement keeps periodic symmetry, such that all cells
at the boundaries move inward by the same amount. In this instance, while there
was no requirement to maintain a straight edge, there were still problems with how
realistic the resultant stress distribution from the applied shear forces would be. The
displacements of the two outer nodes were constrained to be twice those of their
respective neighbouring inner nodes. The two black circled nodes on the x–axis
mid–plane also had their x-displacement fixed to zero to prevent any rotation of the
model caused by the shear displacements.
108 P. Blakemore
Fig. 5.5 Grid layout, regions of the cell wall and forces for the square-cell based model showing a
much reduced area of CML. The arrows indicate the negative hydrostatic pressure on the inner S3
layer. The other red lines between nodes show the tie and servo links used to enforce the symmetry
considerations for this model. Black dots indicate important nodes for shear displacements and
related symmetry conditions. (Blakemore 2008)
To maintain the cyclical constraints requirement in the y-axis direction, the nodes
along the straight edge, at the top and bottom of the square central unit, were tied in
the y-axis degree of freedom. To ensure the cyclical constraints were met in both the
x and y directions, servo links were used on the nodes on the mid–planes of the four
quarter cells, so that their displacements matched the pattern for the equivalent plane
line on the central cell. A limitation in the software being used meant that the y-axis
displacement of the two side edges could not be enforced, but this was not pursued
further as the x-axis servo links on these nodes did a reasonable job of ensuring that
the collapsed shape in the four quarter cells matched the equivalent section of the
central whole cell. The locations of the servo and tie links are indicated by the red
lines on Fig. 5.5.
From the initial attempts to run this model, Fig. 5.7 shows the final increment
of the model shown in Fig. 5.5 before the solver failed to converge on the next
increment. This problem was largely a meshing issue in the corner areas, one of
which is highlighted in Fig. 5.7 which was experiencing a high level of stress and
Fig. 5.6 Scanning electron micrograph of E. regnans cross section. C = collapsed fibres, U =
uncollapsed fibres, V = vessel, R = ray cells. (Chafe et al. 1992)
Fig. 5.7 Square-cell based model in collapsed state that highlights a convergence issue in large
strain corners of the S3 layer. (Blakemore 2008)
110 P. Blakemore
Fig. 5.8 Refinement of mesh

in the high stress corners of
the square based multiple cell
model. (Blakemore 2008)
became too distorted for the next incremental solution to be found. Figure 5.8 shows
the mesh refinement in this region that was used to overcome this difficulty.
The collapsing period of this model was run with all of the nodal temperatures
fixed at 25◦ C. The internal negative hydrostatic tension and shear (y-axis) displace-
ments were chosen iteratively to just initiate contact on the internal walls (Fig. 5.9).
Fig. 5.9 Final shape of the collapsed square-cell based model with the stress distribution shown
after the 16 hrs of stress relaxation were allowed to occur. (Blakemore 2008)
More extensive contact started to cause convergence problems for the solver. These
problems may have been related, at least partially, to the artificial shear boundary
conditions that were being applied in this model. The internal pressure applied in
this instance was –4.9 MPa. The shear displacements applied to the four circled
nodes on the horizontal mid-plane (Fig. 5.5) were –3.5, –1.75, 1.75 and 3.5 μm
from left to right respectively.
The internal pressure value of –4.9 MPa is not too dissimilar to the –5.33 MPa
(at 25◦ C) that Innes (1996) obtained to strain the inner edge of his model to 95%
of the value assumed to result in collapse. However, both values are high compared
with the pressures that Kauman (1964) estimated were likely in collapsing cells
which he estimated to be in the range of 1–2.35 MPa, based on the liquid meniscus
having a radius in the range of 600–1000 Å. The high negative pressures in both
this model and the Innes (1996) model could at least partially be explained by the
artificially regular geometry and uniformity of material properties used in both of
these models. In reality, shape and material irregularities are likely to act as weak
points where collapse is initiated at lower negative pressures than required in the
models here. Figure 5.10 shows the shape of the solutions after the negative internal
Fig. 5.10 Final shape of the collapsed square-cell based cell model after the negative hydrostatic
pressure and the shear displacements have been removed. (Blakemore 2008)
112 P. Blakemore
Fig. 5.11 Heat up profile of temperature against time used to simulate reconditioning in the FEM.
(Blakemore 2008)
pressure and the shear displacement boundary conditions have been removed. This
figure shows that the model, despite a little relaxation, essentially maintains the
deformed shape. Figure 5.11 shows the approximation to the measurements of the
central internal board temperature shown in Blakemore and Langrish (2008) that
was used as the basis for the application of heat to simulate reconditioning in this
model. This was applied by using a table of these temperatures to change all of the
nodal temperatures uniformly as a function of time. Figure 5.12 shows the shape and
stress distribution of the model after the nodal temperatures have been increased to
100◦ C to simulate steaming. The recovery of cell shape is barely discernible from
the shape shown in Fig. 5.13.
The next main reason for the lack of collapse recovery in the model relates to the
material properties being used.
As discussed earlier, Eq. (5.1) was central to many of the material properties,
and up to this point a density of 673 kg m–3 was used to be consistent with Innes
(1996). This density is very high compared with most of the experimental mate-
rial that has been used here. For this reason, the model was run again using a more
moderate density value of 500 kg m−3 . The viscoelastic parameters used for this
model are shown in Table 5.1 and the elastic-plastic model was also reconfigured
for this density value. Figure 5.14 shows that the change of basic density to 500 kg
m−3 had little effect on the recovery of the cell shape. The main differences were
that a negative internal pressure of only 3 MPa was required to just initiate internal
contact, and the highest residual stress in the model at the end of the steaming was
predicted to be reduced from ∼55 to ∼36 MPa. Again, this might just highlight how
important the effect of temperature is in this model, and how poorly it is currently
understood at the cell wall scale. All of the material properties used in this model
were also almost entirely obtained by analogy with measured material properties
on small samples or boards. This is largely because of the difficulties in measuring
Fig. 5.12 Shape and stress distribution after nodal temperatures were increased to 100◦ C.
(Blakemore 2008)
the mechanical properties of secondary cell wall layers directly. An alternative to

measurement though, as outlined in (Blakemore 2008, Chapter 1) is the significant
progress that has been achieved in modelling the mechanical properties of timber
based on knowledge of the chemical microstructure and the mechanical properties
of extracted chemical constituents. For example, Harrington et al. (1998) calculated
the following cell wall elastic constants for Pinus radiata at 12% moisture content
(Table 5.2 ). Many of the values shown in this table are an order of magnitude greater
than the equivalent values shown in Table 5.3. Although, it should be noted that in
this table the longitudinal direction (l) is parallel to the microfibril direction, and not
parallel to the longitudinal orientation of the cell as is the “z” direction as indicated
in Table 5.3. This is because in the model that used these data (Astley et al. 1998)
the mean microfibril angle and known random variation around the mean, used in
the different cell wall layers, could be varied to analyse its effect on board scale
properties. To some extent, if the values used here are low it may have to some
degree be compensated for the inherent stability of the simple and regular geometry
of the model being used. While an attempt at generating similar values as shown
in Table 5.2 might produce much more realistic values for an ash-type eucalypt
114 P. Blakemore
Fig. 5.13 Shape and stress distribution after nodal temperatures were increased to 100◦ C. In this
instance the temperature effect on the elastic moduli in the S1 and S3 layers has been removed and
the values remain fixed. (Blakemore 2008)
than those shown in Table 5.3 it is unlikely to lead to a significant improvement

in the model at this stage. This is because this approach is still not able to provide
essential information on the non-linear large deformation behaviour, the time depen-
dent behaviour, or the temperature-dependent behaviour of the cell wall properties.
All of which are critical for a significant improvement in the collapse and recov-
ery behaviour of the model being attempted here. The other most obvious reason
for explaining the differences in the two tables (Tables 5.2 and 5.3) is the stated
moisture content for the two tables; respectively 12% moisture content and green.
This highlights another problem with attempting to replicating (Table 5.2) for an
ash-type eucalypt species, and that is the need to generate a table for green moisture
Table 5.1 Single term de Prony-series values fitted to E(overall) as a function of time for a density
value of 500 kg m–3
T (◦ C) Ei (MPa) λ1 (h) E1 (MPa) Eα (MPa)
21.5 358 2.45535 12.1385 345.583

Fig. 5.14 Shape and stress distribution after nodal temperatures were increased to 100◦ C. Model
run assuming a basic density of 500 kg m–3 . (Blakemore 2008)
content. As Harrington et al. (1998; Harrington et al. 1998) acknowledged, “while

it is expected that at the lower moisture contents – such as at 12% – the properties
of extracted constituents will be much the same as those in situ, this may not hold
true at higher moisture contents”. Hence, this approach may not be as useful for
predicting green cell wall properties as it is for dried material properties. Related
to this discussion about the effect of moisture content, the next major limitation of
Table 5.2 Calculated elastic constants for the cell-wall layers at 12% moisture content in Pinus
radiata (Harrington et al. 1998)
Wall Et Er El Grl Glt Gtr

Layer (GPa) (GPa) (GPa) υrt υlt υlr (GPa) (GPa) (GPa)
S3 8.43 7.98 50.36 0.39 0.33 0.32 2.65 3.00 2.68

S2 9.85 9.16 63.96 0.39 0.33 0.33 3.02 3.38 2.96
S1 8.54 8.02 53.10 0.38 0.33 0.32 2.66 3.02 2.66
CML 5.07 5.12 18.43 0.38 0.31 0.31 1.78 2.11 1.88
NB: “l” refers to a direction parallel to the length of the microfibres, and not the longitudinal
direction of the cell
116 P. Blakemore
Table 5.3 Material

properties for different cell S1 and S3 S2
wall layers
Er (E11 ) 620 620
Eθ (E22 ) 6,200 620
Ez (E33 ) 620 6200
νrθ (ν12 ) 0.05 0.38
νθ z (ν23 ) 0.5 0.05
νzr (ν31 ) 0.38 0.5
the recovery model is that it was attempted with green material properties main-
tained throughout. It is possible that the change of mechanical properties occurring
upon drying, with the cell in the collapsed and stressed state, could be critical for
collapse recovery. Based on analogy again with the mechanical properties of whole
boards, it could be assumed that the modulus of elasticity and shear strength in
the dried state, at around 12% moisture content, are approximately 1.5 times the
green values. However, this board analogy is for the board at two different mois-
ture contents, in which the board is essentially drying stress-free in both states.
Clearly this is not the case at the cellular level in the collapsed state, and hence it
is likely that this analogy would be even more tenuous than the similar assumptions
used up till this point. Nevertheless, given that the viscoelastic properties appear
to have minimal effect on the model attempted here, it may be possible to formu-
late a different time-dependent behaviour to mimic the change in elastic moduli as
moisture is removed. For this to be successful, it would be necessary to include
some component of mechanosorptive strain, which is dependent on some form of
drying model for the change in moisture content. Another initial response to this
might be to try and incorporate a simple drying model. After all, the finite element
method is very suited to analysing this sort of diffusion problem. Unfortunately,
most of the commonly used standard finite element modelling packages typically
only include a diffusion-based heat transfer capability, and have no capability for
modelling moisture content in its own right. The main reason that only a heat trans-
fer capability is included is that these type of software packages are mostly used to
design and test metallic, laminate and elastomeric parts where heat transfer proper-
ties are often very important. The underlying governing equations for heat and mass
diffusion are very similar and it is possible to obtain solutions for simple moisture
diffusion problems by reformulating and analysing them as a heat conduction prob-
lem. However, even if a combined heat transfer and moisture diffusion model could
be easily implemented, the collapse and recovery model will not be progressed sig-
nificantly until a reliable relationship between the mechanical properties, at the cell
wall scale, and (changing) moisture content can be better established. At the moment
there are no good data, apart from at a board scale level again, for these relationships
(Table 5.4).
5
Table 5.4 Results from FEM solution. Three layer orthotropic case (Blakemore 2008)
S3 S2 S1
A Theoretical Model of Collapse Recovery
r (μm) 5.2 −1 node 5.37 +1 node −1 node 7.2 +1 node 7.5
U (μm) −0.00981 −0.00969 −0.00967 −0.00966 −0.00982 −0.00986 −0.00984 −0.00987

σr (MPa) −0.12648 −0.47345 −0.54445 −0.55488 −0.61094 −0.61525 −0.68686 −0.98577
σt (MPa) −12.02427 −11.85242 −6.57728 −1.32599 −1.14803 −5.11821 −9.06328 −9.03168
σz (MPa) −0.64927 −0.77253 −0.87351 −0.94043 −0.87948 −0.78025 −0.71417 −0.82618
117
118 P. Blakemore
5.3 Summary
A finite element model was attempted here to demonstrate the theoretical basis for
collapse recovery. The model built on a simple single-cell based model of collapse
that was developed by Innes (1995, 1996). The theoretical mechanism for recov-
ery of collapse by steam reconditioning has essentially been that proposed by Ilic
(1987, personal communication) (cited by Oliver, 1991), which assumes that the S1
and S3 layers are largely responsible for providing an elastic component of the cell
walls and that the S2 layer is considered the most important for providing the inelas-
tic material properties required to hold the cell in the collapsed or deformed state.
To this end, a viscoelastic material model was developed for the S1 and S3 layers,
while an elastic-plastic model was developed for the S2 layer. The model based
on these material properties was not able to clearly demonstrate collapse recovery.
This was largely attributed to the similarity of the dependence of the elastic moduli
as a function of temperature in all cell wall layers. By removing the temperature
dependence in the S1 and S3 layers, a much more significant, although still incom-
plete, recovery of cell shape was demonstrated. The lack of realistic behaviour for
the model predictions has highlighted the paucity of knowledge about mechanical
properties at the cell wall scale. Obviously, direct measurements at this scale are
extremely difficult, if not impossible. The most successful approaches so far to esti-
mate these properties has been to use a range of homogenisation and finite element
modelling techniques based on the generalised knowledge of the cell wall ultra-
structure and the properties of extracted chemical constituents. While not directly
comparable, published values (Harrington et al. 1998) for Pinus radiata at 12%
moisture content suggest that values used in this model may have been rather low.
To some extent this may have compensated for the stiffening effect of the sim-
ple, but inherently stable, geometry used in this model. Even though the method
used by Harrington et al. (1998) could have been used to determine better elastic
moduli for the different cell wall layers than those used, it was not attempted here
because there are still several critical limitations with this approach. These include
that the method is possibly less reliable at high moisture content states and that it
provides no additional information on critical behaviours such as non-linear large
deformation stress-strain relationships, time or temperature-dependent behaviour, or
moisture content (including moisture change or mechanosorptive strain) dependent
behaviour. All of which may be critical for accurately modelling the deformation
and stress distribution in the cell wall layers prior to steam reconditioning. Even if
alternate attempts to simplify the moisture related behaviours were pursued, but that
still accounted for the significant reduction in collapse recovery below 15% mois-
ture content, the lack of good temperature-dependent data in the different secondary
cell wall layers is currently a major impediment for developing the current model
further.
The other major improvement that could be made to the model developed here
would be to include multiple cells with more realistic geometries and arrangements.
Such an approach was attempted in the models by Astley et al. (1998), where real
cross-sections of Pinus radiata tracheids were scanned and skeletonised to form the
geometrical basis of a finite element model used to predict the macroscale elastic
properties. Unfortunately, while the skeletonisation process makes the realistic cell
geometries much simpler to implement in a finite element model, it is not possi-
ble here. Mostly this is because it is the two-dimensional spatial arrangement of the
different secondary cell wall layers that is considered critical to the collapse and col-
lapse recovery behaviour. Scanning in real cross-sections is still a possibility, but,
it would require much more complex image analysis programming to approximate
where the cell wall layer boundaries occurred for the relevant material properties to
be applied to the appropriate elements. The number of elements required in this type
of approach would also make the finite element model considerably more computa-
tionally intensive. Nevertheless, as computer processing continues to become faster
and cheaper, even in the near future this is unlikely to be a significant restraint for
a model with up to 100 cells. This approach would also largely avoid the need for
artificial constraints in the current model, such as the shear displacements required
to achieve a more realistic flattening of the cell lumen.
References
Astley RJ, Stol KA, Harrington JJ (1998) Modelling the elastic properties of softwood. Part II: The
cellular microstructure. Holz Roh Werkst 56:43–50
Blakemore P (2008) Optimisation of steam reconditioning for regrowth-ash and planta-
tion grown eucalypt species. PhD Thesis, The University of Sydney. 327 pp. http://hdl.
handle.net/2123/2343. Accessed 3 August 2010
Blakemore PA, Langrish TAG (2008) Effect of pre-drying schedule ramping on collapse recovery
and internal checking with Victorian Ash eucalypts. Wood Sci Technol 42(6):473–492
Chafe SC, Barnacle JE, Hunter AJ, Ilic J, Northway RL, Rozsa AN (1992) Collapse: an
introduction. CSIRO Division of Forest Products, Melbourne, 9 pp
Harrington JJ, Booker R, Astley RJ (1998) Modelling the elastic properties of softwood. Part 1:
The cell wall lamellae. Holz Roh Werkst. 56:37–41
Innes TC (1995) Stress model of a wood fibre in relation to collapse. Wood Sci Technol 29:363–376
Innes TC (1996) Improving seasoned hardwood timber quality with particular reference to
collapse. PhD Thesis, Faculty of Engineering, University of Tasmania, Tasmania, 207 pp
Kauman WG (1964) Cell collapse in wood. CSIRO Division of Forest Products, Melbourne, 59 pp
Oliver AR (1991) A model of the behaviour of wood as it dries (with special reference to Eucalypt
materials). Civil and Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Tasmania, Tasmania,
107 pp
Wardrop AB, Bland DE (1959) The process of lignification on woody plants. In: Proceedings of
the 4th international congress of biochemestry. Pergamon Press, New York, NY, pp 76–81
Williams M.L, Landel R.F, Ferry John D (1955) The temperature dependence of relaxation
mechanisms in amorphous polymers and other glass-forming liquids. J Am Chem Soc
77:3701–3707
Part II
Methodology for Delamination Detection
and Factors Inducing and Affecting
Delamination
Chapter 6
Delamination of Wood at the Microscopic Scale:
Current Knowledge and Methods
Lloyd Donaldson
Contents
6.1 Anatomical Features of Wood Delamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

6.1.1 Weathering and Decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
6.1.2 Internal and Intra-Ring Checking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
6.1.3 Resin Pockets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
6.1.4 Shelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
6.1.5 Reaction Wood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
6.1.6 Induced Delamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
6.2 Ultrastructural Features of Cell Wall Delamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
6.2.1 Ultrastructure of Wood Cell Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
6.2.2 Location of Cell Wall Delamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
6.2.3 Mechanism of Delamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
6.2.4 Influence of Microfibril Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
6.2.5 Influence of Delignification and Pulp Refining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
6.2.6 Influence of Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
6.2.7 Influence of Moisture Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
6.2.8 Influence of Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
6.3 Microscopic Methods for Evaluation of Delamination in Wood . . . . . . . . . . . 137
6.3.1 Light Microscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
6.3.2 Confocal Microscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
6.3.3 Electron Microscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
6.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
L. Donaldson (B)
Bioproduct Development, Scion - Next Generation Biomaterials, 49 Sala St. Rotorua,
Private Bag 3020, Rotorua 3046, New Zealand
e-mail: lloyd.donaldson@scionresearch.com
124 L. Donaldson
6.1 Anatomical Features of Wood Delamination

At the microscopic level, wood delamination can be defined as the separation or
disintegration of fibres as a result of physical or chemical processes resulting in
fracturing. Wood shows complex anisotropic behavior related to its microscopic
structure, and this is also reflected in its fracture behaviour (Figs. 6.1 and 6.2).
Delamination of wood can occur by intrawall fracture between adjacent tracheids
Fig. 6.1 Diagram of cell wall delamination for both radial and tangential planes, showing tran-
swall and intrawall fracture types. Interwall fracture is a special case of intrawall fracture directly
through the middle lamella or directly between individual tracheids or fibres
Fig. 6.2 Diagram illustrating

the phenomenon of fibre
bridging where single fibres
or short rows of fibres span
the developing fracture. This
feature is more common in
some species than others and
is thought to prevent abrupt
crack propagation resulting in
a stepwise failure process
6 Delamination of Wood at the Microscopic Scale 125
or fibres, or in association with rays, or less commonly by transwall fracture,

where the cell lumen is exposed (Koran 1967, 1968; Jeronimidis 1976; Kucera
and Bariska 1982; Boatright and Garrett 1983; Côté and Hanna 1983; Zink et al.
1994; Donaldson 1997) (Figs. 6.2 and 6.3). Interwall fracture is a special case of
intrawall fracture that occurs within the middle lamella (Côté and Hanna 1983; Zink
et al. 1994).
Delamination can occur naturally from weathering or decay, growth stress or dry-
ing stress (including brittleheart, surface, intra-ring and internal checking), physical
damage to the living tree (resin pockets), and physiological stress (resin pockets,
traumatic resin canals, shelling). These phenomena can be divided into radial delam-
ination (intra-ring checking, internal checking, weathering, decay) and tangential
delamination (resin pockets, traumatic resin canals, shelling). Brittleheart is a spe-
cial case of transverse delamination. These cases of natural delamination often occur
as a result of changes to the anatomical or chemical properties of the wood.
Because wood tracheids and fibres are aligned in radial files, delamination may
occur preferentially in the radial longitudinal plane between the rows of cells. Thus,
wood splits easily in the radial longitudinal plane by crack propagation along the
radial files of tracheids, and/or along the rays (Thuvander and Berglund 2000;
Thuvander et al. 2000). There are differences between radial cracks that grow radi-
ally from a tangential surface, and those that grow longitudinally from a transverse
surface. The former often shows deflections of the propagation when encountering
a latewood boundary, with a stick-slip method of propagation due to the stress dis-
tribution produced by the alternating layers of soft earlywood and stiff latewood
(Thuvander and Berglund 2000; Thuvander et al. 2000). Delamination by intrawall
fracture is more difficult in the tangential plane because the tracheids or fibres
are randomly arranged in this direction. Crack propagation must therefore follow
an irregular course, which requires more energy, and may propagate more slowly.
There are also fewer potential failure points, such as bordered pits, on the tangential
Fig. 6.3 Light micrographs of radiata pine showing: (a) Tangential delamination in thin
walled mild compression wood with examples of both transwall (t) and intrawall (i) fracture.
(b) Tangential delamination in thick walled tracheids showing exclusively intrawall fracture. (c)
Radial delamination associated with internal checking showing intrawall fracture at the middle
lamella (ml) region. Scale bar = 30 μm
126 L. Donaldson
walls. Delamination in the transverse plane is difficult because there is usually no

defined path for crack propagation. Thus transverse delamination occurs mainly
by transwall fracture but with some intrawall stepping (Zimmermann and Sell
1997). This type of fracture may be associated with brittleheart in some hardwood
species, where compression failures in the cell wall provide the pathway for crack
propagation (Dadswell and Langlands 1934; Green 1962; Wilkins 1986a, b).
Of course, delamination can also occur in wood-based products as a result of
applied stresses during service or manufacture and may be associated with adhesion
problems when failure occurs at glue lines, for example. Wood structure can also
influence these types of delamination. For example, penetration of adhesive into the
wood structure, or even into the cell wall, will result in stronger bonds. The presence
of any delamination at the glue line as a result of inadequate surface preparation
will weaken the adhesion (Jokerst and Stewart 1976; Murmanis et al. 1983; Singh
et al. 2002). Various other types of delamination occur on wood surfaces as a result
of sawing or planing and these micro-cracks can be penetrated by various surface
coatings resulting in improved adhesion of the coating (Singh and Dawson 2004,
2006; Singh et al. 2007).
6.1.1 Weathering and Decay
Delamination associated with weathering and/or decay occurs as a result of chem-

ical modification of the wood cell walls, primarily the breakdown and removal of
lignin by the action of UV radiation in sunlight, and the stresses caused by wet-
ting/drying cycles (Borgin 1971a; Sell and Leukens 1971; Bamber and Summerville
1981; Voulgaridis and Banks 1981; Feist and Hon 1984; Singh et al. 1995; Evans
et al. 2000; Turkulin et al. 2001; Singh and Dawson 2003; Kim et al. 2008), or
by the activities of microorganisms (Sandberg 1999). In addition to wetting and
drying cycles, under some conditions freezing and thawing cycles also contribute.
Delamination as a result of weathering usually occurs by simple cell separation at
the middle lamella (Voulgaridis and Banks 1981; Evans et al. 2000), as a result of
breakdown of lignin (Bamber and Summerville 1981). The wood breaks up into
individual fibres or fibre bundles (Singh and Dawson 2003), which may also show
thinning of the cell wall as a result of erosion of the secondary wall from exposed
lumen surfaces. Bundles of microfibrils are peeled away due to degradation of the
cell wall resulting from chemical and physical processes (Kim et al. 2008).
In some species such as pine (Pinus spp), ray cells are mostly unlignified, and
hence may break down well before tracheids and fibres, resulting in radial delamina-
tion. When tissues other than rays are involved, the separation of cells may result in
mixed radial and tangential delamination (Bamber and Summerville 1981). In cases
where mainly polysaccharides are degraded, leaving an intact lignin residue (e.g.,
brown rot), delamination may occur also in the transverse direction because of the
brittleness of dry lignin, allowing transwall fracture to easily take place (Irbe et al.
2006). The presence of cellulose microfibrils tends to resist transwall failure in the
transverse plane in undegraded tracheids or fibres.
Radial and tangential surfaces may show different responses to weathering

(Sandberg 1999; Sandberg and Söderström 2006). Sandberg and Söderström (2006)
found that tangential surfaces show a greater number and width of cracks in pine and
spruce (Picea spp), compared to radial surfaces. Cracks on the tangential surface
occur in both earlywood and latewood, but on radial surfaces, cracks are more com-
mon at the ring boundaries (Sandberg and Söderström 2006). Delamination of the
middle lamella occurs frequently in the latewood on tangential surfaces (Sandberg
and Söderström 2006).
The tracheid or fibre cell walls exposed on weathered or decayed surfaces may
show checks that follow the alignment of the microfibrils in the S2 layer. These
checks may be related to softrot cavities, or may result from breakdown of the cell
wall matrix and the influence of wetting and drying cycles (Borgin 1971a; Nilsson
and Daniel 1990; Blanchette et al. 1994).
Delamination of pit membranes as a result of weathering has been described
by Turkulin and Sell (1997). Checks in the secondary wall induced by weather-
ing, show bridging involving macrofibrils (bundles of microfibrils), a behavior that
mirrors the bridging of whole tracheids in radial delamination at a larger scale
(Stanzl-Tschegg 2006; Keunecke et al. 2007) (Fig. 6.2). It seems likely that such
bridging behavior will also influence fracture toughness (resistance to fracture) at
the nanostructural level, as it does at the anatomical level.
Borgin et al. (1975) examined a range of ancient wood samples with ages rang-
ing from 900 to 4400 years. Delaminations were found at the middle lamella/S1
interface with cracks and fissures also present in other parts of the cell wall.
Blanchette et al. (1994) found intrawall cracks and fissures within the secondary
walls of archaeological wood from ancient Egypt. This form of physical degradation
was associated with exposure to limestone, gypsum, sodium chloride and mois-
ture. Donaldson (1993) found similar delamination associated with sodium chloride
deposits in the cell walls of Podocarpus tracheids from wood that had been buried on
the sea floor. In ancient wood samples, cracks and intrawall delaminations are often
observed, even in apparently sound wood. Borgin (1971a) found intrawall delam-
ination within both the secondary wall and the middle lamella in the absence of
microbial degradation. Similar delaminations were observed in wood from ancient
tombs by Nilsson and Daniel (1990), and in at least one case, this was associated
with softrot attack.
Daniel et al. (2004) used cryo-FESEM to study delamination in white-rot
decayed birch wood (Betula verrucosa Ehr.). The decay progressively removed
matrix material between macrofibrils, resulting in concentric delamination of layers
of macrofibrils within the secondary wall.
Ando et al. (2006) compared fracturing properties of old Japanese red pine (Pinus
densiflora Sieb. Et Zucc.) wood from a Buddhist temple and new wood within
3 years of felling. They found more uneven and complicated surfaces dominated
by transwall fracture in the old wood (270 years old), suggesting that there was a
prolonged formation of microcracks before fracture in these samples. Many of these
transwall fractures were initiated from bordered pits, suggesting that these struc-
tures have a role in concentrating stress. Microcracks may have accumulated at the
128 L. Donaldson
bordered pits during the 270 years in service. Fracture in new wood (<3 years-old)
was dominated by intrawall delamination.
The ultrastructural characteristics of weathered pine wood (also from a Buddhist
temple) were examined by TEM and UV microscopy (Kim et al. 2008). Both middle
lamella and S3 layers showed dissolution and separation, accompanied by delami-
nation of the S1 layer in more degraded regions. The S2 layer showed the greatest
resistance to weathering but eventually disintegrated due to breakdown of the cell
wall matrix.
6.1.2 Internal and Intra-Ring Checking
Internal checking (checking enclosed within the piece of timber), and intra-ring
checking (checking enclosed within a growth ring) are characterised by radial
delamination associated with the wood rays (Booker et al. 2000; Putoczki et al.
2007). Wood rays represent a natural point of weakness because of their perpendic-
ular orientation to the wood grain, their reduced lignification, and thin cell walls.
Every tracheid contacts with at least one ray, hence any radial delamination must
involve rays at some point. Whether checking initiates at the ray or merely fol-
lows the path of least resistance is not known, but at least in the case of intra-ring
checking, the cell wall failure occurs well above fibre saturation point (Booker et al.
2000). Both internal checks and intra-ring checks typically result from delamination
between adjacent tracheid, fibre or ray cell cell walls (Putoczki et al. 2007).
6.1.3 Resin Pockets

Resin pockets are localised regions of tangential delamination that result from
mechanical or physiological damage, and are often associated with wind and or
drought conditions (Temnerud et al. 1999). There are probably many different
causes associated with the different types of resin pockets that occur in softwoods,
but for typical type 1 resin pockets, there is a tangential delamination that opens to
form a lens-shaped cavity. This cavity subsequently fills with resin and callus tissue,
which proliferates from the damaged ray cells exposed at the surface (Somerville
1980). The exact mechanism is unknown, but in some cases the delamination is
associated with bands of traumatic resin canals that form parenchymatic bands, that
clearly represent a structural weakness (Glerum and Farrar 1966; Lee et al. 2007).
Such resin canals are associated with unseasonal frost or insect attack (Lee et al.
2007). Delamination resulting in resin pocket formation may be associated with
bending stress as a result of wind sway (Temnerud et al. 1999).
6.1.4 Shelling
Tangential delamination during drying of logs or sometimes sawn timber, which

may or may not be associated with growth ring boundaries, is known as shelling.
Fig. 6.4 Confocal projection

of drought-grown radiata pine
showing intrawall
delamination at the middle
lamella (arrows) associated
with reduced lignification.
Field of view = 159×159 μm
This is very uncommon, but is known to occur particularly in Hoop pine (Araucaria
cunninghamii D. Don). A more extreme form of shelling associated with severe
drought on certain types of site, such as sand hills, has also been described in
radiata pine (Pinus radiata D.Don). This type of shelling results from reduced
lignification associated with tangential bands of affected tracheids, resulting in
intrawall delamination (Barnett 1976; Donaldson 2002) (Fig. 6.4).
6.1.5 Reaction Wood
Compression wood is the reaction wood formed on the lower side of leaning stems
and branches in softwoods as a response to gravitational stress. The S2 layer of
severe compression wood tracheids may often show radial delaminations known as
helical checks. These checks are associated with an absence of the S3 layer, and
with swelling caused by increased lignification of the outer S2 region (Boyd 1972;
Yamamoto 1998; Bamber 2001).
In larch (Larix decidua Mill.) compression wood under radial longitudinal shear,
shear strength was greater than comparable normal wood controls (Gindl and
Teischinger 2003). Compression wood shows intrawall fracture, exposing the S1
layer on the fracture surface, and this difference may occur as a result of changes
in microfibril angle and lignification, as well as the presence of intercellular spaces
(Gindl and Teischinger 2003). In compression wood, there is greater lignification
of the outer S2 region and less difference in microfibril angle between the S1 and
S2 layers, making fracture at the S1 /S2 transition more difficult. In addition, the
middle lamella region is less lignified in compression wood than in normal wood
(Donaldson 2001), and the presence of spaces at the cell corners may result in
notching effects (Gindl and Teischinger 2003). In contrast, normal wood showed
transwall and intrawall fracture between the S1 and S2 layers during fracturing. This
130 L. Donaldson
difference may be associated with reduced lignification at this transition in normal

wood (Maurer and Fengel 1991).
Tension wood is the gravitational reaction wood formed on the upper side of
leaning stems and branches in hardwoods. Tension wood fibres are characterised by
an unlignified inner wall layer known as the gelatinous or g-layer. Radial intrawall
delamination has been described in eucalypt (Eucalyptus spp) tension wood, possi-
bly associated with high levels of growth stress (Chafe 1977). These radial delami-
nations were characterised by local disruptions to the microfibril orientation, appear-
ing remarkably similar to the radial checks found in severe compression wood.
In many hardwood species, the G-layer of tension wood delaminates as an arte-
fact during sectioning for microscopy (Clair et al. 2005). This separation of the
G-layer from the secondary wall is considered to be caused by the sectioning pro-
cedure but is indicative of an inherent zone of weakness between the lignified
secondary wall and the unlignified G-layer (Donaldson 2001; Clair et al. 2005).
By serially sectioning embedded tissue, where further damage due to sectioning is
prevented by the embedding resin, this delamination can be shown to occur up to
30 μm below the cut surface (Clair et al. 2005).
6.1.6 Induced Delamination
Huang (1995) used ultrasonic treatment to induce delamination of wood cell walls
in order to observe microfibril orientation. This was most effective on large diame-
ter tracheids with high microfibril angles. Treatment with Congo red was found to
enhance checking. This type of delamination appears to follow cellulose microfib-
rils in the S2 layer but the ultrastructure was not investigated in any detail. Similar
delaminations are induced by iodine precipitation within micro-porosities of the cell
wall (Donaldson and Frankland 2004).
6.2 Ultrastructural Features of Cell Wall Delamination
6.2.1 Ultrastructure of Wood Cell Walls
The wood cell wall has a complex hierarchical organization, starting with cellu-
lose microfibrils in the form of 3 nm diameter strings of undefined length (Fengel
1978; Donaldson and Singh 1998). These microfibrils group together in clusters
to form macrofibrils 20–30 nm in diameter, embedded in an amorphous matrix
of lignin and hemicellulose (Donaldson 2007). The cell wall has 4 layers, an
outer amorphous layer called the compound middle lamella, incorporating the pri-
mary cell wall, which contains randomly oriented cellulose microfibrils and is
highly lignified. The secondary cell wall, which characterises wood cells, con-
tains three layers: an outer S1 layer with transversely oriented microfibrils and
relatively low levels of lignification, a wide S2 layer with variable but largely axial
orientation of microfibrils, and an inner S3 layer with transversely oriented microfib-

rils and a relatively high degree of lignification. The secondary cell wall thus has a
crossed-grain, laminate-type structure (Donaldson and Xu 2005; Donaldson 2007).
Transverse fracture surfaces can themselves reveal ultrastructural details of the
cell wall that are not readily observed by other methods (Sell and Zimmermann
1993; Zimmermann and Sell 1997). Spruce fractured in the transverse plane by
applying a tensile load, was used to reveal macrofibrils, clusters of cellulose
microfibrils in wood, which may sometimes form radial lamellae. It is still not
clear if such radial lamellae represent a natural structure of wood cell walls, or
an artifact induced by the fracturing process (Singh et al. 1998; Donaldson and
Frankland 2004). These studies also demonstrate the complexity of transverse
fracture showing both transwall and intrawall delamination producing a complex
three-dimensional surface of tracheid bundles with macrofibril lamellae and cell
wall fragments (Zimmermann and Sell 1997).
6.2.2 Location of Cell Wall Delamination
Wood shows anisotropic fracture properties depending on the method of stress appli-
cation (compression, tension or shear), and the direction of the applied force in
relation to the grain direction. Under compression, cell walls crumple, forming slip
planes or compression failures (Kucera and Bariska 1982; Wilkins 1986a, b), while
tension or shear results in fracture within (intrawall) or across (transwall) the cell
wall (Côté and Hanna 1983; Donaldson 1995, 1996) (Fig. 6.1). Intrawall fracture is
favored in thick cell walls with large microfibril angles, while transwall fracture is
favored in thin-walled cells with small microfibril angles (Wardrop 1951; Wardrop
and Addo-Ashong 1965; Côté and Hanna 1983; Ashby et al. 1985; Donaldson 1996;
Fruhmann et al. 2003b) (Fig. 6.3).
Analysis of the locations of intrawall delamination on tangential tracheid walls
provides information on the nature of preferred failure boundaries within the cell
wall (Donaldson 1995, 1996). Intrawall delamination mainly occurs at three differ-
ent locations: within the middle lamella, between the middle lamella and S1 layer,
and between the S1 layer and S2 layer (Côté and Hanna 1983). Failure probably also
occurs within the S1 layer itself, since examination of fracture surfaces by polarized
light microscopy (in transverse view) or by scanning electron microscopy (in lon-
gitudinal view) often shows exposure of the S1 layer (Koran 1967, 1968; Côté and
Hanna 1983; Zink et al. 1994; Donaldson 1995, 1996). This implies that the S1 layer
is a weak point that favors delamination. The ultrastructural features that contribute
to this have been investigated, suggesting that reduced lignification and the orien-
tation of cellulose microfibrils are important factors in determining the position of
fracture (Donaldson 1995, 1996).
Donaldson (1997) used TEM to study transwall fracture in radiata pine, showing
the characteristic stepping between cell wall layers that occurs in this type of fracture
(Fig. 6.5). Some evidence for plastic deformation within a small distance of the
fracture face was also described.
132 L. Donaldson
Fig. 6.5 Stereo scanning

electron micrograph showing
a tangential longitudinal
fracture surface in radiata
pine wood. This fracture
shows both intrawall (IW)
and transwall (TW) fracture.
This stereo image should be
viewed with red/green or
red/blue glasses with red to
the right eye. Scale bar =
100 μm
In softwoods, the compound middle lamella (including the primary cell wall)
lacks highly oriented cellulose, and is thus relatively isotropic, tending to show
very smooth intrawall fractures but somewhat irregular transwall fractures (Fig. 6.6)
(Donaldson 1997). There are significant changes in cell wall properties at the
S1 /middle lamella boundary from an isotropic material to a highly anisotropic mate-
rial, because of the highly oriented cellulose microfibrils, and this seems to favor
intrawall fracture. Putoczki et al. (2007) have used TEM to study delamination asso-
ciated with intra-ring checking. This delamination occurred mainly at the compound
middle lamella/S1 interface (80%), possibly in association with reduced lignification
in the S1 region (Donaldson 1995).
The interface between the S1 and S2 layers is a less abrupt change, with microfib-
rils gradually reorienting and forming a transition zone (Brändström et al. 2003;
Donaldson and Xu 2005). Nonetheless, fractures that expose the S2 layer tend to
be the most common (Koran 1967, 1968; Côté and Hanna 1983; Zink et al. 1994;
Donaldson 1995, 1996). Transwall fractures are less common and appear to involve
some degree of plastic deformation (Donaldson 1997), but are favored by thin tra-
cheid walls, with some indication of a genetic influence (Koran 1967, 1968; Côté
and Hanna 1983; Zink et al. 1994; Donaldson 1997). These same features may be
involved in internal checking (Putoczki et al. 2007) and other types of delamination.
Schmitt et al. (1996) used TEM to study brash (low level of shock resistance)
and tough (high level of shock resistance) fracture modes in Hickory (Carya spp).
Transwall fracture showed stepping up at the S1 / S2 transition or between the pri-
mary wall and S1 layer (Schmitt et al. 1996; Donaldson 1997). The middle lamella
Fig. 6.6 Transmission

electron micrographs of
radiata pine cell walls
showing (a) intrawall, and
(b) transwall fracture. The
intrawall fracture is at the
compound middle lamella/S1
interface while the transwall
fracture shows stepping from
the S2 to the S1 , and then to
the middle lamella. Scale bar
= 1 μm
region was the most common point of failure in these samples. The relatively smooth
transwall fracture face of brash samples was associated with compression failures
in the cell wall, while tough specimens showed a highly irregular, mainly longitu-
dinal fracture face, associated with microcracks up to several millimeters from the
fracture, that were absent in brash samples. The microcracks may be involved in
dissipation of energy at some distance from the fracture plane in the tough samples.
The morphological differences explain variations in shock resistance between spec-
imens of similar density. Transwall fracture surfaces show a thin, densely staining
layer similar to that described by Donaldson (1997) suggesting a thin layer of elastic
deformation at the surface.
TEM has also been used to study surface structure, and delamination, in pulp
fibres resulting from beating and refining treatments (McIntosh 1967; Page and De
Grâce 1967; Kibblewhite 1972; Singh and McDonald 2000; Singh et al. 2003; Molin
and Daniel 2004; Brändström et al. 2005; Billosta et al. 2006). In the pulping pro-
cess, the site of fracture in softwoods has an important, species-dependent practical
ramification. Specifically, spruce has a lower energy requirement for mechanical
pulping compared to pine. This is because in spruce, the S1 layer is easily removed
by refining, whereas in pine, the S1 layer detaches from the S2 layer, but remains
134 L. Donaldson
intact, forming an energy-absorbing sheath on the outside of the fibre (Fernando

2007; Fernando et al. 2007). Wood which has undergone radial compression in an
attempt to improve the development of fibre flexibility by inducing cell wall delam-
ination, shows small regions of intrawall fracture at the corners of cells in the outer
secondary wall (Bergander and Salmén 1997).
Singh et al. (2002) have used TEM to study delamination of planed surfaces
in relation to PVA glue penetration, showing the complex mixture of intracellu-
lar and intercellular fracture which influences the penetration of adhesive into the
wood surface. In more damaged surfaces, adhesive penetration was more restricted,
especially as a result of closure of ray openings at the surface, and crushing of
surface cells.
6.2.3 Mechanism of Delamination
Using an environmental SEM with an in-situ deformation stage, Stanzl-Tschegg

(2006) was able to observe the fracture process, while simultaneously acquiring
load displacement curves. In samples under tensile load, there was a difference in
crack propagation mechanism between earlywood and latewood. The weaker early-
wood fibres fractured transversely, whereas the stronger latewood fibres separated
by shear, resulting in a longitudinal fracture path.
Using confocal microscopy, Dill-Langer et al. (2002) examined the mechanism
of fracture in tension perpendicular to the fibre axis, comparing tangential, radial
and oblique directions. Two mechanisms were identified, with transwall fracture of
earlywood cells in the tangential plane, intercellular delamination between tracheids
along radial files with crack progression in the radial plane, and a combination of
both mechanisms in the oblique direction.
6.2.4 Influence of Microfibril Angle
Using thin wood foils, small angle X-ray diffraction, and a video extensometer,
Reiterer et al. (2001) studied the deformation and energy absorption of wood cell
walls under tensile loading. Microfibril angle was found to influence both longitu-
dinal extensibility, and deformation perpendicular to load. Maximum longitudinal
◦ ◦
strain increased from 0.5% to 11% as microfibril angle increased from 5 to 50 .
Most of the increased extensibility at higher microfibril angles was due to irre-
versible deformation of the cell wall. Reiterer et al. (2001) also found that tangential
◦
strain increased with microfibril angle, reaching a maximum at 27 . Tensile strength
◦
decreased with increasing microfibril angle, from 220 MPa at 5 to 35 MPa at
◦
50 . Energy absorption capacity was found to increase with microfibril angle, as
shown in the morphology of the fracture surface, which was smooth for low MFA,
indicating brittle behavior, and heavily torn and deformed in samples with high
MFA, indicating ductile behavior. The fraction of absorbed energy resulting from
elastic deformation was only about 10% in samples with high microfibril angles
(Stanzl-Tschegg 2006).
6.2.5 Influence of Delignification and Pulp Refining

Chemically delignified pulp fibres show delamination as a result of refining. This
delamination is typically within the S2 region, forming concentric lamellae, and may
result in loss of most or all of the S1 layer, and separation of the S3 layer (Page and
De Grâce 1967; McIntosh 1967; Kibblewhite 1972; Molin and Daniel 2004; Billosta
et al. 2006). Such delamination is often more apparent in latewood tracheids than in
thin-walled earlywood tracheids (Molin and Daniel 2004). Delamination varies with
intrinsic viscosity, with pulps of high viscosity showing little or no delamination, the
fibres instead fracturing into fragments (Molin and Daniel 2004).
6.2.6 Influence of Species

Variation among species is the consequence of differences in wood properties such
as density. Comparing spruce, oak (Quercus spp), ash (Fraxinus spp) and alder
(Alnus spp), Stanzl-Tschegg (2006) found that species differences in critical stress
intensity factor, and specific fracture energy (both measures of energy consumption
during fracturing), could be attributed to differences in density (r = 0.98) confirming
earlier studies (Schniewind et al. 1982; Petterson and Bodig 1983). Spruce showed a
different relationship between fracture properties and density, indicating that other
factors are also involved in determining the differences in energy consumption of
the fracture process (Stanzl-Tschegg 2006). Spruce shows stable crack propaga-
tion, while oak, ash and elm show unstable crack propagation, with a stop/start
behavior indicating greater brittleness in the hardwoods as compared to spruce.
This was attributed to shorter fibres in hardwoods, with consequently less fibre
bridging behavior, and resulting greater energy dissipation (Stanzl-Tschegg 2006)
(Fig. 6.2).
In thermo-mechanical pulping, differences in lignin distribution and cell wall
structure between species may account for differences in fracture behavior. For
example, radiata pine shows fibre separation at the middle lamella as well as at
the middle lamella/S1 boundary, while in rubber wood (Hevea braziliensis) fibre
separation occurs exclusively in the middle lamella (Singh and McDonald 2000;
Singh et al. 2003).
Comparing oak with ash, both of which are ring-porous, but have different
ray anatomy, Stanzl-Tschegg (2006) determined the elastic behavior, critical stress
intensity factor, and specific fracture energy. In both species, stiffness was greater
in the radial longitudinal than the tangential longitudinal direction, and this can be
attributed to the effect of rays. Ash has higher radial stiffness as a result of multiseri-
ate rays, compared to oak, which has mostly uniseriate and sparse large multiseriate
rays. Values are comparable in the tangential longitudinal direction for both species.
The multiseriate rays of ash provide greater resistance to crack initiation, and to a
lesser extent, crack propagation.
The amount of ray tissue can influence the ability to withstand torsional loads in
radially oriented samples, with the higher amount of ray tissue in beech (Fagus spp),
apparently explaining its resistance to torsional load compared to spruce (Loidl et al.
136 L. Donaldson
2008). In the longitudinal orientation, beech and spruce had similar specific fracture
energy under torsional load.
6.2.7 Influence of Moisture Content
Moisture content (MC) influences delamination of cell walls by influencing duc-

tility. Reiterer and Tschegg (2002) found a difference in fracture surface structure
between samples at 7% MC and 55% MC. At 7% MC, longitudinal fracture surfaces
are relatively smooth, but at 55% MC, the fracture surface shows more deforma-
tion, with many long cell wall fragments, which may be responsible for bridging
behaviour during crack propagation (Fig. 6.2).
Using environmental scanning electron microscopy (ESEM), Vasic and Stanzl-
Tschegg (2007) found that fracture path was determined by local density variations
that were dependent on species. Fracture toughness was attributed to bridging effects
caused by cell wall “ligaments” that were abundant at high moisture content, but
were reduced at humidity values of 65% or 30%. Similar results were shown earlier
using conventional SEM by Vasic et al. (2002), and Smith and Vasic (2003). In
green wood, water was observed to be squeezed out of the cell lumens at the crack
tip. Variations in load deformation curves demonstrated the role of microstructure in
the fracture response of different species. Softwoods were found to be more ductile
than hardwoods, with lower maximum load and specific fracture energy in pine and
spruce, compared to oak (Vasic and Stanzl-Tschegg 2007).
Stanzl-Tschegg (2006) compared fracture properties in spruce for a range of
MC’s, on samples covering a range of densities. Critical stress intensity factor
decreased from 7 to 12% MC with less decrease from 12 to 55% MC. In contrast,
specific fracture energy increased with MC. The increase in specific fracture energy
was found to be due to formation of microcracks and irreversible deformations at
the fracture initiation site, which required more energy at higher moisture contents.
Increased fibre bridging during crack propagation used more energy as the material
became more ductile with increasing moisture content.
Comparing green and oven dried/re-soaked samples fractured under tension,
Kifetew et al. (1998) found rough fracture surfaces in green early- and latewood
samples. Fracture in latewood was mainly intrawall failure. Samples that were dried
and re-soaked showed transwall failure with smooth fracture surfaces, indicating
a more brittle behavior. These authors concluded that drying of cell walls causes
irreversible damage, which influences the fracture mechanism at the ultrastructural
level.
Delamination of cell walls on abrasive-planed and knife-planed surfaces in wood
adhesive bonds has been studied because of the effect of surface structure on bond
strength (Jokerst and Stewart 1976; Murmanis et al. 1983). Abrasive-planed samples
showed radial cracks in the S2 layer, and delamination between S1 and S2 layers.
The knife-planed samples had far fewer delaminations. When these samples were
subjected to a soak/dry treatment, the bond strength of the abrasive-planed samples
was much lower than the knife-planed samples. This difference was explained by
the presence of cell wall delaminations, including rupturing and cracking within the
S2 layer in the abrasive planed sample (Murmanis et al. 1983).
6.2.8 Influence of Temperature
Koran (1967) examined the effect of temperature on the structure of radial longitu-
dinal tensile fractures. The amount of transwall fracture was found to change with
◦
temperature, the maximum of 50% being at 0 C with a non-linear decline to less
◦
than 5% transwall fracture at 200 C. Transwall fracture also declined rapidly below
◦ ◦
0 C with less than 5% transwall fracture at –100 C. Temperature also influenced
the nature of surfaces produced by intrawall fracture, higher temperatures produc-
ing smoother surfaces with fewer interlayer transitions. The way in which bordered
pits fractured also changed, with separation at both the pit margin and pit border at
◦ ◦
25 , but only at the pit margin at 200 C. Fracture involving rays was predominantly
transwall at low temperatures, but was intrawall between ray cells and tracheids, at
higher temperatures. In a similar study on tangential walls, Koran (1968) found that
◦ ◦
at temperatures below 100 C, mainly S1 surfaces were exposed, while at 150 or
above, primary wall/middle lamella was exposed. This difference probably reflects
the effect of matrix softening at higher temperatures.
The effect of temperature on transverse tensile fracture was studied by Woodward
(1980). Thermal softening of hemicellulose in the cell wall matrix was likely to be
responsible for the observed effects, including more changes in fracture plane at
◦
higher temperatures (77 C) and indications of plastic strain. Changes in smoothness
of the fracture surface were also observed, confirming the earlier results of Koran
(1967, 1968).
Heat treatment of wood has been used to effectively improve dimensional sta-
bility and durability. Boonstra et al. (2006a, b) have studied the occurrence of
delamination in heat-treated wood using SEM. Heat-treated beech and birch showed
radial cracks adjacent to the rays. Heat treatment may therefore result in increased
brittleness with delamination between fibres.
6.3 Microscopic Methods for Evaluation of Delamination

in Wood
6.3.1 Light Microscopy
While it is possible to examine samples for delamination directly by light

microscopy, it is usually important to preserve the structural integrity very care-
fully, as sample preparation methods such as sectioning can easily induce further
delamination, as well as distorting any delamination already present. In addition,
if examination of a fracture surface in cross-section is required to determine the
cell wall layers exposed at the surface, then quite thin sections are needed to clearly
visualize the wall layers (Fig. 6.3). Both of these constraints mean that embedding of
138 L. Donaldson
the sample in resin should be considered. This will preserve the structural integrity
of the wood sample without inducing further damage, and also allow thin sec-
tioning for examination of the fracture surface (Donaldson 1995, 1996, Donaldson
et al. 2007).
Samples should be prepared as 1–3 mm long blocks with some means of iden-
tifying the fracture surface. For example, a radial or tangential fracture surface
can be removed from the wood sample by using a sledge microtome to prepare
a 1–200 μm-thick slice from the fracture surface. Once embedded and sectioned
in cross-section, it should be possible to differentiate the fracture surface from the
microtome-cut surface, where many lumens will be exposed by the cutting. Prepared
blocks should be dehydrated in acetone and embedded in Spurr resin. Cross-sections
can then be cut with a glass knife, keeping the block face as small as practical to
avoid any distortion, which can still occur even with embedded material. Sections
can be stained with toluidine blue and examined with combined brightfield and
polarised light microscopy, to determine the cell wall layers present at the fracture
surface (Donaldson 1995, 1996). Similar techniques can be applied, for example,
to glue-lines, although in some cases cutting unembedded material with a sledge
microtome may be a satisfactory approach, especially for harder materials (Singh
and Dawson 2006). Serial sectioning and 3D reconstruction have been used in com-
bination with light microscopy, to examine the complex delamination associated
with sawn surfaces (Donaldson et al. 2007).
6.3.2 Confocal Microscopy
In some cases, where delamination is associated with chemically altered samples,

such as weathered or decayed material, it may be useful to use high-resolution
confocal fluorescence microscopy to show the relationship between the chemical
degradation and the delamination. This approach has been used to study the effect
of reduced lignification on the occurrence of shelling in drought-grown radiata
pine (Donaldson 2002) (Fig. 6.4). In some cases, examination of both unembed-
ded and embedded material may be an advantage. Confocal microscopy has the
added advantage of allowing some depth perspective, which is particularly useful for
imaging rough fracture surfaces (Donaldson et al. 2007). Using confocal reflectance
microscopy can be a useful alternative to scanning electron microscopy for identi-
fying the exposure of cell wall layers on the fracture surface, allowing identification
of layers by their texture (Donaldson and Frankland 2004).
6.3.3 Electron Microscopy

Both scanning (SEM) and to a lesser extent, transmission electron microscopy
(TEM) have been used to study fracture surfaces and wood deformation pro-
cesses in a wide variety of wood-based materials (Borgin 1971b; Côté and Hanna
1983; Sell and Zimmermann 1993; Donaldson 1997; Zimmermann and Sell 1997;
Stanzl-Tschegg 2006; Putoczki et al. 2007). For SEM, samples are mounted directly
for observation of 3D surfaces, requiring only sputter-coating with metal to reduce
charging effects. If environmental SEM (ESEM) or low-voltage SEM (LVSEM) are
available, then even the sample coating can be eliminated, potentially allowing re-
examination of the same sample after successive treatments (Ando and Onda 1999;
Fruhmann et al. 2003a; Turkulin et al. 2005a, b; Donaldson 2007). Stereoscopic
imaging of rough fracture surfaces can also be very useful, although published
examples are rare (Donaldson et al. 2007) (Fig. 6.5).
The use of TEM to study delamination is less common than SEM because of its
more complicated specimen preparation. Its main advantage is the high resolution
imaging of fracture faces and in particular the identification of cell wall layers
present at the surface (Donaldson 1995, 1997; Putoczki et al. 2007) (Fig. 6.6).
TEM is however restricted to relatively small fields of view so is not well suited
to characterization of large fracture zones.
6.4 Summary
Delamination of wood exhibits a complex anisotropic behavior that is strongly
related to the microscopic structure of the wood, and to the presence and distribution
of microscopic defects. Microscopic analysis is therefore an important tool in under-
standing the delamination properties of wood and wood-based materials, as shown
by recent attempts to model this behavior, which have shown the need to incorpo-
rate 3D morphology into the mechanical models (Nairn 2006; Sedighi-Gilani et al.
2006; Sedighi-Gilani and Navi 2007).
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Chapter 7
Probing the Wood Coating Interface at High
Resolution
Adya P. Singh and Bernard S.W. Dawson
Contents
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

7.2 Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy (CLSM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
7.2.1 High Resolution CLSM Examination of Wood-Coating Interface:
Coating Penetration into Cell Wall Micro-Cracks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
7.2.2 Combined Light Microscopy (LM), Confocal Laser Scanning
Microscopy (CLSM) and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)
Reveals a Complex Wood-Coating Interaction in a Highly Textured
Wood Surface-Coating Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
7.3 Wood-Coating Interface Examined by Field Emission Scanning Electron
Microscope (FE-SEM) in Combination with Backscattered Electron
Imaging (BEI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
7.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
7.1 Introduction
Wood is a versatile biomaterial used in a wide range of applications. Although wood
is strong and durable the products made from it when placed in service, particularly
in outdoor environments, can deteriorate within a relatively short time because of
exposure to weathering factors, such as solar radiation, rain and decay microorgan-
isms. Application of coatings to the exposed surfaces of wood products, that can
prevent solar radiation and water from reaching wood tissues, can provide protec-
tion from wood deteriorating factors. Coating adhesion, which is among the factors
that play an important role in determining the performance of an applied coating, is
related to chemical and physical interactions with wood, the latter involving coating
attachment to wood via penetration into surface tissues, where cell lumens and cell
wall delaminations have an important role.
A.P. Singh (B)

Wood and Biofibre Technologies, Scion Te Papa Tipu Innovation Park,
Rotorua 3010, New Zealand
e-mail: adya.singh@scionresearch.com
146 A.P. Singh and B.S.W. Dawson
Prior to coating application wood panels are often surfaced, and the method of
surfacing (planing, sanding, band-sawing) variously influences wood-coating inter-
action and coating performance (Richter et al. 1995) because of the differences in
the introduced morphological and structural changes, which can occur at both cel-
lular and tissue levels, and can involve up to several cell layers from the surface.
For example, whereas planing with sharp knives results in only minor damages to
cells, generally as fine order cracks and delaminations in cell walls, being confined
to the outermost cell layers (Singh et al. 2002; Singh and Dawson 2004), abra-
sive planing or planing with dull knives cause severe damages, often resulting in
cell compression in addition to cell wall cracking and fracturing, and consequent
increase in the surface roughness of panels (Stewart and Crist 1982; Murmanis et al.
1986; Singh et al. 2002; Hernandez and Rojas 2002). The effect of sanding, which
is practiced to reduce the irregularities in the roughness of the surface, rendering
it more uniform for coating application, is quite different from that of planing.
Sanding causes cell compression, and often the fine particulate materials arising
from the abrasive action on cell walls in the surface layers become deposited within
the exposed cell lumens. However, the surface texture varies with the grain size,
finer grains producing smoother surfaces than coarser grains (Sinn et al. 2004; de
Moura and Hernández 2006). For some applications panels are saw-textured (band-
sawn) to produce highly rough textured surfaces. Such surfaces are aesthetically
pleasing, particularly when finished with coatings that allow the textured patterns
to be visible. The high surface irregularities are caused by the digging and ripping
actions of the saws used, resulting in large surface tissue masses to become torn
and twisted as well as cracks of varying sizes to form in cell walls in the affected
regions (Singh and Dawson 2006; Donaldson et al. 2007). A thorough understanding
of how applied coatings physically/mechanically interact with planed, sanded and
saw-textured wood surfaces is needed to effect developments leading to designer
products for high performance and specific applications, and the application of
high resolution imaging techniques in the last few years have yielded valuable
information.
This article will consider recent advances made in understanding the physi-
cal interactions between wood and applied coatings, particularly through studies
involving high-resolution probing of wood-coating interface, where mechanical
interlocking between the wood and coatings involves coating penetration into wood
pores of varying dimensions. While earlier studies, based on light, confocal and
scanning electron microscopy, provided valuable information on the pathways of
coating movement within wood and depths to which coatings can penetrate into
larger wood pores (rays, cell lumens) for a range of coating and wood types (Côté
and Robinson 1968; de Meijer et al. 1998, 2001; Nussbaum et al. 1998; Rijckaert
et al. 2001; Singh and Dawson 2003; Van den Bulcke et al. 2003), the microscopy
methods employed were inadequate in revealing whether coatings could also pene-
trate wood micro-pores (cracks and delaminations in cell walls). High resolution
imaging techniques to probe wood-coating interface have been employed only
within the last few years. In particular, the use of confocal laser scanning microscope
and field-emission scanning electron microscope has revealed the aspects of coating
penetration and distribution within surface wood tissues that have proved vital in
7 Probing the Wood Coating Interface at High Resolution 147
more clearly understanding the physical aspects of wood-coating interactions, and

the information presented here is based on the high resolution work undertaken in
three recent studies (Singh and Dawson 2004, 2006; Singh et al. 2007).
7.2 Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy (CLSM)
Most studies aimed to understand coating penetration characteristics and wood-

coating interaction are based largely on light microscopy. While useful in revealing
coating penetration into larger voids within wood tissues, such as lumens of ves-
sels, tracheids and ray cells and in resin canals, and assessing the depth of coating
penetration into both soft and hard woods (Côté and Robinson 1968; de Meijer
et al. 1998, 2001; Nussbaum et al. 1998; Rijckaert et al. 2001) these studies did
not provide information on coating penetration into the voids of smaller dimen-
sions, such as cell wall cracks and delaminations that are often present in machined,
sanded and saw-textured surfaces (Singh and Dawson 2004, 2006). A recent study
aimed to probe the wood-coating interface at resolution greater than obtainable with
light microscope demonstrated the usefulness of CLSM in obtaining images much
superior in definition than obtainable using light microscope (LM), more clearly
revealing the pattern of coating distribution within the surface tissue layers of coated
panels (Singh and Dawson 2004). This work will now be considered in greater
detail.
7.2.1 High Resolution CLSM Examination of Wood-Coating

Interface: Coating Penetration into Cell Wall Micro-Cracks
The work of Singh and Dawson (2004) involved CLSM examination of the wood-
coating interface in sliding microtome-cut sections from radiata pine (Pinus radiata)
panels that had been planed and subsequently finished with a polyurethane coating.
Prior to examination the sections were stained with a combination of two different
histochemical stains, toluidine blue and Sudan IV, which reacted with the wood and
the coating respectively. This proved to be an ideal stain combination for achiev-
ing the desired colour differentiation between the wood and the coating for imaging
with CLSM, and also with LM for a comparison. The sections were sequentially
stained with toluidine blue and Sudan IV and examined with LM, after mounting
in glycerol on a glass slide. The same sections were subsequently examined with
CLSM. The correlative microscopy approach undertaken to examine the same sec-
tions sequentially with LM and CLSM enabled a direct comparison to be made
with regard to the resolving capabilities of these microscopes. However, while the
main aim of the work undertaken by Singh and Dawson (2004) was to exploit the
high resolution capabilities of CLSM to advance our understanding of the physical
interactions occurring between the wood and the applied coating, particularly at the
wood-coating interface, the combined use of LM and CLSM also provided a more
complete knowledge of the pattern of coating distribution within the penetrated
tissue regions.
Fig. 7.1 LM view of a section taken through machined wood-polyurethane interface. Penetration
of the coating (red colour) into cell lumens is resolvable, but it is not apparent whether the coating
has also penetrated into cell walls (light blue colour). Bar=20 μm
The greatest advantage of LM is in a more rapid screening of sections, which

is particularly useful in obtaining quantitative information on a feature based on
screening of a sufficiently large number of sections, such as determining depths to
which coatings can penetrate into wood, an aspect that has been widely investigated
using LM (de Meijer et al. 2001). In the LM illustration provided here (Fig. 7.1)
from the work of Singh and Dawson (2004), the coating (stained red with Sudan IV)
is well differentiated from wood cell walls (stained light blue with toluidine blue),
enabling coating penetration into the lumens of tracheids and rays to be clearly
resolved. However, the wood-coating interface appears fuzzy, making it difficult to
determine whether or not the coating has also penetrated into cell walls.
The high resolution CLSM image illustrated in Fig. 7.2 from the work of Singh
and Dawson (2004) provides evidence that in addition to filling larger voids the
polyurethane coating has also penetrated into fine cracks and delaminations that
Fig. 7.2 CLSM view of

machined wood-polyurethane
interface in a section. The
penetration of coating
(crimson colour) into cell
lumens as well as tiny cell
wall (purple colour) cracks
(arrowheads) can be clearly
resolved. Bar=20 μm
had formed in the surface tissue layers of the panel during machining. This infor-
mation constituted a significant advance in understanding the physical nature of
wood-coating interaction, as it became evident that mechanical interlocking of a
coating into the wood surface can involve coating filling of numerous micro-voids
within cell walls in addition to cell lumens, which can lead to a more robust coat-
ing adhesion. This knowledge advance was made possible by the use of CLSM and
its unique capability in high resolution imaging, and in obtaining sequential optical
sections through the depth of an object, and in producing a composite image based
on the sequential sections acquired.
7.2.2 Combined Light Microscopy (LM), Confocal Laser Scanning

Microscopy (CLSM) and Scanning Electron Microscopy
(SEM) Reveals a Complex Wood-Coating Interaction in a
Highly Textured Wood Surface-Coating Interface
In another recent study (Singh and Dawson 2006) CLSM was used in combination
with LM and SEM for high resolution imaging of wood-coating interface in radiata
pine plywood panels that had been saw-textured and subsequently finished with a
film-forming acrylic stain. Interest in the use of plywood products, particularly in
outdoor applications, such as sidings, is increasing because of their high strength
and stability, and also because they perform excellently in service outdoors, par-
ticularly when finished with stain coatings after saw-texturing (Williams and Feist
1994). In addition this product provides an aesthetically pleasing surface. It has also
been recognized that superior performance of such products outdoors is because
of the greater absorption of stains in rough surfaces produced from saw-texturing
(Williams and Feist 1994). However, a knowledge of how stain coatings interact
with wood tissues within highly rough surfaces, required a close examination of the
wood-coating interface by novel microscopy techniques. The extensive microscopic
studies undertaken by Singh and Dawson (2006), which also included correlative
LM, CLSM and SEM examination of the same sections, provided detailed infor-
mation on the micromorphology of surface wood tissues in relation to coating
distribution. This new knowledge formed the basis for understanding why stain coat-
ings applied to saw-textured plywood surfaces perform excellently under conditions
of outdoor exposure (Williams and Feist 1994).
The correlative microscopy study undertaken by Singh and Dawson (2006) was
designed in a way to enable the same sections taken from the wood-coating interface
to be examined sequentially by LM, CLSM and SEM, and thus a true comparative
assessment to be made of the capabilities of the three different types of microscopy.
Also, the combined microscopy provided more complete information on wood-
coating interface, based on the unique capabilities of each microscopy type as well
as the complementary information obtained.
The microscopy work was performed on transverse sections cut from radiata pine
plywood panels that had been saw-textured to produce a highly rough surface, to
Fig. 7.3 LM views of sections taken through the band-sawn plywood-stain coating interface. The
plywood surface is highly irregular, with masses of distorted and ripped (arrow) tissues (blue
colour). The thickness of coating film (brown colour) is variable. Bar=200 μm
which a film-forming acrylic stain was applied. The sections cut through the wood-
coating interface with a sliding microtome were stained with toluidine blue. The
sections were then mounted in glycerol on glass slides and examined to first view
the micromorphology of the surface tissue layers (Fig. 7.3). The staining method
employed permitted excellent contrast differentiation between the coating (natural
brown colour) and wood cell walls (blue to bluish green colour after toluidine blue
staining). For subsequent correlative microscopy, selected areas from the sections
that had been examined by LM were then also viewed with CLSM operating in the
fluorescence mode at excitation and emission wavelengths suitable for achieving a
sharp colour-contrast differentiation between the coating and wood cell walls (Singh
and Dawson 2006), and then with SEM after further processing (Fig. 7.4a–c). For
SEM work, the sections were removed from the glass slides by immersing and then
floating them off in water in a Petri dish. Subsequently, the sections were air-dried
by placing them between two glass slides and then clamping to prevent from curl-
ing. The sections were then mounted on stubs, gold-coated in a sputter coater and
examined with a SEM (Fig. 7.4c).
The key advantage of the combined microscopy approach employed in Singh
and Dawson’s work was that the sections were first examined with LM, which
enabled low magnification images of the highly distorted surface tissues in the
a b
Fig. 7.4 LM, CLSM and SEM views of the same section that was cut through the band-sawn
plywood-stain coating interface. A group of highly distorted tissues, which is not well defined in
the LM view and appears fuzzy (arrow in a) is clearly resolvable in CLSM and SEM views (b and
c), revealing an intricate pattern of coating distribution within the distorted surface tissues (arrow,
arrowhead in b). (a and c) bar=200 μm; (b) bar=100 μm
saw-textured panels to be captured within a relatively short time (Fig. 7.3). The same
sections could then be examined with CLSM and SEM to view specific regions of
the sections in greater detail and with vastly improved definition, because of the
higher resolution capabilities of these instruments (compare Fig. 7.4a with b and c).
LM afforded a rapid assessment of the nature and extent of tissue deformations
and dislocations corresponding to the highly rough surface caused by band-sawing
(Fig. 7.3). The digging and ripping actions of the band-saw caused masses of sur-
face tissues to become dislocated, often being raised well above their original plane.
The dislocated tissues were also bent, changing the grain direction (Fig. 7.3). LM
also clearly revealed the pattern of coating distribution within the damaged surface
tissues, providing evidence of coating penetration into the cell lumens and other
larger voids, such as the deep cracks formed within the surface from the digging
and ripping actions of the band-saw (Fig. 7.3). Not surprisingly, the coating film on
the surface was highly irregular in thickness, being thickest at the bases of cracked,
dislocated tissues and thinnest overlying the apical parts of the raised tissues, appar-
ently resulting from uneven coating distribution across the surface irregularities
(Fig. 7.3). However, despite its usefulness in a rapid assessment of the above features
related to rough-textured surfaces, LM had severe limitations in resolving surface
tissue masses that were twisted with respect to the orientation of the underlying
unaffected tissues, and the damages present at the cell wall level, such as cracks and
delaminations in cell walls. Correlative microscopy showed that such features were
clearly resolved by both CLSM and SEM (compare Fig. 7.4a with b and c).
CLSM, which offers greater resolution than achievable by LM with the added
advantage of optical sectioning, makes it possible to obtain information based on
a composite of images from sequential sections taken through the thickness of a
sample. This combination of unique capabilities of CLSM made it possible in the
work of Singh and Dawson (2006) to clearly resolve even the most severely twisted
surface tissues, which appeared fuzzy under LM, allowing a close examination of
the rather intricate pattern of coating distribution within the highly distorted surface
tissues. The CLSM observations revealed that the coating had penetrated cell wall
cracks of even very small dimensions, in addition to filling the larger voids, such
as the lumens of rays and tracheids and the voids formed from the cracking and
dislocation of surface tissues (Fig. 7.4b).
Although SEM is a surface imaging instrument, its main advantage over LM
and CLSM lies in achieving greater depth of focus and resolution, which made
it possible in the correlative microscopy work undertaken by Singh and Dawson
(2006) to also clearly resolve the twisted surface tissues and also the penetration
pathways of the coating (Fig. 7.4c), which supported the observations made using
CLSM.
7.3 Wood-Coating Interface Examined by Field Emission

Scanning Electron Microscope (FE-SEM) in Combination
with Backscattered Electron Imaging (BEI)
A recent study (Singh et al. 2007) describes a technical breakthrough in the imaging
of wood-coating interface with FE-SEM, a high resolution SEM, to visualise coating
penetration into cell wall cracks and delaminations of extremely small dimensions,
and the information presented strengthens the concept that an effective mechani-
cal interlocking between the wood surface and an applied coating greatly enhances
coating adhesion and thus coating performance.
In their study Singh et al. 2007 used a penetrating stain and a highly rough tex-
tured wood surface as a substrate to examine the physical nature of their interaction
to better understand the influence of wood texture on coating penetration. The coat-
ing was an oil-borne stain and the wood substrate was radiata pine plywood that had
been saw-textured to produce a highly rough surface, as in the work described in
the section dealing with combined microscopy. A novel technique was developed
to examine the wood-coating interface in microtome-cut sections with FE-SEM
after treating the sections with a high atomic number reagent. The sections (90 μm
thick) cut transversely through the wood-coating interface with a sliding microtome
were treated with 1% aqueous osmium tetroxide (OsO4 ) for 3 h at room tempera-
ture. After washing in water, the sections were clamped between two glass slides
to air-dry before mounting on stubs applied with sticky carbon discs. The sections
were then coated with chromium in a sputter coater and examined with FE-SEM
operating in the BEI mode at the operational conditions described in detail earlier
(Singh et al. 2007). For comparisons, the same sections were also examined in the
secondary electron imaging (SEI) mode of the FE-SEM.
In the work of Singh et al. (2007), a combination of imaging in the BEI mode
based on the novel technique developed for pre-treating sections with OsO4 and the
high resolution capability of FE-SEM made it possible to clearly resolve and dif-
ferentiate the coating material from wood cell walls, enabling detailed observations
to be made on the intricate pattern of coating distribution within the saw-textured
surface tissues exhibiting a range of distortions and damages from tissue level down
to the nanometer-scale cell wall cracks present. Most SEM studies undertaken of
wood-coating interface prior to this work were based on imaging in the SEI mode
of conventional SEM (and not high resolution FE-SEM), and also the focus had
been to obtain information on the depth of coating penetration into larger voids in
the wood surfaces, such as the lumens of rays, tracheids and vessels.
As mentioned earlier, band-sawn wood surfaces have a rough texture, with highly
irregular contours resulting from the digging and ripping actions of the band-saw,
the feature being particularly striking for plywood. It had been previously shown
that saw-textured plywood performs well outdoors when finished with penetrating
coatings, such as stains (Williams and Feist 1994). The greater coating absorption
because of the high roughness of the surface was considered to be the main contrib-
utory factor, but an understanding of wood-coating interaction at the cellular level
remained a knowledge gap. In the work of Singh et al. (2007) the development and
application of the high resolution BEI technique in conjunction with FE-SEM to
examine the interface of a saw-textured plywood surface provided vital information
for understanding the basis for the excellent performance noted earlier of the stained
saw-textured plywood sidings under outdoor conditions.
BEI imaging in combination with SEM has been used to examine a range of com-
posites consisting of two or more components of differing atomic numbers (Carter
1979; Harris et al. 1999; Richards et al. 1999; Herzog et al. 2004). In the BEI
mode high atomic number components appear brighter. Thus brightness intensity
serves as a useful basis for obtaining information on the location and distribution
of high atomic number components in a sample. Methods have also been developed
to boost the brightness of low atomic number substances by reacting them with
high atomic number additives as tracers or stains, which could enhance the yield
of backscattered electron signals (DeNee and Carpenter 1979; Schraufnagel and
Ganesan 1998). Initial attempts by Singh et al. (2007) to image the wood-coating
interface by FE-SEM operating in the SEI mode were unsuccessful as the contrast
differentiation between the coating and wood cell walls was poor (Figs. 7.5a and
7.6a), and a method had to be developed to obtain suitable contrast differentia-
tion. FE-SEM imaging of wood-coating interface in the BEI mode after treatment
of sections with OsO4 , a high atomic number substance which selectively reacted
with the coating material (and not wood cell walls) in the wood-coating sections,
proved to be the method of choice in the work undertaken by Singh et al. (2007).
Fig. 7.5 FE-SEM-SEI (a) and FE-SEM-BEI (b) views of the same section that was cut through
the band-sawn plywood-stain coating interface. In the SEI view the coating is poorly differentiated
from wood cells, whereas in the BEI view the coating material is well highlighted because of its
superior brightness, revealing a complex pattern of coating distribution within the distorted surface
tissues. Bar=100 μm
However in future studies aimed to image wood-coating interface at high resolu-

tion using the FE-SEM-BEI approach one should be mindful that not all coating
types may react with OsO4 , and it may be necessary to experiment with other high
atomic number stains. Additionally, the optimization of backscattered electron sig-
nals requires consideration also of other factors, such as the concentration of stain
and length of treatment, and operating conditions of the SEM itself, with particular
attention given to setting the accelerating voltage suitable for maximizing the output
of backscattered electrons.
The excellent brightness contrast of the coating relative to wood cell walls
achieved in the work of Singh et al. (2007) was a result of optimization of all
these factors, while ensuring protection of the sections against damages from the
electron beam, as high beam intensities can distort wood tissues, and damage the
Fig. 7.6 High magnification FE-SEM-SEI (a) and FE-SEM-BEI (b) of the same region of band-
sawn plywood-stain coating interface. Whereas in the SEI view the contrast of coating is similar to
that of wood cell walls, in the BEI view the coating appears much brighter and is thus readily dis-
tinguishable from the cell walls, revealing the pathways of coating penetration, including coating
penetration into tiny cell wall cracks (arrows). Bar=10 μm
wood-coating interface. In this connection, use of a FE-SEM was important in this

work, as this instrument has the ability to produce high resolution images at rela-
tively low kV, which is not possible with a conventional low resolution SEM. The
technique developed by Singh et al. (2007) for backscattered imaging clearly differ-
entiated the coating material from wood cell walls, enabling the coating distribution
at the wood-coating interface to be clearly visualized. A comparison of identical
areas of the wood-coating interface imaged both in SEI and BEI modes, as shown
in Figs. 7.5a and b, 7.6a and b, illustrates this point.
In the low magnification BEI image shown in Fig. 7.5b, an intricate pattern of
coating distribution within the highly distorted masses of surface tissues is read-
ily observable, because the coating appears much brighter than wood cell walls.
The coating is present within the large surface depressions and voids formed from
cracking and dislocation of surface tissue masses, and also fills the lumens of indi-
vidual cells, which appear greatly distorted. In comparison, in the SEI image shown
in Fig. 7.5a of the same tissues region, the coating-penetrated surface tissues regions
appear as a homogenous mass, because the brightness contrast of the coating mate-
rial is similar to that of wood cell walls, and thus the pattern of coating distribution is
not clearly resolvable. The usefulness of the BEI method of imaging wood-coating
interface proved to be even more remarkable when the interface was examined at
high magnifications (Singh et al. 2007). A high magnification BEI image of the
wood-coating interface mode illustrated in Fig. 7.6b reveals that in addition to fill-
ing the lumens of tracheids the coating has penetrated the spaces of much smaller
dimensions, present in cell walls as cracks and delaminations. In the SEI image
of the same region of wood-coating interface and taken at the same magnification
(Fig. 7.6a) these features are not resolvable.
7.4 Summary
The information presented in this article highlights the advances made in under-
standing the physical aspects of wood-coating interaction. In particular, the focus
here has been to review the work presented in three papers published within the last
few years (Singh and Dawson 2004, 2006; Singh et al. 2007), where developments
in microscopy techniques have lead to high resolution imaging of wood-coating
interface, employing CLSM alone as well as in combination with LM and SEM
as part of correlative microscopy performed on the same sections, and FE-SEM in
combination with backscattered imaging. The information published in these papers
provided an opportunity to examine the pattern of coating penetration and distribu-
tion for two contrasting coating types and wood surface textures. Particularly useful
has been the system that involved stain coatings and a rough-textured plywood, a
combination proving an ideal model system to study the distribution pattern of a
penetrating coating in a wood surface rendered highly porous from band-sawing,
that caused massive tissue distortions and created voids of wide ranging dimen-
sions, including nanometer-scale cell wall cracks, in the panel surface. The high
resolution microscopy techniques employed in these studies greatly enhanced our
understanding of wood-coating interactions, as it became evident that the coatings

had penetrated into cell wall cracks and delaminations varying in dimensions from
micrometer to nanometer scales, in addition to cell lumens. It is widely regarded
that coating adhesion plays a crucial role in coating performance, and in this regard
mechanical interlocking of coatings into the wood surface is important. The high
resolution images of the wood-coating interface, which show widespread presence
of tiny voids in cell walls in the surface and subsurface tissues, lead us to better
appreciate the extent to which the voids can increase the space for coating pene-
tration and entaglement and the surface area for the adhesion of coatings to cell
walls.
Acknowledgements We thank Dr. Ray Dickie, Editor of the Journal of Coatings Technology and
Research, for permission to reproduce the figures illustrated in this article.
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using field emission scanning electron microscopy. Scan Micros 13:55–60
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Singh AP, Dawson BSW (2004) Confocal microscope – a valuable tool for examining wood-
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Singh AP, Dawson BSW (2006) Microscopic assessment of the effect of saw-textured Pinus radi-
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Chapter 8
Delamination in Timber Induced
by Microwave Energy
Georgiana Daian
Contents
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

8.2 The Mechanism of Wood Delamination Induced by Microwaves . . . . . . . . . . 160
8.3 Dielectric Properties of Wood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
8.4 Solid Wood Delaminations in Various Microwave Applications . . . . . . . . . . . 163
8.4.1 Impregnation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
8.4.2 Drying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
8.4.3 Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
8.5 Controlling the Microwave Delamination Zone in Solid Timber . . . . . . . . . . 167
8.6 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
8.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
8.1 Introduction
High intensity microwave treatment creates changes in wood structure. The appli-
cation of intensive microwaves generates the appearance of micro-voids and checks
throughout the cross section of wood in the radial/longitudinal grain direction, due
to the effect of microwave induced steam pressure on wood micro and macro-
elements (Torgovnikov and Vinden 2003). Under microwaves, the permeability
of some wood species in the radial direction can be increased by a factor of
170–1,200 times (Vinden and Torgovnikov 2000). For microwave-wood applica-
tions, such as wood impregnation, the occurrence of uniformly distributed internal
checks is intended. For other microwave treatments designed to create growth stress
relief in fast grown plantation hardwoods or to assist and accelerate wood drying, as
well as wood bending, the treatment defects (checks, cracks, collapse, splits) have
to be controlled and minimized.
G. Daian (B)
The University of Melbourne, Department of Forest and Ecosystem Science, Melbourne,
VIC 3010, Australia
e-mail: gdaian@gmail.com
160 G. Daian
Delamination occurrence and the extent of cell rupture depend mainly on

the intensity and exposure time to the microwave’s electric field (Vinden and
Torgovnikov, 2000). The intensity of microwave power should be carefully selected
and controllably distributed to wood structure (by using optimal microwave appli-
cators design) to achieve an aimed modification level and avoid wood structural
deterioration.
Optimal microwave applicators design can be theoretically accomplished
through 3D electromagnetic simulations (Daian et al. 2009). The characterization
of dielectric properties of wood enables electromagnetic simulators to model the
electromagnetic field interactions with the wood (Daian 2005) and hence to control
the microwave delamination process.
8.2 The Mechanism of Wood Delamination Induced

by Microwaves
To understand the mechanism of wood delamination induced by microwave

energy, one has to recognize how the microwaves work when irradiating wood.
Comprehensive and scientific details on the microwave-wood interaction are
reviewed by Daian (2005). Basically, microwaves are very high-frequency radio
waves, processing an electric field which rapidly reverses direction at about 2 bil-
lion cycles per second. Polar molecules (such as water) try to orient in the direction
of the field, and the rapid cycling of the field in opposite directions causes the water
molecules to flip backwards and forward. As a result, the wood (containing water)
will heat up when placed in a microwave field (CRC Wood Innovation 2004).
The generation of heat in wood under electromagnetic radiation is given by the
wood ability to absorb and store electrical potential energy (dielectric properties)
and establishes a temperature distribution in the material, which ultimatelly leads
to changes in wood moisture and density. Heat losses, heat diffusion and specific
heat phenomena create dynamic changes in the temperature field (Tinga 1993) and
internal pressure, implicitly. Consequently, a non-linear change of the dielectric
properties of wood occurs during microwave heating process. Figure 8.1 depicts
the inherent feedback paths of the microwave heating process of wood.
Microwave heating of wood is described as four-phase phenomena (Perre and
Turner 1999):
– Heating phase – the energy is transferred directly from the microwave field to the
wood and very little moisture loss is incurred.
– Streaming phase – the temperature increases beyond the boiling point of water and
the resultant internal vapor pressure drives out the liquid from the wood under the
action of pumping phenomenon. The moisture content promptly decreases.
– Enthalpic phase – vapor transport becomes the dominant migration mechanism
because of the elevated internal temperatures which sustain vaporization within
the wood.
8 Delamination in Timber Induced by Microwave Energy 161
Fig. 8.1 Physical model of microwave heating of wood (Daian 2005)
– Thermal runaway phase – commences when the wood becomes dry in cer-
tain locations and the temperature increases rapidly. The hot spots can severely
damage the wood.
The manner in which the internal heat generated by microwaves power of high
intensity affects the solid wood structure has been studied by Torgovnikov and
Vinden (2003). The researchers found that if wood is supplied with microwave
power of high intensity, the moisture in the cells starts boiling and high steam pres-
sure is generated in the wood cells. The steam pressure leads to the rupture of the
weakest elements of wood structure, such as the pit membranes and ray cells. The
destroyed rays form voids whose distribution in the microwave modified wood is
influenced by the wood structure: the larger the number of rays, the greater the
number of cavities.
Torgovnikov and Vinden (2003) also noticed that by increasing the intensity of
the supplied microwave energy, the steam pressure increases. As a result, cellular
components such as traheids, libriform fibers, or vessel walls, rupture gradually in
proximity of the ray tissue by generating narrow checks. The checks tend to extend
in the radial-longitudinal planes, forming cavities. A further breakdown occurs at the
resin canals level in softwoods, facilitating the resin replacement. In hardwoods, the
vessels membranes (tyloses) break down, making the vessels permeable to liquids
and vapors.
Three degrees of structural modification induced by microwave power of high
intensity were defined (Torgovnikov and Vinden 2003):
– low degree: including rupturing wooden cells pit membranes, resin melting and
replacement in canals, partly rupturing ray cells;
– moderate degree: including rupturing wooden cells pit membranes, resin boil-
ing and replacement, destroying tyloses in the vessels (hardwood species) and
rupturing ray cells;
162 G. Daian
– high degree: including rupturing wooden cells pit membranes, destroying tyloses
in the vessels (hardwood species), rupturing ray cells, rupturing main cells (tra-
cheids, libriform) walls and vessels, and the formation of cavities being primarily
in the radial-longitudinal direction.
Cooperative Research Centre (CRC) for Wood Innovations (Australia) has inves-
tigated microwave processes and technologies for achieving various forms of
microwave modification of wood, ultimately proven to have industrial applicabil-
ity (Australian Forests and Timber News 2007; 2008). Three license agreements
were completed with industry: with TimTech Chemicals – an advanced preserva-
tion process; with Bostik Australia – adhesive technology; and Carter Holt Harvey –
softwood rail sleepers’ preservation.
Other similar studies have been undertaken worldwide as seen in the next
sections.
8.3 Dielectric Properties of Wood
The response of wood at the microwave field oscillations depends on the wood abil-
ity to absorb and store electrical potential energy. This physical reaction is measured
by the wood permittivity, otherwise known as the dielectric parameters of wood.
Dielectric properties of wood play an important role in the development of
microwave processes which aim certain structural modification of the material; they
enable electromagnetic simulations for optimal system design. Knowing the dielec-
tric properties of wood and their variations during various stages of microwave
processing, the estimation of the absorbed power and stored energy is also possible
(Daian 2005).
The literature (Tsutsumi and Watanabe 1965; Norimoto 1976; Torgovnikov
1993; Kabir et al. 1997 and 2001; Olmi et al. 2000; Afzal et al. 2003; Daian 2005;
Daian et al. 2005 and 2006; Koubaa et al. 2008) comprises data on dielectric proper-
ties of some wood species, varying with moisture contents, densities, temperatures,
electromagnetic frequencies and electric field (i.e. acting in the three structural
directions of wood).
Torgovnikov (1994) indicates that under microwave power, the wood tempera-
tures may reach 100–170◦ C, giving rise to internal pressures of up to 0.7 MPa. The
only available method for measuring the dielectric permittivity of thick pieces of
wood at 2.45 GHz and suitable for temperatures as high as 150–170◦ C and high
pressures, was developed by Daian et al. (2005).
Daian et al. method (2005) is based on the short-circuit line measurement tech-
nique, measuring the impedance change caused by the presence of the wood within
a rectangular waveguide. The method was complemented by a numerical procedure
which extracts the permittivity from the measured impedance via the solution of a
transcendental equation in the complex plane. Unlike von Hippel algorithm (von
Hippel 1954), the procedure presented by Daian et al. (2005) considers the device
losses created by the presence of the pressure windows and pumping air holes in the
waveguide.
The analytical expression of the dielectric parameters of wood has been sug-
gested for many years by the algebraic mixture laws (Torgonikov 1993). Since the
mixture laws do not account for the dependence of permittivity on material’s micro
and macrostructure, they fail to accurately predict the complex permittivity of wood.
Daian et al. (2006) developed a 3D computer-based model to overcome the mixture
laws’ downside.
The model considers wood as a four-phase material (cell wall substance, bound
water, free water and air) and uses the typical arrangement of the wood cells and the
presence of bound and free water, in conjunction with their fractional volumes at any
particular density and moisture content. At macro-level, the wood was pictured as
an arrangement of intercrossing parallel layers indicating the cell cavities which are
partially or completely filled with moisture layers. Since the wood geometry is more
complex than just representing a material consisting of conductive layers separated
by insulating layers, transversal structures described as a group of parallel and series
connected capacitors representing the rays were inserted in the entire wood picture.
At micro-level, the structure of moist wood substance was considered as a random
mixture of wood substance and bound water with their correct fractional volumes at
various moisture contents.
To calculate the dielectric properties of the modeled wood piece, the 3D structure
was imaginarily divided into a mesh of small cells, each having specific dielectric
properties (i.e. complex permittivity of wood substance, air, free water or bound
water). Then, the main idea was to create a potential difference on two oppo-
site boundaries of the structure and solve for the potentials at all inner vertices of
the mesh.
Complex permittivities of structural and compositional components of wood
(wood substance/moist wood substance, free water, bound water, air and rays) for
a range of microwave frequencies (0.915 GHz and 2.45 GHz) and temperatures
(20–150◦ C) represent known variables for the computational algorithm and there-
fore, estimations were determined based on available data from literature, extrapo-
lations, Cole and Cole equations and existent evaluation methods (Daian 2005).
The 3D computer-based model reproduced the trends of the dielectric constant
reported by the in-house measurements and the literature (at various directions of
the electric field and moisture content), and the values of the complex permittivities
obtained via measurements (10% and 5% average deviations for dielectric constant
and loss factor, respectively) (Daian et al. 2006; Daian 2005).
8.4 Solid Wood Delaminations in Various Microwave

Applications
In this section, three microwave applications are discussed: impregnation, drying
and bending.
164 G. Daian
8.4.1 Impregnation
Delamination effect of microwave treatment on wood structure has been seen by
researchers as a feasible solution for impermeable wood species in wood preserva-
tive treatment industry (Vinden et al. 2004; Sugiyanto et al. 2008) or other similar
applications: e.g. resins (Torgovnikov and Vinden 2006b; Przewloka et al. 2007) or
polymer impregnation (GeumHyun et al. 2003).
Vinden at al (2004) and Torgovnikov and Vinden (2006b) investigated the uni-
form formation of high degree modification in softwood and hardwood timber
(Fig. 8.2), created by microwave for applications such as preservative treatment and
resins impregnation (Fig. 8.3). The microwave modification effect, visibly achieved
in the radial-longitudinal direction with respect to the grain of Douglas-fir and Pinus
radiata, was microscopically described as the result of: the rupturing of the ray cells
tissue, resin softening and mobilization and formation of a large numbers of cavities.
In hardwoods (e.g. Quercus robur, Eucalyptus muelleriana, Eucalyptus regnans,
Eucalyptus obliqua), the ray cell rupturing is accompanied by controlled formation
Fig. 8.2 Two characteristic

features of a transversal
section of a specimen
(90×60 mm2 ) with a high
degree of structural
microwave modification of
Eucalyptus regnans
impregnated with resin
(Przewloka et al. 2007,
Figure 1)
Fig. 8.3 Macroscopic aspect

of a specimen of Vintog
composite material
(60×45 mm2 ), produced
from Eucalyptus oblique
modified by microwave
treatment (a) and resin
impregnated (b) (Przewloka
of micro checks, at the interface of ray tissue and longitudinal fiber, and micro-voids
in the radial-longitudinal direction.
Sugiyanto et al. (2008) studied the anatomical changes in timber which was
treated by using a microwave system designed for conditioning wood surface for
preservative treatment. The microscope analysis indicated the occurrence of induced
micro- and macro-voids in radial-longitudinal planes of top area and at a limited and
controlled depth in Pinus radiata timber. The voids appeared as narrow checks with
widths predominantly greater than 0.05 mm in some areas and lower than 0.05 mm
in other areas.
GeumHyun et al. (2003) observed that a specific microwave treatment of wood
results in many checks in the tracheid’s cell walls when preceded by ultrasounds,
thus, improving the permeability of Pinus radiata and Pinus koraiensis by 2 and up
to 7–8 times, respectively, for enhanced polymer impregnation treatment.
8.4.2 Drying
Generally, drying defects, such as surface checking, collapse of the cross section and
internal collapse checks, appear even under the best controlled conditions, degrading
a significant proportion of timber (Harris et al. 2008).
Microwave drying of wood has been widely studied (e.g. Antti 1992 and 1995;
Zielonka and Dolowy 1998; Zielonka and Gierlik 1999; Antti and Perre 1999;
Perre and Turner 1999; Awoyemi 2004a; Liu and Zhang 2005; Liu et al. 2006;
Torgovnikov and Vinden 2006a; Piao et al. 2006; Jia and Afzal 2007) and con-
sidered as an alternative drying technology which appears to minimize the effects
of checking and collapse, when used as a preconditioning treatment (Torgovnikov
et al. 2003; Harris et al. 2008).
Despite the extensive work on microwave drying of wood, there is little infor-
mation regarding the incidence of collapse in the microwave drying applications.
Governed by the principle that by increasing the permeability of wood prior to
drying the moisture is able to move more freely and the evaporative front created
during drying is maintained for a longer period at the wood surface (reducing ten-
sion stress and in turn surface checking), Harris et al. (2008) investigated the effect
of low-intensity microwave pretreatment on drying degradation (i.e. checking or
splitting) of Eucalyptus Obliqua. The study revealed a significant reduction in the
formation of internal/honeycombing and surface checking in the microwave samples
pretreated with various microwave schedules, when compared with the controls.
8.4.3 Bending
The ability of wood to bend is subject to a large number of factors including: the
softening method, the type, direction and duration of loading, moisture content,
structural characteristics of wood, such as variation in size of the cells walls and
166 G. Daian
pores, and other natural characteristics which relate to the quality of wood (i.e.
knots, slop of grain, gum and resin pockets, etc). These factors can influence the
bending quality by producing irreversible damage to the wood.
Microwave softening of wood has been extensively studied and considered a
competitive softening method in wood bending (Norimoto 1979; Norimoto and
Gril 1989; Studhalter 2005; Ozarska and Juniper 2006; Studhalter et al. 2008;
Juniper 2008). Considering the microwave effects on the wood structure (presented
in a previous section), naturally and unlike other microwave wood applications
(e.g. impregnation), low to moderate microwave wood modification is intended in
bending to avoid internal checking of bent-wood components.
When a piece of wood is bent, the wood fibers on the outer side of the bend are
put in compression and those on the opposite side, in tension. The compression is
accompanied by the shortening of wood fibers and the tension by the lengthening
or stretching (Wilson 1029; Taylor 2001; Schleining 2002). These phenomena may
generate defects such as crosswise folds or wrinkles and lateral buckling on com-
pression side, and tensile breaking strains (fiber rupture or split) on tension side
(Fig. 8.4) (Peck 1957; Norimoto and Gril 1989).
The break of wood fiber during bending varies widely not only among species
but also within the same wood species regardless of the softening treatment used
(Daian and Ozarska 2008).
So (1997) found that improved outcomes for microwave softening are achieved
at high moisture contents (50%). Steam softening generally focuses on moisture
contents around fibre saturation point (Stevens and Turner 1970). The quality of
microwave bending at higher moisture content is enhanced when comparing with
steam softening. This can be explained by the fact that the water is the compo-
nent which dominates the microwave heating properties of wood (Norimoto 1979;
Torgonokov 1993).
Steam softening causes changes in wood mechanical properties by improving its
bending quality (Stevens and Turner 1970). In 1989; Norimoto and Gril assumed
that microwave softening can have a much better effect on the mechanical proper-
ties of wood, saying that microwave allow “new wood species and specimens with
lower quality to endure larger deformations with a reduced loss” when compared
with traditional steaming procedure. Later, a study (Awoyemi 2004b) confirmed
Norimoto and Gril’s assumption by revealing that the microwave modification of
Pinus radiata resulted in: 4.8–59.3% and 2.8–27.4% reductions in the tangential
a b c
Fig. 8.4 Examples of crosswise folds and tensile breaking strains in bending microwave-softened
wood (Daian 2009, unpublished personal photos)
and radial MOE, respectively; 5.7–65.5% and 0.9–43.5% reductions in the tan-
gential and radial MOR, respectively. An extensive study on mechanical behavior
of Eucalyptus regnans during microwave bending has been performed by Juniper
(2008), revealing as well the positive effects of microwave on the quality of bending.
8.5 Controlling the Microwave Delamination Zone in Solid

Timber
The size, distribution and frequency of micro- and macro-checks, generated by
the application of microwave power in the wood structure, can be controlled and
optimized according to each microwave application’s objectives.
The occurrence of uniformly distributed internal checks may be intended for
some microwave applications while for others, the microwave treatment effect on
wood structure has to be minimized. For instance, the optimal pattern of wood
delamination zone in microwave pre-drying would be targeted to minimal in terms
of size, with very narrow internal voids and acceptable surface checks (Torgovnikov
et al. 2003).
A series of major factors and parameters influences the microwave delamination
zone in hardwood species and these include (Torgovnikov et al. 2003):
– Microwave frequency, power and the intensity of the supplied energy,
– Microwave applicator design,
– Power pulsation,
– Treatment time or timber board speed within the applicator,
– Annual rings orientation of the timber boards.
In the microwave processing of wood, each application involves adjustments in
the intensity of the microwave energy supplied. A lack of careful consideration of
this aspect frequently leads to structural deterioration of the wood during processing.
Cracking, distorting and warping are problems usually caused by the high internal
vapour pressure generated by fast heating. As a result, the intensity of microwave
power should be selected in such way to limit the amount of moisture removed
during processing (Metaxas and Meredith 1993).
The design of the microwave applicators (i.e. geometry and size) affects the
intensity and distribution of energy and hence, the profile of the delamination zone.
The microwave applicators can provide irradiation to selected areas of the wood:
e.g. single-sided modified zone, full cross-section modification, etc. (Torgovnikov
et al. 2003; Daian et al. 2009).
The extent to which the wood modification by microwaves occurs depends on the
treatment time and the supplied power schedule as well. Using optimized pulsing
power schedules (i.e. time-on and time-off) the cracking in the direction parallel to
the annual rings can be reduced (Torgovnikov et al. 2003).
Timber boards are differently modified by microwaves in terms of the size of
delaminated surface and internal checks, as well as appearance of ring-shakes, when
considering the profile of cutting – flat-sawn or/and back-sawn (Torgovnikov et al.
2003; Daian et al. 2009).
168 G. Daian
Daian et al. (2009) investigated the effect of applicator design, power intensity
and exposure time on the microwave energy distribution and the shape of the treat-
ment zone within green wood boards of about 105 × 30 mm. The study identified
the optimal design solution for a microwave pre-drying process, able to uniformly
modify the timber structure in the cross section with minimum and small checks,
and without structural defects.
Several pre-treatment applicator systems with different dimensions and config-
urations were analyzed by Daian et al. (2009). For a particular configuration (an
oversized tunnel applicator and four tapered microwave waveguides placed around
the tunnel walls), the electromagnetic modeling and simulation indicated that the
size of the delamination zone significantly depends on tunnel width: the bigger the
tunnel width, the more uniform distribution along the dielectric sample. In addi-
tion, the intensity of the absorbed energy was found to be subject to the tunnel
applicator size: maximum absorption of the energy occurred as the tunnel applica-
tor narrowed. The two findings target the microwave pre-drying process objectives
but contradict in terms of the applicator size. As low energy absorption translates to
inefficient utilisation of the energy and the necessity to apply higher exposure time
to the microwave radiation (which could lead to extensive checking), the small size
of the applicator was considered optimum for the experimental trials.
For the modeled configuration, Daian et al. (2009) showed experimentally that a
uniform delamination area was achieved along the wood sample cross section for a
microwave energy supply of 20+20 kW (i.e. two generators were in use) and 40 s
exposure time. The delamination area was characterised by a few very small splits
in comparison with very large splits or ruptures at different locations inside wood
when lower microwave energy and higher exposure time were applied (Fig. 8.5). In
addition, it was found that much better results could be obtained when the timber
samples were quarter-sawn.
Fig. 8.5 Microwave delamination zone inside Blue Gum (Eucalyptus globulus) timber samples.
(a) 5+5 kW applied energy and high exposure time 110 s.; (b) 10+10 kW applied energy and lower
exposure time 75 s; (c) 20+20 kW applied energy and half exposure 40 s time in respect with
case b. (Daian et al. 2009)
8.6 Conclusions
The use of microwave processing techniques in wood production is a revolution-
ary concept which has been extensively studied for the last decade. Both high and
low intensity microwave treatment creates delaminations in wood structure. The
microwave-induced delaminations are described by ruptures at micro and macro
level of wood structure. The level to which wood delamination occurs is critical
in any particular microwave-wood application. The size of the modification area,
its distribution and the frequency of cells rupturing can be controlled and opti-
mized. Delamination is generally optimised through electromagnetic modeling and
simulations particularly targeting the microwave equipment design.
The dielectric properties of wood is a must-to-know parameter in the microwave
simulations processes. A 3D computer-based model was created to predict the
dielectric properties of wood. The model is able to accurately reproduce the experi-
mental parameters over a wide range of fractional volumes of wood constituents (i.e.
wood substance, air, free water and bound water). Thus, it represents a powerful tool
for efficiently minimising the experimental work.
The literature on solid wood delaminations in various microwave applications
reports that:
• microwave may increase considerably the permeability of wood for impregnation

applications, by forming micro and macro checks in both radial-longitudinal and
radial-tangential direction;
• microwave pretreatment may reduce significantly the formation of inter-
nal/honeycombing and surface checking in drying applications;
• microwave softening may provide enhanced quality in bending applications when
wood moisture content is high.
Commercialization of the microwave-wood technologies is limited to date.
8.7 Summary
The use of microwaves has been long investigated in materials processing and a
broad range of plasma processes, chemical synthesis and processing, as well as in
waste remediation. During the last decade, the microwave-wood alliance captured
scientists’ attention considering that it can contribute to revolutionary developments
for the timber industry needs.
This chapter reviews the principles and physics of microwave delamination of
wood, fundamental to the study of the microwave-wood applications. The factors
which affect the degree of delamination in the microwave irradiated wood have been
extensively investigated by scientists and the findings are underlined in this chapter.
Studies concerning the control of microwave delamination process are reviewed as
well.
170 G. Daian
The existing research indicates that microwave can be applied to wood in

pre-set conditions to considerably modify the wood structure so that to improve
performances in applications such as wood preservation, drying or bending. The
exploratory efforts have been extended up to scale-up processes, equipment pro-
totyping and pilot-scale production, but isolated and limited number of industrial
applications are available to date.
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Chapter 9
Delaminations Induced by Weathering in Wood
and Wood-Based Composites Panels
Voichita Bucur
Contents
9.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173

9.2 Delamination Induced by Weathering in Solid Wood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
9.2.1 Methods of Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
9.2.2 Factors of Influence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
9.2.3 Structural Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
9.3 Delamination Induced by Weathering in Wood-Based Composites Panels . . . . . . 191
9.3.1 Natural Outdoor Exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
9.3.2 Artificial Exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
9.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
9.1 Background
The term “weathering” (Feist 1982) defines any of the physical, mechanical or
chemical process by which wood or wood based products undergo slow degrada-
tion induced by the weather (sunlight, wind, precipitations, diurnal and seasonal
changes in relative humidity, atmospheric pollution, etc). Knowledge about weath-
ering durability comes from practical experiences of end-users, from field tests and
from standardized laboratory tests. The weathering process affects only the surface
of wood or wood products. It was primarily accepted that the sunlight- ultravio-
let radiation, visible and infrared radiation- initiate the wood weathering. (Williams
2005). The UV radiation has sufficient energy to degrade lignin and carbohydrates,
while the visible light degrades wood extractives. Wood photo – degradation starts
after exposure to the sunlight (Bentum and Addo-Ashong 1977; Derbyshire and
Miller 1981, 1995; Groves and Banana 1986; Onishi et al. 1989). This process is
V. Bucur (B)
174 V. Bucur
Table 9.1 Some values of the erosion of earlywood and latewood of different species exposed to
the North American climate for a period ranging from 4 to 16 years (Williams 2005)
Specific Erosion (μm) after various exposure times

gravity
4 years 10 years 16 years
Species (kg/m3 ) Latewood Earlywood Latewood Earlywood Latewood Earlywood
Douglas fir 460 105 270 285 905 500 1405

Southern 450 135 320 315 710 525 1355
pine
Western 310 200 500 765 1320 1380 1945
redcedar
Redwood 360 165 405 440 835 835 1385
very slow and is of about 5 mm thickness decreasing of a board during 100 years
(Feist and Mraz 1978). In Table 9.1 are given some values of the erosion of early-
wood and latewood of different species exposed to the North American climate for
a period ranging from 4 to 16 years. Erosion values for plywood made from differ-
ent species are given in Table 9.2. The erosion of earlywood is always greater than
that of latewood. The ratio between the erosion of latewood and earlywood in solid
wood, after 4 years of exposure varies between 2.37 and 2.5. The same ratio is dif-
ferent after 16 years of outdoor exposure and varies between 1.52 and 2.9 depending
on species. For the plywood, after 4 years of exposure this ratio varies between 2.45
for Douglas fir and 3.2 . . . 3.4 for Western red cedar and redwood plywood. After
16 years of outdoor exposure the variation of this ratio is very small and is between
1.75 for Douglas fir plywood and 1.46 for Western red cedar plywood and redwood
plywood.
During weathering wood colour changes, surface fibres are erode, checks are
developed, and mildew colonizes the surface. The boards warp and cup. Moisture
variations induced by dew, rain, snow, temperature variation and oxygen are causes
of wood degradation. The checking, splitting and warping degrade the surface more
Table 9.2 Erosion values for some wood products exposed to the North American climate for a
period ranging from 4 to 16 years (Williams 2005)
Erosion (μm) after various exposure times
4 years 10 years 16 years
Products Latewood Earlywood Latewood Earlywood Latewood Earlywood
Western 170 580 455 1090 910 1475

redcedar
plywood
Redwood 125 440 475 800 515 1250
plywood
Douglas fir 110 270 255 500 515 905
plywood
9 Delaminations Induced by Weathering in Wood 175
than the photo-oxidation. The wood – based composites can fail catastrophically
within several years if no protection against weathering. Wood decay affects in the
same time the wood exposed to weathering. This aspect is not treated in this chapter.
Literature reviews on wood degradation induced by weathering, were published
periodically and have dealt with colour change, erosion, free radicals, surface wet-
ting characteristics, anatomical changes, mechanical properties and conservation of
fine art objects (Sell and Wälchi 1969; Sell and Leukens 1971; Feist 1982; Feist and
Hon 1984; Feist 1990: Uzzielli 1998, 2006; Deglise and Dirol 2000; Unger et al.
2001; Williams 2005). These studies were motivated primarily by the behaviour of
different wood coatings exposed to weathering, for which the reference has been
always the non coated wood.
The understanding of wood weathering mechanism, the effects on physical and
chemical properties allow the development of methods for inhibiting or retard-
ing the degradation, which might maximize the service life of wood, wood based
products and wood-based composites in any type of climate. Wood exposed
outdoor to weathering develops surface checks when tensile stress due to the
anisotropy of shrinkage and swelling exceed the elastic limits, inducing fracture
(Schniewind 1963). In severe cases, checks affect the mechanical properties of the
structural elements and destroy the appearance of the historical monuments built
in wood.
The aim of this chapter is to review the studies focused on the generation of fis-
sures or cracks and the development of delaminations induced by weathering on
non coated wood and wood based composites. The aspects related to photochem-
ical and biological processes of natural or treated wood are not discussed in this
chapter.
9.2 Delamination Induced by Weathering in Solid Wood
Numerous wood species are used for outdoor purposes because of their durability
and relatively high mechanical properties. In outdoor utilization wood is subjected
to variable environmental conditions which determine changes in surface properties
such as color change, surface roughening, crack development, etc., therefore the
changes in surface properties of wood species during weathering are of significant
practical concern. The fundamental aspects of solid wood weathering have been
discussed firstly by Coupe and Watson (1967) and more recently by Hon (1981) or
Williams (2005). The literature is scarce on knowledge related to wood anatomy and
the mechanisms of crack formation, propagation and development of delaminations
in wood induced by weathering (Donaldson 2010). Wood durability testing under
natural outdoor exposure conditions requires long time experiments. To simulate
this long time of natural weathering, accelerated tests are proposed by different stan-
dards (ASTM D 2898; ASTM D 2017-05; ASTM D 2481-05) or research reports
(Roux and Podgorski 2000). Accelerated ageing tests have the merit of relative short
duration.
Note that accelerated ageing tests are well suited for ranking the durability
performance of difference species and evaluating wood preservatives.
176 V. Bucur
9.2.1 Methods of Measurements

The checks at wood surface can be detected visually or automatically. Visual detec-
tion is the oldest existing method and refers to the crack length, width, depth,
number or measuring only the largest check found in the specimen or board (as
noted in different standards for softwood or hardwood). The manual measurements
were performed with rules, calipers, micrometers and feeler gauges. Flaete et al.
(2000) used a visual detection and registered the cracks when deeper than 75% of
the board thickness. Three length categories of cracks depth were registered such
as: 1–50 mm, 51–120 mm and > 120 mm. The length of each crack was measured.
A more refined system was proposed by Rietz (1961) who used a categorical rating
system based on the total length of cracks on a scale ranging from 0 to 5. Evans
et al. (1997, 2003) modeled the cracks as rhombus or two right prisms back to back.
Szymany and McDonald (2004) used the reflection of laser and fluorescent light
to detect checks at wood surface. For visual inspection during weathering Sudiyani
et al. (1999) proposed a classification of cracking in 5 classes such as: checking
occurred at less than 10% to checking occurred at more than 70% of the surface
area. Wahl et al. (2001) used laser light to measure the width and depth of cracks.
Kamden and Zhang (2000) used stylus profilometry to measure the width of cracks.
The manual measurements are very laborious. Lopez et al. (1998) developed an
automatic fibre-optic reflectometric technique for the automatic detection and mea-
surement of surface cracks of different materials. Christy et al. (2005) automatically
identified checks at wood surface in southern pine and Douglas fir using “an algo-
rithm embedded in waveform analysis software that searches line scans within black
and white digital images of the surface looking for brightness minima with certain
features that are characteristics of checks”. The checks are shown black on a white
background. Figure 9.1a shows the selected area of a southern pine specimen, the
brightness profile along a line across the centre of the specimen and the checks
detection on the brightness profile. Checks position, size and shape can be quan-
tified rapidly and automatically. On the brightness profile along a line across the
centre of the specimen (Fig. 9.1b) it is possible to detect the presence of checks as
minima on the brightness profile (Fig. 9.1c).
It is generally recognized today that the ultrasonic methods are perhaps the most
versatile of the techniques for non-destructive testing available. Different ultra-
sonic techniques have been developed for crack depth measurements in metals and
composites, based on analytical and numerical investigations of the reflection and
transmission coefficients for normal as well as oblique incidence of ultrasonic waves
(Achenbach et al. 1980; Angel and Achenbach 1984; Lidington and Silk 1975; Dong
and Adler 1984; Achenbach et al. 1992; Li et al. 1992). With this methodology, some
problems arisen such as the coupling between the transducers and specimens who
required sophisticated calibration procedures. The modern-air coupled transducers
should avoid these problems. The achievements cited in previous references could
inspire in the future new methodology for crack depth measurement on wood and
wood-based composites.
Fig. 9.1 Identification of checks at wood surface Christy et al. (2005, Figure 1, Figure 2, Figure 3).
(a) the selected area of a southern pine specimen (b) the brightness profile along a line across the
centre of the specimen (c) the checks detection on the brightness profile
9.2.2 Factors of Influence

Table 9.3 summarises the possible interactions between the weathering and the
development of delaminations in non coated wood. The erosion process at wood
surface is produced by rain and wind. The fissures and the delaminations are pro-
duced by the sun light – UV radiation. The dynamics of moisture content and
temperature are related to the precipitations, sun radiation and air humidity and
temperature. Differences between climatic regions ranging from northern temper-
ate, Mediterranean, etc, to tropical are substantial in terms of annual duration of
sunshine, annual sum of global radiation, annual sum of precipitation –rain, snow,
178 V. Bucur
Table 9.3 Possible interactions between the weathering and the development of delaminations in
non coated wood
No Climate elements Processes Effects on non coated wood
1 Sun light, UV radiation Photochemical degradation Fissures and delaminations

2 Precipitations, sun radiation, Moisture and temperature Dimensional instability,
air humidity dynamics cracks and delaminations
3 Rain, snow, wind, driving rain Erosion processes Superficial wood erosion
wind, etc. The meteorological conditions of each site are typical. The severity of cli-
mate in different areas is extremely variable. Transferring weathering results from
one location to another seems to be really difficult. Very few attempts have been
made to develop a classification system for climatic stresses of building structures
in general and of wooden building in particular (Creemers et al. 2002). The major
aim was to categorise the intensity of decay hazard for wooden constructions based
on empirical equations including air temperature, number of days with minimum or
maximum precipitations, etc. The equation 9.1 gives the climatic index developed
for European climatic conditions:
Iglobal nr .Rsum
C.I = + (9.1)
20 500
where:
C.I = climatic index
I global = global irradiation on planes tilted 45◦ facing South (kWh/m2 )
nr = number of days with precipitations more than 0.1 mm
Rsum = annual sum of precipitation (cm)
The numbers 20 and 500 are introduced to weigh the relative importance of radi-
ation and rainfall and to keep the resulting climate index for the European sites
around 100.
Creemers et al. (2002) noted that the climatic index CI showed reasonable corre-
lation only to global irradiation and that including the data on precipitations “hardly
improved the model”. In our opinion this means that to validate the tests, for each
weathering experiment the specific climatic conditions must be declared in the final
written report.
9.2.3 Structural Aspects
In this section will be discussed some wood structural aspects, at macroscopic

and microscopic scale, related to delamination induced by weathering for natural
outdoor exposure and for artificial exposure.
9.2.3.1 Natural Outdoor Exposure

After outdoor long term exposure all wood species develop a grayish appearance
due to the fact that wood extractibles are removed and the delignified fibres are
exposed to atmospheric conditions. The combined effect of sunlight (photochemical

degradation) and water (precipitations, raining water, snow) degrades wood main
components and transform the wood surface into a network strongly contaminated
by microorganisms (Sell and Wälchi 1969).
(a) Macroscopic Aspects

At macroscopic scale the factor of influence on the delaminations induced by long
term outdoor exposure are: wood anisotropy, wood texture, annual ring structure,
the presence of specific wooden tissues such as juvenile wood, reaction wood,
heartwood and sapwood. It is commonly accepted that wood anisotropy plays an
important role in crack formation. For the structural uses it is recommended, to dis-
play the boards in vertical position to avoid the development of checks and splits
(US Forest Products Lab 1974; Sandberg 1997).
Sandberg D (1999) studied the development of cracks at macroscopic and micro-
scopic level in radial and tangential surfaces of pine (Pinus silvestris) and spruce
(Picea abies) specimens after 33 months outdoor exposure in Stockholm from
September 1993 to May 1996. For these experiments the specimens have been
produced with a star-sawing patter which allows the perfect delimitation of wood
radial and tangential surfaces. The specimens have been planed. Figure 9.2 shows
the specimens before and after exposure. The minimum crack assessed visually had
0.25 mm width. Table 9.4 gives the average of total crack length per unit area after
33 months outdoor exposure and subsequent conditioning at 12% moisture content.
The ratio of crack length in tangential versus radial planes is 12.1 for pine and 9.4
for spruce. This ratio is of the same order of magnitude as the ratio between the tan-
gential and radial shrinkage. The mass density expressed as the ration between the
weight and the volume at 12% moisture content has no effect on crack development
in this specific case of pine and spruce outdoor exposure to North European climate.
It was noted that the degradation started on tangential surface. Surface degrada-
tion has developed a corrugated appearance which follows the pattern of the annual
ring. The earlywood degrades more rapidly than the latewood. The corrugated
appearance is more important on radial surfaces.
The appearance of the cracks at macroscopic level is described such as:
– on the radial surface, the cracks are localised and appeared at the annual ring
border and in the early wood. Small cracks in the annual ring border are
predominant.
– on the tangential surface, the cracks appeared in the latewood and across the whole
exposed surface.
– macroscopic cracks propagated along the whole length of the specimen, having a
large depth and being wider than 0.25 mm. Small short cracks had a depth of one
or few annual rings.
Depending on species, sometimes the durability of wood can be or not affected

by harvesting time, origin and stand characteristics and growth conditions of trees.
Rydell et al. (2005) reported Scots pine behavior during 9 years of weathering in
180 V. Bucur
Fig. 9.2 Specimens before

and after 33 days outdoor
exposure (Sandberg 1999) (a)
radial surface of spruce
before exposure (b) the same
surface after 33 days outdoor
exposure (c) tangential
surface of pine before
exposure (d) the same surface
after 33 days outdoor
exposure, with evident cracks
(Sandberg 1999, Figure 5)
Table 9.4 The average of total crack length per unit are (m/m2 ) a after 33 months outdoor
exposure and subsequent conditioning at 12% moisture content (data from Sandberg 1999)
Ratio of crack Shrinkage

Density Total crack length per unit are (m/m2 ) length ratios (T/R)∗
Species (kg/m3 ) Radial Tangential – –
Pine 475 2.1 25.5 12.1

Spruce 415 2.9 27.3 9.4
Note: Data from Kollman and Côté (1968)

Sweden and showed a difference in durability between the heartwood and sapwood,
heartwood being more durable then the sapwood. As astonishing as this could be,
in this study it was demonstrated that the origin, the time of felling, the annual ring
width and the distance from the pith had no influence on the durability of Scots pine.
(b) Microscopic Aspects

In that follows we discuss the microscopic aspects of delamination in some soft-
woods, extensively used in building industry, such as: pine (Pinus sylvestris), spruce
(Picea abies Karst.) and sugi (Cryptomeria japonica D. Don).
Borgin (1970) was, to our knowledge one of the first to use the scanning elec-
tron microscope for the study of weathered wood. He selected specimens from
wooden structures of pine (Pinus sylvestris) in Norway exposed to the weather up
to 1000 years, from Norwegian lofts and stave churches. The wood was exposed to
weathering without any protective treatment. The eroded surfaces were silver grey
colour and had the pattern of the year rings was corrugated, of dense and less dens
parts. The destructive process was limited to 2. . . 3 mm. The very slow deteriora-
tion of this layer protected the bulk of the interior structure. ”The slow breakdown of
wood followed the reverse pattern of how the fibres are built up with a fibrillar, lam-
inated structure cemented together as a fibre – reinforced high polymer composite
material”.
The micrographs showed bundle of fibres eroded from the surface, partly or
completely loosened surface fibres, fractured fibres with middle lamellae partially
removed, bordered pits with the torus completely destroyed, eroded microfibrilar
structure, etc. the middle lamella, the primary wall, the outer layer of S1 have been
removed by the long time weathering. The complete destruction of tracheids was
scarcely found. The most damaged sections were those of the transversal section,
were fibres were originally cut off. The individual fibres were remarkably stable and
durable. The microfibrils were the most stable. The adhesion between the structural
elements was gradually destroyed. The sculpturing in fibres walls were gradually
enlarged causing a weakening of the fibre structure. The weakest element was the
middle lamellae, composed mostly from lignin. The mechanisms of wood struc-
ture breakdown due to the environmental factors were largely discussed by Borgin
(1971), Borgin et al. (1975). For the solid wood exposed to outdoor conditions, as
for the very old wood (extracted from the Egyptian pyramids) which was stored very
long time under stable conditions of temperature and moisture content, the weak-
est part of the structure are the border between the middle lamella and S1 and the
interfibrillar matrix.
Figure 9.3 shows delaminations between tracheids induced by the weather-
ing removal of middle lamella in pine (Pinus sylvestris) extracted from wooden
structures in Norway exposed for 300 years to the cold climate of North Europe.
Systematic studies on the effect of outdoor exposure on wood microstructure
were reported by Sandberg D (1999). The dynamics of delamination at microscopic
level in pine and spruce after 33 months outdoor exposure to North European cli-
mate was studied, It was observed that the fragments of tracheids are broken and
182 V. Bucur
Fig. 9.3 Delaminations

between tracheids induced by
the weathering removal of
middle lamella in pine (Pinus
sylvestris) from wooden
structures in Norway exposed
3 centuries to the cold climate
of North Europe (Borgin
1970, Figure 3)
eroded by rain and wind. Figure 9.4 shows a zone of pine earlywood eroded by
wind and weather. Because of the tensile stress developed by the moisture dynam-
ics, fracture is initiated in 3 . . . 10 cell rows (Fig. 9.5). Crack propagates through the
first earlywood cell rows and seldom more than two rows from the annual ring bor-
der. In coniferous the microdensitometric components are very different in latewood
and earlywood. This explains why the cracks initiate at the limit of the annual ring,
Fig. 9.4 Eroded zone of earlywood in pine after 33 months of outdoor exposure (Sandberg
1999, Figure 9)
Fig. 9.5 Crack initiation and propagation in spruce, at the border of the annual ring
between the latewwod and earlywood. The spruce and pine have numerous large
bordered pits in radial cell walls. Their pits are degraded in the early stage of weath-
ering (Sandberg 1999; Miniutti 1967; Borgin 1970, 1971). The cracks propagate
radially into the pits torus, which destroy the equilibrium of the cell wall and induce
new stress in the cell wall. The next stage involves the degradation of the cell wall.
The cracks develop parallel to the microfibrils in S2 ; in early wood and latewood.
The microfibrils contain an important amount of cellulose. The microfibrils are the
most stable structural element of tracheids. The degradation advancement destroys
the cohesion between microfibrils and different cell layers.
The degradation pattern of the tangential plane is different from the radial one,
because the fine structure of these two walls is very different. The tangential cell wall
has no sculpturing to initiate the crack. In this case the weaker zone is the middle
lamella. The delamination in tangential cell wall initiates in the middle lamella and
propagates very sharply up to ten cell rows (Fig. 9.6). Delamination in the middle
lamellae is very evident in the latewood on the tangential exposed surfaces.
The initiation, the development and the propagation of cracks due to weathering
can be explained by the development of stress field induced by the gradient of mois-
ture content. The shrinkage and swelling in tangential direction are about the twice
of that in radial direction. The exposure to rapid alternation of rain and strong sun-
light induces high moisture gradients between the surface areas and the underlying
wood, which determines more formations of cracks on tangential surfaces than on
radial surfaces. The latewood has higher density and shrinks more than the early-
wood. This also explains why the crack initiates at the annual ring limit between the
184 V. Bucur
Fig. 9.6 Delamination in the middle lamella of the exposed tangential surface of spruce latewood
latewood and earlywood and then propagates through the earlywood. The orienta-
tion -radial or tangential- plays an important role in crack initiation and propagation
because of the strong anisotropy of wood. Tangential surfaces have more and deeper
cracks than radial surfaces. Radial surfaces should be selected for a better behaviour
to weathering.
Sandberg and Söderström (2006) studied at microscopic level the crack forma-
tion due to weathering of radial and tangential sections of pine and spruce after 61
months. The following factors have a notorious influence on the development of
delamination:
– in spruce, the annual ring orientation. The tangential section had 1.7 . . . 2.2 times
greater mean total crack length per unit area than the radial sections.
– in pine, the annual ring orientation. The tangential section had 2.2. . . 2.6 times
greater mean total crack length per unit area than the radial sections
– in both species, tangential sections have more and deeper cracks than radial
surfaces, the cracks on the tangential sections occur in both earlywood and
latewood
– in both sections, in radial sections cracks occur primarily at the annual ring border,
sometime they extend also in the earlywood.
– in both species degradation of cell wall cracks tend to follow the microfibril ori-
entation in S2 . In pine, because of numerous piths, the radial cell wall of the
earlywood degraded at an earlier stage of weathering
Imamura Y (1993) reported the morphological changes induced in sugi wood

(Cryptomeria japonica D. Don) after exposure to natural weathering (sunlight,
wind and rain) during 12 weeks in winter. The specimens exposed outdoor undergo
photochemical degradation primarily in the lignin components. The most evident
deterioration of the microscopic structure appeared around the pits in the cell wall.
The margo fibril of the pit membranes are the first to be broken. The apertures of
bordered pits were enlarged in the earlywood tracheids, “to the limit of the pit cham-
bers, and diagonal checks through the pits were visible, which probably followed the
fibril angle of the S2 layer”. During sunlight irradiation the cell wall shrinks. This
shrinkage generates local concentration of stresses in cell wall, which determine the
appearance of microcracks along the middle lamellae, along the border between S1
and S2 , at the limit between the latewood and earlywood. The most characteristic
pattern was the erosion of the middle lamellae in which lignin reaches its maximum
concentration, showing round appearance of tracheids cross section (Fig. 9.7).
Hon and Feist (1986) studied the behaviour of four hardwood species – red
oak, white oak, yellow poplar and sweetgum to weathering during 30 days from
September1981 to January 1982 at Blacksburg, Virginia, USA. Figure 9.8 shows the
transversal section of yellow-poplar before and after outdoor exposure for 30 day. In
transversal section the erosion of middle lamella was observed and the roughening
at the surface of the microscopic section. The erosion of the middle lamellae can be
considered as the structural initiation of a crack. On the tangential section after 30
days of exposure, slight separation of the procumbent cells in rays and roughening
of cell walls were observed. In radial microscopic section a roughening of cell was
also observed.
Fig. 9.7 Round appearance

of transversal section of
eroded tracheids in sugi after
8 weeks exposure to natural
weathering (Imamura Y
1993, Figure 4A) Note the
delamination of the cell wall
structure at S1 and S2
boundary (see arrows)
186 V. Bucur
a b
Fig. 9.8 Transversal section of yellow-poplar before and after outdoor exposure for 30 day. (Hon
and Feist 1986, Figure 4) (a) transversal section before exposure (b) transversal section after expo-
sure. The middle lamella is eroded, the surface is roughening (c) tangential section after 30 days
of exposure, slight separation of the procumbent cells in rays and roughening of cell walls
9.2.3.2 Artificial Exposure

(a) Macroscopic Aspects
The factors which influence the delamination produced by the artificial exposure are
the same as those for outdoor exposure.
Sandberg D (1996) studied the influence of pith and juvenile wood on propor-
tion of cracks in sawn timber when kiln dried and exposed to wetting cycles on
boards of Norway spruce and Scots pine and have shown that cracks are related to
the juvenile wood, but the crack formation is not related with the annual ring orien-
tation. Sandberg D (1996, 1997) observed in his experiments that the juvenile wood
increased crack formation. This can be explained by the properties of juvenile wood
which shrinks in longitudinal direction more then adult wood when drying.
Flaete et al. (2000) studied the crack formation in aspen (Populus tremula L.)
and Norway spruce (Picea abies (L) Karst.) during accelerated weathering. The
boards were exposed to four climate regimes, 1 h/regime such as: light and heat
radiation, water spray, frost and room temperature. The weathering device worked
continuously 112 days. The cracks developed more in Scots pine than in aspen. The
average of the largest crack length in aspen was 55 mm ±34 mm and in spruce was
123 mm ± 97 mm. The boards either of spruce or aspen, positioned near the periph-
ery of the tree had more longer (>120 mm) cracks than the internal boards, because
in those boards there is a predominant influence of the tangential anisotropic direc-
tion. Aspen got a high number of relatively short cracks rather spruce got fewer, but
longer and injurious. For both species, the boards near the bark have more injuries
than those near the pith. The boards near the pith contain more juvenile wood than
those near the bark. On the other hand, the juvenile wood has an important number
of medulary rays which prevent the generation and development of cracks.
(b) Microscopic Aspects

The technological advancement with scanning electronic microscopy allowed the
developments of studies related to the fine structure of wood. Numerous micro-
graphs related to the photodegradation and weathering of wood have been published
in the last three decades (Sell and von Luekens 1971; von Luekens and Sell 1972;
Raczkowski 1980; Kucera and Sell 1987; Kuo and Hu 1991). In that follows we
selected several to illustrate the crack formation and delaminations in fine structure
of wood induced by artificial exposure to weathering for species from temperate
zone (European) and tropical.
The delamination effect in the transversal section of Southern pine cross section
after exposure to UV (λ > 200 nm) during 1000 h can be observed in Fig. 9.9.
The middle lamella was completely eroded, UV radiation producing delamination
between the tracheids. The deterioration of the pits after 1000 h UV exposure
generated delamination at the border of pits which extends in alignment with the
microfibril orientation (Fig. 9.10). The high energy protons degraded the lignin and
the cohesion between wood anatomical elements.
Hon and Feist (1986) reported the effect of UV (λ > 220 nm) irradiation on yel-
low poplar after 500 h, 1000 h and 2000 h. Figure 9.11 shows the corresponding
a b
Fig. 9.9 Delamination observed on the transversal section of Southern pine cross section after
exposure to UV (λ > 200 nm) during 1000 h. (Williams 2005, Figure 7.26, Figure 7.27) (a) Cross
section before the exposure (b) cross section after 1000 h exposure to UV (λ > 200 nm). The
middle lamella was completely eroded producing delamination between the tracheids
188 V. Bucur
Fig. 9.10 Delamination observed on the radial section of Southern pine section after exposure to
UV (λ > 200 nm) during 1000 h. Deterioration of pits generated cracks and delamination between
tracheids (Williams 2005, Figure 7.28)
Fig. 9.11 Delamination observed on the transversal section of yellow poplar after exposure to UV
(Hon and Feist 1986, Figure 7, Figure 8, Figure 9) (a) cross section after 500 h irradiation with
λ > 200 nm; (b) cross section after 1000 h irradiation with λ > 220 nm (c) cross section after
2000 h irradiation with λ > 220 nm
Fig. 9.12 Delamination observed on the tangential section of yellow poplar after exposure to UV
(Hon and Feist 1986, Figure 10, Figure 11) (a) roughening of the tangential section after irradiation
with λ > 220 nm during 2000 h (b) delamination into the cell wall induced by the deterioration of
pits observed on tangential section after irradiation with λ > 220 nm during 2000 h after 1000 h
irradiation
deterioration of transversal microscopic structure (middle lamellae, checking and

roughening of the cell wall). After 2000 h of exposure the delamination is evi-
dent through the separation of cells. It was reported that the tangential section the
development of the very rough surface is due to the degradation of lignin and con-
sequently the microfibrils emerged to the surface. The pits were severely damaged
generating the delamination into the adjacent cell wall (Fig. 9.12).
Kishino and Nakano (2004) reported the development of delamination produced
by artificial weathering of eight tropical species (auri – Acacia auriculiformis;
bangkai – Shorea spp, cumaru – Amnurana acreana, ipe – Tabebula spp, jahhra –
Eucalyptus marginate, keruing – Dipterocarpus spp, robusta – Eucalyptus robusta).
The development of cracks has been studied in relationship with the wettability
from the prospective of chemical and structural modifications of wood surface.
Each 120 min weathering cycle was composed from 120 min light irradiation
(300 nm<λ<700 nm, incident light intensity 390 W/m2 ) followed by 120 min of
water spray. The irradiation time started with 20 min and finished with 600 min.
For further measurements the specimens were conditioned at 20◦ C and 65% rela-
tive humidity. For stereoscopic microscopic observations sections (2 ×25×25 mm)
were prepared. Microscopic image analysis was used to determine cracks average
length and width. Ratio of cracks area to section area was determined. Figure 9.13
shows stereoscopic micrographs of three species (auri – Acacia auriculiformis,
robusta – Eucalyptus robusta and ipe – Tabebula spp) before and after 600 h arti-
ficial weathering. Figure 9.14 shows the variation of the contact angle versus the
parameters of cracks (area, average length and width). Small cracks were observed
in ipe – Tabebula spp for specimens which having a relatively low specific grav-
ity (0.90 g/m3 ) and showing the highest contact angle of 88.9◦ . The largest cracks
were observed in cumaru – Amnurana acreana, – 930 kg/m3 for which the smallest
mean contact angle of of 50.5◦ was measured. It was concluded that the differences
190 V. Bucur
Fig. 9.13 Delamination observed on stereoscopic micrographs of three species (auri – Acacia
auriculiformis, robusta – Eucalyptus robusta and ipe – Tabebula spp) before and after 600 h
artificial weathering (Kishino and Nakano 2004, Figure 7)
Fig. 9.14 Contact angle versus the parameters of cracks (area, average length and width) (Kishino
and Nakano 2004, Figure 6)
in wettability between species was due to the structural modifications (i.e. cracks)
induced by the artificial weathering treatment whereas the increase in weattability
was due to the chemical changes of wood surface.
9.3 Delamination Induced by Weathering in Wood-Based

Composites Panels
The aim of section is to review the studies focused on the development delam-
inations induced by weathering in wood-based composites panels produced with
natural, untreated wood.
9.3.1 Natural Outdoor Exposure
To our knowledge, the literature is very scarce in articles referring only to unfinished
wood products or wood based composites panels exposed to weathering (Shaler
et al. 1988; Biblis 2000). Related information on delamnation and surface quality
in non coated products can be extracted from the literature on panels’ durability, in
which the non coated products are used as reference to evaluate the performance
of different finishes. The corresponding literature is very abundant. Plywood was
probably the first product on which systematic studies on weathering performance
during outdoor exposure were published (Selbo 1969; Koch 1967, 1970; Black et al.
1976; Hunt and Matteson 1976; Hayashi et al. 2002, 2005).
Biblis (2000) studied the effect of weathering on surface quality and structural
properties of six species (redwood, western redcedar, Douglas fir, lauan, baldcypress
and southern yellow pine) of untreated commercial plywood siding after 6 years
of exposure in Alabama, USA. Qualitative information only was reported – “the
surfaces of all species developed splits and cracks”.
Williams et al. (2005) reported the resistance to checking and warping of western
juniper lumber and particleboard for siding and decking uses. The specimens have
192 V. Bucur
been exposed outdoor during 6 years. Rating of checking decreased severely during
the first year of exposure, after which the rating becomes relatively constant.
Williams and Feist (2007) reported cracking development on surface of yellow-
poplar and sweetgum plywood panels (16 mm) used for siding and outdoor exposed
for 16 years near Madison, Wisconsin, USA. Plywood surfaces were flat grain and
were made from lathe peeled veneers. The rating of cracking dramatically developed
during the first two years of exposure, after which was quite constant.
The durability of structural softwood after 30 years indoor exposure was reported
by Raknes (1997), and used to compare the performance of eight urea-formaldehyde
glues, casein and resorcinol for structural softwood bonding. ASTM D 1101 – 59
(today not in use) was used to define and measure visually the delamination of
structural elements. For the outdoor exposure, the effect of the weathering was evi-
dent after 10 years of exposure and was combined with fungi infestation, shrinkage
inducing stress in wood and glue.
The delaminations in finger-jointed and laminated southern pine posts has been
reported by Shaler et al. (1988) in relationship with the strength and durability of
phenol-resorcinol joints of treated and untreated southern pine posts. The specimens
used were bocks cut from the test billets submitted to cyclic exposure as recom-
mended by the American national standard for structural laminated timber AITC T
-110 ( exposure to vacuum, 25 in. Hg, for 30 min, followed by 75 psi air pressure,
and 24 h exposure to drying in an air forced-air oven at 160 F). The delamination
was measured visually and expressed as percent of glueline on the cross-section al
faces.
9.3.2 Artificial Exposure
The artificial exposure to accelerated aging of wood based composites is regu-

lated by numerous international and national standards (ASTM D 1037; ASTM D
2017; ASTM D 2481; ASTM 2898). Aging tests have been performed to observe
by indirect destructive or nondestructive methods the internal bond characteris-
tics of wood – based composites. The internal bond strength is a parameter which
is directly related to delamination. The methodology for accelerated aging test is
standardized and is not treated in this chapter. Generally speaking this approach
describes only quantitatively the delamination without details on structural modifi-
cation. The main purpose of this methodology is related to the quality of products
and it was conceived to provide valuable practical information to those consumers
and builders who use and install wood based composite panels and products
9.4 Summary
On our planet, there are probably more buildings such as residential, commercial
industrial or farming constructed with wood and wood-based composites than any
other structural materials. The widespread use of wood and wood-based composites
in the construction of buildings has both an economic and aesthetic basis. The
natural beauty of these products is difficult to match with other materials.
The weathering durability of wood, wood products and wood – based composites
is an important quality factor, essential for environmental friendly exterior uses in
buildings. Weathering produces unfavorable quality changes such as discoloration,
roughening and checking of surface or modification of physical and mechanical
properties. Weathering of wood depends on many environmental factors and among
them the ultraviolet component of sunlight is responsible for cell wall lignin de-
polymerization. This effect is amplified by reining water which erodes the surfaces
exposed to weathering. The erosion process id very slow and was estimated to be
of about 5 mm thickness decreasing of a board during 100 years of exposure in
Northern Hemisphere. The erosion of the earlywood is always greater than that of
latewood.
The checks and delaminations at wood surface can be detected visually or auto-
matically. Visual detection refers to the check length, width, depth or number.
Modern methods use reflection of laser and fluorescent light to detect cracks at
wood surface. The width of cracks has been determined with stylus profilometry.
Automatic detection of checks at wood surface was performed using waveform
analysis of the reflected digital image. Variation in the brightness profile of a board
is also a good indicator of checks presence. At macroscopic scale, the factor of
influence on the delaminations induced by long term outdoor exposure are: wood
anisotropy, wood texture, annual ring structure, the presence of specific wooden
tissues such as juvenile wood, reaction wood, heartwood and sapwood. It is com-
monly accepted that wood anisotropy plays a determinant role in crack formation.
The degradation pattern of RL plane is different from that of TL plane. At micro-
scopic scale, in softwoods, the delamination was produced by wind and rain or
snow erosion of tracheids. Cracks propagated through the first earlywood cell
rows near the annual ring border. The pits were degraded from the early stage of
weathering. The cracks developed parallel to the microfibrils in S2 , their cohesion
is affected. Artificial weathering exposure induced similar type of degradation as
outdoor exposure in a shorter time.
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Chapter 10
Delamination in Timber Induced by Drying
Nawshad Haque
Contents
10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197

10.2 Influence of Temperature, Relative Humidity and Rate of Air Circulation
on Drying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
10.2.1 Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
10.2.2 Relative Humidity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
10.2.3 Air Circulation Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
10.3 Wood Drying Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
10.3.1 Air Drying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
10.3.2 Kiln Drying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
10.4 Kiln Drying Schedules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
10.5 Drying Defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
10.6 Prediction of Drying Stress and Strain Using Mathematical Models . . . . . . . . 205
10.6.1 Hardwood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
10.6.2 Softwood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
10.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
10.1 Introduction
In the context of wood drying, delamination can be regarded as a defect due to
poor drying where separation between wood fiber cells occurs on surface (surface
checks) or inside of wooden boards (internal checks) and in the form of splits (i.e.
end split) at the end of the timber board. Solid wooden board can be considered as
naturally laminated product. Before discussing delamination aspect of wood fibers
during drying in further detail, it is helpful to discuss about basic principles and
purpose of wood drying.
N. Haque (B)
Division of Minerals, CSIRO Clayton, Bag 312, Clayton South, VIC 3169, Australia
e-mail: Nawshad.Haque@csiro.au
198 N. Haque
Wood drying (also called seasoning in the wood literature) is the removal of water
from the timber as economically and with as little damage as possible. A recent
textbook by Keey et al. (2000) covers many aspects of timber drying, including the
fundamental basis of this technology. Wood drying is an inevitable part of wood pro-
cessing. Typical times for drying softwood such as radiata pine (Pinus radiata) are
in the order of days but for hardwoods such as eucalypts are in the order of months
and year. Although high-temperature drying technology developed in Australasia
reduced drying times for softwoods from months to days, optimized process still
is a challenge for the industry to avoid product degrade. Reducing delamination
of board either internally or externally during wood drying is also part of such
challenges.
An important objective of seasoning timber is to dry it to the equilibrium mois-
ture content (EMC) before use. EMC is the moisture content (MC) of wood when
it is in equilibrium with the temperature and humidity of the surrounding air. Thus
the gross dimensional changes through shrinkage are carried out during drying and
before final use. Timber is dried to conform to the average of the maximum and
minimum EMC that will be attained by the wood in service under fluctuations of
different climatic conditions. The movement in the components of the finished prod-
uct, relative to the dimensions at the times of fabrication, is also kept to a minimum
if dry timber is used. Thus drying is the first step towards realizing the maximum
attainable dimensional stability from any timber during use. To eliminate move-
ment completely in wood, chemical modification of wood is a possible technology.
This is the treatment of wood with chemicals to replace the hydroxyl groups with
other hydrophobic functional groups of modifying agents (Stamm 1964). Among all
the existing processes, wood modification with acetic anhydride has considerable
promise due to the high anti-shrink or anti-swell efficiency (ASE) attainable with-
out damaging the wood properties. However, acetylation of wood has been slow in
commercialisation due to the cost, corrosion and the entrapment of the acetic acid
in wood. There is extensive literature relating to the chemical modification of wood
(Rowell 1983, 1991; Kumar 1994; Haque 1997).
Drying, if carried out promptly after the felling of trees, also protects tim-
ber against primary decay, fungal stain and attack by certain kinds of insects.
Organisms, which cause decay and stain, generally cannot thrive in timber with
a MC below 20%. In this context, wood MC is the total amount of water contained
in a piece of wood. In timber technology, moisture content is expressed as a percent-
age of the oven dry weight. MC determinations with the oven drying method give
an average MC for the piece. Actual MC at different locations within this piece may
vary quite considerably depending on the moisture gradients and drying characteris-
tics of the particular timber species. The average MC at the beginning of the drying
process for test pieces and kiln samples is termed the initial MC, and the average
MC of the stack and at the end of drying is termed the final MC. Several, though
not all, insect pests can live only in green timber. Dried wood is less susceptible to
decay than green wood (above 20% MC).
Apart from the above important advantages of drying timber, the following points
are also significant (Walker et al. 1993; Desch and Dinwoodie 1996):
10 Delamination in Timber Induced by Drying 199
• Dried timber is lighter, and hence the transportation and handling costs are
reduced.
• Dried timber is stronger than green timber in terms of most strength properties.
• Timbers for impregnation with preservatives have to be properly dried if
proper penetration is to be accomplished, particularly in the case of oil-type
preservatives.
• In the field of chemical modification of wood and wood products, the material
should be dried to a certain MC for the appropriate reactions to occur.
• Dry wood works, machines, finishes and glues better than green timber. Paints
and finishes last longer on dry timber.
• The electrical and thermal insulation properties of wood are improved by drying.
Prompt drying of wood immediately after felling therefore results in signifi-

cant upgrading of, and value adding to, the raw timber. Drying enables substantial
long term economy in timber utilization by rationalizing the utilization of timber
resources. The drying of wood is thus an area for research and development, which
concerns many researchers and timber companies around the world.
10.2 Influence of Temperature, Relative Humidity and Rate

of Air Circulation on Drying
The external drying conditions (e.g. temperature, relative humidity and air velocity)
control the external boundary conditions for drying, and hence the drying rate, as
well as affecting the rate of internal moisture movement. The drying rate is affected
by external drying conditions (Walker et al. 1993; Keey et al. 2000), as will now be
described.
10.2.1 Temperature
If the relative humidity is kept constant, the higher the temperature, the higher the
drying rate. Temperature influences the drying rate by increasing the moisture hold-
ing capacity of the air, as well as by accelerating the diffusion rate of moisture
through the wood.
The actual temperature in a drying kiln is the dry-bulb temperature, which is the
temperature of a vapor-gas mixture determined by inserting a thermometer with a
dry-bulb. On the other hand, the wet-bulb temperature is defined as the temperature
reached by a small amount of liquid evaporating in a large amount of an unsat-
urated air-vapor mixture. The temperature sensing element of this thermometer is
kept moist with a porous fabric sleeve (cloth) usually put in a reservoir of clean
water. A minimum air flow of 2 m s−1 is needed to prevent a zone of stagnant
damp air formation around the sleeve (Walker et al. 1993). Since air passes over the
wet sleeve, water is evaporated and cools the wet-bulb thermometer. The difference
200 N. Haque
between the dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures, the wet-bulb depression, is used
to determine the relative humidity from a standard hygrometric chart (Walker et al.
1993). A higher difference between the dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures indi-
cates a lower relative humidity. For example, if the dry-bulb temperature is 100◦ C
and wet-bulb temperature 60◦ C, then the relative humidity is read as 17% from a
hygrometric chart.
10.2.2 Relative Humidity
The relative humidity of air is defined as the partial pressure of water vapor divided
by the saturated vapor pressure at the same temperature and total pressure (Siau
1984). If the temperature is kept constant, lower relative humidities result in higher
drying rates due to the increased moisture gradient in wood, resulting from the
reduction of the MC in the surface layers when the relative humidity of air is
reduced. The relative humidity is usually expressed on a percentage basis. For
drying, the other essential parameter related to relative humidity is the absolute
humidity, which is the mass of water vapor per unit mass of dry air (i.e. kg of water
per kg of dry air).
10.2.3 Air Circulation Rate

Drying time and timber quality depend on the air velocity and its uniform circula-
tion. At a constant temperature and relative humidity, the highest possible drying
rate is obtained by rapid circulation of air across the surface of wood, giving rapid
removal of moisture evaporating from the wood. However, a higher drying rate is not
always desirable, particularly for impermeable hardwoods, because higher drying
rates develop greater stresses that may cause the timber to crack (i.e. delamination)
or distort. At very low fan speeds, less than 1 m s−1 , the air flow through the stack is
often laminar flow, and the heat transfer between the timber surface and the moving
air stream is not particularly effective (Walker et al. 1993). The low effectiveness
(externally) of heat transfer is not necessarily a problem if internal moisture move-
ment is the key limitation to the movement of moisture, as it is for most hardwoods
(Pordage and Langrish 1999).
10.3 Wood Drying Methods
Broadly, there are two distinct methods by which timber can be dried:
• natural drying; and
• artificial drying.
Air drying is a natural drying method, while artificial drying includes kiln dry-
ing (mainly), vapor drying, solvent drying, infra-red drying, high frequency drying,
microwave drying, superheated steam drying, and chemical seasoning using salts.
Although most of these drying can take place at atmospheric pressure, drying in
vacuum is undertaken to gain the advantage of low boiling point of water for certain
hardwoods (e.g. radio-frequency or superheated steam vacuum drying). Solar dry-
ing utilizes solar energy in such a way that it makes the process relatively simple and
less expensive compared with kiln drying (Desch and Dinwoodie 1996), although
the analysis of solar kiln performance is relatively recent compared with the use of
solar kilns.
10.3.1 Air Drying
Air drying is the drying of timber by exposing it to the sun (Fig. 10.1). It depends on
the natural conditions of wind, sunshine and rain. The technique of air drying con-
sists mainly of making a stack of sawn timber (with the layers of boards separated
by stickers) on raised foundations, in a clean and dry place, under shade if avail-
able. Atmospheric air is the drying agent, and the rate of drying largely depends on
climatic conditions. The air enters the stack of timber at the top, particularly at the
edges of the stack, picks up moisture, is cooled and then drops to the bottom. Some
air flows horizontally through the stack, driven by the wind. For successful air dry-
ing, positive, continuous and uniform flow of air throughout the pile of the timber
needs to be considered, including the prevailing wind direction and the layout of the
air drying yard (Desch and Dinwoodie 1996).
Fig. 10.1 The air drying yard

at Boral Timber’s Herons
Creek site
10.3.2 Kiln Drying

Kiln drying is a method of drying in which air temperature, humidity and velocity
can be adjusted to control the loss of moisture from wood and enable particular or
specified MC to be achieved. This is generally used in the context of conventional
kiln drying. The process of kiln drying consists primarily of drying wood using
introduced heat sources (directly, using natural gas and/or electricity; indirectly,
through steam-heated heat exchangers, although solar energy is also possible). In
202 N. Haque
Fig. 10.2 High temperature kilns for drying softwood (courtesy of Windsor Kilns Pty. Ltd)
the process, deliberate control of temperature, relative humidity and air circulation
is provided to give conditions at various stages (MC or times) of drying the tim-
ber to achieve effective drying. For this purpose, the timber is stacked in chambers,
called wood drying kilns (Fig. 10.2), which are fitted with equipment for manipula-
tion and control of the temperature and the relative humidity of the drying air and its
circulation rate through the timber stack (Walker et al. 1993; Desch and Dinwoodie
1996).
Kiln drying provides a means of overcoming the limitations imposed by erratic
weather conditions. In terms of the fundamental drying process, the process of kiln
drying does not differ from air seasoning. In both cases, unsaturated air is used as
the drying medium, and the principle of drying is the same, i.e. removal of moisture
from the interior to the surface of the timber. Almost all commercial timbers of the
world are dried in industrial kilns. A comparison of air drying, conventional kiln
and solar drying is given below:
• Timber can be dried to any desired low moisture content by conventional or solar
kiln drying, but in air drying, moisture contents of less than 18% are difficult to
attain for most locations.
• The drying times are considerably less in conventional kiln drying than in solar
kiln drying, followed by air drying.
• In air drying, a large amount of capital investment is needed for stacking a
large amount of timber stock over a longer period than in conventional or solar
kilns, although the installation for these kilns, as well as their maintenance and
operation, is expensive (in terms of capital items).
• Air drying needs a large land area, so the land rental is significant.
• In air drying, there is little control over the drying elements, so drying degrade
cannot be controlled.
• The temperatures employed in kiln drying typically kill all the fungi and insects
in the wood if a maximum dry-bulb temperature of above 60◦ C is used for the
drying schedule. However, all the fungi and insects may not be killed by air
drying temperatures and may subsequently attack the timber.
• In air drying, the rate of drying may be very rapid in the dry summer months,
making timber boards liable to crack and split (i.e. delamination), and too slow
during the cold winter months.
• The significant advantages of conventional kiln drying include higher throughput,
and precision (better control of the final moisture content). Conventional kiln
and solar drying both enable wood to be dried to any MC regardless of weather
conditions. This makes both solar and conventional kiln drying more appropriate
for most large-scale drying operations than air drying.
Compartment-type kilns are most commonly used by timber companies. A com-

partment kiln is filled with a static batch of timber through which air is circulated. In
these types of kiln, the timber remains stationary. The drying conditions are succes-
sively varied from time to time in such a way that the kilns provide control over the
entire charge of timber being dried. This drying method is well suited to the needs
of timber companies, which have to dry timbers of varied species and thickness,
including refractory hardwoods that are more liable than other species to check and
split (i.e. delamination).
10.4 Kiln Drying Schedules

Satisfactory kiln drying can usually be accomplished by regulating the temperature
and humidity of the circulating air to suit the state of the timber at any given time.
This condition is achieved by applying kiln-drying schedules. The desired objective
of an appropriate schedule is to ensure drying timber at the fastest possible rate
without causing objectionable degrade such as delamination. The following factors
have a considerable bearing on the schedules.
• The species; because of the variations in physical, mechanical and moisture

transport properties between species.
• The thickness of the timber; because the drying time is approximately inversely
related to thickness and, to some extent, is also influenced by the width of the
timber.
• Whether the timber boards are quarter-sawn, back-sawn or mixed-sawn (e.g. bas-
tard sawn); because sawing pattern influences the distortion due to shrinkage
anisotropy.
• Permissible drying degrade; because aggressive drying schedules can cause
timber to crack, delaminate and distort.
• Intended use of timber; because the required appearance of the timber surface
and the target final MCs are different depending on the uses of timber.
• Considering each of the factors, no one schedule is necessarily appropriate, even
for similar loads of the same species. This is why there is so much timber drying
research focused on the development of effective drying schedules.
204 N. Haque
10.5 Drying Defects

Drying defects are the most common form of degrade in timber, next to natural
defects such as knots (Desch and Dinwoodie 1996). Drying degrades can be divided
into two broad categories:
• defects that arise due to the shrinkage anisotropy, related to the warping of timber
boards; and,
• defects that arise due to uneven drying, associated with the rupture of the wood
tissue and delamination.
Defects related to warping include cupping, bowing, twisting, spring and dia-
monding. Defects related to the rupture of tissues include checks (surface, end
and internal), end splits due to delamination, honey-combing and case-hardening.
Some defects due to shrinkage anisotropy and uneven drying are shown in Fig.10.3.
Collapse is another form of defect that usually occurs above the fiber saturation
point (FSP) and is not related to shrinkage anisotropy. The term FSP, described first
by Tiemann in 1906, is the MC of wood at which wood cell walls are completely
saturated with water and the cell cavities are empty (Stamm 1964). The FSP for
most wood is around 30%. Collapse occurs as a result of the physical flattening of
water filled fiber cells due to the action of internal tension. Collapse is often seen as
a corrugation, or “washboarding” of the board surface (Innes 1996). Collapse gen-
erally occurs at high moisture content above FSP (Booker and Koga 2003). In the
context of wood drying, delamination is also considered a form of degrade due to
poor drying.
Fig. 10.3 Some defects due

to uncontrolled drying
Australian and New Zealand Standard Organizations (AS/NZS 4787 2001) have
developed a standard for timber quality and set five criteria for measuring drying
quality. These are the MC gradient; the presence of residual drying stress (i.e.,
related to case-hardening); surface, internal and end checks (i.e. delamination);
collapse; distortions; and discolouration caused by drying. This standard has also
described the drying quality classification, how to assess each of these drying qual-
ity criteria, and the limits for each criterion to be acceptable within a quality class.
Check is a drying defect which occurs when tensile stresses cause the wood fibers
to separate and form cracks. Checks are cracks that are visible at the surface but
do not extend across a piece of board. Collapse is a drying defect that occurs when
tensile stress in the core results in the formation of internal cavities. Permanent set
is a change in the properties of wood that can occur during drying when the stresses
exceed the elastic limit. Permanent set prevents normal shrinkage of the timber and
can lead to more obvious defects such as casehardening and honeycombing. Most of
the drying defects develop due to uneven drying stress. Drying stress is the force per
unit area that occurs in some zones of drying wood as a result of uneven shrinkage
in response to the MC gradients that develop in wood. MC gradient is a progressive
difference in MC between the core and the surface of a piece of wooden board.
10.6 Prediction of Drying Stress and Strain Using

Mathematical Models
Timber has significantly anisotropic properties. Its strength is much greater along
the grain (longitudinal direction) than across the grain (radial and tangential
directions), typically by an order of magnitude. For example, with Douglas-fir
(Pseudotsuga menziesii) at 12% MC (density 545 kg m−3 ), the compressive strength
parallel to the grain is ten times higher than that in the perpendicular direction,
whereas the tensile strength parallel to the grain is fifty times higher than that
perpendicular to the grain (Desch and Dinwoodie 1996).
The strength properties of timber vary with the wood species, density, MC, grain
direction and with the direction of load applied on the material. During the drying
of timber, the steepest gradients in MC occur across the grain. Hence timber boards
usually fail mechanically and delamination occurs across the grain during drying.
The cross-grain properties are the most important ones when modeling drying-
induced stresses. By contrast, timber in structural applications is generally loaded
along the grain, in order to take the advantage of the higher strength in the lon-
gitudinal direction. Therefore, mechanical properties for structural applications are
usually measured along the grain. As a consequence, properties for timber loaded
across the grain are scarcer in literature than those for along the grain direction. Both
the mechanical and drying behavior of timber are also species-dependent, which
means that the relevant properties need to be determined for each species of timber.
A major challenge for researchers and industries in timber drying is to reduce
both drying time, and the loss of product value due to drying defects. An optimized
drying schedule trades off between these two opposing objectives (i.e. quality and
206 N. Haque
productivity). The aim of timber drying research is to achieve both faster drying and
better product quality. The optimized schedule dries timber in the fastest possible
time, which is limited by a maximum stress/strain level at the surface and throughout
the board thickness that is unlikely to cause the timber to crack (i.e. delamination).
Thus the delamination in the forms of internal and surface checks is minimized. The
absence of checks may be an indicator of lower stress and possibly the reduction of
other defects and distortion.
In modeling and simulation approach, essentially a drying model is used to pre-
dict drying rate, MC and temperature of slices of boards throughout the thickness
direction, and a stress model is used to predict and estimate developed stresses and
strains (Haque 2002). Based on the predicted stress/strain level, the drying rate is
optimized for a prescribed time horizon. This approach is an effective alternative
to traditional methods and significantly reduces the number of trials, thus saving
time and money. A combined drying and stress model can be used applying the
nonlinear model predictive control technique. This approach is implemented within
the MATLAB and Fortran programming environment to optimize drying schedules,
i.e. a set of temperatures and relative humidity (for time-based or MC based sched-
ule). These schedules have potential application in the timber processing industry to
increase throughput and for better quality product.
Wood is also hygroscopic, so it will adsorb moisture from the atmosphere if it
is dry and correspondingly yield moisture to the atmosphere when wet. The results
are swelling and shrinkage of wood, respectively. Shrinkage and swelling of wood
only occur when the wood MC falls below the FSP (Desch and Dinwoodie 1996).
Shrinkage in wood caused by changing MC is the fundamental cause of many drying
defects because the MC is usually non-uniform in the wood, causing differences in
shrinkage strain through the board thickness, leading to (instantaneous) stresses and
strains that can cause the timber to crack and delaminate. Other processes, such as
the development of viscoelastic and mechanosorptive strains, also have important
effects on the development of stresses and strains in timber. Not only is a knowledge
of shrinkage behavior in timber necessary to optimize drying schedules to produce
uncracked timber, but shrinkage properties are also required to assess the fractional
oversize cutting of green timber boards required at the saw-bench before drying.
The amounts of shrinkage and swelling are different in the three main planes of
the wood, i.e. longitudinal, tangential and radial directions. Wood is thus said to be
anisotropic with respect to shrinkage and swelling. The longitudinal shrinkage along
the grain is often small, volumetrically less than 0.1%, whereas the radial (from the
pith outwards) shrinkage is 1.5–4.5% and the tangential shrinkage (direction tan-
gential to the growth ring), often being the highest, is in the range of 2.0–9.5%
(Kollmann and Cote 1968). Wood shrinks, on average, about fifty times as much in
the transverse directions as in the fiber direction (Stamm 1964). The defects aris-
ing from shrinkage anisotropy are warping (various forms e.g. twisting, cupping,
diamonding, bowing, and spring or crook).
As soon as a tree is felled, the timber begins to lose moisture. Eventually, if the
log has no contact with moist surfaces, the wood will reach the EMC. Above FSP,
the timber loses water from cell lumens, producing few significant effects on the
dimensions of the cell walls (Stamm 1964; Walker et al. 1993). However, below
FSP, the timber loses water from the cell walls, causing them to shrink due to the
volume of moisture lost. Differences in structure between different species of tim-
ber, including different cell wall thicknesses, mean that there is a range of shrinkages
for various timbers. If all other timber properties (mechanical, physical, and trans-
port ones) are equal, a piece of timber showing higher shrinkage will be more likely
to crack than one showing lower shrinkage, because the same moisture-content gra-
dient will lead to greater differential shrinkage strain between the centre and surface
of the board showing higher shrinkage.
10.6.1 Hardwood
A combined hardwood drying and stress model was used for this example to predict
drying stress and optimize drying schedule that can reduce or avoid delamination.
A modified approach should be used to develop a practically applicable opti-
mized drying schedule as shown in Fig. 10.4. Since the early of part of drying is
most critical in terms of product quality, drying from green to this stage where the
strain is maximum has to be carried out using the fixed drying schedule tested in the
laboratory. It is possible that, after this critical stage, drying can be accelerated sig-
nificantly using the optimization procedure. Once the strain reaches its maximum, it
can be kept constant for faster drying as long as the dry-bulb temperature does not
exceed the upper limit.
For the schedule shown in Fig. 10.4, the drying started from an initial MC of
70%. After around 10 days of drying, stress and resulting strain started to develop
in timber board. Theoretically strain should develop once the MC reduces below
FSP. However, the strain (across grain direction) started to be predicted while the
Moisture Drybulb Wetbulb Strain

Temperature (°C) & Moisture content (%)
80 5
Moisture
Drybulb Strain
70
Wetbulb
4
Instantaneous strain (%)
60
50 3
40
30 2
20
1
10
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Time (days)
Fig. 10.4 Predicted strain and MC for a typical optimized drying schedule for hardwood
208 N. Haque
MC is around 55%. This is because although the average MC was around 55% but
the surface MC reduced below FSP. The strain reached at its maximum to about 4%
(or 0.04 mm mm−1 ) at around 50 days. If the strain develops above 4% then it is
likely that the timber will delaminate and internal or surface checks can occur. Once
the maximum stress level is passed then the drying can be accelerated by increase
temperature and wet bulb depression. This strategy can be implemented for this kind
of drying schedule.
The use of higher dry-bulb temperature (60◦ C) at the early stage of drying
of hardwood boards such as blackbutt (Euclayptus pilularis) produced excessive
degrade observed in an experimental trial in a laboratory kiln, i.e. numerous surface
checks developed on the boards and end splits were present. The reason may be that
the surface of the board was drying too fast while the centre of the board was still
too wet, or that significant collapse occurred. This higher MC gradient would cause
delamination. Also from industrial experience and literature (Vermass 1995; Innes
1996), generally a low dry-bulb temperature is used for drying eucalyptus in the
early part of drying to avoid cracks (i.e. delamination) and end splits. This limiting
(low dry-bulb) temperature for drying optimization also comes from the consider-
ation that collapse occurs above certain temperatures for some hardwoods. Innes
(1996) introduced a concept called the “collapse threshold temperature” from the
predictions of a single fibre model and the observations of drying trials. He found
that if a timber board with a MC above the FSP is dried at temperatures above the
collapse threshold temperature, then it will collapse. It was estimated that the col-
lapse threshold temperature is below 40◦ C for ash type eucalypts. He found that the
collapse threshold temperatures was 24◦ C and 30◦ C for Tasmanian and Victorian
Eucalyptus regnans, respectively, from both slice and board test methods. However,
blackbutt is not an ash-type eucalyptus. Innes (1996) also stated that the collapse
threshold temperatures are different for the earlywood and latewood of a wood sam-
ple, but he did not report any test results. The ambient temperatures in the air-drying
yard at Boral Timber’s Herons Creek site are frequently above 35◦ C during summer
months, but there is no significant collapse found with the air-dried and finally kiln
dried timber (mainly blackbutt) at this sawmill site. Thus it is reasonable to assume
that the collapse threshold temperature may be higher for Eucalyptus pilularis.
10.6.2 Softwood
A combined softwood drying and stress model was used for this example to predict
drying stress developed for a 40 mm thick board of radiata pine (Pinus radiata).
The basis of these models has been described in earlier studies (Haque 2007; Pang
and Haslett 1995). Typical values found in literature for radiata pine wood proper-
ties such as density (i.e. 450 kg m-3 ), initial MC (i.e. 150% dry-basis) and wood
permeability were used. The air flow for drying was assumed to be 7 m s−1 .
Generally dry-bulb temperature below 60◦ C is considered low temperature dry-
ing, and at 90◦ C is termed accelerated conventional temperature (ACT) drying. The
predicted drying time is shown in Fig. 10.5 which indicates that the drying time
160
50/40
140 60/40
Moisture content (%) 60/30
120
70/40
100 70/30
90/60
80
120/70
60 140/90
40
20
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Time (hours)
Fig. 10.5 Predicted drying time for a 40 mm board for a range of schedules (50/40 means 50◦ C
dry-bulb temperature and 40◦ C wet-bulb temperature)
can be from 9 h for 140/90◦ C schedule to up to 130 h for a 50/40◦ C schedule. The
predicted drying time decreases with increasing dry-bulb temperature and wet-bulb
depression, which is expected.
10.6.2.1 Low Temperature (LT) to Accelerated Conventional

Temperature (ACT)
The predicted stresses for range of drying schedules from 50/40 (i.e. dry-bulb 50◦ C
and wet-bulb 40◦ C) to 90/60 are shown in Figs. 10.6 and 10.7. Figure 10.6 shows
predicted surface stress and Fig. 10.7 shows predicted stress at the centre of a 40 mm
board.
1
Surface stress (MPa)
0 90/60
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 70/40
70/30
–1
60/30
60/40
–2 50/40
–3
–4
Time (hours)
Fig. 10.6 Predicted surface stress of a 40 mm board for a range of schedules

210 N. Haque
1.2
1
0.8
Stress at centre (MPa)
0.6 90/60
0.4 70/40
70/30
0.2
60/40
0 60/30
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 50/40
–0.2
–0.4
–0.6
–0.8
Time (hours)
Fig. 10.7 Predicted stress at the centre of a 40 mm board for a range of schedules
It is evident from the figures that in the beginning of drying, there is little stress
both at the surface and centre of the board since the board is still wet. There is some
condensation at the surface, and the surface moisture content increases above the
initial value that is usually less than the average. The corresponding stress profile
shows that there is no significant stress at that time, since the moisture contents are
above the fiber saturation point throughout the timber board. After about 5 h a small
amount of stress (about 0.5 MPa) is predicted near the surface. Gradually stress
develops and increases up to a maximum of 1 MPa. The predicted maximum stress
is higher for the schedules with higher wet-bulb depressions. Once the MC gradi-
ent is well developed from the surface to the centre, the associated stress is larger
through the board, with tension stress at the surface and compression at greater
depths at the centre. In this case, positive stress is considered as tensile and negative
stress is compressive in nature. The surface and centre shows opposing behavior,
as theoretically expected. The effect of temperature that causes faster drying rates
is also evident. As drying progressed, the MC gradient is significant (surface to
centre), and this causes a very large amount of tensile stress (on surface) and com-
pression stress (towards the centre). Towards the end of drying, the MC gradient
becomes shallower or milder than that for the early drying stages, resulting in lower
stress. At the end of drying, since the MC becomes flattened, and the stresses are
also reduced. If the developed stress reaches above the strength of wood, delami-
nation will occur either internally or on the surface resulting in internal or surface
checks on the radiata pine timber board.
10.6.2.2 High Temperature Drying (HT)

Drying above 100◦ C is termed as high temperature (HT) drying. Predicted drying
stress during high temperature drying at surface and centre of the board is shown.
in Fig. 10.8 For two HT schedules, the predicted stress results are similar to ACT
2
120/70 Surface
1.5 140/90 Surface
120/70 Centre
1
Surface stress (MPa)
140/90 Centre
0.5
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
–0.5
–1
–1.5
–2
Time (hours)
Fig. 10.8 Predicted stress at the centre and surface of a 40 mm board for two high temperature
schedules
drying although the maximum stress was above 1.5 MPa compared with 1 MPa for
ACT drying.
The consequence of this drying for delamination to occur is that the predicted
stress is below the threshold failure stress of radiata pine. The failure stress across
the grain of wood is around 4.5 MPa at 150◦ C. Thus it is unlikely that delamination
will occur under these drying conditions since developed drying stress is below the
failure stress limit.
10.7 Summary
Delamination is the separation of wood fibre cells in the context of solid wood prod-
uct such as timber board. Wood is a natural composite material with anisotropic
properties. In the context of wood drying, delamination can be regarded a form of
degrade due to poor drying condition or due to wood properties such as wood with
low strength. In wood drying, these defects are commonly known as surface checks,
internal checks and end splits on timber boards. Some basic concepts of drying have
been elaborated in this chapter, following the prediction of drying time, developed
drying stress, strain on the board surface and centre for a range of drying schedules
using mathematical models both for a hardwood and a softwood. The combined
drying and stress model can be helpful to optimize drying process that can reduce
delamination in solid wood during drying. The higher the drying temperature, the
shorter will be the drying time. However, the likely developed stress during drying is
predicted to be higher due to aggressive drying conditions. The optimum drying con-
dition seeks the trade-offs between these two opposing behaviors thus developing
drying schedule that dries timber in least time and without significant degrade such
as delamination. This is the main goal of many timber drying research programs.
212 N. Haque
Acknowledgements Some of the contents of this chapter were taken from the authors’ Ph.D.
thesis supervised by Associate Professor Tim Langrish at the University of Sydney. Parts of this
chapter also were developed from the authors time of earlier works at New Zealand Forest Research
Institute and its’ Ensis Joint Venture with CSIRO. The author thanks his current employer CSIRO
Minerals for providing time to write this chapter.
References
Booker R, Koga S (2003) How collapse and internal checking happen in boards during drying.
Wood processing newsletter 33, July 2003. New Zealand Forest Research Institute, Rotorua
Desch HE, Dinwoodie JM (1996) Timber: Structure, properties, conversion and use. 7th edn.
Macmillan Press, London, 306p
Haque MN (1997) The chemical modification of wood with acetic anhydride. MSc Dissertation.
The University of Wales, Bangor, 99p
Haque MN (2002) Modelling of solar kilns and the development of an optimised schedule for
drying hardwood timber. The University of Sydney, Australia, 354p
Haque MN (2007) Simulation of temperature and moisture content profiles in a Pinus radiata board
during high-temperature drying. Drying Technol 25(4):547–555
Innes T (1996) Improving seasoned hardwood timber quality with particular reference to collapse.
PhD Thesis, University of Tasmania, Australia, 172p
Keey RB, Langrish TAG, Walker,JCF (2000) Kiln-Drying of lumber. Springer, Berlin, 326p
Kollmann, FFP, Cote WA Jr. (1968) Principles of wood science and technology. I. Solid Wood.
Springer, NewYork, NY, 592p
Kumar S (1994) Chemical modification of wood. Wood and Fiber Sci 26(2):270–280
Pang S, Haslett AN (1995) The application of mathematical models to the commercial high-
temperature drying of softwood lumber. Drying Technol 13(8–9), 1635–1674
Pordage LJ, Langrish, TAG (1999) Simulation of the effect of air velocity in the drying of
hardwood timber. Drying Technol 17(1–2):237–256
Rowell RM (1983) Chemical modification of wood. For Prod Abstr 6(12):363–382
Rowell RM (1991) Chemical modification of wood. In: Hon D.N.-S, Shiraishi N (eds) Wood and
cellulosic chemistry, pp 703–756, Marcel Dekker, New York, NY
Siau, JF (1984) Transport processes in wood. Springer, NewYork, NY 245p
Stamm AJ (1964) Wood and cellulose science. Ronald Press, New York, NY, 509p
Standard Australia (2001). Timber – assessment of drying quality. Australian/New Zealand
Standard (AS/NZS) 4787, Sydney, 24p
Vermass HF (1995) Drying eucalypts for quality: material characterstics, pre-drying treatments,
drying methods, schedules and optimisation of drying quality. S Afr For J, 174:41–49
Walker JCF, Butterfield BG, Langrish TAG, Harris JM, Uprichard JM (1993) Primary wood
processing. Chapman and Hall, London, 595p
Part III
Delamination in Different Products
Chapter 11
Industry Prospective of Delamination in Wood
and Wood Products
Chih Lin Huang
Contents
11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

11.2 The Unique Wood Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
11.3 The Raw Materials: Tree and Stem/Log . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
11.4 The Manufacturing Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
11.4.1 Solid Wood Products (SWP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
11.4.2 Engineered Wood Products (EWP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
11.5 Product Failure and Product Durability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
11.5.1 Product Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
11.5.2 Product Durability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
11.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
11.1 Introduction
The highly-competitive forest industry is facing mounting pressures from both sub-
stitutions and imports. The North America industry is not only adjusting to the
changing wood quality and timberland ownership but is also coping with the cycli-
cal downturn of the market. It is very challenging to balance high-mill throughput
and lumber quality to meet customer needs while remaining profitable in a rapidly
changing industry. Logistics costs and governmental regulations are just a cou-
ple of obstacles to overcome. These hurdles are unappreciated by those with little
experience in the operations. Of the many great ideas presented, only a few are oper-
ationally feasible. For example, while it is possible to sort raw materials at various
C.L. Huang (B)

Weyerhaeuser Technology Center, 32901 Weyerhaeuser Way S, Federal Way, WA 98001, USA
e-mail: cl.huang@weyerhaeuser.com
216 C.L. Huang
stages throughout the value chain to reduce lumber variability, such efforts may not
be cost-effective for the following reasons:
• added plant floor space needed to accommodate the additional sorts,

• labor costs for additional handling, as well as
• extensive changes to mill processes.
The reduced availability of public forest lands, due to the Endangered Species
Act in the Pacific Northwest region in the late 1980s, resulted in a spike in log
prices and, consequently, resulted in mill closures (Parrish 1991). Other examples
of regulatory impacts (Howard and Westby 2007) include the:
• ban on CCA (Chromated Copper Arsenate),

• boiler MACT (Maximum Achievable Control Technology),
• government’s preferential procurement policy, and other incentives on recycling
and biofuels,
• timber tax, and
• natural-disaster related changes to building codes.
The industry is adapting to these paradigm shifts and regulatory changes while
minimizing the risks, and at the same time, maintaining its core competency:
growing trees to make wood and paper products.
Many products come from the forests: solid wood products (SWP) such as lum-
ber, wood panels including plywood, oriented strand board (OSB), and engineered
wood products (EWP) mainly used for residential housing construction. In addition
to these building products, pulp is used to make paper and corrugated packaging,
fluff pulp for personal care products, as well as a myriad of other commercial prod-
ucts. Although specialty and proprietary products have their own niche markets,
forest products are mainly commodities, vulnerable to fluctuating prices in a highly
competitive market. Product manufacturers must meet governmental regulatory and
code requirements while satisfying the customer’s demand for lower prices. This
is a challenge. Manufacturers must make sufficient revenue to cover the cost of
manufacturing which includes raw materials, capital depreciation, skilled labor, and
escalating energy costs.
In many cases, making lower-grade products will not cover the cost of manu-
facturing. For example, normally sawmills in the south-eastern United States lose
money for every piece of southern yellow pine (SYP) lumber that is below #2 grade.
Even with the declining wood quality, manufacturers have found that by applying
technologies to create value-added products, they can increase the perceived value
of the wood products instead of trading them as a commodity. The Framer Series
Lumber (FSL) is an example of this kind of technology-oriented strategy to fulfill
customer needs.
The durability against fluctuating environmental conditions and biodegradations
makes wood preservation an important part of the industry. Wood products not only
compete with substitutions but also with other wood products. Lumber cut from
plantations has a higher percentage of juvenile wood and has a higher percentage
of large knots than that from a natural forest stand. Since the raw material sup-
ply for high-strength lumber is diminishing (mostly as a result of shorter rotation
periods), products like EWP will continue to gain market shares in structural
applications.
EWP uses many components, in addition to wood, to make its products:
• Adhesives and wax

• Connectors
• Fasteners
• Plastics
• Fiber-reinforced polymers
Each of these could contribute to the delamination of the EWP product.

Wood has its own set of contributors to delamination failures:
• micro-fissures on the cell wall,

• breakage such as checks, splits, shakes,
• and cracks across the grain and cell walls
These failures can originate from the growing tree itself or compounded with
harvesting and manufacturing practices. Some failures can also be induced while the
product is in service. Checks or splits in wood may not be considered as a “defect or
failure” in some processes. For instance, in lumber treating, checks and incisions aid
in the penetration of the chemicals to the wood. Easy to split is desirable in firewood
production. In the case of pulping, the delamination in the chips is an advantage for
a thorough distribution of pulping solution.
The type, direction, frequency, duration, and intensity of stresses or impacts on
wood product’s weak areas, such as the thin-wall earlywood and the swirling grain
around a knot, can initiate splits, fractures, and breaks in the product. Wood-cell
structures like the angle-ply-laminated cell wall and the radial and longitudinal
alignment of specific types of cells are critical factors related to the propagation
of the crack. For EWP, delamination is mainly caused by adhesive failure and the
strength of its interaction to the wood.
Numerous articles on splits, shakes, and cracks of SWP and EWP delaminations
have been published in scientific journals and trade magazines. These topics have
also been covered in previous chapters as well. This chapter will first review the
unique structure of wood and then discuss splits, shakes, checks, cracks, and delam-
inations that originate in the unique wood structure of the living tree, as well as,
through manufacturing, and finally, the products in-service.
11.2 The Unique Wood Structure

Poems were made by fools like me,
But only God can make a tree.
Joyce Kilmer American poet (1886 – 1918)
218 C.L. Huang
In the line above from Joyce Kilmer’s poem “Trees”, the word “poems” can be
substituted with “wood products”. Wood is a unique composite material with great
variability because of its natural origin. Trees and their roots are exposed to the envi-
ronment, and in the course of growing, withstand harsh winters and summers. As
with all living organisms, trees use various life-history strategies to adapt to adverse
growing conditions. Even for wood cut from a genetically cloned forest, there are
intrinsic within-tree variations as well as environmental heterogeneity variability
between trees.
The earliest utilization of wood by humans may have been for heating and for
cooking fuel. It is known that species with straight grains are easier to split while
species with twist and interlocking grains are difficult to split. Some aboriginals
were known to beat the stems repeatedly to separate splints for basket weaving and
for other utilitarian purposes.
The tendency of wood to split along the longitudinal-radial (LR) planes is related
to its longitudinal and radial alignment of cells, as well as, the orientation of the
ray cells in the radial direction. During the vigorous growing season when plenty
of water is available, for species with distinct ring structure, the tree’s cells in the
cambium divide and expand their size by turgor pressure, which makes the tree
grow taller and bigger in diameter. When a tree senses a shortage in water supply,
instead of pushing for more dimensional growth, it gradually reduces the rate of cell
division and also deposits more photosynthetate on the cell walls of the small lumen
(latewood or summerwood).
When the temperature is too cold to “fix carbon”, the tree goes dormant; when
the growing season returns, the tree starts producing large, thin-wall cells (early-
wood or springwood) again. For softwood, the density of latewood is two to three
times that of the earlywood, and the first formed earlywood has the lowest den-
sity. Besides easy splitting characteristics along the LR planes, ring curvature and
the discontinuity of density from the first formed earlywood are additional macro-
characteristics of wood related to the initiation and propagation of delaminating or
splitting failures.
Cellulose, lignin, and hemicellulose are the major cell wall components.
Cellulose is the world’s most abundant organic material. Linear polymers of glu-
cose or fibrils are tightly bundled or braided into microfibrils which are priminarily
crystalline. The microfibril bundles are embedded in a matrix of amorphous hemi-
cellulose and lignin. The crystalline regions of microfibrils are inaccessible to water.
Lignin is an amorphous, hydrophobic phenolic polymer, which softens in raised
temperatures. Hemicellulose consists of the amorphous cellulose chains that bridge
the lignin and the microfibril.
After the cellulosic framework is laid down, the lignin starts to bond to the hemi-
cellulose sites near the cell corner, then fills in the pectinaceous middle lamella, and
finally, influxes the cellulosic framework from the cell corner towards the lumen.
The layered structure of the cell wall includes a thin intercellular layer, the middle
lamella, a thin primary cell wall, and a thick secondary cell wall. The combination
of the thin middle lamella and the primary cell wall layers is termed the compound
middle lamella (CML).
Fig. 11.1 Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) Photo Showing Microfibril in S2 Layer of
Loblolly Pine Earlywood Tracheids. (Note the S1 layer at the lower left corner of the photo)
The primary cell wall has randomly distributed microfibrils; however, the sec-
ondary cell wall has three layers with the microfibril angle (MFA) winding in
different directions within each layer. The first formed thin S1 layer has microfibril
winding transversely, the thick S2 layer has microfibril twisting in a longitudinal
helix (Fig. 11.1), and finally, the thin S3 layer facing the lumen has a microfibril
angle close to the horizontal direction. The definition of MFA is the winding angle
of the S2 microfibril in respect to the longitudinal axis of the cell.
The micro-scale discontinuity across the double cell wall is between the CML
and the S1 layers because of differences between random versus organized microfib-
rils. Formation of the crystalline region creates contraction (the tension stress), while
the influx of lignin into the cellulosic framework expands the cell wall dimension
creating compression stress. Hemicellulose facilitates the lignification processes.
The first formed earlywood expands between the rigid xylem and the flexible cam-
bium, so the theoretical growth stress profile is compression on the xylem and
tension on the cambium side. Such growth stress pattern combined with the MFA
may tilt the orientation of a dividing and growing cell and result in spiral grain
patterns within the tree (Schulgasser and Witztum 2007).
Wood shrinks as the equilibrium moisture content (EMC) falls below the fiber
saturation point (FSP), which is around 30% moisture content. The swelling or
shrinking of wood generates a tremendous force. Such forces were used by ancient
Egyptians to quarry stones from rocks.
Wood from plantation loblolly shrinks in the longitudinal, radial, and tangen-
tial directions for about 0.2, 4, and 7.5% respectively. The resistant force against
shrinkage is closely related to the MFA and the amount of ray tissue in the wood.
If the microfibril is coiled like a spring with its MFA greater than 35 degrees, the
longitudinal shrinkage of the cell increases exponentially with the increasing MFA.
220 C.L. Huang
If the cell has a thick cell wall that can hold a high volume of water at FSP, then the
transverse shrinkage should be high. Ray cells provide more nucleuses to initiate
radial splitting and somewhat release the restraint on tangential shrinkage.
One of the driving forces of wood drying shrinkage is the amount of hemicellu-
lose, especially the galactan, which is found to be an important variable related to
the longitudinal shrinkage of wood (Floyd 2005). There are two types of reaction
wood: compression wood (CW) on the under side of a leaning softwood and ten-
sion wood (TW) on upper side of a leaning hardwood tree. The main function of
CW and TW of a tree is to regain its upright position which is critical for the tree’s
survival. Severe CW tracheids lack an S3 layer and their S2 layer contain checks,
making the tracheids appear like coiled springs enclosed by S1 and CML. TW has
high crystallinity which may generate contraction forces to pull the leaning stem
straight (Yamamoto 1998). The pushing force of severe CW may be hypothesized
as the extending length of a coiled spring upon the lateral force exerted by gravity.
Both CW and TW have high galactan content. CW also has high MFA, so the lon-
gitudinal shrinkage of CW can be 10–20 times higher than normal wood. The MFA
of hardwood is generally smaller than 30 degrees, so the impact of MFA on the
longitudinal shrinkage of hardwood is negligible. S3 is missing in TW’s gelatinous
fiber which is loosely bonded with S1, so the resistant force to longitudinal shrink-
age is influenced mostly by the large microfibril winding angle of the S1 layer. The
missing S3 layer, high galactan content, low lignin content, and the influence of
large angles of S1 microfibrils also make the longitudinal shrinkage of TW (two to
eight times) higher than normal wood. The S2 layer of the CW tracheids has high
MFA and contains cell wall checks. These combined with high galactan content
make the rate of longitudinal shrinkage of CW rises sharply when EMC falls below
10%, which may cause transverse cracks on the wood product. The brittle reaction
wood also makes the wood product prone to brash failure.
11.3 The Raw Materials: Tree and Stem/Log
Various types of fiber separations and breakages may happen in a tree’s life. For
example, cracks and splits can be caused by:
• frost, lightening; or wind,

• internal checking and ring shake associated with stresses or bacterial infec-
tion; and,
• fractures/breakages from mechanical handling damage.
The fiber separations in the tree may be visible, healed over, or hidden.
Mechanical damage during harvesting, handling, and mill processing can create
new splits or cracks or may exacerbate existing ones. During harvesting, end-splits
are the result of stress relief that occurs during cross-cutting young eucalyptus
stems. Such splitting is well-known. Remedies used to alleviate the internal stresses
are: making circumferential grooves on the trunk; banding the log ends to restrain
the propagation of end splits; coating the log ends to delay drying stresses; and
processing logs fresh from harvesting. These examples of known practices are used
to reduce the impacts of end splitting on eucalyptus saw logs (Malan 1995).
Damage to the tree can occur when the tree is dropped during harvesting or
through rough handling during transportation to the mill. Such rough handling can
cause significant amounts of fractures and breakages especially around large knots
in the upper portion of the logs. These knots develop from intensively-managed
plantations. An experienced forester will consider the potential damage to neigh-
boring trees from harvesting during the pre-harvest tagging of high value trees, such
as those for pole-timber and for face-veneer. Using appropriate harvesting methods,
good handling techniques, and providing on-going training of skilled operators are
ways to minimize mechanical damage and ensure maximum value is recovered from
the plantation stand.
Volume deductions due to the log defects are taken when grading for different
log markets. The log is downgraded based on the amount of splitting there is in the
log from ring shake, felling shake, end blooming, breakage, splits, or seams. These
types of defects also impact the clear wood recovery for appearance grade products.
However, in North America, the main impact of end splits or log breakage on the
value of the saw log is the trimming loss in the two-foot increments for structural
lumber products.
Within the log, earlywood intra-ring checking, and radial splitting of radiata pine,
eucalyptus, and other species are well documented defects often observed in the low
density sapwood areas of the butt logs. The hairline delaminations exacerbate after
drying (Fig. 11.2).
Wetwood (wood in a standing tree that has become internally infused with water),
encourages the growth of anaerobic micro-flora. Wetwood is often found in hem-
lock, white fir, cottonwood, elm, as well as other species, and is associated with
heart or ring shake (the onion elm). Ring shake is the separation of fibers in the
Fig. 11.2 Severe star checks

and intra-ring checks of an
oven-dried Eucalyptus disc
222 C.L. Huang
Fig. 11.3 Failure due to ring shake of a piece of glulam
growth rings. The separation occurs from environmental stresses on the tree. These
stresses can be from storms, winds, droughts or poor drainages that waterlog the
roots. The separation occurs at the low-density or micro-organism weakened cells.
Anaerobic bacteria, which grow in the damaged areas of the tree, may release
an odor and contribute to localize staining in lumber. Not only is wetwood difficult
to dry, the release of chemicals in the wetwood from drying may corrode the kiln
(Pong and Ward 1979). Ring-shake can also cause serious delamination failure in
wood products as shown in the glulam photo (Fig. 11.3).
Severe bending of the tree trunk due to gale-force wind or ice-damage buckles
the cell wall and the resulting heal-over may create transverse wrinkles on the trunk
of certain tree species. Although the strength of wood products with fiber buckling is
only slightly reduced, the toughness of the wood can be significantly decreased. For
instance, scaffolding boards containing compression creases or compression wood
boards may cause brash failure leading to serious accidents, injuries, or deaths.
The tremendous compressive stress in large trees of low-density hardwood may
develop compressive creases near the pith area or the brittleheart; such low-density
wood is difficult to use. Disease and insect infestations can result in canker and tip
dieback, which results in multiple leaders and split forks, further compounding the
tree’s vulnerability to disease and breakage.
Through genetic improvements, improved silvicultural practices, and proper har-
vesting and handling techniques future saw log values can be improved, especially
for species susceptible to split, crack, shake, and check. Properly controlled tim-
ing, intensity, and frequency of silvicultural activities can minimize abrupt changes
in the tree’s growth and reduce the chances of physical and biological damages to
the tree.
While these practices are desirable, it is a challenge for the industry to balance
improvement costs against profits. The production rate, various imposed EPA and
governmental regulations, as well as the ultimate wood quality, all have a strong
impact on the profits. These variables are difficult to study because of the industry’s
uncertain future markets and changing regulations. Scientists and engineers offer
many solutions to the industry, but the solutions are often narrow in focus without
considering constraints in operation, changes in the market, or impacts of future
regulations.
Unlike the nondestructive evaluation (NDE) instrument used to test the sound-
ness of trees in public areas, tree and log are mostly graded by visual characteristics
in forest industry. More sensors are being used in the log breakdown and manufac-
turing processes where “the wood really meets the steel”.
11.4 The Manufacturing Processes
11.4.1 Solid Wood Products (SWP)
Lumber grade recovery (#2 and better) and mill throughput (MBF/hour) are essen-
tial for a mill’s profitability in the southeastern United States. Log quality, sawing,
and kiln performances are among the important factors in determining the success of
the sawmills. Natural and manufacturing imperfections downgrade the SWP. Knots,
burl, decay, holes, intra-ring checking, and compression wood (CW) are natural
defects that originate in the tree. Further damage from poor manufacturing processes
can deform, distort, fracture, fragment, or crush the wood.
Fiber-separation and fiber-breakage such as shelling, slivers, tear outs, splits,
shakes, checks, cracks, loosened, chipped, torn grains (fragments still connected),
are defects created during the manufacturing processes. Following are examples of
causes and where the fiber damage can occur in the manufacturing process:
• species
• grain orientation during cutting,
• sharpness of cutting edges,
• setting of the gang, twin, trimmer, edger, planer, and the feeding and conveying
systems.
Defects can occur in the lumber when it is improperly processed through mis-
aligned systems (conveyors, hold-downs, saws and knives), poorly maintained
equipment (dull cutting edges) or improper drying schedule (drying stresses). In
cutting, the friction buildup between cutting tip and the wood will be exacerbated
by wood with high-silica content (e.g. certain high-density hardwood species). The
saw tip itself limits cutting speed (e.g., steel versus carbide). Localized high tem-
perature from the saw’s friction may degrade or soften the surface of the cutting tip.
Proper, routine saw filing is critical in a sawmill to ensure quality cuts. Saw-tooth
design and other bench techniques a saw filer uses can improve the cutting profi-
ciency, while saw blade coatings or cooling treatments can extend the life of the
cutting blades.
224 C.L. Huang
Similar to the log breakdown process, damage from mechanical stresses can be
caused from the lumber drop sorter, press rolls, hold downs, and the occasional
jackstraw or lumber spill that occurs in conveying and stacking the lumber. Rough
handling can create new or exacerbate existing splits and cracks in a piece of
lumber.
Further damage to the lumber can occur down stream in the mill process. Drying
stresses can cause surface and internal checks as well as lumber warp, which create
problems in the planer mill. To reduce drying stresses, in-kiln moisture and temper-
ature controls are used to adjust the drying conditions. In addition to the moisture
and temperature meters, scanners and sensors are used by modern, high-throughput
sawmills to minimize the impacts of natural defects and maximize the consistency
and reliability during the manufacturing process.
Log scanners are used at the merchandiser to optimize the bucking solution, and
at the primary breakdown to determine the best cutting pattern. Range finders are
positioned throughout the mill stream to monitor deflection, snaking, or other types
of misalignments and detect any imbalances at various cutting centers. Transducers
are mounted to monitor the vibrations of motor and hydraulic systems.
These monitoring sensors give important feedback data to the mill person-
nel. With this feedback, mill personnel can maximize the lumber throughput
while minimizing wastes and defects. The data from the sensors are used for
quality control (QC), alarms, and fine tuning the equipment during scheduled
maintenances.
The feed-forward and feedback of the sensor information can optimize the pro-
cess flow and prevent upset conditions. Frequently, however, the root cause of an
upset condition can be traced back to the raw material source. In this era of fast
changing technologies, redundant functions are often bundled into the data col-
lection packages, when only basic data are needed. One of the concerns from the
abundance of sensor data is that the mill personnel become overwhelmed with data
which are rarely analyzed. The human brain is a super computer with millions of
processors integrated together, but most computers only have one central processing
unit (CPU). A veteran sawyer can send a log along a conveyor to the cutting cen-
ter while watching the best cutting solution being displayed on computer monitor.
The computer cannot dynamically process the same observations and subsequent
decisions the sawyer makes on the variety of log mixes that may set off problems
downsteam in the mill process such as jackstraws, over- and under-drying, or planer
skips. Especially in new mill construction or modifications to existing mills, besides
reporting and archiving the mean, deviation, and the trends, involvement from expe-
rienced operators is essential for the engineers to extract critical information from
the data to improve the mill processes.
Consequences of lumber defects are manifested in terms of poor return to the
mill, and far more seriously, failure of the wood products in service. Defects of
SWP are defined in various grading books. Delamination defects can be minimized
through proper lumber handling and mill processing. Below are some examples of
the defects:
• Skips and torn grains are mainly caused by misalignments and dull cutting edges;
• Splits are the separation along the fiber due to the physical and mechanical
stresses;
• Shakes are the separation of wood along the growth ring or a macro-delamination
along the weakened areas;
• Checks are mostly caused by seasoning or drying; and
• Cracks are the breakages across the fiber direction.
With the exception of machine stress rated lumber (MSR), machine evaluated
lumber (MEL), and some proprietary products such as FSL, the majority of SWP
in North America is still graded only on a visual basis. Although experienced
graders can consistently grade lumber with a high degree of accuracy, the mod-
ern sawmill is using scanning technology for grading lumber. This prevents grading
differences among graders and overcomes the grader fatigue factor from long shifts.
However, there are some disadvantages the grade scanners have over the human
graders.
The human brain has amazing capabilities for resolving visual defects. For exam-
ple, various types of hairline cracks, blonde knots, and worm holes can be detected
by the grader and the grading inspector, but are often missed by a high-speed grad-
ing machine. A missed hairline crack may cost the mill dearly in terms of additional
handling on the below-grade products (the products failed the inspection), as well
as potential customer claims from failed in-service products.
The impact of defects on SWP appearance grade applications is more straight-
forward, because the defects usually mean only a downgrade in value. However,
defects from fiber separation or breakages in a structural member are more severe
in consequence.
The influences of the defect on strength in tension, compression, or shear are
closely related to the orthotropic mechanical properties of clear wood. The ultimate
compression strength of metal, concrete, and natural stones is higher in compression
than in tension. By contrast, however, the ultimate strength of wood in tension is two
to three times that of compression due to its aligned microfibrils along the cell wall
of the hollow tubular structures.
Stiffness and strength of clear wood samples are affected by the combined effects
of the slope of grain (SOG), which is indicated by the checks on lumber surface
(Fig. 11.4), and unavoidable natural defects such as knots, decay, and compression
wood (CW). Compression wood (CW) may be hidden, but brash failure in products
made from CW or decay can result in serious injuries.
Detecting these defects before they manifest themselves in product failures can
be difficult. Interactions from the type, size, and location of the defects as well
as various structural designs and applications can be complex. For example, the
impact of grain deviation caused by knots is significant in tension, less important
in compression, and may be insignificant in shear strength. However, knots near the
edge, especially the side in tension, create high-stress concentrations which initiate
failures in structural lumber.
226 C.L. Huang
Fig. 11.4 Checks along the grain on loblolly pine lumber surface
Engineered Wood Products (EWP) randomizes the defects, so concentrated

strength-reducing areas are eliminated resulting in a more uniform product. Through
highly-aligned fibers and panel densification, strand products such as laminated
strand lumber (LSL) and oriented strand board (OSB) convert low-value wood
into high-value stiff products. With the declining of wood quality, there is growing
demand for product stiffness, stability and uniformity.
11.4.2 Engineered Wood Products (EWP)
Glulam is one of the oldest EWP. With two or more layers of finger-jointed lum-
ber glued together, (edge-to-edge and face-to-face), straight or intentionally curved
dimensional products can be made, filling a variety of market needs. For products
requiring sharp curves, thin lamstocks are used in the set up to reduce bending stress.
To make glulam products, the ends of graded lumber are inspected, prepared, and
finger jointed into a lamination. These laminations are planed, coated with adhe-
sive, and assembled into a specific pattern. The assembly is then clamped and cured
before being finished and fabricated into different classes of products.
A finger joint may cost more in the process, but it trims off less waste than a
scarf joint does. The optimum length of a structural joint is three to four times the
pitch. However, too many tips may create more stress concentration points or crack
initials. To prevent splitting at the valley when pressed, the length of the finger is
slightly shorter than the depth of the valley. The tip of the finger also needs to be
thin to minimize the size of voids.
Fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) strips can be used on the tension side of a glu-
lam to enhance bending strength. The FRP can also be pre-stressed to reduce peak
stresses. Primer or modified adhesive formulations may be necessary to laminate the
FRP-wood hybrid composite. Visual inspection and nondestructive testing are used
to cull defected products as a final step in manufacturing.
A drawback of glulam compared to other EWPs is the frequency of knots or
finger joints which reduce the strength of glulam products in service. Thinner
laminations cost more in handling; however, they have a higher degree of random-
ization of the defects in the products.
Veneers have long been used in appearance applications where surface quality is
important such as in the furniture industry. EWP products made with veneers are:
• Plywood,
• Laminated veneer lumber (LVL), and
• Parallel strand lumber (PSL).
Lathe checks are unavoidable in rotary peeling of logs for veneer. These lathe
checks are caused by impact forces, knife rake angle as well as the flattening of a
curved veneer sheet when it leaves the lathe. Lathe checks are initiated on the loose
side of the veneer (the side facing the pith). The smaller the log or the thicker the
veneer, usually the more serious is the lathe-check. Veneers with rough surfaces and
deep lathe checks require a higher than normal glue spread, or extra filler to prevent
dry-out and over-penetration of the adhesive. Insufficient adhesive spread combined
with a rough surface will result in a starved glueline.
Proper preconditioning of the log, controlling the peeling speed of the lathe,
increasing nose bar pressure, heating the knife, and incising the tight side of the
veneer may reduce the adverse impacts of lathe checks. At the molecular level,
extractives in the wood may reduce the wettability of the veneer surface. Wood
extractives can also change the pH of the adhesive causing improper bonding or
curing.
Besides these surface properties, delamination of plywood and LVL is often
traced back to two areas: the dryer and the hot press. In the dryer, the under-
dried high moisture content (MC) veneers make the adhesive application and the
adhesive-wood reaction inconsistent. After peeling the log (or block), green veneers
are sorted into MC groups for a uniform drying. If necessary, radio frequency or
microwave dryers are then used to re-dry the wets to a target MC. After applying
the adhesive to the surface of the dried veneer, the coated veneers are laid up to a
target layer and thickness and then cured in a hot press. In the press, poor curing due
to improper MC-temperature profile or inadequate press-time or both often results
in delamination of plywood and LVL products.
For PSL, the process is different. The dried veneers for PSL production are
clipped into narrow strips, coated with adhesives, dropped into a forming trough,
and cured in a continuous press. The press is drawn by a steel belt into the throat of
a pair of platens with side dams. At this point, microwave energy is directed to the
strips through windows on the side dam. Densification and uniform heating in PSL
manufacturing ensures that the veneer strips are evenly distributed and that the resin
has thoroughly interlocked with the strips. This results in strong bonds between the
veneer strips. The PSL manufacturing process is also able to utilize veneer fish tails
and trims, making the PSL technology not only efficient in raw materials usage, but
also cost-effective.
Unlike veneer products that require large peeler blocks to make veneer sheets for
layups, strand products such as LSL and OSB, use low-density and low-cost small
228 C.L. Huang
diameter logs to produce long, thin strands (3 inches to 6 inches for OSB and as long
as 12 inches for LSL). These strands make for efficient forming and densification in
the manufacturing process.
However, by flaking or stranding the logs, within-strand fiber separations are
created, which result in strand breakage during the drying and blending processes,
especially for the longer strands. By preconditioning the log to soften it during
flaking or stranding, strand breakage is reduced. However, better stranding tech-
nology is needed to minimize damage from cross-grain cutting. Making processing
improvements is challenging because of the inherent variability in log properties
coupled with the demand for high mill throughput; normally, there are limited
resources in the mill to conduct research.
The coated flakes are formed into a billet by a disc-former to align the longer
flakes along OSB panel’s length for both top and bottom layers. The core layer is
formed by dropping coated shorter flakes onto a fin-former to align the flakes to the
width of the panel. The billets are cured in either a multiple-opening or a continuous
press for OSB or in a steam-injection press for LSL.
The strands themselves become well-bonded with resin because of the high reac-
tivity between pMDI and wood. Unlike the veneer products, strand products like
OSB and LSL is less likely to delaminate. However, when the edge of OSB panel
gets wet in-service, the swelling of the strand may damage the adhesive bond.
Since OSB and LSL use small diameter logs for making strands, defects become
randomized making a lower cost and more uniform product than that of Glulam
or veneer products. Although the alignment is not as good as in glulam or veneer
products, the strength and stiffness of OSB and LSL are significantly enhanced by
densification. Product delamination is normally not a problem with OSB or LSL.
Instead, thickness or edge-swelling is the main disadvantage of the highly-densified
OSB and LSL Products.
It is challenging to model the curing and bonding process of strand products
because preheating, moisture content, press pressure, press temperature, and press
time influence the complicated adhesive-wood interactions. For example, using
a mild press condition not only reduces the emissions of volatile organic com-
pounds (VOC) but also minimizes delaminations. Delamations or blows occur
because of the eruption of trapped steam or vapor among the resin-coated strands.
Carbonization is also reduced because of the milder press conditions. Mild pressing
conditions; however, can extend the press time required to cure the resin.
There are trade-offs, however, between speed and quality in manufacturing. The
industry wants a low-cost, minimum press time, room temperature or ambient cur-
ing adhesive, with a strong bond. Creative adhesive formulations, innovative press
designs, and reliable monitoring technologies are sought after to achieve both high
production rates and consistently strong bonds between the wood and the adhesive.
Adhesive selection is determined by the application in which it will be used
(exterior versus interior), mechanical property requirements of the end product,
performance durability, manufacturing process throughput, and purchasing cost. In
most industrial cases, the adhesive cost and the process throughput are the dominant
factors in choosing the adhesive. A number of resins on the market have advantages
and disadvantages:
• Phenol formaldehyde (PF) is a water-resistant adhesive commonly used in

plywood, LVL, PSL, and OSB production.
• Urea formaldehyde (UF) is a low-cost adhesive used for interior non-structural
products such as particleboard and medium density fiberboard (MDF).
• Resorcinol formaldehyde (RF) cures in room temperature or ambient conditions,
but has a short use time or pot life.
• Melamine formaldehyde (MF) has good durability and low-formaldehyde emis-
sions, but it is more expensive than PF.
• Diphenylmethane-diisocyanate (pMDI) is expensive, but it has excellent reactiv-
ity with water and wood and is often used in the core of OSB. It is also suitable
for the steam injection press in LSL production.
A release agent is required on the face layers of the OSB press when using
the fast-curing pMDI to prevent adhesive buildup on the platens. To avoid hav-
ing to use the release agent, PF is normally used for OSB face layers and pMDI
in the cores. However, the PF-pMDI compatibility may cause delamination in the
transition zones.
Depending on the type and the formulation of the adhesives, the moisture con-
tent needs to match the allowable ranges of the adhesives and the press conditions
to ensure a strong bond. Adhesives can be diluted with water and solubilized by
steam which may results in excessive adhesive flow and causes poor bonding. On
the other hand, pMDI, which reacts with water in room temperature but it is not
water miscible, is used in the steam-injection press of LSL manufacturing.
Fillers like walnut shell flour and china clay are usually added to the mix to
reduce adhesive cost, fill-in voids, and increase the rigidity of the adhesive in veneer
products. Other types of additives can be used to improve the flow, curing, and
durability of the adhesives.
With regard to health and safety, using formaldehyde scavengers or other binders
is one solution to reduce the emissions. The human body is highly reactive to
pMDI atomized by spraying or combustion; therefore, proper personal protection
equipment (PPE) is required in the manufacturing processes.
Many factors contribute to the cause of delaminations during the manufactur-
ing process of EWP. Since wood is a poor heat conductor, inadequate curing of the
adhesive at the center glueline is a common cause of plywood and LVL delamina-
tions. Temperature sensors at the center glueline of LVL are used to monitor the
press temperature to ensure proper curing. Preheating veneers, steam-injection, or
microwave/RF energy is necessary to cure thick EWP products such as PSL and
LSL. Another source of delamination can be traced to substandard adhesives, which
are often discovered by QC personnel to be the cause of poor bonding. This makes
it critical to select a reliable supplier who delivers a consistent-quality resin. An on-
line, ultrasound blow detector not only serves as a QC tool, but the information also
230 C.L. Huang
can be used for fine tuning the manufacturing processes while minimizing waste
and rejects.
Factors that contribute to a strong bond are:
• The molecule size, distribution, and the reactivity of the adhesive,

• MC and grain orientation of wood,
• curing temperature, pressure, and press time.
Some adhesives are stronger and more durable than wood, so the quality of the
bond is determined by the load at failure and the percent of wood failure. In gen-
eral, the penetration of the adhesives is usually deeper in the earlywood lumen
of softwood or in the vessel of hardwood. The penetration of adhesive into the
cell wall to create interlocking networks is dependent on the reactivity and the
molecular size of the adhesive. The reaction starts from the secondary cell wall
facing the lumen penetrating any exposed fissures and pores. Additives and pretreat-
ment are ways to facilitate a strong bond that will prevent the delamination of the
products.
11.5 Product Failure and Product Durability
Designing a structure to resist failure in any service condition is ideal; however,

extreme stresses will cause failures whether the stresses are induced by natu-
ral catastrophes, or by excessive loads, beyond the design limits of the structure.
Although extreme stress loads such as these are not covered in the limited war-
ranty of the product, failures caused by natural disasters may trigger product recalls
or sometimes aggressive changes to code requirements. In some cases, these code
changes may be based on emotional reactions to a natural disaster such as hurricane
and exceed reasonable standards. Regardless, the industry is required to adapt pro-
cesses and products to meet these new code changes. It is in the best interest for the
manufacturer to actively participate in the code-changing processes because once
changes are made to code standards they are difficult to undo.
Similar to QC programs for the manufacturing processes, quality assurance
(QA) programs make sure products are within performance specifications for their
intended in-service use. Most QA programs are proprietary to each manufac-
turer; therefore, the QA can be done internally or by an independent agency that
meets industry standards for sample testing and frequencies. ASTM International
(American Society for Testing and Materials) is an example of testing standards
that laboratories use to conduct their tests.
Other QA programs such as a well-established product performance tracking
system can help the manufacturer capture data and pinpoint the extent and causes of
failed products. RFID (Radio Frequency Identification) and bar code are examples
of a product tracking system, but there are other technologies that can be used to
collect performance data.
11.5.1 Product Failure

Intrinsic anisotropic shrinkage and growth stresses contribute to the delamination
of wood products, as well as the product’s in-service MC gradients due to the fluc-
tuating environment. These variables create swelling-shrinking stresses that either
initiate or worsen the delamination of the wood product. Failures of most in ser-
vice SWP are due to the ever swelling-shrinking stresses combined with mechanical
stresses (load, tensions) and product fatigue.
Wood is high in tension strength; however, knots on the tension side of a struc-
tural member in bending, become the concentrated nucleus for failure. This is
because there are swirling-grain patterns around knots which makes it easier for
the knots to separate from the wood surrounding it, or to open when forces are nor-
mal to the grain (Fig. 11.5). The in service failure of SWP can also be initiated at
other types of natural discontinuities of strength in clear wood regions such as:
• the LR planes and the rays,

• the first formed earlywood,
• cell wall checks of CW, and
• the CML-S1 or S1/S2 boundaries.
Depending on the amount of the defect-randomization, the cause of the EWP

in-service failure has at least two aspects of complexity: first, the size, shape, and
orientation of the wood element; and secondly, the adhesive curing and its interac-
tions to the wood element, FRP, or both. Once cured, some adhesives are stronger
than wood, so the strength-discontinuities of the wood are toughened. Changes in
the wood structure after densification make the study of the EWP delamination
Fig. 11.5 Lumber (after tested for bending strength, modulus of rupture, MOR) of the same log
(loblolly pine), note the splits and cracks around the knots
232 C.L. Huang
mechanism even more complicated, especially at the micro-scale level where identi-
fying the nucleation, detecting the initiation, and tracking the propagation of a crack
can be a challenge.
Uneven shrinkage of the adhesive and the wood develops curing stresses which
becomes yet another variable to consider. The properties of the bond itself change
with in-service temperature and moisture conditions. Stress distribution and the
manner in which stresses are transferred to the composing elements will affect the
performance of the EWP. Unlike SWP, the crack propagation of EWP may follow
an irregular path of least resistance.
Depending on the toughness around the tip of a crack, the delamination may
be arrested, stabilized or worsened, leading to accelerated crack propagation and
ultimate failure. Whether the existence of a delamination is a structural con-
cern or not, is governed by the coverage ratio of the delaminated area to the
sound area. For example, a partial shallow check in a glulam column or post will
not affect the structural integrity of a building. However, on the other hand, a
deep delamination will reduce the effective load-bearing properties of a beam or
header.
Redundancies are normally integrated into the building codes after evaluat-
ing the in-service product applications, the type and frequency of support loads.
Bracing and connectors are also important factors regarding the load or stress-
transfer in the structure. Nondestructive evaluation (NDE) methods are helpful in
detecting and evaluating the safety of a structural member. Self-healing adhesives
may also provide a mechanism to arrest crack initiations or reverse crack propaga-
tions. Advancements in sensor and nanotechnology will provide solutions to make
stronger and safer wood products in the future.
In general, neither the industry nor the regulatory agencies are the cause of unsafe
buildings. Frequently, it is improper installation, insufficient maintenance, or exces-
sive loads that are the culprits for the loss of lives or property damage. Although
there are reasonable redundancies required by code for a structure, unusual natural
forces, such as hurricane force winds, can overwhelm the load limits. Homeowners
too can be at fault. Backyard decks are a popular weekend project for homeown-
ers, but if the deck is poorly designed or poorly maintained, the deck could fail
because of excessive loads or from decay. These failures lead to the serious per-
sonal injuries and property damage. As expected, the durability of wood products is
more demanding for outdoor applications.
11.5.2 Product Durability

The creep and relaxation phenomena of wood are well-known: strain increases
under long-term constant loads and internal stress gradually relaxes under long-term
constant strain. Long-term behaviors of adhesives demonstrate these characteristics
as well. Deformation rate with time is expressed as a U shaped curve where the
rate is high initially (primary creep), then maintains a constant level (secondary
creep), and finally increases sharply before failure (tertiary creep). The duration
of each phase is determined by the magnitude of the load. These time-dependent

stress-strain relationships are also related to in-service temperature and MC.
Creep adjustment factors, provided by the manufacturer, should be used when
designing the members under heavy loads to prevent excessive creep deflection.
Installing the crowned-edge up of a floor joist is one example of a way to off-set
creep.
These time-dependent, mechanical stress-strain relationships are also influenced
by the environment as well as chemical agents. Environmental factors that influ-
ence creep are: temperature, moisture, and sunlight. Chemical agents that influence
creep are: salt-water exposure, alkaline from petroleum products, and iron-tannin
reactions to metal connectors such as bolts. Thermal expansion of dry wood is
anisotropic: tangential direction expands more than radial direction, and expansion
in the longitudinal direction is very small. If the wood is wet, the effect of wood
shrinkage dominates the dimensional changes.
Loss of strength in wood is accelerated and prolonged in high-humidity and
high-temperature conditions. Vacuum-pressure-soak-dry, boiling, and field testing
are the common methods for evaluating the durability of products. Besides fluctu-
ating MC and temperature, oxidization and ultra-violate (UV) radiation not only
discolors the wood, but also breaks down the lignin of the wood. Loose grains on
a piece of weathered flat-sawn decking lumber are often initiated at the tips of the
annual rings on the pith side. Like the tip of a quill pen, tips of annual rings have
a tendency to curl inwards. Exposing the vertical-grain side of the product to the
weather, or installing the pith-side down, are common practices to protect the wood
when building an out-door deck. The swelling and shrinking stresses on weathered-
wood surfaces results in microscopic fissures that develop into checks and splits
(Fig. 11.6).
Delaminations from mechanical stresses, physical changes, chemical changes,
and weathering are considered normal wear-and-tear of wood products.
Bio-deterioration like stain, mold, mildew, decay fungi, and insects such as termites,
carpenter ants, and wood-borers can lead to serious durability problems of wood
products. Molds, mildew, and staining fungi do not feed on cell walls. They mostly
affect aesthetic appearances, and occasionally become a health concern, but rarely
have an effect on mechanical properties. Fungus thrives on wood with high MC
(greater than 20% MC), so kiln-dried lumber (MC 19% and less) should be free of
fungal growth.
There are three types of wood decaying fungi: brown-rot, white-rot, and soft-rot.
Brown-rot destroys carbohydrates leaving behind a brown-color lignin and making
the wood appear flaky from cubicle checks. Dry-rot is one kind of brown-rot with
an extensive network of hyphae spreading into “dry” areas. White-rot attacks both
cellulose and lignin, leaving the deteriorated wood with a stringy texture. Certain
types of white-rot can be used to enhance pulping (Akhtar et al. 1993). Soft-rot
is a different kind of fungi that attacks from the surface of the wood. The unique
microscopic feature of soft-rot is its attack along the microfibril in the cell wall
layers. Because of this, the orientation of soft-rot cavities can be used to study MFA
(Brändström et al. 2002).
234 C.L. Huang
Fig. 11.6 Examples of

checks and splits in
weathered utility poles, note
the checks and splits are not
developed in the incised and
treated portion near the
ground line
Wood-decaying fungi, (especially soft-rot), need a humid condition to grow.

Consequently, outdoor wood structures and exterior wood applications are most
vulnerable. However, wood wetted by condensation, whether from poorly venti-
lated attics or crawl spaces, leaky roofs, ground contact, or moisture from broken
pipes, make these areas most susceptible to rot.
Wood decay can cause significant strength loss in the infected structural member.
Replacements from rot are expensive; if left unnoticed, the decay can progress to a
point in the structure such that it is beyond repair or more seriously causes the loss
of lives or property. If the in-service wood product cannot be kept dry, preservative
treatments are ways to extend the service life of the product.
Heartwood of softwood species has a natural resistance to bio-deterioration:
untreated heartwood lasts about 5–10 years and 10–20 years in warm and cool cli-
mate regions respectively (Wang and DeGroot 1996). Due to the aspiration (cell
wall pit closure that block the flow of vapor/liquid) and encrustation of pit mem-
brane by extractives, heartwood is refractory for preservative treatment. Treated
sapwood lasts much longer than heartwood. The permeability of dried earlywood
is lower than the latewood due to high percentage of aspiration in earlywood areas.
The amounts of ray tracheids and the collapse of ray parenchyma are closely related
to the radial flow of vapor/liquid in treating round wood or flat sawn lumber. Some
preservatives are effective fungicides but are ineffective on insects. Termites not
only excavate the wood but also feed on the wood using enzymes from the pro-
tozoan symbionts in their stomachs. Large colonies of termites can cause serious
damage to wooden structures. Carpenter ants only tunnel the wood for nesting and
feeding on dead insects or the honeydew excreted by aphids in nearby woods.
Powderpost-beetles lay eggs in large vessel elements, so they infest hardwood

species with large vessels like oak, hickory, ash, and mahogany.
Delamination, checks, and cracks are normal wear-and-tear of wood products,
but they provide openings and microenvironments for wood-deteriorating organisms
to enter, grow, and lay eggs.
Wood preservatives are grouped by three types of applications: oil-born, water-
borne, and organic. The oil-borne preservatives are used for industrial applications;
for instance, railroad ties, utility poles, and bridge timbers. The traditional water-
borne, copper-based preservatives are effective for non-industrial applications; but
the associated heavy metals used in the preservative formulations are becom-
ing safety and environmental concerns. Organic fungicides and insecticides used
in agriculture, as well as nano-silver biocides, are being considered as wood-
preservatives; however, the degradation of the organic compounds as well as their
cost are the major hurdles for their applications. Wood preservatives are commonly
applied to wood, in an industrial process, through a vacuum/pressure treatment in
a large cylindrical pressure vessel. The treatibility of wood is species- and age-
dependent. For instance, Douglas-fir is difficult to treat, while plantation loblolly
pine (which has little heartwood), is easy to treat. Incising, beating, vibrating, or
rupturing the aspirated pit and the parenchyma in the rays by microwave heating
may increase the permeability of wood for easy treating. Treating with bacteria-
inoculated water to create opening in the aspirated pits can improve the permeability,
but it is most likely unfeasible for commercial applications.
The waterproof adhesives used in EWP products make it durable, but EWP prod-
ucts for outdoor applications also need to be treated with preservatives. Highly
densified EWP such as OSB and LSL will somewhat relax or spring back at the
end of a manufacturing press cycle. The OSB siding panel-swelling related law-
suits, after the 1993 hurricane Andrew in Florida, raised concerns on the durability
of OSB. When exposed to high humidities in service conditions, such as in poorly
ventilated attics, edge-swelling from roof-sheathing panels may telegraph to roof
shingles. Spring back of highly-densified EWP can be minimized in steam injection
press. This is because lignin softens at the glass transition temperature (Tg), and
this Tg is considerably lower at high MC. This means that the higher the moisture
content, the lower the Tg of lignin becomes. The spatial and temporal profiles of
the temperature in a regular press, lag behind the high Tg of the low-MC strands.
While in a steam-injection press, the Tg stays within reach of the press tempera-
ture so lignin plasticizing is possible to prevent spring back. However, the cost of
the steam-injection press is not cost-effective for modern OSB manufacturing, high
throughput. Edge sealing is one way to delay the edge swelling of OSB in-service.
Uneven shrinking/swelling, as well as creep, may cause buckling, thereby cre-
ating gaps at truss connections or delaminations between the joist and the floor
sheathing. NDE methods are very useful in detecting the initiation of delaminations
and monitoring the progress of propagations of the delamination within a wooden
structure frame. Durability of wood products may not be covered by building codes,
yet it can be a very important issue for the consumer and should be considered by
the industry when developing a new product.
236 C.L. Huang
11.6 Summary
With the increasing complexity in building codes and sophisticated computer-aided
designs, structural wood products are being used at near their maximum allowable
design limits. Wood checks, splits, cracks, and delaminations have potential to cause
great losses for the consumer. The industry is responding by making improvements
in their products to satisfy the end-user requirements using QC and QA processes.
The industry is also improving the raw material base by selectively breeding high-
quality clones and reducing growth-stresses in the plantationwood by timely and
appropriate silvicultural prescriptions. The mills too are responding by using NDE
and automated technology to monitor manufacturing processes and to inspect the
final products in an effort to increase mill production rates and maintain profit
margins.
While there are many challenges to overcome, the industry is adapting to the
changes and developing new processes for value added products that best use the
renewable, forest resource. The discussions covered in this chapter are based on the
best, currently available information, as well as industry experiences. Technology
and knowledge continue to advance while the markets remain in a constant state of
change making the future industry concerns different than can be anticipated today.
References
Akhtar M, Attridge MC, Myers GC, Blanchette RA (1993) Biomechanical pulping of loblolly pine
chips with selected white-rot fungi. Holzforschung 47:36–40
Brändström J, Daniel G, NilssonT (2002) Use of soft rot cavities to determine microfibrilangles in
wood; advantages, disadvantages and possibilities. Holzforschung 56:468–472.
Floyd S (2005) Effect of hemicellulose on longitudinal shrinkage in wood. In Entwistle K, Walker
JCF (eds) The hemicellulose workshop 2005. Wood Technology Research Center, University
of Cantebury, Christchurch, pp 115–120
Howard JL, Westby R (2007) U.S. Forest products annual market review and prospects, 2004–
2008. Forest Products Laboratory research note FPL-RN-0305.
Malan FS (1995) Eucalyptus improvement for lumber production. Sem. intern. de util. da mad.
Para serraria. Sao Paulo. Brasil, pp 1–19.
Parrish RB (1991) The changing resources, new technology, and market opportunities for wood
products. In: Proceedings of engineered wood products, processing and design, Atlanta, GA,
pp. 1–8.
Pong WY, Ward J (1979) The wetwood problem in the forest products industry. Proceedings of the
30th western dry kiln clubs meeting. Corvallis, OR: 115–124
Schulgasser K, Witztum A (2007) The mechanism of spiral grain formation in trees. Wood Sci
Technol 41:133–156
Wang JZ, DeGroot R (1996). Treatability and durability of heartwood. In: Ritter MA, Duwadi SR,
Lee PDH (eds) National Conference on Wood Transportation Structures: 252–260
Yamamoto H (1998) Generation mechanism of growth stresses in wood cell walls: roles of lignin
and cellulose microfibril during cell wall maturation. Wood Sci Tech 32:171–182
Chapter 12
Internal Checking During Eucalypt Processing
Philip Blakemore
Contents
12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237

12.2 Why is Drying Slow and Collapse High in Eucalypts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
12.3 Causes of Surface and Internal Checking in Eucalypts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
12.4 Eucalypts Species Prone to Collapse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
12.5 Collapse Recovery and Check Closure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
12.6 Dimensional Analysis and Predictions from Heat-Transfer Theory . . . . . . . . 250
12.7 Effect of Reconditioning on Internal Checking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
12.8 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
12.1 Introduction
Collapse is a severe type of shrinkage that occurs to some extent in most species
and timber types, but is particularly prevalent amongst certain species. The low
to medium density Eucalypt species are particularly prone (Chafe et al. 1992).
Collapse is “abnormal” in that it occurs in saturated timber above the Fibre
Saturation Point (FSP) when the cell lumen is still saturated with liquid water,
whereas normal shrinkage occurs below the FSP where moisture is lost from the cell
walls, and the cellulose microfibrils in the walls essentially move closer together. It
is collapse that causes much of the surface and internal checking problems when
drying timber from many eucalypt species.
P. Blakemore (B)
Department of Materials Science and Engineering, CSIRO, Clayton South, VIC, Australia
e-mail: philip.blackmore@csiro.au
238 P. Blakemore
12.2 Why is Drying Slow and Collapse High in Eucalypts

Many eucalypt species are well known for their slow drying and propensity for
collapse (Campbell and Hartley 1984). Indeed, Kauman (1964) notes that both of
these features were clearly recognised in the eucalypts as far back as 1826. Collapse
and slow drying are intrinsically related.
The most accepted theory for explaining collapse is the liquid tension theory.
The first person to propose this theory was Tiemann (1915). However, Kauman
(1964) provides the most comprehensive development of the theory, and an excel-
lent detailed discussion of collapse in general. A more recent and concise summary
is provided by Chafe et al. (1992). The theory is essentially concerned with the
removal of liquid water from the lumens of saturated cells. As liquid water is
removed from wood it is replaced by a mixture of water vapour and air. Where a
saturated cell neighbours one filled with water vapour and air, a meniscus forms in
the interstitial gaps or capillaries in the pits. Surface tension and capillary forces in
these capillaries create a hydrostatic or liquid tension throughout the water in the
saturated lumen. If these liquid-tension stresses are strong enough to overcome the
strength properties of the cell wall, the cell wall will buckle or collapse, and the cell
will flatten.
There are two fundamental physics equations relating to the properties of the
largest meniscus involved in the system, which allow the liquid-tension stresses that
are developed to be approximated. The first is Laplace’s equation, which relates the
total liquid tension to the radii of the curved liquid surface.

1 1
P=σ + (12.1)
r1 r2
Where
P = total liquid tension (N m−2 or kg s−2 m−1 )
= surface tension (N m−1 or kg s−2 )
r1 , r2 = principal radii of the curved surface (m)
The second equation is Kelvin’s equation, which relates the total liquid tension
to the relative vapour pressure above the meniscus:

ρRT po
P= loge (12.2)
M p
Where
P = total liquid tension (N m−2 )
ρ = density (kg m−3 )
R = gas constant (J mol−1 K−1 )
T = absolute temperature (K)
M = molecular weight (kg mol−1 )
p = vapour pressure (Pa)
po = pressure of saturated vapour (Pa)
12 Internal Checking During Eucalypt Processing 239
Table 12.1 Calculated liquid-tension forces and associated vapour pressures for various capillary
radii at 20◦ C
Liquid-tension Relative vapour pressure

Radius of meniscus (nm) force (MPa) (p/po ) (%)
15 9.70667 93.1
60 2.42667 98.2
150 0.97067 99.3
1500 0.09707 99.9
In Eq. (12.1), the principal radii (r1 and r2 ) are equivalent to the radii of the
largest interstitial openings or capillaries that are present in the pit membranes.
Thus, the smaller those capillaries are, the larger the tensions that develop in
the water in the saturated cell lumens. It also follows that in general the smaller
those capillaries are, the lower the permeability will be for the wood. Hence, low
permeability and inherently slow drying are intrinsic characteristics of collapse
prone wood.
The second equation relates the liquid tension to the temperature and relative
humidity of the air above the meniscus. Both equations together provide a means
of estimating the liquid tension present in a cell lumen for a given capillary size
and temperature. Examples of the magnitude of liquid-tension forces and relative
vapour pressures that develop for various capillary radii at 20◦ C are shown in
Table 12.1 Kauman (1964) suggested that in the cells that collapse, the interstitial
openings in the fibre to fibre or fibre to ray parenchyma pits would be in the range of
60–100 nm. Thus, the order of magnitude of the liquid-tension forces that are likely
to be present in collapsing cells is in the range of 1.456–2.427 MPa. However, Chafe
et al. (1992) suggests that capillaries with a maximum radius of 15 nm are known
to be present in saturated cell walls of some ash species, and therefore tensions of
as high as ∼9.7 MPa could be possible.
Apart from the size of the interstitial capillaries, the presence of extraneous mate-
rials, such as cytoplasmic debris and extractives, is also considered important for
permeability. Their presence is considered to reduce the size of the capillaries that
are available, therefore it can significantly increase the risk of collapse occurring.
Hillis (1984) notes that eucalypts in general have relatively high levels of extrac-
tives compared with other genera. The extractive levels could also be considerably
variable even within the one species. This is another contributing factor as to why
many eucalypts are both slow drying and collapse prone.
Kauman (1964) also clearly distinguishes the role that compressive drying
stresses play in collapse severity. Severe drying schedules that increase drying
stresses are likely to increase the amount of collapse that occurs. Given that col-
lapse itself contributes significantly to drying stresses, this in a sense provides a
type of positive feedback into the amount of collapse that occurs. The affect of
drying stresses though, is nevertheless still considered to be a secondary effect, in
that it is highly unlikely that compressive drying stresses can cause collapse in and
of themselves. Their role is only in extenuating the degree of collapse that occurs
because of the liquid tension forces that are present.
240 P. Blakemore
The liquid tension theory for collapse, as discussed above, has two main assump-
tions. The first is that collapse can only occur in cells that are fully saturated, or at
least that the radii of any bubbles that are present are less than the capillary radii
being considered in Eq. (12.1). The liquid tension forces will principally act on the
meniscus of largest radii, hence, if a bubble with a greater radii were present than
the radii of the largest capillary, the tension forces will expand it rapidly to relieve
the stresses without collapse occurring. The second assumption is that the sap has
sufficient cohesive strength to transmit the liquid tension. Again, if this were not the
case, cavitation would occur before cell collapse occurred.
Apart from the magnitude of the liquid tensions developed, the other main deter-
minate of whether or not collapse will occur is the strength of the cell walls.
Unfortunately, the mechanical properties of individual cell walls, or more impor-
tantly, the mechanical properties of the various secondary layers that make up the
cell wall, are almost impossible to measure directly. Hence, as a first approxima-
tion, the average compressive strength in the perpendicular cross-section of small
test samples is often used as an approximate value for cell wall strength. For exam-
ple, Chafe et al. (1992) quote a transverse compressive strength of 4.0 MPa for
Eucalyptus regnans (Bolza and Koot 1963) such that collapse was likely to occur if
the liquid tension force was greater than this value. With reference to Table 12.1
above, collapse would therefore occur in this species providing that the biggest
capillaries present had a radius of about 36.5 nm or less.
To more accurately investigate the strength properties of the cell wall for predict-
ing the onset of collapse, Innes (1995b) attempted a mathematical model that was
primarily intended to look at the effect of temperature on cell wall strength. The
cell wall in his model was broken down into the three secondary cell wall layers to
account for the fact that the alignment of the cellulose microfibrils within those lay-
ers strongly influences the anisotropic mechanical properties within in each layer.
Most importantly, the S1 and S3 layers, with large microfibril angles, essentially
provide a form of circumferential stiffening to resist collapse. Using a plain-strain
assumption, his model was essentially that of a three- layered thick-walled cylinder.
Innes (op.cit.) developed an analytical solution for this model based on the average
anatomical dimensions of the Tasmania oak group of ‘Ash’ species (E. delegatensis,
E. rengns, E. obliqua). Again though, given the difficulty of measuring cell wall
mechanical properties, all of the cell wall properties were essentially based on edu-
cated guesses, using measurements taken on small wooden test samples as a guide.
The Innes model predicted that the onset of collapse at 25◦ C occurred when the
liquid tension reached approximately 5.33 MPa.
Blakemore (2008) used finite element modelling software to generate numerical
solutions to a similar model to the Innes (1995b) one. This was done to start to over-
come some of limitations with the Innes (1995b) model. The first such limitation
was that in reality cells are not isolated, and it is likely that the behaviour of double
cell wall layers (three layers of secondary cell wall on either side of the compound
middle lamella) is different than that of a single wall layer. The Blakemore model
also allowed the use of a more rectangular cell shape, which is also possibly more
realistic. More details of the Blakemore’s model are provided in Blakemore (2008).
The inherent geometric stability of this multi-cell model meant that a shear dis-
placement was also introduced to ensure that the deformed shape for the rectangular
shaped cells was closer to what is observed in real wood samples. The shear dis-
placement was partly justified on the bases that it may reflect the real effect of drying
stresses on the deformation that occurs during collapse. In the Blakemore model, an
internal liquid tension of about 4.9 MPa was required to initiate collapse at 25◦ C.
Unfortunately, many of the serious simplifications in the Innes (1995b) model still
remain in the Blakemore (2008) model; and hence the model’s utility is still very
limited. For example, it is likely that the predicted internal liquid tensions that lead
to collapse are still relatively high simply due to the inherent stability of the regular
geometric shapes used. It seems, likely that irregularities in real cell walls could
lead to weak points where collapse would occur at much lower tensions than those
predicted in the models.
One feature the Innes (1995b) and Blakemore (2008) models help to demonstrate
clearly is the importance of temperature as a factor in determining the severity of
collapse that occurs. The effect of temperature has been well established over a
period of time (Greenhill and Dadswell 1940; Ellwood 1952; Kauman 1960; Innes
1996a, b). Mostly this effect is due to a softening of the cell walls at higher tem-
peratures as strength is reduced and creep increases. Additionally, if the increased
temperatures also contribute to increased drying stresses, this may also increase the
collapse severity.
Innes (1996a, b) suggested that there may even be a temperature threshold
below which collapse does not occur. However, Ilic (1999), while acknowledging
the importance of temperature on collapse, doubted the validity of a threshold in
the temperature ranges suggested by Innes (1996a, b). Ilic (1999) noted that some
collapse had still been observed in samples stored in refrigerators at about 4◦ C.
12.3 Causes of Surface and Internal Checking in Eucalypts

All forms of checking in timber, both surface and internal, are due to differential
shrinkages that result in internal drying stresses. This variation in shrinkage is due
to both variations in cell wall properties, and the timing and location of the shrinkage
as drying progresses. In the part of the board that is trying to shrink more, some of
that shrinkage is being resisted or restrained by the parts of the board around it
that are shrinking less or not at all. Hence, a tension stress is developed in the higher
shrinking area, and a compressive stress in the lower shrinking area. The magnitudes
of the drying stresses that are developed in this way depend on both the shrinkage
potentials of the different areas of wood and the stiffness properties of the wood.
An important dynamic with regard to the stiffness properties is that this property
increases greatly as moisture is removed from the cell walls below the local fibre
saturation point. When the local tension stresses are greater than the local tensile
strength limits, checking occurs.
The shrinkage that occurs in a board can be either caused by normal shrinkage,
due to the loss of moisture from the cell walls below the fibre saturation point, or
242 P. Blakemore
they can be due to collapse shrinkage, which occurs in the early stages of drying
when the cell lumens are still saturated. Both normal and collapse shrinkage are
strongly anisotropic. The ratio of he tangential to radial directions is typically about
∼2 (normally within a range of 1.5–3.0) (Kauman 1964). There are many factors
that contribute to transverse anisotropy, and the contribution of each varies between
and within different species. The main contributing factors include: ray restraint,
earlywood/latewood interaction, and the differences in the radial and tangential cell
walls (stiffness, chemical components or layering, microfibril angle and pit arrange-
ments and microfibril aggregations). Major reviews of shrinkage anisotropy, and
of these contributing factors, have been undertaken by Pentoney (1953); Kelsey
(1963); Stamm (1964); Kollmann and Côté (1968); Boyd (1974); Skaar (1988) and
more recently Booker 2003).
The main source of spatial variation in shrinkage is due to differences between
the earlywood and latewood bands of the growth rings. In particular, collapse shrink-
age can vary very significantly between earlywood and latewood. The thinner,
weaker walls in the earlywood mean that collapse severity is often much greater
in earlywood. It is this variation in collapse intensity that leads to the commonly
observed ‘washboarding’ effect (Fig.12.1), which is seen on the wide faces of quar-
tersawn boards. If the latewood band above and below a band of collapse prone
earlywood are significantly denser and stiffer, this can lead to severe stress gra-
dients within the earlywood. Indeed, Ilic (1999) found that internal checking was
particularly likely in boards of E. regnans, where the earlywood air-dried density
was below about 450 kg m−3 and the latewood above 600 kg m−3 . It is the combi-
nation of the shrinkage anisotropy and the large differences in the properties of the
earlywood and latewood that means that most collapse related checks are initiated in
the earlywood, and are radially aligned and elliptical in shape. The presence of rays
is probably also contributed to the radial alignment as they can act as lines of weak-
ness for check initiation. As wood properties are often quite uniform within arcs
of a growth ring, it is not uncommon to see collapse related internal checks evenly
spaced within a single earlywood ring (Fig.12.2). Surface checking that is caused
by collapse, similarly tends to mostly occur in bands of earlywood that intercept the
surface. This is particularly noticeable in backsawn boards (Fig.12.3). In most euca-
lypts then, when only intra-ring checks are found in the earlywood, those checks are
almost always collapse induced checks.
Fig. 12.1 Example of collapse washbording and internal checking in a board of quartersawn
E. nitens (75 × 25 mm)
Fig. 12.2 Examples of collapse related internal checking in earlywood rings in Victorian Ash
(E. regnans or E. delegatensis)
The temporal variation in shrinkage is due to the drying moisture content gradi-
ents that develop as drying progresses. There is generally good data in the literature
on the development of moisture content and drying stresses based mostly on normal
shrinkage (e.g. See Fig. 12.4: US Forest Products Laboratory Forest Service 1999).
Unfortunately, there is little good data in the literature on the temporal occurrence
of collapse and intra-ring internal checking as drying progresses. Plots of overall
dimensional shrinkage (Fig. 12.4 – this data is from material used by Blakemore
and Langrish 2008b) suggest that while not as linear as normal shrinkage, it progres-
sion is still reasonably constant. This suggests that collapse shrinkage may progress
from the surface to the core of the boards. However, the exact timing and location
of internal checking is not as clear. For instance, Blakemore and Langrish (2008b),
found that ramping of the pre-drying schedules below 50% moisture content had
minimal effects on the levels of internal checking present. This might suggest that
most of the internal checking had already occurred by the time the mean moisture
content of the board was below about 50%, and yet measurable collapse was still
being observed.
The exact interaction of collapse related drying stresses with normal shrinkage
related drying stresses is also not clear. It is normally assumed that most of con-
ventional drying stresses are due to normal shrinkage as the moisture content drops
Fig. 12.3 Grouping of collapse related surface checks in the earlywood zones of a 200 mm
wide backsawn board of plantation grown E. nitens. The edges are closer to quartersawn grain
orientation, and hence no surface checks are present on this face
244 P. Blakemore
20
Area (Radial × Tangential) Shrinkage (%) 18
16
14
12
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
MC (%)
Fig. 12.4 Area (radial × tangential) shrinkage against moisture content for a number of 100 ×
50 mm boards of Victorian Ash (E. regnans and E. delegatensis) with a collapse ranging from
minimal to severe
below the fibre saturation point. The conventional development of normal drying
stresses are shown to the left of Fig. 12.5. However, if collapse is occurring well
in advance of the movement of the fibre saturation point, it may to some extent be
reducing the severity of normal shrinkage related drying gradient. Conversely, col-
lapse that has occurred at the surface may increase the severity of the collapse that
is occurring later, below it deeper into the board.
The most obvious visual indication of severe drying stresses is when the intra-
ring collapse related internal checks are extended into inter-ring checks. In severe
cases, this is classified as honeycomb checking (Fig. 12.5). The interaction of drying
stresses and board geometry is responsible for the sunken faces that are often seen on
the wide face of boards of severely collapsed boards (e.g. Fig. 12.1). Kauman (1964)
provides a clear explanation for these phenomena. Essentially, as the outer surface
layers (case) dry out, a tension set is induced in these layers (Fig. 12.6). As drying
continues, after stress reversal has occurred, these dryer and much stiffer layers
provide a high resistance to the shrinkage that is now occurring in the centre of
the board. In the width direction, these surface layers or columns are close together
and hence the edges are kept straight. However, in the thickness direction, the edge
columns are much further apart and hence the surface columns on the wide faces
act like uniformly loaded beams supported only at the ends. These drying stresses
can also interact with board dimensions to affect the severity of internal checks.
For example, Chafe and Carr (1998a), found severe inter-ring internal checking in
boards that were 100 × 50 mm dried at 30◦ C and an initial relative humidity of 90%,
while in matching boards of either 50 × 50 mm or 100 × 25 mm, dried under the
Fig. 12.5 Diagram of normal drying stress development and checking development in backsawn
eucalypts
same conditions, only intra-ring checking was found. However, no such inter-ring
checking was observed in 100 × 40 mm dimension boards dried by Blakemore and
Langrish (2007) also dried at 30◦ C and 95% RH. And no such inter-ring checks were
observed in trials with 105 × 50 mm specimens initially dried at 20◦ C (Blakemore
and Langrish 2008b). Ramped drying schedules were also tried in the Blakemore
and Langrish (2008b) trial, and again, no inter-ring checking was caused when,
Fig. 12.6 Diagram of how

tension set in the outer
surface layers can lead to a
sunken face in the wide faces
after stress reversal has
occurred
246 P. Blakemore
below a mean moisture content of 50%, the temperatures were progressively raised
to 55◦ C. This is much higher than the maximum temperature of 30◦ C used by Chafe
and Carr (1998a) in pre-drying. So it is possible that the inter-ring checking may
have been caused by significantly wet cores that were still present when oven-drying
was undertaken when the samples were nominally at 12% MC.
12.4 Eucalypts Species Prone to Collapse
To some extent, collapse can occur to a small extent in almost all timber species.
However, Kauman (1960) suggests that “severe collapse is largely confined to
medium density angiosperms” and further identifies the “Ash” group of eucalypt
species as amongst the “best known collapsing species”. In this grouping of species,
the most economically important are E. regnans, E. delegatensis and E. obliqua.
Currently, there are two cool to mild temperate species, E. globulus and E. nitens,
that are being grown extensively in plantations in southern Australia and around the
world, predominately as a source of pulp fibre. While both are collapse prone, the
severity of the problem is considerable worse in E. nitens.
Unfortunately, there is no commonly accepted method of measuring collapse
that would provide a quantitative basis for comparing eucalypt species. There are
too types of collapse measurements that are made for experimental purposes. The
first attempts to specifically quantify the amount of collapse that has occurred and
provides the more detailed measurements. When measuring the total shrinkage of a
wood sample, the measurement has a component of normal shrinkage and collapse
shrinkage in it. To distinguish between the two components of shrinkage, measure-
ments are also madded on thin sections (<1 mm along the grain) cut from either
end of the measurement blocks. These thin sections are used to provide a measure
of collapse free shrinkage. As the fibres in most eucalypts are longer than 1 mm,
there should be almost no intact fibres present in such a thin sample. If there are
no intact fibres, there can be no saturated lumens and therefore collapse can not
occur. Essentially then, such a sample should provide a measure of normal shrink-
age only. Normal shrinkage is what occurs as bound water is removed form the
cell walls. Hence, by subtracting this measure of normal shrinkage from the total
shrinkage that occurs in a matching longer sample, a measure of collapse shrinkage
is obtained.
The main confounding factor in this measure of collapse is that the drying
stresses will variably interact and restrain the amount of normal shrinkage that
occurs. As most of the drying that occurs in the thin slices is likely to be end dry-
ing, this means that almost no transverse drying stresses should be present, and
hence the expression of normal shrinkage is likely to be slightly less in the larger
section than in the matching thinner section. This can sometimes lead to spuri-
ous positive collapse recovery values in low collapse specimens (e.g. Blakemore
and Langrish 2007). Nevertheless, this general technique has been used repeat-
edly by many researchers (e.g. Greenhill 1938; Kauman 1960; Ilic and Hillis
1986; Chafe 1987; Chafe 1990; Chafe and Ilic 1992a, 1992b, 1992c; Chafe 1993;
Chafe 1994; Innes 1995a; Chafe and Carr 1998a, 1998b; Ilic, 1999; Yang et al.
2002, 2003). The next most commonly used technique for measuring collapse is
to more simply just measure recoverable, or recovered collapse. This typically
involves measuring the total shrinkage before and after reconditioning (e.g. Chafe
1985, 1986) at a standardised moisture content. In this way, the total amount
of collapse is not measured, but assuming that the reconditioning is undertaken
appropriately, most of it should be recovered. While less accurate than the pre-
vious method, the technique is considerably easier to implement. Data of this
type is more generally available as it can be calculated from the data collected
by Kingston and Risdon (1961) for Australian timber species. The reason it is
less accurate, is that there are a number of variables that can affect collapse
recovery, the most important being moisture content (Blakemore and Langrish
2007, 2008b). In that research, Blakemore and Langrish (2007, 2008b) recon-
firmed that in two severely collapse prone eucalypts (Eucalyptus regnans and
E. delegatensis) the recovery of collapse decreased significantly below a moisture
content of about 15%. The fact that by methodology, all of the Kingston and Risdon
(1961) samples are reconditioned at 12% means that the recovery of collapse is
likely to be sub-optimal. Although, there is a chance that the standardised 2 h of
steaming with such small samples may have been enough to raise the moisture con-
tent back up above 15%. Figure 12.7 shows the recovered collapse values for all
of the Eucalypt species in Kingston and Risdon (1961). The species are arranged
in order of increasing basic density. This figure confirms the extent of the collapse
severity amongst the Ash group of eucalypts, such as E. regnans and E. delegatensis.
The weak to moderate general negative relationship between density and collapse is
1000 20
900 18
800 16
Recovered Collapse (%)
Basic Density (kg m–3)
700 14
600 12
500 10
400 8
300 6
200 4
100 2
0 0
E. regnans (35 y.o.)
E. obliqua
E. lindleyana
E. mannifera
E. haemastoma
E. papuana
E. campanulata
E. bridgesiana
E. cambageana
E. dalrympleana
E. rubida
E. rubida
E. radiata
E. fastigata
E. stuartiana
E. australiana
E. ovata
E. ovata
E. obliqua
E. globoidea
E. saligna
E. marginata
E. calophylla
E. cypellocarpa
E. wilkinsoniana
E. muelleriana
E. macrorrhyncha
E. consideniana
E. robusta
E. carnea
E. maculata
E. resinifera
E. cloeziana
E. paniculata
E. bosistoana
E. longifolia
E. gomphocephala
E. tetrodonta
E. molucanna
E. melliodora
E. spenceriana
E. leucoxylon
E. sideroxylon
E. delegatensis
E. polyanthemos
E. decorticans
E. regnans
E. pilularis
E. nitens
E. grandis
E. globulus
E. globulus
E. dives
E. globulus
E. viminalis
E. viminalis
E. grandis
E. dives
E. pilularis
E. botryoides
E. camaldulensis
E. astringens
E. tereticornis
E. microcorys
E. largiflorens
E. albens
E. tessellaris
E. wandoo
E. robertsonii
E. jacksoni
E. baxteri
E. dunnii
E. rossii
E. sieberi
E. stjohnii
E. maidenii
E. cladocalyx
E. goniocalyx
E. diversicolor
Species
Fig. 12.7 Recovered collapse as derived from Kingston and Risdon (1961) shrinkage data for a
range of Eucalypt species. Recovered collapse is calculated as the after reconditioning shrinkage
at 12% subtracted from the before reconditioning shrinkage value at 12%. The error bars are 95%
confidence intervals for the mean values. Where no error bars are shown this is because the sample
size was too small to calculate a standard error
248 P. Blakemore
in keeping with that which has been observed by a number of authors (Chafe 1985,
1986; Ilic and Hillis 1986; Chafe 1994; Ilic 1995; and Blakemore and Langrish
2008a, b).
12.5 Collapse Recovery and Check Closure
As early as 1917, James Grant and George Grant (father and son) cited by (Greenhill
1938), independently discovered that steam could be used to recover collapse in
Australian eucalypts. Essentially, steam reconditioning involves placing the timber
in a well insulated chamber and filling the chamber with saturated steam for a num-
ber of hours, depending on the species and thickness of the boards. Greenhill (1938,
1940) carried out a range of reconditioning experiments on samples of Eucalyptus
regnans and E. delegatensis. He clearly demonstrated the importance of heat in col-
lapse recovery and the need to get the temperature in the steaming chamber as close
as possible to 100◦ C (Fig. 12.8).
A number of industrial rules of thumb have been in use in Australia for many
decades, based mostly on this research by Greenhill (1938 and 1940) and some
work by Mackay (1972). Unfortunately, the small size of the specimens used in
this research, and the fact that they all the specimens came from one or two
boards, means that robustness of all of these rules has been somewhat question-
able. Blakemore and Langrish (2007, 2008b), conducted a range of reconditioning
experiments on larger dimension boards (100 × 40 and 100 × 50 mm) from a wider
range of trees. The results of this confirmed that below a mean moisture content of
Fig. 12.8 The effect of reconditioning temperature and drying conditions on collapse recovery
(Greenhill, 1938)
15%, collapse recovery started to be reduced significantly. An optimal mean mois-

ture content of about 18% was identified, although there was little difference in
recovery in the range of 15–25% moisture content. One of the most important con-
siderations in this is the core moisture content. It is important that the core moisture
content be below about 30% moisture content. Above this level collapse recovery
in the core of the boards was incomplete and in particular the closure of internal
checks incomplete. This is shown visually in Fig. 12.9 below. It was also thought
that in high moisture content cores, the collapse simply was not recovered, rather
than it recovering and then subsequently re-collapsing. Historically, a darkening of
the core wood, and severe inter-ring checking has been observed when recondition-
ing has been undertaken with a high core moisture content. This was not observed
in these studies suggesting that for this to occur the core temperature must be much
lower.
Blakemore and Langrish (2008b) and Blakemore (2008) also found that, while
acknowledging the importance of mean moisture content, the uptake or movement
of moisture was not thought to be critical for collapse recovery. In this sense then, it
was identified that, provided the board moisture content was in the right range, the
length of steaming only needed to be long enough to raise the temperature of the
core to close to 100◦ C (See also Fig. 12.10).
BEFORE RECONDITIONING
20% 15%
32.8% 16.9%
35.2% AFTER RECONDITIONING 14.2%
AFTER FINAL DRYING TO 12%
Fig. 12.9 Cross sectional scans of internal checking for two end-matched boards dried with the
same ramped pre-drying schedule. Reconditioning was undertaken at the nominal mean moisture
content of 20%, (board on left) and 15% (board on right). Percentages shown above each board are
measured core moisture contents
250 P. Blakemore
110 1040
Surface
9 mm top
100 1030
middle
90 9 mm bottom 1020
Temperature (°C) Width Swelling (× 0.1 = %)
Chamber
80 Side 1010
Loadcell
70 Datalogger Temp 1000
Width
Mass (g)
60 990
Mass
50 980
40 970
30 960
20 950
10 940
0 930
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time (hrs)
Fig. 12.10 Measurements of mass, temperature (Surface, 9 mm in from top and bottom surface
and core) and width changes during steam reconditioning for sample board with a basic density ≈
490 kg m–3 (From Blakemore and Langrish 2008b)
12.6 Dimensional Analysis and Predictions

from Heat-Transfer Theory
One of the simplest methods for modelling the time to heat up the boards is based
on dimensional analysis, for which a relevant dimensionless group is the Fourier
number (Fo):
ατ kτ
Fo = 2 = (12.2)
l ρcl 2
where:
α = thermal diffusivity — k/ρc(m2 s−1 )
k = thermal conductivity (W m−1 K−1 )
τ = time (s)
c = heat capacity (J kg−1 K−1 )
l = a characteristic dimension—in this case, half the board thickness (m)
A value for heat capacity, c, was obtained from the US Forest Service Forest
Products Laboratory (1999) with the following equations.
Co = 0.1031 + 0.003867 × θ (12.3)
where:
Co = heat capacity of dry wood (kJ kg−1 K−1 )

θ = temperature (K)
(Co + 0.01 · MC · Cw )
c=
(1 + 0.01 · MC)
(12.4)

+MC −0.06191 + 2.36 × 10−4 · θ − 1.3310−4 · MC
where:
c = heat capacity of wet wood (kJ kg−1 K−1 )

Cw = heat capacity of water (kJ kg−1 K−1 )
MC = percentage moisture content (%)
An approximate value for k was obtained from Oliver (1991):

k = (7.23ρ + 13.6 · MC) × 10−4 + 0.086 × 0.277778 (12.5)
Where:
ρ = density (kg m−3 )
Equation (12.4) has been used to estimate the heat-up time by assuming that a
rectangular parallelepiped with uniform material properties will reach an approxi-
mately uniform temperature distribution when Fo = 1. Figure 12.11 (page 101) from
Carslaw and Jaeger (1997) shows that for an infinitely long and wide solid with par-
allel sides, Fo = 1 accounts for about 90% of the temperature change from the initial
to final temperatures in the core of the board. Given the narrower rectangular nature
of the sub-samples in this case, with additional heat conduction from the edges and
ends, it would be expected that the percentage of the temperature change in the
core of the board would be greater than 95%. For this analysis, the assumed mate-
rial property values were: ρ = 490 kg m−3 , moisture content (MC) = 20%, θ =
333 K (60◦ C — halfway between 20 and 100◦ C), Cw = 4.19 kJ kg−1 K−1 and
l = 0.022 m.
Using these values, the characteristic heat-up time (τ ) was estimated to be
approximately 80 min. Figure 12.10 shows that the observed heat-up time for the
core of a 100 × 50 mm sample board, with mean moisture content nominally of
20%, was approximately 70 min. The simplicity of this analysis makes it easy to
estimate heat-up times, and the estimated error of ±20% is tolerable for this pur-
pose, especially given the conservativeness of current industrial practice where it is
common to steam for up to 6–8 h depending on the thickness of boards. The main
reason for the long steaming is to allow for moisture uptake by boards that may be
over-dry, but the effectiveness of this approach has never been validated.
252 P. Blakemore
12.7 Effect of Reconditioning on Internal Checking

In the studies undertaken by Blakemore and Langrish (2008b) and Blakemore
(2008), providing that the guidelines with regard to mean and core moisture content
was meet, most of intra-ring checking that was present before steam recondition-
ing was not visible after reconditioning (Fig. 12.9). Conventional industry wisdom
is that such closed checks pose a problem, in that if exposed when machining or
moulding is undertaken, they will result in a feathering affect on the surface of
the product. This may not be that significant problem for products such as quarter-
sawn flooring, but is a problem for backsawn products cabinetry such as high value
kitchen cupboard doors. However, how much of this effect that is due to completely
closed checks, or incompletely closed checks, is not clear.
12.8 Summary
All forms of checking in timber, both surface and internal, are due to differential
shrinkages that result in internal drying stresses. In the case of mid to low den-
sity eucalypts, the occurrence of collapse shrinkage severely increases these drying
stresses and the likelihood of checking. This is true at both the board scale and the
growth ring scale where differences in collapse shrinkage and stiffness between the
zones of earlywood and latewood in a growth ring, can lead to regular intra-ring
checking in the earlywood. This form of checking can be one of the more obvious
indications of collapse related checking.
Reconditioning the timber in saturated steam is a long established method for
recovering collapse shrinkage. It is important that this be undertaken with the board
at the correct moisture content. A mean moisture content of about 18% is ideal,
although there is little difference in recovery in the range of 18–25%. Certainly
below about 15% moisture content collapse recovery starts to decline severely.
Perhaps, more important is the core moisture content, as it is the hardest to con-
trol. For recovery in the core of the boards, it is important that it be below about
25% moisture content. At higher moisture contents collapse recovery is incomplete,
at much higher moisture content, intra-ring checking may be caused and a darkening
of the wood color can also occur.
The reconditioning affect mostly appears to be a temperature related effect. As
such the steaming treatment only needs to be undertaken long enough to get the
core of the boards as close to the steam temperature or 100◦ C as possible. In boards
where the core of the board has been over-dried below 15% moisture content, recov-
ery can be achieved if the moisture content is raised back above this level. But
depending on the thickness of the boards the length of steaming required can be
prohibitively long (>24 h) and expensive.
Provided that the drying schedules have minimised the amount of collapse that
has occurred, and only intra-ring checking has occurred. Gradual, ramping up of
the severity of the pre-drying schedules, once the mean moisture contents are below
about 50%, has appeared to have minimal effect on the internal checking levels
present. Even with current best pre-drying practices, much of the intra-ring checking
appears to be due to inherent properties rather than the drying conditions.
Good steaming practices will result in most of the intra-ring checks being closed.
The significance of those closed checks is unclear. An industry perception is that
upon ripping or deep moulding, such close check will always result in feathering
effect on the surface of such products. In such cases whether the original checks
were fully closed, or partially closed is unclear.
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eucalypt species. PhD Thesis, The University of Sydney. http://hdl.handle.net/2123/2343.
Accessed 3 August 2010
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Victorian ash eucalypts. Wood Sci Tech 42:535–549
Blakemore PA, Langrish TAG (2008b). Effect of pre-drying schedule ramping on collapse recovery
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Chapter 13
Acoustic Tomography for Tension Wood
Detection in Eucalypts
Voichita Bucur
Contents
13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255

13.2 Ultrasonic Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
13.2.1 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
13.2.2 Ultrasonic Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
13.3 Tension Wood Detection with Ultrasonic Velocity Method . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
13.4 Acoustic Imaging with Stress Wave Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
13.4.1 Imaging with Radial Stress Waves Velocities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
13.4.2 Imaging with Tangential Stress Waves Velocities . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
13.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
13.1 Introduction
The last two decades of the 20th century have been characterized by an extraor-
dinary development of different methodologies for nondestructive evaluation of
wood products, which has succeeded in the imaging of the internal structure of
wood at both macroscopic and microscopic levels. The efforts devoted towards
the development of nondestructive technologies for the evaluation of wood prop-
erties of trees, stems, logs and lumber are summarized in reference books (Pellerin
and Ross 2002: Bucur 2003) and in the proceedings of the international symposia
on non-destructive testing of wood. At the present time the predominant attention
of the forest industry is oriented through imaging techniques development of the
internal structure of wood or wood products, based on the propagation of different
V. Bucur (B)
256 V. Bucur
types of waves (electromagnetic or mechanical ). Given the hierarchical structure

of wood, it is obvious that one should seek multi-scale characterization tools. The
ultrasonic waves have a resolution between 10−3 and 10−2 m, or more, depending
on frequency (> 20 kHz) used for wood inspection. The ultrasonic waves propa-
gated in wood are related to its elastic properties. The most common waves for
ultrasonic imaging are the longitudinal waves. The resolution of ultrasonic imag-
ing techniques is very much limited by the frequency, the wave length and by the
size of the transducers. The main benefits of using acoustic techniques for wood
quality assessment are that they are non-invasive and safe at a relatively low energy
levels.
The ultrasonic techniques based on the measurements of the velocity of propa-
gation of a pulse, are used for sorting logs, for lumber quality and veneer quality
assessment, or for pulp and paper quality. Log segregation through velocity mea-
surements, using the time of flight method, is a current technique for detecting
higher possible proportion of high-grade lumber. In Switzerland spruce logs of
very high quality for musical instruments are detected in this way. Sorting logs and
stems for structural uses is a current technique in US, Australia, New Zealand and
Brazil. Assuming a price difference between structural and ordinary lumber of 200
NZ$ /m3 , it was reported an increase of about 1.8 million NZ$ for a mill processing
300,000 m3 of logs per year (Wang et al. 2007).
The detection and the location of reaction wood (compression or tension wood)
in trees and logs is a major interest for wood industry in Australia and all over the
world. The S2 layer of compression wood tracheids often shows helical checks,
which can introduce radial delminations (Boyd 1972). Tension wood has an impor-
tant thick gelatinous layer (or G – layer) in the cell wall. The microfibrils in the G
layer are much thicker (Müller et al. 2006) than in normal wood and are laid at very
small angles at the fiber axis (Fengel and Wegener 1984). In G layer radial delami-
nations have been observed in Eucalyptus spp. by Chafe (1977) as local disruptions
to the microfibril orientation (Fig. 13.1). Chafe (1977) noted “ . . . dislocations were
evident as longitudinal striations running approximately parallel to the major extinc-
tion position of the cell wall and close to parallel with the cell axis”. Furthermore
he pointed out “Radial striations were abundant in the wall of many earlywood
fibers and were detected to a lesser extent in latewood cells”. “It would seem from
these observations that there may exists an association between the presence of high
growth stress in living trees and the occurrence of radially oriented dislocations in
their fiber walls”.
The tension wood is weak because of morphological difference between the
lignified secondary wall S2 and the unlignified G –layer (Donaldson 2001). This
structural weakness as well as the disruption of microfibril orientation in tension
wood can be put in evidence with ultrasonic techniques – acoustic tomography and
ultrasonic velocity method. The main advantage of ultrasonic techniques is related
to the fact that wood behavior can be inspected in all three anisotropic directions (L,
R and T) on the same specimen.
13 Acoustic Tomography for Tension Wood Detection in Eucalypts 257
Fig. 13.1 Radial delamination in S2 layer which do not extend to the cell lumen, in Eucalyptus
spp.. Transverse section magnification 10,500 x (Chafe 1977, Figure 4). Top left insert –
Magnification 29,000 x – lumen boundary: S3 absent, steeply inclined microfibrils. Bottom insert –
Magnification 29,000 x – microfibrils misalignment and radial dislocations L = lumen, G =
gelatinous layer, Arrows = innermost gelatinous layer
13.2 Ultrasonic Methods
13.2.1 Materials
Six disks with varying degree of pith eccentricity has been selected, namely five
disks were cut from Eucaluptus delegatensis logs and one disc from a plantation
grown Eucaluptus nitens log. The wider side of the eccentric discs were anticipated
to contain various portions of tension wood. The discs were in green conditions.
Note that the discs are representative of the transversal section of trees and logs.
13.2.2 Ultrasonic Methods
A combined method using ultrasonic waves was developed to detect and locate
the tension wood. The direct transmission technique was developed to detect the
tension wood along the axis L. The stress wave technique was used to locate the
258 V. Bucur
10
10B
9 11
8 11B
7 12
12B
1
6
5 2
Fig. 13.2 Time of flight measurements on disc, in longitudinal anisotropic direction of wood, on
different rays and locations (Yang et al. 2007b, Figure 1)
corresponding tension wood zones, with a 2D imaging technique for the inspection
of the transversal section of the disc (plane RT).
Ultrasonic velocity method allows the measurement of the time of flight in longi-
tudinal anisotropic direction of wood (L), on different rays and locations, as shown
in Fig. 13.2. The corresponding velocity was noted (VLL ). Broad band 1 MHz trans-
ducers were used for these measurements, in direct transmission technique, using
conventional Panametrics equipment (Fig. 13.3).
Acoustic tomography was performed by measuring the stress wave velocity in
radial and tangential anisotropic directions, with the FAKOPP multi-channel timer
using a linear filtered back projection technique for image reconstruction (Divos and
Fig. 13.3 Conventional ultrasonic equipment for measurements on discs (Yang et al. 2007b,
Figure 1)
Fig. 13.4 Stress wave signal on larch in time domain (Divos and Divos 2005, Figure 1). Axis X =
time scale. The grid size on the time scale is 50 μs. Axis Y = amplitude scale in relative units.
Note the 40 kHz signal superimposed on the 2 kHz signal
Divos 2005). A hammer blow was used to produce stress waves in a wide frequency
range. As can be seen from the Fig. 13.4 a 40 kHz signal is superimposed on the
2 kHz signal. The device allows a strong amplification of the signal and the fre-
quency of 40 kHz was used for the wavelength calculation, which is 25 mm. This
means that the minimum detectable defect size is 25 mm, which is the effective
resolution of this device. The resolution of the stress wave acoustic tomography is
influenced by the frequency, the number of probes and the inversion technique for
image reconstruction.
Acoustic waves are emitted sequentially from the source probe position and
recorded at receiver source position. For radial inspection with bulk waves, the trans-
ducers were inserted in the radial direction to the disc periphery (Fig. 13.5a), while
260 V. Bucur
Fig. 13.5 Transducers positioning for acoustic tomography. (a) inspection in R direction and
(b) inspection in T direction (Yang et al. 2007b, Figure 2)
for tangential inspection, with surface waves, the transducers were inserted into the
disc in T direction (Fig. 13.5b).
Acoustical imaging with the stress wave technique was performed first on discs
having a big eccentricity, corresponding to an important proportion of tension wood
and secondly on concentric discs with normal wood. The tomographs were obtained
with 8 and 16 probes. The distance for the tomographic maps was calculated assum-
ing a straight path between the two transducers. The tomographic resolution is
related to the pixel size. The number of cells cannot exceed the number of mea-
surements (for 16 transducers, 120 independent acquisitions). The time uncertainty
is 1 μm and the calculated limit of the spatial resolution is 25 mm.
13.3 Tension Wood Detection with Ultrasonic Velocity Method

Figure 13.6 shows the variation of ultrasonic velocity VLL on a disc following four
rays. To avoid cluttering, only these four rays were represented on the previous
figure. The ray 1 corresponds to the wider side of the disc, where the tension wood
is located. The ray 6 corresponds to the opposite wood, while the rays 4 and 9
correspond to lateral wood. It can be clearly seen that VLL values are the highest
along the ray 1 (average 3847 m/s), the lowest along the ray 6 (average 3187 m/s),
and in between, along the rays 4 and 9, corresponding to the lateral wood (average
3544 m/s and 3435 m/s respectively). These results are in line with those for beech
samples published by Bucur et al. (1991). In poplar tension wood Coutand et al.
(2004) found higher Young’s modulus in L direction (EL ), than in normal wood.
The authors argued that this was due to the smaller microfibril angle in the S2 and
G layers. The EL values are positively associated with VLL . The highest VLL values
are related with the same smaller microfibril angle.
Analyzing the previous data, it can be stated that in Eucaluptus spp. the velocity
VLL has potential in differentiating the tension wood from normal wood.
5000
Ray 1 Ray 4
Longitudinal velocity (m/s)

Ray 6 Ray 9
4500
4000
3500
3000
2500
0 50 100 150 200
Distance from cambium (mm)
Fig. 13.6 Variation of ultrasonic velocity in L direction (bulk waves) on a disc following four rays.
(a) the rays on the disc, (b) velocity VLL on four rays (Yang et al. 2007b, Figure 3)
13.4 Acoustic Imaging with Stress Wave Technique
Acoustic tomography allows reconstruction of the distribution of the velocity of

ultrasonic waves as it propagates within the investigating section of a tree. Acoustic
tomography is a fast, reliable, safe and inexpensive testing procedure, and has
become increasingly popular for in situ examination of trees, logs, boards, etc as
noted in some reference articles published since 1990 (Tomikawa et al. 1990; Biagi
et al. 1994; Socco et al. 2000, 2004a, b; Lawday and Hodges 2000; Andrews 2003;
Martinis 2002; Martinis et al. 2004; Maurer et al. 2006; Divos and Divos 2005;
Bucur 2005; Gun et al. 2005; Attia 2007; Lee et al. 2007; Sandoz and Benoit 2007;
Yang et al. 2007a, b; Lin et al. 2008; Schubert et al. 2009). The described techniques
can provide two or three dimensional spatial location of the internal structure of the
tree under test.
The theory behind the acoustic tomography which utilizes the scattering of
acoustic plane waves is largely discussed by Zhang and Lu (1996) or by Berryman
(2000).
The investigation of the relationship between wood properties, products quality
and growth stress in trees from plantations has a long research history (Jacobs 1938;
Boyd 1950, 1972; Chafe 1977; Polge and Thiercelin 1979; Ferrand 1981; Kubler
1987; Fengel and Wegener 1984; Archer 1986; Timell 1986; Zobel and van Buijten
1989; Bamber 2001; Blakemore 2008).
High growth stress in trees are related to the presence of reaction wood (com-
pression or tension wood). The delaminations in tension wood are similar to radial
checks in compression wood. Chafe (1977) noted that the radial dislocations repre-
sent “a kind of localized failure of the cell wall, it seems possible that, if sufficiently
abundant, they could affect the strength of converted wood products”. Today, acous-
tic imaging with the stress wave technique is able to put in evidence the radial
dislocations observed by Chafe in 1977. This will be demonstrated in the next
sections.
262 V. Bucur
Fig. 13.7 The velocity map with radial stress wave velocity on the eccentric and concentric discs
with 8 probes (Yang et al. 2007a, Figure 2)
13.4.1 Imaging with Radial Stress Waves Velocities

Figure 13.7 shows the velocity map on the eccentric and concentric discs with 8 and
16 probes obtained with radial stress velocity (measured in R direction). Divos and
Divos (2005) reported that the resolution of the system with 8 transducers is 2.5%
(velocity difference 100 m/s). The color of the diagram gradually changed from
green to red as the proportion of tension wood increases. The red color indicates
lower ultrasonic velocity while the green color indicates higher ultrasonic velocity.
The range of ultrasonic values was between 1630 m/s (green) and 1542 m/s (red).
The velocity map for the eccentric disc show regions of considerable lower veloc-
ities on the wider side of the disc, where tension wood is likely to be present,
than on the opposite side. In comparison, the velocity map for the concentric disc
was far more uniform indicating greater homogeneity of wood inspected transversal
structure.
As expected, the velocity maps obtained using 16 transducers appeared to give a
better representation of discs structure, than for those using only 8 transducers.
13.4.2 Imaging with Tangential Stress Waves Velocities
For eccentric discs, the tangential stress wave velocity maps (Fig. 13.8) were
obtained at different distances from the discs periphery (ex.: 20 mm, 140 mm). The
range of surface tangential velocities was between 1450 m/s (green) and 395 m/s
(red). Surface tangential stress wave velocities were lower in tension wood zones
than in the opposite wood, the lateral wood and the juvenile wood. As have seen
in radial maps, low velocity values were observed on the wider side of the eccen-
tric disc (tension wood zones). Smaller inspected surfaces gave better resolution of
wood structure, as for example the maps obtained for 140 mm from the periphery
compared to those at 20 mm from the periphery. The tangential stress wave velocity
Fig. 13.8 The velocity map with surface tangential stress wave velocity on an eccentric disc at
difference distances from the discs periphery (ex.: 20 mm, 140 mm) (Yang et al. 2007b, Figure 4)
maps for the concentric discs (Fig. 13.9) are overall uniformly colored, except for a
path of much lower velocity that corresponds to the pith area and juvenile wood.
It is obvious that acoustic tomography allows the location of pith’s area on logs
and trees. Improvement of velocity map resolution could be achieved by using more
transducers and/or increasing frequency, so that the variation in wood properties can
be more precisely estimated.
264 V. Bucur
Fig. 13.9 The velocity map with surface tangential stress wave velocity on a concentric disc (Yang
et al. 2007b, Figure 5)
1 2
Fig. 13.10 Comparison between the velocity map resolution with radial stress waves, with 8
transducers (left) and with 16 transducers (right) on two disks (Yang et al. 2007b, Figure 5)
Fig. 13.11 Image of the transversal section of the eccentric disk with tangential stress waves and
with 8 (left) or 16 (right) transducers located at different distances from the periphery (Yang et al.
2007b, Figure 6)
266 V. Bucur
13.5 Summary
The detection and the location of reaction wood (compression or tension wood) in
trees and logs is a major interest for wood industry. In tension wood which has an
important thick gelatinous layer (or G – layer) in the cell wall, radial delaminations
have been observed in Eucalyptus spp. by Chafe (1977) as local disruptions to the
microfibril orientation. On the other hand, the tension wood has lower properties
than normal wood because of morphological difference between the lignified sec-
ondary wall S2 and the unlignified G –layer (Donaldson 2001). These structural
particularities as well as the disruption of microfibril orientation in tension wood
are evident with ultrasonic techniques such as acoustic tomography and ultrasonic
velocity method. The detection of tension wood in L direction was performed using
a direct transmission ultrasonic technique and measuring the time of flight with
1 MHz probes and calculating the corresponding velocity noted VLL . The corre-
sponding values are higher in tension wood (average 3847 m/s), than in opposite
wood (average 3187 m/s), or lateral wood considered as normal wood (average
3544 m/s). The location of tension wood was possible using a stress wave method
(frequency 40 kHz) and a linear filtered back projection technique for image recon-
struction. A hammer blow was used to produce stress waves and the corresponding
signal was strongly amplified. Acoustic waves are emitted sequentially from the
source probe position and recorded at receiver source position. Maps were obtained
with longitudinal bulk waves when the transducers were inserted in the radial direc-
tion to the disc periphery and with surface waves when the transducers were inserted
in T direction. The tangential stress wave velocity maps were obtained at differ-
ent distances from the discs periphery (ex.: 20 mm, 140 mm).For radial inspection
the range of ultrasonic values was between 1630 m/s (green) for normal wood and
1542 m/s (red) for tension wood, in radial stressed measurements. For tangential
inspection the range of ultrasonic velocity was between 1450 m/s (green) for normal
wood and 395 m/s (red) for tension wood. Surface tangential stress wave veloci-
ties were lower in tension wood zones than in the opposite wood, the lateral wood
and the juvenile wood. The resolution of the velocity maps was 25. 10−3 m. The
resolution of stress wave based acoustic tomography is influenced by the applied
frequency, the number of sensors (Fig. 13.10 and Fig. 13.11) and the inversion tech-
nique for image reconstruction. The acoustic procedures described here can assist
in managing wood quality, assessing forest value and improving timber quality of
future plantations.
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Chapter 14
The Hygroscopic Warping of Cross-Laminated
Timber
Thomas Gereke, Per Johan Gustafsson, Kent Persson, and Peter Niemz
Contents
14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269

14.2 Material and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
14.2.1 Moisture Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
14.2.2 Warp Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
14.3 Material Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
14.3.1 Moisture Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
14.3.2 Mechanical Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
14.4 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
14.4.1 Moisture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
14.4.2 Deformations and Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
14.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
14.1 Introduction
This chapter focuses on moisture-induced deformations in three-layered cross-
laminated timber with a symmetrical build-up, where the fibre direction of the
middle layer is oriented perpendicular to that of the outer layers. Dimensional sta-
bility, i.e. the ability to resist warping, is of main interest for the application of such
wood panels. The cross lamination of the layers is advantageous to warping. The
moisture-induced expansion/contraction of each single layer is partly restrained by
the adjacent layers. The free swelling and shrinkage of adjacent layers differ approx-
imately by a factor of 10 (radial/longitudinal) to 20 (tangential/longitudinal). As a
T. Gereke (B)
Composites Group, Department of Civil Engineering & Department of Materials Engineering,
The University of British Columbia, 6250 Applied Science Lane, Vancouver, B.C.,
Canada V6T 1Z4
e-mail: thomas.gereke@composites.ubc.ca
270 T. Gereke et al.
Fig. 14.1 The types of warp deformation
consequence of this difference, stresses and even cracks may occur. In large-scale
panels warping was observed. This reduces the serviceability in the practice. Due
to a climate gradient considerable distortions (warp) in the form of cup and twist
may occur. The types of warp are shown in Fig. 14.1. The cup deformation may
occur in two directions, the xz- and the yz-plane. This is often termed cup and bow
deformation (Ormarsson 1999).
To model the hygroscopic distortions, e.g., by means of a finite element simu-
lation, the moisture distribution in the panel is needed. Moisture transport in wood
below the fibre saturation point is a process governed by diffusion, which may be
simulated by Fick’s law (Siau 1995). The material parameter needed is the diffusion
coefficient D [m s−2 ]. It is well documented in the literature for Norway spruce
(Vanek and Teischinger 1989; Siau 1995; Hukka 1999). The information in liter-
ature about the moisture diffusion coefficient of adhesives is, on the other hand,
very limited. In this study, the diffusion coefficient of the adhesive was determined
by a combination of experimental measurements and numerical simulations of the
moisture distribution in the panels.
Water diffuses into wood through a boundary layer that provides resistance to the
diffusion if airflow at the wood surface is slow. The flux vector J perpendicular to the
surface with the normal vector n is driven by the difference in concentration of the
wood surface cs and the concentration ca that corresponds to the relative humidity
(RH) of the ambient air:
nJ = h (ca − cs ) (14.1)
where h [m s−1 ] symbolizes a mass transfer coefficient. Diffusion is expressed in

terms of concentration of water relative to the dry volume of wood. Thus, the effect
of swelling is omitted from the mass balance.
The total strain rate is assumed to be the sum of elastic strain rate ε̇el , moisture-
induced swelling ε̇ω , and mechano-sorptive deformation ε̇ωσ :

ε̇ = ε̇el + ε̇ω + ε̇ωσ = Sσ̇ + Ṡσ + α ω̇ + mσ ω̇ (14.2)
The dot denotes derivative with respect to time. The three-dimensional model
was previously validated to distortions of sawn timber by Ormarsson (1999). The
elastic compliance matrix S contains the moduli of elasticity E, shear moduli G
14 The Hygroscopic Warping of Cross-Laminated Timber 271
and Poisson’s ratios ν (Bodig and Jayne 1982). The compliance matrix of wood is
orthotropic and defined as
⎡ ⎤
EL−1 −νLR ER−1 −νLT ET−1 0 0 0
⎢ ⎥
⎢ −ν E−1 E−1 −ν E−1 0 ⎥
⎢ RL L R RT T 0 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ −νTL EL−1 −νTR ER−1 ET−1 0 0 0 ⎥
S=⎢
⎢
⎥
⎥ (14.3)
−1
⎢ 0 0 0 GLR 0 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢
⎣ 0 0 0 0 G−1
LT 0 ⎥
⎦
0 0 0 0 0 G−1
RT
Due to moisture dependency of the moduli, the rate of the compliance matrix
Ṡ has to be considered. The vector α contains either the shrinkage or the swelling
coefficients in the orthotropic directions:

αT = αL αR αT 0 0 0 . (14.4)
The mechano-sorptive strain rate follows an expression proposed by Takemura

(1967) and Leicester (1971), see also Ranta-Maunus (1990). The mechano-sorptive
property matrix is defined as (Ranta-Maunus 1990; Santaoja et al. 1991; Ormarsson
1999).
⎡ ⎤
mL −μRL mR −μTL mT 0 0 0
⎢ ⎥
⎢ −μLR mL mR −μTR mT 0 0 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ −μLT mL −μRT mR mT 0 0 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
m=⎢ ⎥. (14.5)
⎢ 0 0 0 mLR 0 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ 0 0 0 0 mLT 0 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
0 0 0 0 0 mRT
14.2 Material and Methods
14.2.1 Moisture Measurements
The test set-up was made according to the standard DIN EN ISO 12572 (2001).
Cylindrical specimens with vertical oriented annual rings (i.e. tangential diffusion
direction) were used. Three layers, each 10 mm thick, were assembled by applying
one-component polyurethane adhesive (Purbond HB 180). After turning to the final
dimenaions, these specimens measured 30 mm in thickness and 140 mm in diameter.
They were conditioned before and after gluing at 65% RH until a balance of weight
was achieved. Then, the samples were fastened with rubber sleeves on cups, which
were filled with distilled water. The sleeves prevented the specimens from moisture
sorption at the edges. A climate gradient of 65/100% RH was applied by placing
the cups in a climate room. After 14, 21, 28 and 170 days, two rectangular samples
with a dimension of 40 mm × 80 mm were cut from the centre of each specimen.
Subsequently, they were split into layers of 5 mm thickness, whose moisture content
was determined by drying. According to Teischinger and Vanek (1987) two methods
are suited to produce layers of that thickness: cutting with a band saw and splitting.
With a thin saw blade, the cutting method provides more exact layer thicknesses.
However, it may affect the moisture content by heating due to friction. Thus, the
splitting method was chosen here.
14.2.2 Warp Measurements
In Table 14.1, the thicknesses and growth ring orientations of the panels and the
individual layers are shown. The panels were made of Norway spruce (Picea abies
[L.] Karst.) and glued either in the laboratory with one-component polyurethane
(adhesive application 200 g m−2 , one-sided, forming pressure 0.8 MPa, pressing
time 3 h) or glued by an industrial manufacturer with urea resin. Both the edges of
the boards and the layer-to-layer surfaces were glued. The material was before and
after the gluing conditioned at 20◦ C and 65% RH until equilibrium was reached.
The group of specimens indicated by AR refers to experiments where the influ-
ence of the annual ring orientation θ was studied. In global panel coordinates
(x, y, z), θ is defined as the angle between the tangential axis and the horizontal
coordinate of the geometric coordinate system as shown in Fig. 14.2. Three orien-
tations were tested: 0◦ , 45◦ and 90◦ , where θ =0◦ describes horizontally oriented
annual rings and θ =90◦ describes vertically oriented annual rings. The group of
specimens indicated by LR relates to testing where the influence of the layer ratio
LR on cup deformation was studied. The layer ratio is defined as
2aOL
LR = , (14.6)
atot
Table 14.1 Panel characteristics
Group ID Production a αBL = aTL (mm)b aML (mm)b atot (mm)b θ (◦ ) LR (–)
Annual ring AR0 A 10 10 30 0 0.67

orientation AR45 A 10 10 30 45 0.67
AR90 A 10 10 30 90 0.67
Layer ratio LR37 B 7 24 38 90 0.37
LR52 B 7 13 27 90 0.52
LR57 A 10 15 35 90 0.57
aA – laboratory, 1C polyurethane, board width 100 mm; B – industry, urea resin, board width
26±1 mm
b a – thickness, BL – bottom layer, TL – top layer, ML – middle layer, tot – total
Fig. 14.2 Panel coordinate

system and definition of ring
angle θ
where 2aOL is the thickness of the two outer layers and atot is the panel thickness.
LR was varied from 0.37 to 0.67.
The hygroscopic warping of three-layered cross-laminated wood panels was
determined on panels measuring 300 mm × 300 mm, which were initially con-
ditioned at 65% RH. The small faces of the samples were sealed with lacquer to
enforce the moisture flow within the panels in the thickness direction. The speci-
mens were then placed in a box on three supports as shown in Fig. 14.3a, b. The
contact area between the panel edges and the box top cover was insulated by a rub-
ber joint Fig. 14.3a. The climate difference of 65% RH and 100% RH between the
upper and lower surfaces was induced. These two levels of relative humidity were
obtained by means of water in the bottom of the box and a constantly conditioned
Fig. 14.3 Test setup of the hygroscopic warping experiments

Fig. 14.4 Dimensions in mm, location of measuring points and coordinate system (x: fiber
direction of the outer layers, y: fiber direction of the middle layer)
climate room, in which the test set-up was stored. Relative displacements in the
z-direction of the measuring points, indicated in Fig. 14.4, were recorded by means
of dial gauges placed in a steel plate (Fig. 14.3d). Stop positions guaranteed identical
placement of the steel plate in every measurement. The displacement measurements
were carried out on days 1, 2, 4, 7, 10, 14, 21 and 31.
The cup deformation in the xz-plane (see Fig. 14.1) was determined as
1 A,D,G
cupxz = ūz + ūC,F,J
z − ūB,E,H
z (14.7)
2
and the cup deformation in the yz-plane as
1 A,B,C
cupyz = ūz + ūG,H,J
z − ūD,E,F
z . (14.8)
2
i,j,k
The notation ūz indicates the mean value of the displacements in the three
measuring points i, j and k as shown in Fig. 14.4. Twist deformation is omitted from
the analysis, since it is small compared to cup.
14.3 Material Data
14.3.1 Moisture Model

A one-dimensional diffusion model with a total of 340 eight-node volume elements
along the thickness was applied (100 elements in each 10 mm thick wood layer
and 20 elements in each 0.1 mm thick adhesive layer). The material parameter nec-
essary for modelling diffusion according to Fick’s law is the diffusion coefficient
D [m2 s−1 ]. It was implemented into the material model by
DT (ω) = 8.0 · 10−11 e4ω , t ≥ t∗ (14.9)

t
D∗T (ω, t) = DT (ω) (1 − κ) ∗ + κ t < t∗ (14.10)
t
The subscript T refers to diffusion in the transverse direction where identical

properties in radial and tangential direction were assumed. Equation (14.9) is an
expression found by Toratti (1992) but the amount of dependency on moisture
content (MC) was increased by Hanhijärvi (1995). The diffusion coefficient of
wood strongly depends on the MC. With increasing MC the resistance to diffu-
sion decreases and, thus, D increases. If t < t∗ , the diffusion coefficient increases
linearly from κDT (ω) at the initial state (t=0) to DT (ω) at t = t∗ . This reduction
of DT in the beginning of the analysis refers to the effect that water diffuses into
wood as water vapour and is then absorbed by the cell walls. During this process the
diffusion slows down. Time-dependent sorption, i.e. the coupling between the two
phases of water diffusion in wood, plays a significant role (Frandsen et al. 2007).
During unsteady-state diffusion, DT is assumed to depend not only on MC but also
on time. The barrier between unsteady-state and steady-state diffusion is referred to
as t∗ . It has been determined from continuous weighing of the samples. A specific
concentration ĉ [kg m−3 ] was calculated by
m(t) − m0
ĉ = , (14.11)
V0
where m0 [kg] and V0 [m3 ] are the weight and the volume of the sample at t=0
(corresponds to the beginning of the experimental test, i.e. the beginning of the
moisture gradient). The condition for steady-state diffusion is
∂ ĉ
= 0. (14.12)
∂t
The barrier time was determined to t∗ = 1000 h, since concentration diversifies
insignificantly afterwards. The reduction factor in Eq. (14.8) is κ = 0.45 [–].
It is assumed that moisture diffuses through the adhesive as water vapour.
According to Siau (1995) water vapour diffusion in wood slows down at higher
MC. Thus, the following formulation was evaluated from the experimental tests:
Dadh (ω) = A1 · ω−A2 + A3 (14.13)
In an optimisation process, the error between the real physical (experimental)

data and the numerical approximation was minimised. The shape factors were deter-
mined to A1 = 9.17 · 10−13 m2 s−1 , A2 = 0.51 [−] and A3 = −2.39 · 10−12 m2 s−1 .
These parameters are an acceptable compromise, reflecting the measured moisture
contents in all layers at all times considered.
The dependency of the concentration c on the relative humidity ϕ under
isothermal conditions of T=20◦ C
c (ϕ) = f1 ϕ 5 + f2 ϕ 4 + f3 ϕ 3 + f4 ϕ 2 + f5 ϕ + f6 (14.14)
has been found for spruce wood with ρ0,wood = 450 kg m−3 . The shape factors in
Eq. (14.14) are f1 = 170.81, f2 = −406.49, f3 = 366.60, f4 = −150.82, f5 = 32.91
and f6 = −1.09 10−3 . Consequentially, the concentrations corresponding to the con-

ditions in ambient air and the initial conditions are cinitial = ca,top = 5.60 kg m−3
relating to ϕ=65% and ca,bottom = 13.01 kg m−3 relating to ϕ=100% (Eq. (14.1)).
The mass transfer coefficient h [m s−1 ] of the boundary layer has been proposed by
Hanhijärvi (1995) as
h (ω) = 3.2 · 10−8 e4ω . (14.15)
14.3.2 Mechanical Model
Eight-node volume elements were used for the modelling. The fineness of the ele-
ment mesh was chosen in order to obtain accurate results. The mesh density (number
of elements)
NOE = Nx · Ny · (3Nz + 6) (14.16)
was chosen to Nx = 60, Ny = 120 and Nz = 5, which are the number of elements
in the global panel directions and the thickness mesh density of one wood layer
(Nz ). The adhesive layers were modelled by three volume elements in the thickness.
The annual ring orientation was taken into account by rectangular local coordinate
systems. Thus, a possible curvature of the annual rings and different lamellas within
a layer were not considered.
The elastic parameters describing the compliance matrix S (Eq. (14.3)) depend
on the moisture content. From the findings of Neuhaus (1981) the following relation
between the elastic parameters C (may be substituted by E, G or ν) and the MC could
be found:
C = a0 + a1 ω + a2 ω2 + a3 ω3 (14.17)
The shape factors ak (k = 0 . . . 3) are presented in Table 14.2. The data shows that
the moduli decrease with MC. ET and ER decrease within the hygroscopic range
to about 50% of their value at the ovendry state, while EL only decreases to 85%.
Table 14.2 Parameters ak of the relation between the moduli of elasticity E, the shear mod-
uli G, the Poisson’s ratios ν and moisture content (Eq. (14.13)) according to Neuhaus (1981),
0% ≤ ω ≤ 28%
Parameter a0 a1 a2 a3
EL (MPa) 12792 1522 –90073 188504

ER (MPa) 1000 361 –20917 46665
ET (MPa) 506 500 –13499 29733
GLR (MPa) 763 593 –19861 47671
GLT (MPa) 881 139 –13925 27691
GRT (MPa) 61 –107 –617 1725
ν LR (–) 0.046 0.136 –0.456 –0.214
ν LT (–) 0.021 0.257 –1.435 2.190
ν RT (–) 0.153 1.075 3.980 –19.1
The shear moduli also decrease with moisture content: GLR and GLT decrease to
about 50% and GRT decreases to 30% from the ovendry state to the fibre saturation
point. The Poisson’s ratio show a differing behaviour: νLR remains nearly constant
within the hygroscopic range while νLT and νRT increase when the moisture content
is increased.
The swelling coefficients were chosen according to Neuhaus (1981) and Sell
(1997) to αR = 1.7 · 10−3 and αT = 3.3 · 10−3 and according to Dahlblom et al.
(1999) (see also Ormarsson 1999) to αL = 5.0 · 10−5 (all non-dimensional).
The mechano-sorptive material parameters are based on results obtained by
Santaoja et al. (1991) and Mårtensson (1992) and are assumed to be independent
of the moisture content. The mechano-sorption coefficients in the orthotropic direc-
tions and planes that describe the mechano-sorption material matrix m in Eq. (14.4)
are mL = 1.0 · 10−4 , mR = 0.15, mT = 0.2, mLR = 8.0 · 10−3 , mLT = 8.0 · 10−3 and
mRT = 0.8 (all MPa−1 ). The coupling coefficients between the different directions
are chosen to μLR = 0, μLT = 0 and μRT = 1.
The adhesive, polyurethane, is assumed to act as a linear elastic isotropic material
(Konnerth et al. 2007). The adhesive layers were assumed to be 0.1 mm thick. The
elastic properties were chosen according to the tests of Konnerth et al. (2007) to
Eadh = 470 MPa and νadh = 0.3.
14.4 Results and Discussion
14.4.1 Moisture
The calculated moisture profiles and the measured MC are shown in Fig. 14.5. The
climate difference resulted in distinctive moisture profiles. The influence of the glue
Fig. 14.5 Measured and calculated moisture profiles

Fig. 14.6 History plots of

simulated moisture contents
in the individual layers
compared to the
measurements, the studied
material points of the
simulations were located in
the middle of each layer
lines is obvious and very significant. The largest gradient in MC could be detected
between the bottom and the middle layer. These two layers showed a rapid increase
in moisture during the first 14 days and also a significant increase in moisture from
day 14 to 170 (Fig. 14.6). The MC in the top layer did not change very much from
day 14 to day 170.
14.4.2 Deformations and Stresses
The results of the experimental tests after 31 days are shown in Table 14.3. The
major cupping was found in the yz-plane since the perpendicular to fibre direc-
tion of the outer layers is in the y-direction. This results in a dominant swelling
of the bottom layer in this direction. Due to the hindering by the middle layer, the
panel warps in the yz-plane. The simulated warping of panel AR90 is displayed in
Fig. 14.7. The figure shows the fact that the edges moved upwards while the centre
moved downwards.
The influence of the annual growth ring orientation on the cup deformation is
conspicuous (Table 14.3) and governed by the difference in swelling, stiffness prop-
erties and material orientation. The largest cup was found for panels with horizontal
Table 14.3 Measured warping after 31 days: mean and (standard deviation), ID according to
Table 14.1, n – number of samples, ρ0 – ovendry density (dry mass/dry volume)
ID n ρ0 (kg m−3 ) cupxz (mm) cupyz (mm)
AR0 6 411 0.06 (0.05) 0.42 (0.05)

AR45 6 407 0.06 (0.06) 0.22 (0.08)
AR90 6 431 0.10 (0.15) 0.27 (0.08)
LR37 6 459 0.11 (0.19) 0.08 (0.02)
LR52 6 461 0.07 (0.09) 0.14 (0.04)
LR57 3 451 0.04 (0.27) 0.12 (0.08)
Fig. 14.7 Simulated warp in a panel of series AR90 (one half of the panel is displayed,
displacements × 10, t = 744 h)
annual rings (AR0) reflecting the large swelling of the bottom layer. Tangential
swelling is about two times higher compared to radial swelling as it occurs in series
AR90. The smallest cupping was recorded for the panels with θ =45◦ (AR45), which
is due to the very small stiffness of softwood in that direction. It is about one half of
the tangential stiffness and about one quarter of the radial stiffness as a result of the
small GRT (Keunecke et al. 2008).
The tests of different layer ratios show increased cupping cupyz with increased
LR (Table 14.3). The simulated results of a variation of 0.5 ≤ LR ≤ 0.8 are plotted
in Fig. 14.8 for two panel thicknesses, 20 mm and 30 mm. An increased LR gives
an increased ratio of outer layers, i.e. a larger ratio of transverse oriented fibres in
the y-direction. This effect leads to a larger cupyz at higher layer ratios. The results
show an exponential increase in cup deformation.
The experimentally obtained time variation of cupyz is shown in Fig. 14.9.
Almost all panels attain their maximum cup between day 3 and day 12. Series AR45
and LR37 showed no significant maximum. For AR45 cupyz became constant from
day 5 whereas for LR37 a slightly increased cupyz was recorded during the whole
testing period. The MC of the bottom layer was found to increase rapidly (Fig. 14.6).
Hence, the expansion of the bottom layer, which is mainly in the y-direction, leads
to a strong increase in cupyz . The decrease in cupyz after the maximum is reached
is caused by an increase in MC of the middle layer and later of the top layer. The
moisture increase and, therefore, swelling of these two layers act in opposition to the
deformation of the bottom layer. Thus, cupyz decreases and cupxz increases. The sim-
ulated history plot of cupping in AR90 shows a good agreement to the experimental
test results (Fig. 14.9).
Compared to beech panels, as they were investigated by Gereke et al. (2009a),
spruce panels showed a good dimensional stability (Gereke et al. 2009b). The max-
imum cupyz in three-layered cross-laminated beech panels with layer thicknesses
Fig. 14.8 Simulated influence of the layer ratio LR on cupyz for two panel thicknesses, 20 mm and
30 mm, t = 744 h
of 10 mm and LR = 0.67 was detected to 1.14 mm. The cup in spruce panels was
measured to be 70% smaller (AR90).
A sensitivity study of the mechanical material parameters was performed on a
panel of type AR90. Nearly no influence could be detected for varying the shear
moduli and the Poisson’s ratios. Panel type AR90 also acts little sensitive on a modi-
fication of ET . Fig. 14.10 shows the influence of a 30% increase and a 30% decrease
Fig. 14.9 Nonlinear regression of the time variation of the cup deformation in the yz-plane, cupyz
50 cupxz
cupyz
40
Difference to reference (%)
30
20
10
all OL ML all OL ML
0
all OL ML all OL ML
–10
–20
–30
EL ER αL αR m L mR ER* αR*
50 cupxz
cupyz
40
Difference to reference (%)
30
20
10
all OL ML all OL ML
0
all OL ML all OL ML
–10
–20
–30
EL ER αL αR m L mR ER* αR*
Fig. 14.10 Relative change of the cup of panel type AR90 caused by 30% increase (upper) and
30% decrease (lower) of material parameter values for the complete panel (all) and the individual
layers (OL – outer layers, ML – middle layer). ∗ The mechano-sorptive fraction is omitted both in
the parameter study and in the reference calculation
Fig. 14.11 Simulated stress distribution σy along the y-axis in the bottom layer in panel AR90 after
744 h of climate difference 65/100% RH, x=150 mm, z=0 mm (upper) and z=10 mm (lower),
30% decrease of the material parameter values, ref – reference panel
of EL , ER , α L , α R , mL and mR in the individual layers and in the complete panel.

The cupping cupyz is significantly influenced by a change of the longitudinal para-
meters EL and α L in the middle layer and of the radial parameters ER and α R in the
outer layers. The cup deformation cupxz is significantly influenced only by a change
of the parameters in the outer layers.
The mechano-sorptive strain was found to be very important for the cup defor-
mation and for the results obtained in the parameter study. The mechano-sorptive
coefficient mR affects cupyz with about 54% when decreased and -34% when
increased. If omitting the mechano-sorptive effect, then the simulated cupping
would become about 10 times higher and deviate very much from the cupping
recorded in the experimental tests.
The mechano-sorptive strain is important also for the influence on the cup-
ping of ER and EL . Increase of these two parameters, all other parameters
kept constant, give decreased cupping if mechano-sorption is considered in the
analysis and increased cupping if not considered. With an increase in the coeffi-
cients of hygroexpansion the deformations increases and vice versa. A variation
of α L in the outer layers of 30% influences cupxz with about 30%. In con-
trast, the variation of EL , ER and α R has almost no influence on cupxz if the
mechano-sorptive strain increment is considered. The modification of the coeffi-
cient of hygroexpansion causes a larger expansion of the layers in the appropriate
direction. The longitudinal hygroexpansion influences the major direction. This
results in a larger cupxz but only slightly changes cupyz . The panel reveals the
opposite behaviour when α R is modified. Here, the minor direction is mainly
affected.
The stress distribution σy (radial direction) along the y-axis in the middle of
the panel (x=150 mm) is displayed for the positions z=0 mm (bottom face) and
z=10 mm (in the bottom layer at the glue line) in Fig. 14.11. Stresses are signifi-
cantly influenced by a variation of ER and α R , which lead to increased stresses. The
variation of the mechano-sorptive coefficient mR resulted in decreased stresses at the
glue line.
The stiffness of the glue line influences the warping only in a slight manner. In
a range up to Eadh =10 GPa, which conforms with results obtained by Konnerth
et al. (2006, 2007), we observed a linear decrease in cupyz of 5% while cupxz
is not influenced. Thus, the influence on warping of potentially different mod-
uli of elasticity of the two adhesives applied in the experimental tests can be
neglected.
14.5 Summary
The hygroscopic warping of three-layered cross-laminated timber is mainly affected
by the stiffness, the moisture-induced swelling and the mechano-sorptive coefficient
in the minor direction. These parameters can be altered by changing the layer ratio
and the orientation of the annual growth rings. According to the results of this study
the orientation of the annual growth rings should be chosen to θ =45◦ . The low stiff-
ness perpendicular to the grain leads to small cupping. Good results were obtained
for θ =90◦ as well. The small moisture-induced swelling in the radial direction leads
to small cupping. θ =0◦ should be avoided in practical applications. Furthermore,
the layer ratio LR should be chosen as small as possible but without losing the barrier
effect due to the cross-lamination. Depending on the panel thickness, the outer lay-
ers can become thin. Small thickness results in increased risk of cracking in the outer
layers when the panel is exposed to drying. Therefore, moisture-induced stresses and
cracking was studied by Gereke (2009). The possibilities and effects of alterations
of the panel structure, e.g., by using some alternative middle layer material, has also
been studied by Gereke (2009).
Acknowledgements Financial support from the European Cooperation in Science and
Technology (COST, Action E49) is gratefully acknowledged.
References
DIN EN ISO 12572 (2001) Hygrothermal performance of building materials and products –
Determination of water vapour transmission properties
Bodig J, Jayne A (1982) Mechanics of wood and wood composites. Van Nostrand Reinhold
Company, New York, NY
Dahlblom O, Persson K, Petersson H, Ormarsson S (1999) Investigation of variation of engineering
properties of spruce. 6th international IUFRO wood drying conference: Wood Drying Research
& Technology for Sustainable Forestry Beyond 2000. University of Stellenbosch, South Africa
Frandsen HL, Damkilde L, Svensson S (2007) A revised multi-Fickian moisture transport model
to describe non-Fickian effects in wood. Holzforschung 61:563–572
Gereke T (2009) Moisture-induced stresses in cross-laminated wood panels. PhD thesis, ETH
Zurich
Gereke T, Schnider T, Hurst A, Niemz P (2009a) Identification of moisture-induced stresses in
cross-laminated wood panels from beech wood (Fagus sylvatica L.) Wood Sci. Techn 43(3-4):
301–315. Published on line: September 23, 2008
Gereke T, Gustafsson PJ, Persson K, Niemz P (2009b) Experimental and numerical determina-
tion of the hygroscopic warping of cross-laminated solid wood panels Holzforschung 63(3):
340–347
Hanhijärvi A (1995) Modelling of creep deformation mechanisms in wood. Technical Research
Centre of Finland, Espoo
Hukka A (1999) The effective diffusion coefficient and mass transfer coefficient of nordic softwood
as calculated from direct drying experiments. Holzforschung 53:534–540
Keunecke D, Hering S, Niemz P (2008) Three-dimensional elastic behaviour of common yew and
Norway spruce. Wood Sci Technol 42:633–647
Konnerth J, Gindl W, Müller U (2007) Elastic properties of adhesive polymers. Part I:
Polymer films by means of electronic speckle pattern interferometry. J Appl Polym Sci 103:
3936–3939
Konnerth J, Jäger A, Eberhardsteiner J, Müller U, Gindl W (2006) Elastic properties of adhesive
polymers. Part II. Polymer films and bond lines by means of nanoindentation. J Appl Polym
Sci 102:1234–1239
Leicester RM (1971) A rheological model for mechano-sorptive deflections of beams. Wood Sci
Technol 5:211–220
Mårtensson A (1992) Mechanical behaviour of wood exposed to humidity variations. Report
TVBK-1006, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
Neuhaus F.-H (1981) Elastizitätszahlen von Fichtenholz in Abhängigkeit von der Holzfeuchtigkeit.
Ruhr-University Bochum
Ormarsson S (1999) Numerical analysis of moisture-related distortions in sawn timber. Phd thesis,
Chalmers University of Technology, Göteborg, Sweden,
Ranta-Maunus A (1990) Impact of mechano-sorptive creep to the long-term strength of timber.
Holz als Roh- und Werkstoff 48:67–71
Santaoja K, Leino T, Ranta-Maunus A, Hanhijärvi A (1991) Mechano-sorptive structural analysis

of wood by the ABAQUS finite element program. Research Notes 1276, Technical Research
Center of Finland, Espoo
Sell J (1997) Eigenschaften und Kenngrössen von Holzarten. Baufachverlag AG, Dietikon
Siau JF (1995) Wood: Influence of moisture on physical properties. Department of Wood Science
and Forest Products, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, USA
Takemura T (1967) Plastic properties of wood in relation to the non equilibrium states of moisture
content. Part II. Mokuzai Gakkaishi 13(3):77–81
Teischinger A, Vanek M (1987) Eignung verschiedener Auftrennmethoden zur Bestimmung eines
Feuchtegradienten im Holz nach der Darrmethode. Holzforschung und Holzverwertung 39:5–8
Toratti T (1992) Creep of timber beams in a variable environment. Helsinki University of
Technology, Espoo
Vanek M, Teischinger A (1989) Diffusionskoeffizienten und Diffusionswiderstandszahlen von
verschiedenen Holzarten. Holzforschung und Holzverwertung 1:3–6
Chapter 15
Acoustic Emission Activity Induced by
Delamination and Fracture of Wood Structure
Voichita Bucur
Contents
15.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287

15.2 Parameters of the Acoustic Emission Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
15.3 Parameter-Based Acoustic Emission Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
15.3.1 Species Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
15.3.2 Grain Angle Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
15.3.3 Annual Ring Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
15.3.4 Tension Wood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
15.3.5 Moisture Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
15.3.6 The Reused Old Wood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
15.4 Some Aspects Related to the Energy of the Acoustic Emission Signals . . . . . . 301
15.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
15.1 Introduction
The damage evolution related to fracture phenomena in wood can be expressed at

several internal length scales such as atomic, micro, meso and macro scales. Damage
initiates on the atomic scale and reaches relevance for larger scales while it propa-
gates, leading to failure when reaching the macro scale. In this section we focus our
attention on aspects related to the micro and macro scales. The dominating struc-
ture on micro scale is composed from the anatomic constituents while on meso
scale the dominating structure is composed from the annual rings. Acoustic emis-
sion technique can be used to study the fracture damage mechanisms on micro and
meso scales. Acoustic emission analysis requires the analysis of mechanical data
and the acoustic emission rate, the localization of the acoustic emission source, the
V. Bucur (B)
288 V. Bucur
evaluation of the topography of the fracture plane and finally, studies for different
failure modes. (Grosse and Finck 2006; Grosse at al. 2003).
Acoustic emission phenomena occur in wood or wood-based composites, like
in other solids, when subjected to a mechanical loading or other stress induced
conditions. The materials generate transient elastic waves caused by the release
of localized stress energy. Acoustic emissions can be detected in a wide range
of frequencies (100 kHz . . . 1 MHz), the most appropriated for wood being with
piezoelectric transducers between 100 and 200 kHz. (Drouillard 1990; Ono 1997;
Beall 2002; Kawamoto and Williams 2002; Bucur 2005). Resonant and wideband
transducers can be used in contact or not with the specimen. The rapid irreversible
stress-releasing events (delamination, dislocations, cracks, fibre breakage, etc) gen-
erate a spectrum of stress waves starting at 0 Hz and typically falling off at several
MHz. The monitoring of the level of acoustic emission activity forms one of the
basis of non-destructive testing in-situ of fracture phenomena, which are local
damages in wood and wood-based composites.
15.2 Parameters of the Acoustic Emission Signals

Acoustic emission technique provides the opportunity for continuous monitoring of
specimens under test, in real time. The literature for nondestructive evaluation and
testing of materials is very abundant in describing the acoustic emission techniques
and the parameters of the acoustic emission signals (Stephens and Leventhal 1974;
Sachse and Kim 1987; Scott IG 1991; Ando 1993; Green 2004; Minozzi et al. 2003;
Landis 2008; ASNT 2005; Muravin 2009 and journals such as JASA, Ultrasonics, J.
Acoustic Emissioin, Materials Evaluation, etc). The acoustic emission activity and
signal strength release by the materials depend on the nature, microfracture charac-
teristics and processes involved. In this chapter several basic aspects are summarized
for better understanding of the requirements for specific aspects related to wood and
wood-based composites. The approaches in analysing AE signals are: parameter-
based techniques and signal-based quantitative techniques. The parameter – based
techniques are the most popular and are able to analyse large acoustic events, to store
data and to facilitate data fast visualisation using equipment of reasonable cost. The
signal-based quantitative techniques require high costs and long time for fine sig-
nal processing. These techniques are recommended in advanced fracture analysis
(Grosse and Ohtsu 2008).
Figure 15.1 illustrates a typical acoustic event. The conventional classical param-
eters as defined by ISO 12716 are: hit, counting/ring-down count/emission count,
amplitude, duration, rise time, energy, average frequency, initial frequency, reverber-
ation frequency, frequency centroid, peak frequency, rise time divided by amplitude
called RA value, RMS (root mean squared values), the threshold voltage. A com-
bination of some of them in an empirical relationship inspired from seismic signals
analysis gives N(V) = kV m where k and m are calculated from data generated
at the proportional limit on load – COD curve. The m coefficient is effective for
acoustic emission studies and confirms the progressive deterioration of the materi-
als. Other parameters can be calculated such as for example the acoustic emission
15 Acoustic Emission Activity Induced by Delamination and Fracture 289
Fig. 15.1 A typical acoustic event and its main parameters: event duration, peak amplitude,
threshold voltage (ISO 12716)
energy which is the AE waveform squared and integrated over time. Power spectrum
was also used. When attempting to extract more information from the waveform and
emission patterns, a range of factors must be take into account such as source emis-
sion characteristics, propagation effects and transducers excitation effects. The use
of acoustic emission and Weibull statistics to characterize the specimen is an effec-
tive way to perceive subtle changes in material fracture characteristics (Okoroafor
and Hill 1995; Petri 1996; Hill et al. 1998).
The acoustic emission signal emanating from the sample is detected via a trans-
ducer in contact or not with the specimens (Murphy et al. 1990; Green 2004).
Furthermore the signal is amplified and processed in real time with appropri-
ate computer software. Fundamentals of acoustic emission signal processing and
instrumentation are specified in ASTM E750-98 (transducers, preamplifiers, filters,
amplifiers, cables threshold and counting instrumentation).
Acoustic emission activity is strongly dependent on irreversible, non elastic
deformations in wood. Due to the nature of signal source, the acoustic emission
tests are not perfectly reproducible. The wavelength of the signals is an important
parameter in planning the experiments. Signal localization is the basis of all anal-
ysis techniques. Problems related to the influence of ambient noise, the attenuation
of signals resulting in low-signal to noise ratio require sophisticated data processing
techniques. Sensor polarity, sensor orientation, source coordinates, P and S waves
displacement amplitudes recorded at each sensor, spectral amplitudes, the polarity
of the wave phases must to be under control. Knowing how the signals are recorded
is essential in understanding the acoustic emission technique.The interpretation of
the acoustic emission signals is very much dependent on the experimental condi-
tions and of the skill and art of the operator armed with wide theoretical knowledge
for the complex understanding of wave propagation and fracture phenomena.
Advance in acoustic emission technique for composites was achieved with the
development of artificial neural network back propagation algorithm (Fausett 1994;
Sasikumar et al. 2008). At the beginning of 1990s, new techniques for acoustic
emission signal processing emerged for the detection and characterization of failure
290 V. Bucur
of materials such as: wavelet transform (Chui 1992; Serrano and Fabjo 1996) or
simulation techniques (Grabec and Sachse 1997). Nonlinear acoustic modulation
technique was also developed (Solodov 1998; Ballad et al. 2004; Stoessel et al.
2003) for crack detection. Nonlinear vibrations of cracks produce nonlinear acoustic
emission signals which are high order harmonic radiations in surrounding air that
enables to locate and image cracks remotely.
15.3 Parameter-Based Acoustic Emission Techniques
Wood is a “dynamic acoustic” material from which the acoustic emission signals
emerge rapidly and randomly. An excellent review of the state of the art, techno-
logical challenges and future developments of parameter based acoustic emission
techniques for wood and wood based composites has been published by Kawamoto
and Williams (2002). In this section will be described the effect of species, grain
angle, periodic structure of the annual rings, tension wood and reused, old wood
on the acoustic emission activity of wood and the corresponding delamination and
fracture phenomena, studied with parameter- based techniques.
15.3.1 Species Effect

The effect of species on acoustic emission activity and fracture in RL system, Mode
I has been studied by Reiter et al. (2000, 2002). Cubic specimens have been used
for splitting test. The horizontal force component of the splitting test FH , called
simply horizontal force was correlated with acoustic emission activity and wood
fracture. Figure 15.2 illustrates the variation of the number of AE counts versus
Fig. 15.2 Variation of the number of AE counts versus the tensile strength for four species (spruce
and pine and alder, oak and ash). Reiter et al. (2000, Figure 8)
a b
Fig. 15.3 The onset of microcracks and the acoustic emission amplitude is shown in Reiter et al.
(2000, Figures 9) (Figure 9b, 10b)
the tensile strength for four species (spruce and pine and alder, oak and ash). The
softwoods exhibited higher AE counts than hardwoods. The onset of microcracks
and the acoustic emission amplitude is shown in Fig. 15.3. The microcrack forma-
tion around the crack tip and fiber bridging produce AE activity. High number of
AE events for softwoods are related to stable crack propagation phase. In hardwood
numerous crack arrests can be seen induced by unstable crack propagation, fewer
microcracks are formed, fiber bridging is not effective and AE counts are lower. For
pine the microcrack formation started at 86% of the maximum horizontal force. The
AE amplitudes are numerous and greatest at the beginning (below 400 s) and then,
after the macrocracks started to propagate, the amplitudes decreased continuously
until the end of the experiment. For the alder, the beginning of microcracks forma-
tion is at about 93% FH Max . The growth and arrest of crack is accompanied by very
high variation of the amplitudes. The signal amplitude decreased as soon as crack
arresting took place.
Reiter et al. (2002) compared wood fracture behavior in RL systems for the
spruce, alder, oak and ash. For this purpose the parameters selected were AE counts,
brittlennes, B, KIc and Gf (Table 15.1). Spruce exhibited the highest AE number of
Table 15.1 Fracture parameters and acoustic emission counts number for RL crack propagation
system for different species (data from Reiter et al. 2002)
AE counts Brittleness (mm)

2
1 FH,max √
Species (number) B= L kinit Gf KIc MPa m Gf J/m2
Spruce 9567 1.1 0.49 337

Alder 1367 2.1 0.67 244
Oak 867 2.0 0.83 348
Ash 433 2.1 1.16 551
Note: L is the ligament length, k init is the slop is proportional with the effective modulus of elas-
ticity, KIc is the critical stress intensity factor, Gf is the specific fracture energy, which characterize
the whole fracture process including crack initiation and propagation until complete separation of
the specimen into two pieces
292 V. Bucur
counts, the smallest brittleness and the smallest Gf . Lower B values indicate a more
brittle behavior. The presence of rays in hardwoods explained the significant dif-
ference between the behavior of spruce and other hardwood species. The speed of
loading can have an important effect on crack propagation and acoustic emission
activity (Ogawa and Sobue 1999).
Aicher et al. (2001) examined the delamination in softwoods loaded in tension
in plane normal to the tangential direction. Acoustic emission source location and
damage localization was possible within 100 mm distance. The characteristic rapid
increase in AE events rate was not accompanied by a visible change in specimen
stiffness. Ringger et al. (2003) noted that the location of acoustic emission source
is possible if the acoustic anisotropy of species (ex: spruce and beech) is taken into
account.
15.3.2 Grain Angle Effect
It is generally accepted that all physical and mechanical properties of wood are
affected by the slop of grain. The effect of grain angle on fracture toughness and
acoustic emission parameters has been studied by Ando et al. (1992) on Picea
jezoensis Carr., on single edge-notched specimens at 0◦ , 15◦ , 30◦ , 45◦ , 60◦ , 75◦
and 90◦ . For all specimens the notches were introduced in tangential direction.
The relationships between the grain angle and the critical crack opening dis-
placement (COD) and KIc are given in Fig. 15.4. The increasing of grain angle
induces the continuous decreasing of KIc , while the acoustic emission activity is
very different from small angle (0◦ . . . 15◦ ) compared with large angles (> 30◦ ).
The m coefficient decreases quite linearly with increasing grain angle in Picea
jezoensis.
Figure 15.5 depicts the variation of the acoustic events number, the signal ampli-
tude, at various levels of loading up to the proportional limits. Two groups of
different signals have been observed, at small angle (0◦ and 15◦ ) only signals
of low amplitude 40–50 dB were generated in the early stage. The increasing of
load determined the gradual increasing of higher amplitudes. For large angles,
signals of higher amplitudes (65–75 dB) were generated from the early stage of
fracture.
The ex-situ inspection of fractured specimens showed that at small angles the
crack propagated along the grain, with transwall typical fractures in earlywood. At
large angles the cracks propagate along the grain, as interwalls fractures. The acous-
tic emission signals generated at small angle, before crack propagations correspond
probably to the microcracks at the tip zone induced by delaminations between cell
wall layers.
Cyra and Tanaka (2000) studied fracture phenomena and acoustic emission
in relation to routing cutting process. The acoustics events were related to the
grain angle, the state of cutting and the surface roughness. The acoustic emission
technique is promising for routing monitoring.
a b
c d
Fig. 15.4 Relationship between the grain angle and fracture parameters and acoustic emission
parameters (Ando et al. 1992, Figures 3, 4, 6, and 8), (a) COD and grain angle, (b) KIc and grain
angle, (c) AE cumulative events (counts) and grain angle up to proportional limit of Load –COD
curves, (d) m and grain angle Mokuzai Gakkaishi (1992, Figures 4, 5, 6, and 8)
The literature is very scarce in data on acoustic activity on specimens subjected to

static torsion and fatigue. The shear mode of rupture under torsional loading is one
of the most complex possible modes. Chen et al. (2006) investigated the behavior of
Red lauan (called also Philipine mahogany, Shorea spp.) and Sitka spruce under tor-
sional fatigue experiments. Table 15.2 shows the complexity of the fracture modes
developed under torsional loading. In static torsional testing microcrack initiation
was observed through the acoustic activity prior to maximum loading. Acoustic
emission activity (events number) increases as the grain angle increases from 45◦
to 90◦ . The red lauan produced more counts than Sitka spruce. Keiser effect before
cracking, in fatigue testing was reported for both species. Specimens under fatigue
testing produced more events than under static tests.
294 V. Bucur
Fig. 15.5 Amplitude,

acoustic events number and
relative load, up to the
proportional limit, on notched
specimens in tension. (a) for
small angle (0◦ and 15◦ ) and
(b) for other angles between
30◦ and 90◦ . Mokuzai
Gakkaishi (1992, Figure 7)
Table 15.2 Fracture modes at different grain angle orientation of specimens under torsional
loading (data from Chen et al. 2006)
Fracture modes at different grain angle orientation under torsion
Species 0◦ 45◦ 90◦
Red lauan II RL, III RT I RL, I RT II RL, III RT and III TR; II TL, III TR and III RT
Sitka Spruce II TL, III TR I TL, I TR II TL, III TR and III RT; II RL, III RT and III TR
15.3.3 Annual Ring Structure
Ansell (1982) was probably the first to demonstrate the influence of the earlywood-
latewood ratios under tensile loading on acoustic emission activity, expressed by the
shape of AE strain curve. Dill – Langer and Aicher (2000) observed micro fracture
nucleation of spruce under tensile loading; it was an on-set of AE prior to the first
visible crack growth step.
Ando et al. (1991) studied the effect of the location of the crack tip in an annual
ring of sugi (Cryptomeria japonica) in single edge notched specimens of the TR
crack propagation system. The critical stress intensity factor KIc varied according
to the location of the crack tip, from the pith to the bark or from the bark to the
pith. The crack tip was located in earlywood or in latewood. When located in the
earlywood, KIc increased with decreasing distance between the crack tip and the
latewood located forward of the tip. The patterns of the AE amplitude distribution
at various levels of loading up to the proportional limit in load-COD diagrams were
studied. Two populations of peaks amplitudes were observed, at 45 dB and 70 dB,
corresponding with two microcracks at different energy levels and recognized as
transwall failure and intrawall failures (Ando and Ohta 1995). It was supposed that
the variability of KIc by the crack tip position in the annual ring is due either to
the difference in cell shape or cell wall thickness around the crack tip, and to the
difference in stress concentration induced by crack location and the direction of
crack propagation. Ando and Ohta (1999) extended the previous studies to Sitka
spruce (Picea sitchensis), sugi (Cryptomeria japonica) and akamatsu (Pinus densi-
flora) taking into account the anisotropy and the heterogeneity of different zones in
the annual ring with FEA. Figure 15.6 shows the variation of KIc as a function of the
location of the crack tip in the annual ring for sugi (Cryptomeria japonica), spruce
(Picea sitchensis) and akamatsu (Pinus densiflora), for pith side notched and bark
side notched specimens.
The stress at the tip is expressed by
σtip = α σ and α = σtip /σ
where:
σ tip is the stress at the crack tip, in the tangential direction obtained with FEA
α is the stress concentration factor
σ is the nominal stress
Figure 15.7 shows the variation of stress concentration factor α as a function
of the location of the crack tip in the annual ring for sugi (Cryptomeria japon-
ica), spruce (Picea sitchensis) and akamatsu (Pinus densiflora) for pith side notched
(filled circles) and bark side notched (open circles) specimens. When the degree of
stress concentration was small an acoustic emission signal was generated and an
intrawall failure was observed, before the crack initiation. When the degree of stress
concentration was large, a signal of large amplitude was generated and transwall
failure was observed.
The annual ring scale was also studied by Dill –Langer and Aicher (2000). They
monitored simultaneously the crack propagation and the acoustic emission activ-
ity of notched spruce specimens in tension load, in RT and TR systems. A third
configuration was studied for specimens at 45◦ between radial growth direction
and load axis, with notch at 45◦ versus R. The damage mechanism was stud-
ied at micro (tracheids diameter 50 μm) and mezzo scales (annual ring width
3. . .5 mm). Confocal laser scanning microscopy was used for in-situ observation
of crack growth. Two characteristic damage phenomena have been observed. When
crack propagation is in TR system, or T propagation, the rupture of earlywood cell
walls was observed (intrawall failure). When crack propagation in RT system, or
R propagation, the debonding of the interface middle lamella between two adja-
cent tracheids was observed (interwall failure). The crack path was in zigzag for
the third configuration with the specimen oriented at 45◦ . “The more the crack
296 V. Bucur
Fig. 15.6 Variation of KIc in the annual ring as a function of the relative position of the crack for
sugi, spruce and akamatsu Permission J Wood Sci 45:275–283 Figure 9
approaches the earlywood/latewood transition the more it deviates from the initial
direction until propagation coincides with 45◦ At this stage the crack surface con-
sists predominantly of ruptured cell walls comparable to the rupture in RT system.
Having reached half the specimen with the crack turns 90◦ anticlockwise propa-
gating through late and transition wood. Thereby the crack surface is smooth as
Fig. 15.7 Variation of stress concentration factor versus the relative position of the crack for sugi,
spruce and akamatsu Ando and Ohta (1999, Figure 10)
in case of pure TR configuration, caused by the debonding of adjacent fibres with

hardly any cell wall damage”. The 45◦ specimen was used to put in evidence the
relationship between structural damage and acoustic emission activity.
The onset of acoustic emission was prior to the first in-situ microscopic visible
crack. More that 95% of the acoustic emission events and visible crack propagation
were observed during a plateau of load displacement curve. The acoustic emission
plot exhibited peaks in the same time as the load deformation plot. Dill –Langer and
Aicher (2000) suggested using these observations as support for further theoretical
modeling of damage in wood.
15.3.4 Tension Wood
The presence of reaction wood in general (compression or tension wood) in lumber

submitted to drying induce quality degradation. Cunderlik et al. (1996) monitored
the drying cracks in the tension and opposite wood by acoustic emission and SEM.
The opposite wood generates higher numbers of acoustic events than tension wood
(Fig. 15.8). Tension wood activity decreases with increase of gelationous fibres pro-
portion in wood tissue. In opposite wood dominated the cracks of high acoustic
activity in the middle lamella (intercell), while in tension wood the delamination of
gelatinous layer (G-layer) from the secondary wall (S2-layer) is characterized by
low acoustic activity.
15.3.5 Moisture Content
Acoustic emission technique from the early 1980 was related to checking detection
and wood drying (Kawamoto and Williams 2002). Acoustic emission signals dur-
ing drying are related to events produced by checking and water movement and it
is difficult to distinguish the source of emission. Wave pattern recognition using
cluster analysis was limited in applications for monitoring and controlling kilns
(Schniewind et al. 1996; Lee et al. 1996). The major AE sources are the surface
tensile stress induced by the water movement below the FSP and the thermal stress
related to temperature variation. Wood microscopic structure shows slips in the crys-
talline segments of cellulose (Booker 1994). The checking occurs when the rate of
298 V. Bucur
Fig. 15.8 Acoustic emission

count rate during drying of
tension and opposite wood in
beech (Cunderlik et al. 1996,
Figure 1)
slips exceeded a critical value. The slip lines generate slow AE events. Brittle micro-
cracks in the cell wall and delaminations generate rapid AE events (Sato et al. 1984;
Schniewind 1989).
Acoustic emission energy has been used to identify the damage during drying
by Kowalski et al. (2004). Roughly three groups of AE signals were identified. The
first group, observed at the beginning of drying process – with small amount of
energy and an important number of events, inducing microcracks. The second group,
identified during drying, with increasing acoustic emission energy and diminishing
the number of events, when the surface of the specimen shrinks and the moisture
content is around the fiber saturation point, inducing macrocraks. The final detected
stage of drying corresponds to specimen core drying, and has relatively low energy
AE signals. For better understanding of fracture phenomena during drying and the
related acoustic emission activity, problems related to the attenuation of signals and
transducers sensitivity must be solved.
Fig. 15.9 Acoustic emission signals during oak drying (Kim et al. 2005, Figures 2 and 3).
(a) cumulative counts versus drying time (b) AE waveform during surface check (c) AE waveform
during water movement
Pattern classification of acoustic emission signals during wood drying by prin-

cipal component analysis and artificial neural network for oak (Quercus variabilis)
was proposed by Kim et al. (2005). The acoustic emission parameters selected for
this study were: peak amplitude, ring-down count, event duration, frequency, energy,
rise time and peak amplitude/rise time. The sources of acoustic emission events dur-
ing drying were due to water movement and to surface check. The cumulative AE
hits versus drying time and the waveforms of AE signals corresponding to surface
check and water movement are shown in Fig. 15.9. AE signal produced by water
movement shows lower in peak amplitude, longer in rise time and lower in peak
frequency, then the signals caused by surface check. 96% of the variability of AE
signals was accounted in the principal components plane 12. Kim et al. (2005) noted
that when the value of the first principal component is greater than 1, the number of
AE events cause by water movement are higher then AE events caused by surface
checking. The classification of AE signals with artificial neural network (ANN) was
performed in two hypotheses. The first ANN classifier has six input nodes for six
AE parameters. The second ANN classifier has only two inputs for two principal
components. All classifiers have two output nodes, the surface check pattern and
the water movement pattern. Eight nodes (hidden layer) were chosen for optimum
pre processing of ANN classifier. The neurons between layers were activated with
tangent sigmoid function. The recognition rate was used to evaluate the performance
of AE and ANN classifiers (Table 15.3). Surface checking was recognised at 83%
with ANN classifier and AE parameter inputs and by 85% with ANN classifier and
principal components inputs. This technique seemed to be promising for improving
wood drying technology.
15.3.6 The Reused Old Wood
Recycling old wood salvaged from old structures, is a real problem for the modern
and green sustainable society (Ando et al. 2006, 2007). Acoustic emission technique
300 V. Bucur
Table 15.3 Recognition rate with ANN classifiers using AE parameters and principal components
inputs (data from Kim et al. 2005)
Water Check Recognition
Learning Validation Learning Validation

Inputs Pattern (number) (number) (number) (number) Rate %
AE Water 458 396 42 104 91.6 72.9

parameters Check 66 83 434 417 86.8 83.4
Total − − − − 89.2 81.3
Principal Water 471 448 29 52 94.2 89.6
components Check 44 74 456 426 91.2 85.3
Total − − − − 92.7 87.4
is appropriated for examining the differences between new and old wood in shear-
ing fracture (Japanese standard JIS Z 2101-1994). Specimens of Japanese red pine
(Pinus densiflora) from 270 old structural members were compared with specimens
of new wood, lumbered within 3 years before testing. The cumulative AE event
counts versus shearing stress is presented in Fig. 15.10. In the initial stage of loading
a c
b
Fig. 15.10 Behavior of old and new wood (Ando et al. 2006, Figure 3, 5) (a) cumulative AE
events versus shearing stress in new wood; (b) cumulative AE events versus shearing stress in old
wood; (c) m value versus relative stress (ratio of stress to maximum stress)
the behaviour of new wood is very different from that of old wood. The difference
in behaviour of old and new wood is well put in evidence in Fig. 15.10c with the
variation of m value versus the relative stress. The increase in m value expresses
the acoustic emission events of small amplitudes with stable crack propagation.
The decrease in m value signifies the frequent occurrence of high-amplitudes AE
events, with predominantly unstable fractures. The fractographic analysis revelled
in new wood a smooth flat surface with intrawall failure. The fracture surface of old
wood was rough and irregular of trans-wall type, initiated from the bordered pits.
Under shearing test the old wood underwent stable crack propagation before the
final fracture.
15.4 Some Aspects Related to the Energy of the Acoustic

Emission Signals
The acoustic emission energy, monitored with a high speed waveform acquisi-
tion system was reported by Landis and Whittaker (2001). The progressive crack
growths along the grain in direction in notched eastern hemlock (Tsuga Canadensis)
specimens has been studied in Mode I (Fig. 15.11). Crack length data and load-
CMOD data were used to calculate the fracture energy. The release of the acoustic
emission energy was calculated by integrating the instantaneous power of an elastic
wave over all frequencies, and by multiply the result by the length of the AE wave-
form. From data plotted in Fig. 15.12 (which gives the variation of the measured
Fig. 15.11 Load (N), strain

energy release (GIc ) versus
fracture time (seconds) of a
notched specimen of eastern
hemlock (Tsuga Canadensis)
(Landis and Whittaker 2001,
Figure 2)
Fig. 15.12 The measured

load and the cumulative
acoustic emission energy
release during fracture.
Figure 4)
302 V. Bucur
Fig. 15.13 The linear

relationship Between the
acoustic emission energy rate
and fracture energy release
Figure 5)
load and cumulative acoustic emission energy release during fracture) it can be
noted that:
– an internal damage is produced before the growth of the crack

– a constant rate at which the AE energy is released after the starting of crack growth
– a constant rate of fracture energy release
Figure 15.13 shows the linear relationship between the acoustic emission energy
rate and the fracture energy release.
A more refined approach to examine the mechanisms of energy dissipation dur-
ing fracture perpendicular to grain and crack propagation in radial direction, in
spruce was proposed by Watanabe and Landis (2007). It was hypothesized that the
total dissipation energy during fracture is composed from two main components,
the first one, corresponding to the dissipation of energy induced by short bursts
and unstable crack growth, reflected by the strong acoustic emission activity and
the second one, corresponding to additional energy, dissipated in the form of more
gradual processes that include creep deformation, and slow crack growth, as can
be seen from Fig. 15.14. Towards the end of the experiment the acoustic energy
rises again, but before that, the fracture was slowed probably because of bridging
effect combined with the action of other cohesive forces. More research is needed
to understand the rapid rise of energy at the end of the test. It was advanced that this
behavior is related to cohesive forces at the crack tip.
15.5 Summary
Delamination and fracture phenomena in wood can be monitored non-destructively,

continuously and in real time with acoustic emission technique. The conven-
tional classical parameters of acoustic emission are: hit, counting/ring-down
count/emission count, amplitude, duration, rise time, energy, average frequency,
initial frequency, reverberation frequency, frequency centroid, peak frequency,
rise time divided by amplitude called RA value, RMS (root mean squared val-
ues), the threshold voltage (ISO 12716). The approaches in analysing AE signals
Fig. 15.14 The variation of AE energy, the consumed energy and load versus time, for a specimen
of Canadian Eastern spruce tested in mode I (Watanabe and Landis 2007, Figure 5)
are: parameter-based techniques and signal-based quantitative techniques. The

parameter-based techniques are the most popular for wood material studies.
Acoustic emission technique operates using resonant or wideband transducers in
ultrasonic frequency range (100 kHz–1 MHz). The most appropriated technique for
wood is with piezoelectric transducers between 100 and 200 kHz. Acoustic emis-
sion is highly sensitive to the initiation and growth of delamination in wood and
has advantages over conventional ultrasonic and radiographic methods. Transverse
failure is one of the most important damage mechanisms controlling the loss of
stiffness in wood which may be lifetime limiting in for structural members. Factors
such as species, grain angle orientation, annual ring structure, moisture content, ten-
sion wood, etc effects the acoustic emission activity related to crack propagation,
delamination and fracture phenomena. Acoustic emission technique provides a sen-
sitive approach for real time detection of cracking, and also an unique view into
the micromechanics of crack initiation and growth of delamination. The damage
processes in the material under test can be observed during the entire load his-
tory without any deterioration of the specimen. The final objective of monitoring
acoustic emission phenomena in wood is to provide beneficial information to pre-
vent deterioration during processing (drying, etc) and catastrophic failure of the
material.
For the future, it could be suggested the development of new signal-based pro-
cedures, for wood and wood based composites, with a more quantitative analysis
of the acoustic emission signals based on a 3D localization of AE sources and the
recordings obtained from a sensor network. Another research field to be developed
is related to the acoustic emission activity produced by micro-cracks with a two or
304 V. Bucur
tri-dimensional disordered lattice model of dynamic fracture, which can relate the
acoustic response to the internal damage of the sample.
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Chapter 16
Delamination Detection in Wood – Based
Composites Panel Products Using Ultrasonic
Techniques
Voichita Bucur and Saeed Kazemi-Najafi
Contents
16.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307

16.2 Basic Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
16.2.1 Waves Propagation Paths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
16.2.2 Linear Ultrasonic Inspection Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
16.2.3 Ultrasonic Transducers and Scanning Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
16.2.4 Non-linear Ultrasonic Inspection Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
16.3 Delamination Detection in Wood-Based Composite Panels . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
16.3.1 Through Transmission Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
16.3.2 Plate Wave Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
16.3.3 Industrial Applications of Non-contact Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
16.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
16.1 Introduction
Wood – based composite panel products (WBCP) are manufactured from veneer,
wood particles, strands or fibres bind together with different types of adhesives such
as urea-formaldehyde resin, phenol-formaldehyde resin, melamine formaldehyde
resin, methylene diphenyl diisocyanate or polyurethane resins. The nature and the
quality of the raw material and of the adhesives determine the characteristics of
the products (mechanical properties, water resistance, dimensional stability, surface
quality and machinability).
The products existing on the market can be classified such as:
– glued laminated timber – glulam, crosslam, glulam slabs,
– veneer based panels – plywood, laminated veneer lumber,
V. Bucur (B)
308 V. Bucur and S. Kazemi-Najafi
– particle based boards – oriented strandboard, particleboard, fibre board,

– mineral bonded particleboard and fibreboard,
– wood – plastic composites.
Wood-based panel products have become increasingly specialized in recent years

and are used in a wide range of applications. The demand for panels is forecast to
increase in the next decades as quality logs for traditional products become increas-
ingly scarce and as designers and consumers gain experience with positive product
attributes and new applications. Wood based composite panels will probably in the
future, substitute some metallic structural elements and plastics.
The strength and durability of wood based materials are determined by their
homogeneity and flaw presence. Similar to other composite materials, flaws and
damage in WBCPs are:
– inherent processing flaws (voids, debonding, fibre breakage, non-uniform fibre

and matrix distribution, fibre misalignment, foreign inclusions, ply gaps, delam-
inations, and matrix cracking). These defects tend to degrade certain structural
design properties and remain in the material throughout its life cycle
– in-service damage, induced by the exposition to various environmental and
mechanical loading conditions (impact events, hygrothermal cycles and fatigue
in very variable environmental conditions of temperature and humidity, etc).
The main defects observed in service are: matrix cracking and crazing, ply
gaps and delamination, fibre pullout, fibre fracture, degradations by aging and
environmental aggressive conditions.
Delamination is one of the most important defect which occurs in WBCP.

In order to design and use WBCP with confidence, it is important to assess their
integrity and evaluate their tolerance to flaws. Unfortunately, some flows cannot be
detected until failure occurs. Therefore, the structural integrity of WBCP should
be assessed by means of nondestructive evaluation methods at the earliest possible
stage of damage existence. Nondestructive evaluation techniques have been devel-
oped to minimize the effects of defects and to insure the quality control of the final
product. Non-destructive inspection techniques (Bucur 2003a, b) with different sen-
sitivity levels can be used for non-destructive evaluation of wood-based composites,
such as: X-ray and γ-ray radiography, thermography, ultrasonic techniques, acoustic
emission and acousto-ultrasonics. Among these techniques, ultrasonic techniques
are the most popular, due to the ease of integration into the production line, of the
relatively low cost and inherent safety. The advantages or the disadvantages of dif-
ferent available techniques depend on the type of damage to be detected and on
the testing conditions. Sophisticated laboratory techniques can give highly accu-
rate results, but may not be able to assess the state of the structure under in-service
conditions.
The aim of this chapter is to review the existing ultrasonic techniques for
delamination detection in WBCP.
16 Delamination Detection in Wood – Based Composites Panel Products 309
16.2 Basic Aspects

Theoretical aspects related to the propagation of elastic waves in anisotropic solids
have been discussed in numerous reference books and articles (Kolsky 1963;
Viktorov 1967; Musgrave 1970; Auld 1973; Green 1973; Graff 1975; Krautkrämer
and Krautkrämer 1990; Birks and Green 1991; Nayeh 1995; Schmerr 1998; Rose
1999). It was stated that the real part of the elastic constants of the materials can be
determined by measuring two main parameters, the velocity of the elastic waves and
the density of the material. The presence of delamination induces modification of
materials mechanical and elastical properties which can be detected with ultrasonic
techniques. Ultrasonic inspection involves the utilization of stress waves having a
frequency higher than 20 kHz. Linear and non linear ultrasonic techniques have been
developed for ultrasonic inspection of wood and wood – based composite materials.
16.2.1 Waves Propagation Paths
Bulk waves or surface waves can be used for the characterization of the mechani-
cal behaviour of wood-based composites panel products. The waves characteristics
related to the propagation in an infinite solid of bulk waves – longitudinal and shear
waves, (named also P and S waves) are shown in Fig. 16.1. The longitudinal waves
are characterized by the fact that the direction of wave propagation is parallel to the
direction of particle motion (polarization). In the case of shear waves the particle
motion is perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation.
For the inspection of plate type specimens, as wood based composites panels,
it is also interesting to use Lamb waves. The Lamb waves are elastic wave modes
Fig. 16.1 Schematic representation of propagation of bulk longitudinal and shear waves in
solids (Olympus, Panametrics, Figure 3, page 41)). http://www.olympus-ims.com/data/File/
panametrics-UT.en.pdf (visited 16 june 2009)
Fig. 16.2 Plate modes

(Tucker 2001, Figure 1,
page 7).
https://research.wsulibs.
wsu.edu:8443/dspace/bitstream/
2376/53/1/b_tucker_052101.pdf.
(a) Schematic representation
of the displacement with plate
wave modes; (b) plate mode
signal composed from
extensional and flexural
waves
propagating in solid plates with free boundaries and representing a combination

of both compression waves and shear waves. There are two distinct modes of
Lamb waves, discernible by their particle displacement patterns and velocities
(Fig. 16.2),
– extensional mode which is symmetric versus the axis of the plate; compression
and tension effects can be observed; the displacement is due to Poisson’s effect.
Each symmetric mode has infinite number modes (s0 , s1 , s2 , . . . , sn ). The particle
motion is parallel with the direction of wave propagation. This mode is relatively
nondispersive (not dependent on frequency f ) if hf < 0.5 and where h is the plate
thickness.
– flexural mode which is antisymmetric versus the axis of the plate. Each anti-
symmetric mode have an infinite number modes (a0 , a1 , a2 , . . . an ) The particle
motion is perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation. This mode is highly
dispersive
The lowest order Lamb wave modes (s0 and a0 ) which are the two fundamentals
are commonly termed “plate waves” and are mostly used for non-destructive testing
of wood – based composite panels.
Lamb wave propagation occurs when the wavelength λ is as 0.1h < λ < 10h,
where h is the plate thickness. For experimental reason λ > 10h was recommended
by Bray and Stanley (1997) while λ > 5h and λ > 3h were proposed by Huang
(1999) for experiments with composites and with extensional and flexural waves,
respectively. It is understood that for a type plate specimen, the length and width
of the plate must be much greater than the wavelength used for the inspection. The
layered solid in which plate waves propagate can be understand as a homogeneous
solid because of the long wavelength.
The techniques based on Lamb wave propagation are able to measure the flexural
and transverse shear rigidity of laminated fibre composites.
Defect detection using Lamb waves can be performed by measuring wave veloc-
ity or attenuation. Numerous reference books and articles (Bland 1988; Birks and
Green 1991; Nayeh 1995; Rose et al. 1987, 1992; Schmerr 1998; Rose 1999; Bar-
Cohen and Chimenti 1986; Tang 1988; Tang and Henneke 1989a; Huang et al. 1998)
reported the utilization of velocity and attenuation measurements for the evalua-
tion of elastic constants of fibre composites and for the detection of defects such
as delaminations and disbondings. The measurements of attenuation of ultrasonic
waves are more complicated than of velocity. The coupling medium could be a high
source of error for attenuation measurements, but is not as critical in velocity mea-
surements. Non contact transducers are recommended to avoid all these problems.
Tucker (2001), Tucker and Bender (2003), and Tucker et al. (2003) successfully
utilised the Lamb waves for continuous nondestructive inspection of wood-based
composite panels and of wood-plastic composites.
16.2.2 Linear Ultrasonic Inspection Techniques
The linear inspection techniques have been developed in the hypothesis that the
acoustic wave amplitude is infinitesimally small and the response of the material is
assumed to be linear to the excitation signal, obeying Hook’s law. Under the label–
linear ultrasonic techniques- three main groups of techniques are recognized:
– reflection technique, or pulse – echo technique, for which only one transducer
is used. The ultrasonic wave is directed into the specimen and after propagating
twice through its thickness is recorded by the same transducer. This technique
works with continuous waves or with pulses
– through –transmission technique for which two transducers are used, the trans-
mitter and the receiver. The energy injected by the transmitter travel through the
specimen and is recorded by the receiver. This technique works with continuous
waves or with pulses
– emission technique, known also as acoustic – emission technique, uses only one
transducer which is a receiver and which collects waves emitted by the specimen
under mechanical stress. This technique is not described in this chapter.
For all these techniques the contact transducers are coupled to the specimen with
a coupling medium or with a delay line. Non contact transducers called also air
coupled transducers can be used for the generation of bulk waves or surface waves
without contact between the specimen and the transducers. In this case the coupling
medium is the air (or an other gas).
16.2.2.1 Contact Techniques

A typical ultrasonic inspection system consists, very roughly, of three main units:
the signal generator system with a corresponding preamplifier and amplifier, the
transducers and the data acquisition system (PC and oscilloscope). The signal gen-
erating system or the pulser, generates short, large amplitude electric pulses of
controlled energy, which are converted into short ultrasonic pulses when applied
to an ultrasonic transducer. The transducer is the core of all non-destructive ultra-
sonic inspection procedures. The basic requirements for ultrasonic transducers are:
good sensitivity and resolution, controlled beam pattern, reproducible performance
under various testing condition and high signal to noise ratio.
In that follows pulse –echo technique and through transmission technique will be
described.
Pulse Echo Technique

The typical pulse echo inspection configuration is shown in Fig. 16.3a.The operation
principle of the pulse echo technique is to excite the test sample into a mechani-
cal vibration with an ultrasonic transducer driven by a pulse, and to measure the
time of wave propagation through the material using the same transducer acting
Fig. 16.3 Pulse echo

technique with one
transducer. (a) transducer in
contact with the specimen
(Olympus Panametrics 2009);
(b) schematics of the pulse
echo technique and signal
display in a sound and
defective zone ( Stoessel
2004, Figure 19).
http://elib.uni-stuttgart.de/
opus/volltexte/2004/1622/pdf/
Dis_Stoessel.pdf
as a receiver. Driven by the pulser, the transducer generates energy converted into
mechanical vibration which travels twice through the material to be tested. When the
signal travels through a structural discontinuity of the material, a flaw (i.e. delami-
nation), part of the energy will be reflected back from the flaw surface. The reflected
signal is captured by the receiver and is displayed on the screen of the oscilloscope.
The ratio between the distance and the travelling time of the signal gives the veloc-
ity of propagation of the ultrasonic wave through the material under test. A more
sophisticated signal treatment gives information about the location, the size, the
orientation and other features of the defect. In pulse echo methods, a single-sided
access is needed and this is an advantage for testing panels. The transducers used
for this purpose must generate pulses of broad band frequency and short rising time.
For high attenuator materials such as wood – based composites this technique has
some limitations, especially in high frequency range.
The echo technique allows the direct localization of a reflector as for example
the back wall of the specimen or flaw. A clear echo from the back of a specimen
means that the specimen is free of defects. The presence of a defect in a specimen
can be identified when echoes with short time of flight and echoes with long time
of flight are measured (Fig. 16.3b). If the velocity in the sound material is known
as well as the size of the specimen, the defect can be located. Figure 16.4 shows a
structural element with important cracks detected with pulse echo technique. The
measurements were performed with longitudinal waves and 100 kHz. A very strong
echo was observed at 6.2 cm, which corresponds to the big crack observed on the
photograph. The echo from the back wall is at 12.5 cm for which the velocity was
1630 m/s.
Through Transmission Technique

The operation principle of the through transmission technique is to excite the test
sample into a mechanical vibration with an ultrasonic transducer driven by a short
pulse, and to measure the time of propagation with a second transducer acting as
a receiver and disposed to the opposite side of the sample (Fig. 16.5). In this case
the bulk wave energy is transmitted through the panel thickness and is received by a
second transducer on the opposite side of the specimen This technique is much eas-
ier in application than the pulse echo technique because the signal travels only once
through the thickness. Changes observed in received signal amplitude or other signal
characteristics are induced by the internal structure of the material. This response
is then used to measure the velocity of propagation of the ultrasonic wave and fur-
thermore for the characterization of the mechanical behaviour of the specimen. By
measuring the time-of-flight, the amplitude of the ultrasonic signal or other param-
eters of the signal (i.e the RMS voltage), the location and the size of the defects can
be estimated.
The technique using the normal incidence of the transducers to the surface of the
specimen is most sensitive to flaws parallel to the surface (delaminations) (Smith
et al. 1989; Wooh and Daniel 1994; Wooh and Wei 1999; Hosur et al. 1998;
Žukauskas et al. 2005) while defects lying perpendicular to the surface (cracks in
Fig. 16.4 A structural element inspected with pulse echo technique (Hasenstab et al. 2006).
http://www.ndt.net/article/ecndt2006/doc/Th.2.4.1.pdf (a) view of the structural element in pine
(15.5 × 12.5 × 75 cm) (original Figure 3, page 4); (b) pulse echo measurements along the sound
zone in A-scan mode and in B-scan mode, with P wave transducers of 100 kHz (original Figure 2,
page 4); (c) ultrasonic image of the specimen scanned in B-mode, the crack is clearly identified at
6.2 cm (original Figure 5, page 5)
the matrix, fractured fibres, etc) are detectable with transducers oriented at an angle
to the surface of the specimen (Moran et al. 1985; Wooh and Daniel 1990; Gorman
1991; Steiner et al. 1995). It was demonstrated that a combination of normal and
oblique incidence with pulse-echo ultrasonic techniques can be used to produce a
highly detailed volumetric image of complex damage states dominated by transverse
matrix cracks and delamination.
A comparison between the pulse echo method and the through transmission
method in B-scan mode is shown in Fig. 16.6. The echo from the defect can be
seen between the echoes from the front and back wall of the specimen. In through
transmission technique the defect is represented by a lower amplitude signal.
Fig. 16.5 Through a

transmission method. (a)
Schematic representation of
the principle of the through
transmission method; (b)
transmission of acoustic
waves in two zone, a sound
zone and a zone with defects
(Stoessel 2004, Figure 20,
page 75). http://elib.uni-
stuttgart.de/opus/volltexte/2004/ b
1622/pdf/Dis_Stoessel.pdf
Fig. 16.6 Comparison between the pulse echo method and through transmission method in
B – scan mode (Stoessel 2004, Figure 21a, b). (a) reflection technique in B scan mode;
(b) through transmission technique in B scan mode. http://elib.uni-stuttgart.de/opus/volltexte/
2004/1622/pdf/Dis_Stoessel.pdf
16.2.2.2 Non-contact Techniques

The non contact ultrasonic technique and the utilisation of air-coupled ultrasound
transducers have gained considerable attention in the last 20 years. The elimination
of the physical contact (with a gel) between the transducers and the material under
inspection has been an enormous step towards the successful implementation of
ultrasonic techniques in numerous applications and industrial processes (Hayward
1997; Castaings et al. 1998; Buckley 1999, 2000; Bharadwaj 2002; Bharadwaj et al.
2000; Blomme et al. 2002; Stoessel et al. 2001; Vun et al. 2003; Kleinschmidt 2003;
Döring et al. 2006; Solodov et al. 2006a, b; Lionetto et al. 2007).
Technological advancements with air-coupled transducers have made possible
the study of the non linear acoustical behaviour of many materials and on the other
hand permitted the development of automated nondestructive techniques for mate-
rials quality assessment. The non contact technique is a sensitive tool for testing
materials’ structure and strength, for monitoring the degradations produced by the
environmental conditions, and for quantifying the damage of structural elements.
The air-coupled transducers can be configured to work in through transmission or to
generate guided plate waves (Fig. 16.7). In conventional through transmission con-
figuration of normal incidence, a beam of air coupled ultrasound excites longitudinal
waves which can detect defects in materials.
The flexural wave velocity can be detected using focused slanted transmission
of air-coupled ultrasound. This transmission mode is used to generate and detect
locally the flexural waves in wood and to measure their velocities. Figure 16.8 shows
the methodology proposed by Solodov et al. (2004b). To excite the flexural waves
in plate specimen with air coupled ultrasound, the “resonance” values of the angle
Fig. 16.7 Possible configurations of air-coupled transducers (Airstar 2001). http://airstar1.com/

air-coupled%20us.htm – air star coupled ultrasound, 2009-06-22. (a) through transmission, lon-
gitudinal wave; (b) shear wave; (c) plate wave two sided inspection; (d) plate wave one-sided
inspection
Fig. 16.8 Focused slanted transmission of air coupled ultrasound (Solodov et al. 2004b, page
506). (a) experimental configuration θ angle of incidence, θ 0 “resonance” angle α azimuthal
angle; (b) plate wave excitation with air coupled ultrasound, the ultrasonic wave in air and the
plate wave in the sample move in phase along the surface (Döring et al. 2006, Figure 2, page 2).
http://www.ndt.net/article/ecndt2006/doc/P123.pdf
of incidence need to be determined. This is obtained by sample rotation. The “res-

onance” is manifested by important rise of the amplitude of the transmitted plane
wave. In this case, the angle of incidence θ must satisfy the following condition
Vair
sin θ = (16.1)
Vplate
where V are the velocities in air and in plate.

In this case, the ultrasonic wave in air and the propagating plane wave in the
material move in phase along the surface (Fig. 16.8b). This phase coincidence deter-
mines the “resonance”. The “resonance” is understood as the synchronous excitation
of the plate wave and its re-radiation into the air from the opposite side of the plate.
The acoustic coupling between the plate surface, its thickness t is obtained if t ≤ λs ,
where λs is the wavelength of the shear wave of the plate material. By measuring θ 0
the velocity of the flexural mode of the plate wave can be measured, along an arbi-
trary direction of propagation. The wavelength in air is small, about 0.7–0.35 mm
in ultrasonic frequency range between 500 kHz and 1 MHz. this provides a local-
ized quasi-plane wave spot of 2–4 mm in the focused area. The advantage of this
technique is to provide a single point excitation of the flexural plate waves for use
in the experiments for remote monitoring of in-plane local anisotropy in plate type
specimens. As noted by Haberger et al. (1979), for Lamb waves propagating in
symmetrical directions of thin orthotropic plates, the following relation can be used
1/4
√ Ei
Vplatei = ωt (16.2)
3ρ(1 − νik .υki )
where Vplatei is the velocity in the plate, ω is the frequency, t is the thickness of
the plate, Ei is the Young’s modulus, ρ the density and ν the Poisson ratios. Their
product is <1.
The plate wave velocity can be used to calculate the Young’s moduli.
a b
Fig. 16.9 Wood anisotropy with flexural waves. (a) in a polar plot of flexural wave velocity in
beech veneer as a function of orientation angle (Döring et al. 2006). (Note: V = 520 m/s at 80◦
and V = 1050 m/s at 160◦ ) http://www.ndt.net/article/ecndt2006/doc/P123.pdf; (b) in a spruce
veneer lamina 1.2 mm thickness, in earlywood and latewood with focused slanted transmission
of air coupled ultrasound. Note phonon focusing due to wave guide effect in annual ring of wood
(Solodov et al. 2006, Figure 6, page 7). http://www.ndt.net/article/ecndt2006/doc/Th.4.7.1.pdf
To qualify the anisotropy of wood specimens, in an anisotropic plane (i.e LT)

an anisotropic factor was calculated as the ratio between the velocities Vplatei in L
and T directions. Figure 16.9 shows wood anisotropy in beech and in spruce veneer
laminae with flexural waves with air-coupled probes.
Solodov and Busse (2006) refined the previous methodological approach and
proposed a new methodology based on the mode conversion of focused air-coupled
ultrasound into plate and surface waves, by combining fully air coupled and hybrid
air –coupled – optic configuration (Fig. 16.10). The principle of this method is based
on the observation that an improvement of the weak penetration of air coupled ultra-
sound in solids (produced by the impedance mismatch at the air-solid interface)
can be obtained by using mode conversion in slated configurations. In this case a
Fig. 16.10 Experimental configuration for focused slanted transmission mode (FSTM) and for
focused slanted reflection mode (FSRM) for the detection of plate acoustic waves (PAW ) and
surface acoustic waves (SAW) when the plate thickness is grater than a few wave length (Solodov
and Busse 2006, Figure 4a, b) http://www.ndt.net/article/ecndt2006/doc/We.2.4.2.pdf. (a) FSTM
and FSRM configuration of ACU (air coupled ultrasound wave) conversion; (b) imaging set-up,
SAW = surface acoustic wave, PAW plate acoustic
substantial increase of the amplitude of the ultrasonic signal was observed in var-
ious solids under phase matching conditions for plate and surface acoustic waves.
At the phase matching between the incident wave and the plate wave an efficient
excitation of the plate wave is obtained. The obliquely incident air coupled ultra-
sound re-radiate acoustic energy in air from the rear side of the specimen. Only the
zero-order modes, symmetrical and anti symmetrical are excited. “The higher order
modes are not excited because their acoustic displacements are localised in the inte-
rior of the sample and the field is ‘locked’ inside the sample thereby preventing
access from/to the surface”. The acusto-optical laser scanning system detects the
fields of plate wave and of the surface wave. The wave field is scanned with a laser
vibrometer and an animated picture of wave propagation is obtained. Experiments
Fig. 16.11 Anisotropy of the beech veneer expressed with plate waves propagating in LT plane
(Solodov and Busse 2006, Figure 3, page 507). (a) wave front imaging mode used to put in evi-
dence the anisotropy of beech veneer with plate acoustic waves (PAW); (b) anisotropy in single-ply
and cross-ply beech with flexural waves
Table 16.1 Velocities of surface acoustic waves (Rayleigh waves) in wood (Döring et al. 2006)
Velocity of surface waves
(m/s)
Species Plane Angle (◦ ) 400 kHz 200 kHz
Fir RL 0 (axis L) 1320±20 1270±20

90 (axis R) Not reported Not reported
Beech RL 0 (axis L) 1260±20 1216±15
22.5 Not reported 1048±15
45 890±90 815±12
67.5 Not reported 727±12
90 (axis R) (580–640)±20 697±12
Balsa TL 0 (axis L) 1360±20 (1320–1370)±20
90 (axis R) (800–1000) ±40 570±15
Oak RL 0 (axis L) 1570±30 1470±20
90 (axis R) Not reported 846±25
with 450 kHz piezo-ceramic transducers with a focus spot of 3–4 mm show, in
wavefront imaging mode, the anisotropy of beech veneer inspected in plate wave
field (Fig. 16.11). The elongation of the wavefront in the 45◦ direction indicates the
fibres direction. It was suggested the utilisation of this method for a rapid interro-
gation of the elastic anisotropy of the material over large areas. The values of the
surface acoustic waves velocities at 400 and 200 kHz for fir, beech, balsa and oak
are given in Table 16.1. For the wood specimens, the gain in amplitude with focused
slanted transmission mode, compared with normal transmission mode is about 10
times. It is to note that “unlike the case of bulk acoustic waves which are confined
into the interior of the solid, a surface access of plate acoustic waves/surface acoustic
waves field makes them particularly attractive for direct visualisation of defects. The
wave-defect interaction causes both amplitude and phase distortions of the guided
wave field and therefore the wavefront imaging mode permits remote discerning of
a wide range of flaws”.
The applications of this new methodology proposed by Solodov and Busse
(2006) include remote imaging of defects, mapping of in-plane elastic anisotropy
and thickness measurement of paint coatings during drying.
16.2.3 Ultrasonic Transducers and Scanning Procedures
Numerous authors have developed the theoretical background for the contact or non
contact ultrasonic transducers. A selection of references is cited here (Lynworth
1989; Hutchins and Schindel 1994; Papadakis 1999; Bharadwaj 2002; Buckley and
Loertscher 1999; Buckley 1999, 2000; Green 2004). Figure 16.12 synthesizes the
types of ultrasonic probes which can be used for the inspection of solids (water jet,
gas coupled ultrasonics, water bubbler, electromagnetic acoustic transducers and
capacitive transducers, Laser acoustic stress wave receiver)
Fig. 16.12 Ultrasonic probes used for testing of solids (Green 2004, Figure 3, page 10)
For wood – based composites testing, the contact transducers are piezoelec-
tric transducers, the airborne transducers can be either piezoelectric or capacitive
transducers.
16.2.3.1 Contact Transducers

A piezoelectric transducer is schematically illustrated in Fig.16.13. The trans-
ducer incorporates a piezoelectric element, which converts electrical signals from
pulser/receiver into mechanical vibrations (transmitted mode) which vibration travel
through the sample and then, is converted by the receiver into an electrical sig-
nals (received mode). The transducers are available in different shape and sizes.
The commonly used materials are the ceramics: PZT (barium titanate and lead zir-
conate titanate), and the polymer polyvinylidenr difluorride (PVDF). For the PZT
at a frequency of 1 MHz, the thickness of the ceramics is of about 2 mm and the
velocity is of 4170 m/s. The backing layer is epoxy resin containing 1 part in 20
of tungsten powder. This layer absorbs back radiation and provide coupling to the
ceramics. A series of matching materials of different impedances may be used to
provide a more gradual change in impedance and to reduce reflected radiation at the
interface with the specimen. The ultrasonic beam produced by the transducer has
two zones, the near field (Fresnel Region) and the far field (Fraunhofer region). In
the near field all the components of the beam propagate in parallel. In the far field
the beam diverges. The ultrasonic field is diffracted, scattered and absorbed by the
material under test. The performance of the transducers is determined by the follow-
ing parameters: radiation surface area, mechanical damping, physical parameters of
the piezoelectric and backing materials and connections of electrical and acoustical
b c
Fig. 16.13 Piezoelectric ultrasonic transducer (Olympus, Panametrics 2009, Figure 11, pages
15, 44). http://www.olympus-ims.com/data/File/panametrics-UT.en.pdf (visited 16 June 2009). (a)
transversal section; (b) propagation of longitudinal waves Figure from page 44; (c) propagation of
shear
components of the system. The main characteristic of an ultrasonic transducer is its

frequency. The frequency noted on the metallic capsule of each ultrasonic transducer
is the central or centre frequency and depends primarily on the backing material.
Transducers of frequencies, ranging between 0.2 and 2.25 MHz provide greater
energy and penetration into material while transducers of high frequency ranging
between 15.0 and 25.0 MHz provides greater sensitivity to small discontinuities
but have reduced penetration. Higher frequency transducers are more sensitive to
small discontinuities, because of their shorter wavelength. In addition, higher fre-
quency transducers tend to have better resolution due to shorter energy bursts and
the shorter wavelength. On the other hand, in higher frequency range the signal
energy attenuates more and tends to scatter, causing a loss of sensitivity for the
thicker sections of the material under test. The utilization of transducers operating
at different frequencies is recommended. In this way, the desired illumination of
the selected features (adhesive, fibres, etc) can be obtained. Proper ultrasonic test-
ing requires careful selection of the transducers frequency range, for obtaining an
appropriate balance between sensitivity and penetration for a specific material to be
tested. The specific case of wood material having low density, requires probes with
high intensity and low frequency mostly between 20 and 200 kHz, for field experi-
ments. Higher frequency (1–3 MHz) can be used for laboratory measurements and
experiments for mechanical characterization. The low frequency signal has small
attenuation. However the wavelength of this signal limits the flaw size detectability.
To inspect in situ solid wood or wood-based composites powerful low frequency
transducers are necessary.
16.2.3.2 Non-contact Transducers

Non contact transducers or air – coupled ultrasonic transducers can be piezoelec-
tric or capacitive. The non contact probes made out of piezoelectric composites
have an active phase composed from piezoelectric rods aligned in parallel along the
thickness direction and embedded in a 3D passive polymer matrix (Hayward and
Gachagan 1996). The transmitter transducers can be focused and in this way the
acoustic matching to air is better than with plain piezoelectric ceramics.
For the capacitive transducers no impedance matching is required and, on the
other hand, they can produce a wide bandwidth in air. The capacitive transducers
are composed of a thin, metallized, membrane film, attached to a direct current bias
voltage to a rigid contoured conducted backplate to form a capacitor (Schindel et al.
1995). Applied voltage signals induce vibration into the membrane, and generate
ultrasound. The ultrasound is detected by a change in gap between the membrane
and the back plate (Fig. 16.14).
The wave modes produced by air coupled ultrasound were described in details
by several authors (Hutchins and Schindel 1994; Strycek et al. 1997; Castaings et al.
1998; Green 1999, 2000; Dang et al. 2002; Gan et al. 2005).
The successful implementation of the non – contact ultrasonic transducers in
nondestructive quality control of wood-based panels depends on the ability of the
transducers to detect the interaction between ultrasound and the characteristics of
the panel under test. An effective transducer must satisfy several conditions by
which the measurement system may be assessed, such as: the range over which
the measurements can be performed, the smallest intensity of the signal that can be
measured, the sensitivity to the typical defects, the reproducibility and accuracy of
the measurements, or the amenability to rapid testing in a production line (Grandia
and Fortunko 1995; Green 1990; Green 1999, 2000).
16.2.3.3 Scanning Procedures

The existing scanning procedures with the modern technology are summarized in
Table 16.2.
Panel scanning can be performed manually or automatically. Manual scanning is
carried out by specific transducer movements by hand in an orbital, swivel, lateral
and transversal scanning plan. This requires an experienced operator. The automatic
scanning system integrates the ultrasonic instrumentation, the scanning bridge, and
Fig. 16.14 Air-coupled transducers. (a) Several types of air-couples transducers (Loertscher et al.
1996). http://www.ndt.net/artcle/qmi/qmi.htm. (1) Flat air-coupled transducer, backed by air and
with a thin front layer with low impedance; (2) Focusing air-coupled transducer with spherically
shaped ceramic disk; (3) Focusing air-coupled transducer with composite ceramic element; (4)
Focusing air-coupled transducer. Flat disk with refractive lens added; (5) Focusing air-coupled
transducer. Flat disk with reflecting optics added. (b) non contact transducers for lumber inspection
in through-transmission technique (Vun et al. 2008)
the computer controls. The automatic scanning is performed by means of two tech-
niques: the object is fixed and transducers are moving or the transducers are fixed
and object is moving. Scanning can be performed with one, two or an array of trans-
ducers. Using scanning procedure the ultrasonic parameters such as time of flight,
amplitude, centre frequency, phase angle, etc. are measured for every point of the
specimen situated in the scanning plan. The data set is plotted using colours or
shades of grey to produce detailed images of the specimen in different scan modes.
The types of images which can be obtained with different scanning procedures are
given in previous table. In that follows several aspects will be discussed in more
detail.
Table 16.2 Scanning modes for ultrasonic imaging (data from Stossel 2004)
Scanning Amplitude Time of

mode Description x y β A flight t Data acquisition
A scann Display the signal for yes yes A(x0 , y0 , t)

x = time, y = amplitude
B scann Image showing a cross yes yes yes A(β, x0 , y0 , t)
section of the tested
object perpendicular to
the scanned surface
and parallel to a
reference direction.
The cross section will
normally be the plane
through which the
individual A-scans
were collected
Rotation Orbital scanning yes yes yes Amax (β x0 , y0 , t)
B scann Modified B-scan:
amplitude is recorded
versus rotation angle
and time
Polar Modified B-scan: yes yes Amax (β, x0 , y0 )
scann maximum amplitude is
recorded versus
rotation angle
C scann Image shows a cross yes yes yes A(x, y, tn)
section of the test
object parallel to the
scanning surface
Volume 3D representation of the yes yes yes yes A(x, y, t)
scann inspected volume. At
each inspection point
of scanning surface a
complete A-scan is
recorded
P scan Projection view of yes yes yes yes Am(xm , y0 , t)
several B or C scans Am(x0 , ym , t)
A(x, y, tn )
D scan image showing a cross yes yes yes t(x, y)
section of the tested
object perpendicular to
the projection of the
beam axis on the
scanning surface. The
D scan will be
perpendicular to the B
scan
F scan Modified C scan : values yes yes F(x, y)
of some features
(centre frequency or
phase angle) are
recorded and displayed
instead of amplitudes
An A-scan image is a display in which the received pulse amplitude is repre-

sented as a displacement along the y-axis, (the amplitude axis) and the travel time of
the ultrasonic pulse is represented as a displacement along the x-axis (the time axis)
(Fig. 16.4b), or in other words the acquisition of the amplitude A is A(x0 , y0 , t) This
is the simplest scan mode. The resolution in the x and y directions depends on the
beam width. In a linear amplification system the vertical excursion is proportional
to the amplitude of the signal. With the use of logarithmic scale amplifiers the y-axis
amplitude – presents a logarithmic scale.
A B-scan image is a 2D imaging and is the most common method of ultrasonic
imaging Fig. 16.15. The reflectivity is driven from a two dimensional slice through
a portion of the specimen. The acquisition of the amplitude A(x0 , y, t). The B-scan
image is composed from numerous A-scan measurements, and shows the time of
flight versus the position of the measurement. From this B scan image is also pos-
sible to read the thickness of the specimen. B scan image do not gives information
about the depth of the defect.
A C- scan image is a 2D graphical representation and the amplitude acquisi-
tion is A(x, y, tn ). Figure 16.16 shows schematically a C – scan image compared
with B-scan image. The C-scan image as explained by DIN EN 1330 – 4 shows
a cross section of the sample and a defect parallel to the scanning surface, as a
projection of the internal structure regardless of their depth. The image reconstruc-
tion with C-scan mode integrates the amplitudes of the signals. The defect becomes
visible through the change in signal amplitude. The C-scan image illustrates the
sample as seen from “above”. The C-scan imaging becomes more and more popular
because of the recent improvement of the ultrasonic equipment and the advances in
microprocessor technology.
Hillger (1997) noted: “Ultrasonic imaging of internal defects with a high
degree of validity in composite components requires an optimisation of the pulse
Fig. 16.15 Imaging in reflection and transmission with B-scan mode (Stoessel 2004, Figure 21,
page 7). (a) reflection (b) transmission. Permission from http://elib.uni-stuttgart.de/opus/volltexte/
2004/1622/pdf/Dis_Stoessel.pdf
Fig. 16.16 Imaging of an inclusion in a plate with B-scan and C-scan modes (Stoessel 2004,
Figure 22, page 78) (a) experimental (the sample, the position of the defect and of the
probes) (b) B-scan for position detection (t) (c) C-scan image. http://elib.uni-stuttgart.de/opus/
volltexte/2004/1622/pdf/Dis_Stoessel.pdf
parameters. Broadband transducers provide short pulses for high axial resolution
and transmit a wide frequency range. With receiver filters it is possible to select
frequencies which provide best defect indications. For C-and B-scans different fre-
quency spectra from one transducer can be selected: one for best lateral and another
for high axial resolution”. Figure 16.17 illustrates this statement.
Ultrasonic imaging of solid wood or wood based composites using B and C-
scan modes were reported by Niemz et al. (1996 and 1999), Schmoldt et al. (1996),
Neuenschwander et al. (1997), Berndt et al. (1999), Kabir et al. (2001), and Kabir
and Araman (2002).
16.2.4 Non-linear Ultrasonic Inspection Techniques

The non-linear acoustical behaviour of different media, observed mainly through
the distortion of propagating waves, was study from several decades (Bjorno
2001; Delsanto 2007). The non-linear waves distortion generate fundamentals and
higher harmonics or subharmonics which can be found in the frequency spectrum.
During wave propagation an increasing number of higher harmonics are gener-
ated and contrary to expectation, their amplitude increases with distance. It is to
note that the amplitude of the fundamental frequency decreases with the distance
because of energy transfer to the higher harmonics. “Classical” non-linear acous-
tics describes the wave form distortion in homogeneous media. In nonhomogeneous
Fig. 16.17 Pulse response and frequency spectra of a glassplate reflector (Hillger 1997)
http://www.ultrasonic.de/article/wsho0597/hillger/hillger.htm and http://www.ultrasonic.de/
wshop/wshop_ap/wshop_ap.phtml. (a) Pulse response of a 50 MHz PVDF-foil transducer, scale:
0.1 V/div. and 50 ns/div. (b) Frequency spectra of a glassplate reflector, with 1: Broadband
transducer, 2: with B-scan filter, 3: with C-scan filter, scale: 1 MHz/div.; 4 dB/div. The scale of the
Figure is axis x =1 MHz /div; axis y = 4 dB/div
and anisotropic solids the non-linear effect is enhanced by the presence of hetero-
geneities and defects (like delamination of layers, cracks, etc) which are strong
local sources for non linear phenomena because of the non-linear motion of their
boundaries (Solodov 1998). The motion occurs in mixed modes, in normal and
tangential directions. Because of the local disbonding compressive stress can be
transferred better than tensile stress. At the edge of the cracks for example, the
efficiency of higher harmonics generation is of many order of magnitude higher
than in “classical” nonlinear behaviour. This effect was successfully used for the
detection and location of existing and of potential defects (Solodov 2001; Strössel
et al. 2001; Solodov et al. 2004b; Solodov and Busse 2006). The group from
Stuttgart University, Germany – Professor Busse, is very active in promoting ultra-
sonic nondestructive methods based on non linear effects in different materials
including wood. Solodov et al. (2004b) reported the detection of a delamination
in a wooden rod of 21 cm long, by imaging the second harmonic with B scan
(Fig. 16.18). At about 9 cm long an open crack below the surface was detected,
Fig. 16.18 Delamination in a

wooden rod of 21 cm long, by
imaging the second harmonic
with B scan. The
delamination is at 12 cm from
the origin (Solodov et al.
2004b, Figure 10, page 509
with the increasing of the amplitude with 20 dB. The maximum of the second
harmonic amplitude corresponds to the crack tip. In this zone the “claping” takes
place.
16.3 Delamination Detection in Wood-Based Composite Panels
In the latest four decades big efforts have been made to introduce and develop
new ultrasonic nondestructive techniques and adequate instrumentation for wood –
based composites panels inspection and characterization. A selection of refer-
ences is cited here (Burmester 1968; Beall 1987a, b, 1989; Ty 1989; Bucur
1992; Bucur 1995; Niemz et al. 1996; Bucur et al. 1998; Bekhta et al. 2000;
Vun et al. 2000; Tucker 2001; Aicher et al. 2002; Kazemi-Najafi and Bucur
2002; Vun et al. 2003; Kleinschmidt 2003; He et al. 2004; Kazemi Najafi et al.
2005; Dill-Langer et al. 2005; Hasenstab and Krause 2005; Kazemi Najafi et al.
2007). The topics of these researches have been focused mainly on physical and
mechanical characterization of panel products, using different ultrasonic tech-
niques. Special emphasis was put on the study of the influence of experimental
conditions (effect of frequency, testing configuration with contact and non con-
tact transducers, specimen geometry, moisture content, etc) on the capability of
these methods to predict the mechanical properties of panels and to detect the
presence of delamination and adhesion deficient zones. In that follows two tech-
niques will be discussed: the through transmission technique and the plate wave
technique.
16.3.1 Through Transmission Technique
Through transmission technique can be performed with the transducers in contact

with the specimen or, with non-contact ultrasonic transducers.
16.3.1.1 Technique with the Transducers in Contact with the Specimen

The techniques with the transducers in contact with the specimen where developed
in time and frequency domain.
Dill-Langer et al. (2005) studied in laboratory conditions, in time domain, the
behaviour of a specimen composed from two lamellae bonded with PRF adhe-
sive, having a central adhesion deficient zone (Fig. 16.19a). Inspection with through
transmission technique, B – mode scanning – with dry contact transducers, was
performed in the direction parallel to the fibres. The following parameters of
the ultrasonic signal were recorded: the time of flight (TOF), the initial ampli-
tude of the first recorded oscillation (labelled as initial amplitude) and the total
peak-to-peak amplitude (labelled global pp amplitude) of the entire recorded sig-
nal (Fig. 16.19b). The experimental results shown in Fig. 16.19c point out that in
a b
Fig. 16.19 Delamination detection with through transmission technique (Dill-Langer et al. 2005).
(a) Specimen and testing configuration – bondline of two glulam lamellae; (b) Parameters of the
ultrasonic signal for delamination detection; (c) delamination detection with B scan with the time
of flight and normalised amplitude http://www.ndt.net/article/v11n04/dill-langer1/dill-langer1.htm
the adhesive deficient zone, it was observed a considerable increased of the time-
of-flight, which means a reduction of the velocity and a considerable reduction
of the normalized values of the amplitude attenuation of both, initial and global
amplitudes.
Furthermore the same authors performed a more complex experiment with spec-
imens of structural dimensions containing numerous glue-lines, as can be seen
Fig. 16.20a. For this purposes, two glulam blocks cut from commercially produced
beams were glued together. Each block of 900 mm width was composed from 22
lamellae of 40 mm thickness. A central circular area of 300 mm simulated a defec-
tive zone. As can be seen from Fig. 16.20b in the defective zone, the time of flight
is increasing and the normalized amplitudes are decreasing. In order to improve the
experimental condition and to minimize the measurements dispersion and to reduce
the signal to noise ratio, Dill-Langer et al. (2005) performed some comparative tests
using three coupling media such as:
• dry coupling (no coupling medium, direct contact between transducer and timber
surface)
• coupling by means of an elastomer film (transducer coupled to the elastomer film
of 0.9 mm thickness by means of silicon paste, elastomer film coupled directly to
the timber surface)
• coupling by means of silicon paste
a b
Fig. 16.20 Delamination detection on a structural specimen (Dill-Langer et al. 2005). (a) Glulam
specimen of structural dimensions (900 × 900 mm) and testing configuration; (b) Zone of
delamination between 30 and 60 cm detected with normalised time of flight and normalized
amplitude
For all three conditions transducers with flat ends and a diameter of 64 mm were
equally pressed to the timber by means of a frame with a compression screw. The
test results revealed that the use of coupling media lead to a very high increase of
the signal-to-noise ratio as compared to the dry coupling. This factor is 36 in case
of elastomer film and 82 in case of silicon paste. The time-of-flight showed only a
minor dependency on coupling conditions. However, it was interesting to note that
the mean time-of-flight values for dry coupling were slightly higher (8–15%) as
compared to those obtained with the more efficient coupling by film or paste. In the
case of dry contact, this fact may be explained by the less efficient contact between
the probe and the specimen which induces difficulties in proper identification of
signal parameters (because of high level of noise). The variability of time-of-flight
readings decreased considerable from dry coupling (1.5%) to much lower values in
case of film (0.75%) and paste (0.8%) coupling conditions. It was concluded that
the use of an elastomer film as coupling medium is the best compromise for optimal
coupling performance and best practical handling conditions. It is evident, that the
control of the compression force of the transducers to the specimen surface is a
prerequisite condition for measurements reproducibility.
Methodology for delamination detection in time and frequency domains was
proposed by Dimanche et al. (1994), to detect the minimum size and locate the
defect. Two models were proposed, one in time domain based on the time of flight
measurements and the other in frequency domain, using ultrasonic spectroscopy.
The minimum size of a defect was defined having a diameter Dmin , which is
defined as Dmin = Vf where V is the ultrasonic velocity in wood and f is the fre-
quency of the ultrasonic pulse. For the inspection of glulam it can be supposed that
the velocity is V = 1800 m/s and the frequency is 100 kHz. In this case the minimum
detectable defect is about 1.8 cm.
The principle of the methodology developed by Dimanche et al. (1994) is based
on the assumption that the diffraction effect takes place at the defect edge as in
Fig. 16.21 and the acoustic energy is dispersed. Depending on the relative position
of the receiver, a mask effect produced by the defect can be observed as an acoustic
shadow. The acoustic shadow is defined by the following parameters: the distance d
between the defect and the receiver and the diffraction angle μ which is a function
of velocity, frequency and probe diameter D. The “masking effect” increases with
the distance d and with the diffraction angle μ which is defined with the equation

V/f
μ = arcsin 1.22 (16.3)
D
The “masking effect ” increases with diffraction angle such as:

V/f
Dmin ≥ 2d.tg (arcsin 1.22 (16.4)
D
If the defect is wider than the wavefront the signal will be not received by
the receiver. Travelling through a sample of thickness e, the size of the minimum
detectable defect can be calculated such as:
Fig. 16.21 The geometry of the defect and the diffraction angle (Dimanche et al. 1994).
μ-diffraction angle, d-distance defect – receiver, D-probe diameter. (a) path wave in a sound zone;
(b) path wave in a defective zone. The diffraction takes place at the edge of the defect

V/f
Dmin ≥ 2.(e − d).tg arcsin 1.22 (16.5)
D
By combining the Eqs. (16.3 and 16.4), the minimum size of the detectable defect
can be calculated as shown in Fig. 16.22 which have the axis X expressed as a ratio
between the distance d of the defect to the receiver and the thickness of the sample e
and the axis Y as the ratio between Dmin and e. For each frequency two symmetrical
lines exist. The diagram has three main zones
– zone in which the detection is impossible – the areas under the straight line are
superimposed and neither Eq. (16.6) nor Eq. (16.4) are not satisfied
– zone of possible defect detection, but difficult, because of diffraction effect. In this
case, Eq. (16.3) is satisfied but Eq. (16.4) is not
– zone of easy defect detection, where the Eq. (16.4) is satisfied but Eq (16.3) is
not. The signal collapse will make the defect detection obvious, by observing the
attenuation of ultrasonic pulse.
The detection can be improved by increasing the frequency which means the
modification of the wavelength and by decreasing the diffraction angle.
The limitations of this methodology are:
– increasing the frequency would reduce the penetration depth of the ultrasonic
pulse
– modification of the diffraction angle requires focused probes – difficult in the low
frequency domain. The experimental inspection would be limited at the focused
region, while an increased diffraction would take place outside it.
Fig. 16.22 Theoretical prediction of the minimum defect size by analysing the amplitude of the
signal in time domain of beams A and B (Dimanche et al. 1994). (a) the geometry of beams A
and B; (b) minimum size defect prediction on beams A and B at 71 kHz frequency probe; Dmin
= minimium defect size, e – thickness of the sample, μ-diffraction angle, d -distance defect –
receiver, D – probes diameter
This methodology was experimented with two spruce glulam beams composed
of 10 lamellae (200 mm) with defective adhesion zones as shown in Fig. 16.22a.
The frequency was 71 kHz. The defects were located and identified for both beams
as seen in Fig. 16.23. The defective areas correspond to higher attenuations of the
received pulse (see the lower part of the graphs). This very elegant and attractive
methodology
seems
to have only one limitation introduced by the relationship:
V/f
arcsin 1.22 D < 1.
16.3.1.2 Technique with Non-contact Ultrasonic Transducers

In this section several applications of non contact techniques will be discussed,
using transducers in conventional configuration, which is normal to the surface
Fig. 16.23 Variation of the time of flight (μs) and attenuation (dB) as a function of beam length
for beam A and beam B on spruce. The size of the lamellae 2 mm thick and 150 mm wide, the
beam length 2 m, beam height 200 mm with 10 lamellae (Dimanche et al. 1994)
of the inspected specimen. In laboratory conditions, we discuss the inspection of

specimens of oriented strandboards and of a 3 layered composite. Delaminations in
specimens of pinus radita will be also commented.
The utilisation of the non contact ultrasonic transducers for the detection of voids
in (OSB) with high, low and random alignment, was reported by Vun (2003) and
Vun et al. (2003). Figure 16.24 shows the experimental configuration for OSB test-
ing in conventional direct contact technique and in non contact technique. In OSB
panels in-plane density variation contributes to the formation of delamination and
voids. These defects are strong scatters of elastic waves. The validity of the non
contact technique was proved in comparison with contact technique in a through
transmission mode. For the direct contact technique two transducers of 100 kHz fre-
quency were used, coupled with a thin silicon gel. To characterize the OSB in direct
contact configuration the following parameters were used: the velocity of ultra-
sonic wave propagation, the material impedance, the attenuation given by the peak
amplitude and the RMS voltage which represents the signal intensity of the acquired
signal. The non contact transducers used 250 kHz frequency. In this case the fol-
lowing variables were calculated: the velocity, the integrated response which is the
Fig. 16.24 Experimental device for OSB testing Vun (2003, Figure 2.1, page 16).
http://etd.lsu.edu/docs/available/etd-0708103-163628/unrestricted/Vun_dis.pdf. (a) through trans-
mission technique – transducers in contact (b) non- contact transducers
net power of the ultrasound energy transmitted through the material, and the trans-
mission coefficient defined as a function of impedances in air and in the material.
These last variables provide more information than velocity on the microstructure,
texture and degree of debonding. A comparison between the direct contact tech-
nique and non contact technique is shown in Fig. 16.25 in which is plotted the
variation of velocity and attenuation as a function of density and mechanical param-
eters. The attenuation measured with non contact technique decreased as the density
increased. A minimum was reached at 900 kg/m3 . After this point an increase of
attenuation was observed. For the direct contact technique, after 900 kg/m3 , the
variation of attenuation is quite linear. The variation of attenuation versus density
is due to the modification of the internal structure of the specimens (ex: high, low
and random alignment). In the first half of the curves, probably the low density is
related to interspatial voids, rather in the second half of the curve, the increasing
plastic-strain is more related to the hardening modifications. The ultrasonic vari-
ables were correlated with the standard parameters – internal bonding (ASTM –
D1037), Young’s modulus of elasticity E1 and modulus of rupture in static bending.
It was concluded that the non contact system “provides a suitably remote measure-
ment convenience” and that this methodology is recommended for on-line quality
monitoring.
Grimberg et al. (2005) presented a laboratory methodology for the detection of
the delamination in a 3 layers composite specimen using non-contact ultrasonic
transducers. The geometry of the specimen was: section 49 × 49 cm2 , thickness
24 mm. The specimen was composed from a 20 mm thick poplar particleboard core
and a 1 mm beech veneer layer on each side of the core. The delamination was
simulated by inserting a regular Teflon frame of 80 μm thickness. The geometry
of the delaminated zones is shown in Fig. 16.26. The main characteristics of the
transducers were: 100 kHz central frequency, 25 mm the diameter of the piezo-
composite plate and 10 mm the air column. The zones with artificially induced
delamination had a section of 6 × 6 cm2 and were distributed as shown in pre-
vious Fig. 16.26a. The specimen was scanned in A- mode, with a step of 1 mm. The
reconstructed image is shown in Fig. 16.26b, on which the zones with delamina-
tion are clearly visible. It was concluded that the delamination in a multilayered
wood – based composite material can be detected using ultrasonic non contact
transducers.
Gan et al. (2005) reported a non-contact method for the detection of internal
checks in pinus radiata. Using two broad bandwidth non-contact capacitive trans-
ducers, combined with an advance technique for signal treatment. A coded chirp
signal was used to provide a specific waveform that could be post processed to
provide sufficient sensitivity for transmission across a wood sample of 34 mm thick-
ness. The signal to noise was greatly improved using two signal recovery techniques,
namely pulse compression and swept frequency multiplication. The presence of
the microcracks as well as details related to the annual ring structure can be well
observed with this imaging technique.
Fig. 16.25 Comparison between direct contact and non contact technique on OSB of different
alignment levels. Vun (2003, Figure 2.3, page 28). http://etd.lsu.edu/docs/available/etd-0708103-
163628/unrestricted/Vun_dis.pdf. (a) velocity and (b) attenuation versus the density of OSB. NC
and DC = non contact and direct contact methods; 1 IL = one layer board; 4% RC = 4% resin
content; HAL = high alignment level – 80%; LAL = low alignment level – 58%; RAL = random
alignment level – 26%
Fig. 16.26 Debonding zones in a specimen and corresponding ultrasonic image (Greenberg et al.
2005, Figures 3 and 6a, b). http://www.ndt.net/article/wcndt00/papers/idn522/idn522.htm. Legend
specimen with debonding zones (plywood of two layers of 1 mm beech veneer, glued on the two
faces of 2 mm poplar particleboard, debonding zones simulated by inserting thin rayon foils 80 μm)
(a) imaging with time of flight with air coupled transducers 60 kHz; (b) imaging with 2D digital
Gaussian Kernel filter
16.3.2 Plate Wave Technique
The literature is very abundant on studies related to the propagation of Lamb waves
in anisotropic materials and to their interaction with defects (Alleyene and Cawley
1992; Rose et al. 1992; Potel and de Belleval 1993; Guo and Cawley 1993; Potel
et al. 1996, 2008; Chimenti 1997; Wang et al. 2001; Kundu et al. 2001; Declercq
et al. 2005, 2006). Aerospace industry developed techniques based on Lamb waves
to inspect fibre composites plates. Fibre composites and wood-based composites
have many structural similarities which can be expressed by several parameters
such as: heterogeneity, anisotropy, viscoelasticity, relatively low transverse shear
moduli, and relatively thin, layered, plate-like geometry. In addition, both materials
exhibit large attenuation coefficients in the high- frequency ultrasonic range. This
aspect forces the ultrasonic nondestructive techniques into the low frequency range.
As reported by the abundant literature for different types of composites, several

techniques have been proposed to excite and receive plate waves such as:
– immersion technique (Hosten 1991; Bar-Cohen and Chimenti 1986; Chimenti

1997; Karim et al. 1990; Martin and Chimenti 1987)
– acousto-ultrasonics (Huang et al. 1998; Rodgers et al. 1991; Rose et al. 1987;
Stiffler 1986; Tang et al. 1988; Tang and Henneke 1989a, b),
– laser generated ultrasound (Han et al. 1999),
– acousto ultrasonic angled beam technique (Rogers 1995)
– air-coupled ultrasonic transducers (Castaings and Cawley 1996; Potel et al. 2008).
The immersion technique involves excitation and reception of leaky Lamb

waves by immersing the specimen into a liquid (water). This technique is not rec-
ommended for wood-based composites which are very hygroscopic. The Laser
generated Lamb waves technique requires a specific equipment. Acousto – ultra-
sonic and angled beam ultrasonic techniques seem to be appropriated the most
appropriated techniques for the inspection of wood-based composites panels.
In that follows, we will discuss the capability of plate wave technique to detect
delamination and debonding in wood-based composite panels, using the contact
technique as well as the non contact technique and as reported by Grimberg et al.
(2000), Tucker (2001), and Tucker et al. (2003).
16.3.2.1 Technique with the Transducers in Contact with the Specimen

To study the capability of plate wave technique to detect the delamination in wood –
based laminated. Tucker (2001) and Tucker et al. (2003) utilised specimens with
simulated delamination in a MDF panels. Two individual MDF 3.2-mm panels were
boned together with polyvinyl acetate resin. The delaminated area was a square
of 60 mm2 . The plate wave test setup is described in Fig. 16.27. The transducers
were put in direct contact with the specimen. For the determination of the phase
velocity, the transducers were kept at a constant distance (178-mm). The trans-
ducer pair was moved along the plate at with a step of 15-mm. The excitation
frequency was successively 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30 kHz. Figure 16.27c shows the
location of the delamination area with 25 kHz transducers in a MDF board. For each
frequency the time of flight was recorded. It was concluded that the lower frequen-
cies are more sensitive to the delamination detection than higher frequencies and
that the plate wave technique is sensitive to delamination detection and location in
MDF panels.
16.3.2.2 Technique with Non-contact Ultrasonic Transducers

Air coupled ultrasound C –scan image of delaminations between a veneer lamina
and a solid wood layer is shown in Fig. 16.28. The thickness of the specimen is
30 mm and the scanned area was 30 80 mm. Dark zones horizontally displayed,
of different thickness of missing glue are see. In the upper right side of the image
other defects can be seen. The same specimen was inspected with optical lockin
a b
Fig. 16.27 Plate wave test setup (Tucker 2001, Figure 6, page 22; Figure 10, page 30;
Figure 43, page 100) https://research.wsulibs.wsu.edu:8443/dspace/bitstream/2376/53/1/b-tucker-
052101.pdf. (a) experimental plate wave setup; (b) defect detection; (c) delamination detection –
6 cm 2 area located in the centre of the MDF board, with 25 kHz transducers
thermography. Good agreement was observed between the images obtained with
both techniques.
Solodov et al. (2004b) reported a periodic delamination in a wood – based com-
posite plate constituted from oak veneer and particle board as shown in Fig. 16.29.
The image has been obtained with focused slanted transmission of air coupled ultra-
sound – forth harmonic. The delamination pattern was formed by 1.5 cm wide
periodic strips of unglued veneer. The nonlinear response of the delaminated zone
is clearly visible by a sharp local increase in the higher harmonic amplitude due to
the “clapping” mechanism.
Grimberg et al. (2000) reported a method for the delamination detection in
a multi-layer wood- based composite, using a Lamb wave technique with non
contact transducers. The geometry of the specimen was: section 49 × 49 cm2 ,
thickness 24 mm. The specimen was composed from a 20 mm thick poplar par-
ticleboard core and a 1 mm beech veneer layer on each side of the core. The
Fig. 16.28 Air coupled

ultrasound C –scan image of
delaminations between a
veneer lamina and a solid
wood layer. (Stöessel 2004 )
http://elib.uni-
stuttgart.de/opus/
volltexte/2004/1622/pdf/Dis_Stoessel.pdf.
Permission from (Stöessel
2004, Figure 41, page 100).
The image was obtained
equipment Hillscan 4000.
with focused transducers
(focal length 40 mm) central
frequency 450 kHz,
transmitter input up to 1400
Vpp, optimal rectangular
pulse – burst mode,
preamplifier 40 dB
delamination was simulated by inserting a regular Teflon frame of 80 μm thick-

ness. The frequency of the ultrasonic beam (induced by a Hertzian contact) was
60 kHz. The measured velocity in the sound zone was in average 4301 m/s
rather in the zone with delamination was considerably lower, between 1103 and
2128 m/s. It was concluded that the velocity of the plate waves generated in the
multi-layer wood based specimen by means of the low frequency ultrasound trans-
ducers with Hertzian contact is an efficient parameter for delamination detection in
laboratory.
Fig. 16.29 Forth harmonic image with focused slanted transmission of air coupled ultrasound of
periodic delaminations between oak veneer lamina and particle board plate (Solodov et al. 2004b,
Figure 11, Page 510
16.3.3 Industrial Applications of Non-contact Technique

The non contact techniques have been primarily used for testing composites for
aeronautical and space industry. Furthermore the applications have been extended
very quickly to large a variety of materials, and especially to hydrophobic materials
such as wood and wood based composites (Buckley 2000; Vun et al. 2005, 2008).
In wood industry the air coupled ultrasound transducers have been used mostly in
transmission configuration for: the detection of decay in wood prior to processing,
of delaminations in wood-based composites panels, and for in service inspection of
wood products.
Electronic Wood System (2006), using ultrasonic transmission mode, patented
and put on the market an equipment for delamination detection with air coupled
ultrasound in thick MDF (>120 mm) and in OSB, OSL, LVL, LVP and plywood
having the thickness up to 200 mm. The system detects blows, delaminations and
air pockets using a resonance technique. Papadakis and Kovacs (1980) described in
detail this technique used firstly for quality assurance of iron parts. The principle of
this method is based on the fact that a resonance occurs at the frequency at which
an integral number of half-wavelengths fit into some dimensions of the workpiece.
The ultrasonic energy is imparted to the workpieces which vibrates at its natural
frequencies. In a zone with delaminations, the natural frequencies are altered. The
analysis of the resonance frequencies permits the detection of the defective zone.
The main advantage of the resonance technique is the capability to sample almost
the entire workpiece (except the areas around nodes that are not stressed). “The
question of corrective action in the presence of a reflection from a potential flaw
that may or may be not of a detrimental size or shape is still a management decision
rather then a purely scientific one” (Papadakis 1999).
The patent developed by Electronic Wood System (2006) used non contact
ultrasonic transducers installed across the panel width, in transmission technique
configuration (Fig. 16.30). The minimum size of detectable delamination is 1 cm
(Kleinschmidt 2003). Several thresholds allow display of a multicoloured ultra-
sound picture of the panel. The picture recognizes variations of moisture content,
density, thickness and temperature using ultrasound, microwave and X ray tech-
niques. The air coupled ultrasonic transducers are encapsulated and the system
is protected against noise produced by sander, saws, compressed air, heat and
dust.
A similar system exists in Australia at Heyfield, Victoria (Hurley 2008) for the
detection of the internal checking within dried eucalyptus boards. The non contact
scanning system is equipped with 16 emitters and 16 receivers. The transduc-
ers are manufactured by Airstar Inc. US (Loertscher et al. 1996). The detection
is performed on boards travelling at 1800 m/min in production line. A real time
coloured picture is displayed on each board and is used for further operations
(trimming, etc).
The non contact ultrasonic technology is very robust, inherent safety and cost
effective; the transducers are protected against external noise, heat and dust,
humidity and high temperature; the maintenance time is significantly reduced.
a b
Fig. 16.30 Industrial equipment for delamination detection on LVL (courtesy of Airstar)
(https://airstar1.com/BLOW%20DETECTOR/.htm)(a) transversal view of the equipment for test-
ing of LVL and air coupled ultrasonic transducers; (b) frontal view of the same equipment with
Power Sonic Resonance Technology (https://ews-usa.com/images/ewsproducys/eval.ofwood.pdf)
16.4 Summary
Wood – based composite panel products are manufactured from veneer, wood par-
ticle, strands or fibres bind together with different type of adhesives. Delamination
is one of the most important defect which occurs in these products. The aim of
this chapter is to review the ultrasonic techniques used for delamination detection.
Delamination induces modifications of the mechanical and elastical properties of
the materials, which can be observed with ultrasonic techniques. Ultrasonic inspec-
tion involves the utilisation of stress waves having a frequency higher then 20 kHz.
Linear and non linear ultrasonic techniques have been developed for ultrasonic
inspection of wood based composites. Linear techniques have been developed in the
hypothesis that the acoustic wave amplitude is infinitesimally small and the response
of the material is assumed to be linear tp the excitation signal. Hook law is valid.
Under the label of –linear ultrasonic techniques- three main groups of techniques
are recognized: the reflexion technique or the pulse echo technique, the transmis-
sion technique, and the emission technique. This last technique is not described
in this chapter. For ultrasonic signal transmission to the specimens, contact and non
contact transducers called also air coupled transducers, can be used. Bulk waves and
Lamb waves (plate waves) are used for the mechanical and elastical characteriza-
tion. Technological advancements with non contact transducers have made possible
the development of studies related to the non linear behaviour of materials. For
wood-based composites testing the contact transducers are piezoelectric, rather the
air coupled transducers can be either piezoelectric or capacitive transducers. Images
of panels’ internal structure can be obtained with different scanning procedure. The
most common modes are: A-scan, B-scan and C scan. The non linear behaviour
of anisotropic materials can be observed by the increasing number of higher har-
monics having increasing amplitude with the distance. In these materials the non
linear effect is enhanced by the presence of defects, because of non linear motion
of their boundary. Delamination detection in wood-based composites was studied
with through transmission technique and with plate wave technique. In both cases
the transducers can be in direct contact with the specimen or can be air coupled.
Laboratory experiments have been reported for the delamination detection in clear
specimens or in specimens of structural size. An industrial non contact technique
was patented for the detection of delamination in MDF OSB OSL LVL LVP, etc.
The principle of this technique is based on the fact that a resonance occurs at the
frequency at which an integral number of half-waveslengths fit into some dimen-
sions of the workpiece, which vibrates at its natural frequencies. The presence of a
delamination modifies the frequency. A real time picture is displayed on each work-
piece and is used for further operations. The main advantage of this technique is its
capability to sample almost the entire workpiece. The air coupled transducers are
encapsulated and protected against dust, noise, etc. the non contact technology for
delamination detection is very robust, inherent safety and cost effective.
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Chapter 17
Delamination Evaluation of in-Service Glulam
Beams and other Structural Members
Via Ultrasonics
Ferenc Divos
Contents
17.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353

17.2 Crack Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
17.2.1 Crack Between Lamellae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
17.2.2 Crack Inside the Lamella Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
17.3 Crack Depth Detetrmination with Ultrasonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
17.4 Strength Prediction of Lamellas In situ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
17.5 Detection of Other Internal Defects in Glulam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
17.6 Shear Strength Determination Between the Lamellae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
17.7 Delamination and Other Defects in Structural Element of Historic Buildings . . . . 360
17.8 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
17.1 Introduction
The importance of nondestructive techniques for assessing the internal conditions

of structural members is generally accepted for old or more recent buildings (Ross
and Pellerin 1994; Pellerin and Ross 2002, Tanaka et al. 1998; Brashaw et al. 2005;
Wacker et al. 2007). Efforts to preserve buildings that have nationally significant
importance have been based on the development of nondestructive techniques able
to assess their mechanical performances (Wang X and Wacker 2006; Sandoz and
Benoit 2007; Lee et al. 2007; Divos et al. 2007). The overall goal of these efforts
is to preserve to the maximum possible extent of the historical materials used for
the monuments. On the other hand, in recent years, the stability of existing glulam
structures became an important issue after the collapse of some of the early struc-
tures. For example, in Germany on Jan.2, 2006, 15 people, most of them children
F. Divos (B)
Faculty of Wood Science, University of West Hungary, Sopron, Hungary
e-mail: divos@fmk.nyme.hu; divos@fakopp.com
354 F. Divos
Fig. 17.1 Crack depth

determination with 0.1 mm
thick feller gauge
on a school holiday, died when the roof of a skating rink fell in the Bavarian town
of Bad Reichenhall, after heavy wet snow falls (Associated Press 2006).
Since the tests should be performed in the field, simple devices must be used
and the experimental processes modified to improve the workability and efficiency
of tests. A preliminary inspection phase must be followed by an advance phase
of inspection. In the preliminary phase, a comprehensive in situ assessment of the
structure in its current condition must be made via a visual inspection. This visual
inspection defines damage severity and extends of deterioration, having in mind that
the engineering challenge is to assess member integrity. The first symptoms that can
be detected are surface cracks. (The biological degradations are not discussed in this
chapter). In the advance phase, the methods and procedures to be used for inspection
are defined, and the experimental results analyzed. This phase must be ended with
practical recommendations.
One of the most frequent observed defects are the cracks. The primary charac-
teristic of a crack is the depth. The common test for crack depth determination is
the penetration depth of 0.1 mm thick feller gauge (Fig. 17.1). This simple tech-
nique provides useful information about the crack, but has its limitation, especially
when the crack path is not straight (Fig. 17.2). Due to the above limitation in testing,
Fig. 17.2 Crack depth

determination by feller gauge
penetration is limited by the
crack path, which is not
straight
17 Delamination Evaluation of in-Service Glulam Beams 355
ultrasonic technique can be an alternative when applied to crack depth determina-

tion. Typically the depth measured by ultrasonic technique is a bit higher, than feller
gauge plate penetration depth.
17.2 Crack Types
In glulam structures, two main crack types are recognised, the crack between the
lamellae and the cracks inside the lamellae material.
17.2.1 Crack Between Lamellae
Adhesive failure or other technological failures cause partial separation between

lamellas. It is to note that after relatively few years of service (ex 6 years), the glulam
beams exposed to sun and rain suffer from delamination, as shown in Fig. 17.3.
Fig. 17.3 Cracks in glulam

beam in service for 6 years.
Crack depth is 24 mm
Figure 17.4 shows a typical example of delamination in a glulam structure, long

time in service, on Robinia pseudoacacia. This sample has been taken from a demol-
ished structure after 34 years of service. The structure has been demolished due to
severe delamination and shape change.
17.2.2 Crack Inside the Lamella Material
In the past, glulam elements containing pith have often been used by some manu-
facturers, typically at the central zone of the beam on which the mechanical loading
corresponds to the neutral axis. However an extreme case of utilization of a lamellae
is shown in Fig. 17.5a. Where the outer laminates are pith – containing. Cracks are
356 F. Divos
Fig. 17.4 Severe

delamination in a glulam
beam made of Robinia
pseudoacacia after 34 years
of service. Lamella thickness
is 20 mm
Fig. 17.5 Cracks in lamellae with piths zones. (a) two lamellae with pith in transversal section;
(b) cracks due to the pith at beam surface
also clearly visible on the surface (Fig. 17.5b). Note that the crack propagates to
the pith.
The beam ends are particularly vulnerable to initiation and growth of delamina-
tion because the dowels or screws of the fastening can be a crack initiator. A crack
having such origin is shown in Figs. 17.5 and 17.6.
17.3 Crack Depth Detetrmination with Ultrasonics
Cracks form a material discontinuity and as such are a vibration propagation barrier.
Ultrasonic or stress wave tools are applicable for the crack depth determination.
Fig. 17.6 Cracks at the

glulam beam end due to the
fastening screws
Placing a vibration source close to the crack line and a receiver sensor on the
opposite side of the crack, the transit time between the emitter and receiver give us
information about the crack depth. The recommended distance between sensors is
2–5 cm. To compute the crack depth it is also necessary to know the transit time
in the intact material (see: material without crack). The following equation gives us
the crack depth (L)
L = 0.5∗ sqrt(V 2 (Tc − Ti )2 + 2V(Tc − Ti )D) (17.1)
where:
Tc transit time across crack,
Ti transit time in case of intact material,
D Distance between sensors,
V P-wave velocity perpendicular to fibers in intact material.
Figure 17.7 shows two examples for the measurement of the time of flight of
the ultrasonic pulse. The first one uses ultrasonic surface waves. In this case a
pair of ultrasonic probes (1 MHz) is displayed at 45◦ and pressed to the surface
a) b)
Fig. 17.7 Crack depth determination via acoustic technology. (a) with ultrasonic transducers at
45◦ (b) with stress wave sensors
358 F. Divos
of the beam. The second example shows the probes used for stress wave technique
(40 kHz), which uses a hammer and an amplification system to excite vibration into
the tested element. It is easy to understand that with ultrasonic techniques, which are
more precise, the value corresponding to crack depth measurement is greater than
that determined using feeler gauge penetration. The ultrasonic techniques work very
well for normal cracks. Including all error sources the relative error of crack depth
determination is around 10%. The ultrasonic techniques are strongly limited if the
crack is filled by paint.
17.4 Strength Prediction of Lamellas In situ
Re-evaluation after many years of service of an existing glulam structure needs

strength and stiffness data. In the case of old beams, in function for more than 30
years, often no strength grading was applied to produce the beams. Hence wave
velocity determination in the fiber direction can provides the lamella modulus of
elasticity (MOE) according to the following equation:
MOE = ρV 2 (17.2)
where:
ρ density
V P-wave velocity
In-situ determination of density is however rather difficult but possible using
gamma or X rays. In practice the density values cited in the literature, for given
species is suitable for computation of MOE. The velocities can be measured rela-
tively easily and it is recommended to limit the distance between the two probes at
20 times the lamella thickness. Figure 17.8 shows the P-wave velocity measurement
using an ultrasonic device. A plastic – PVC – bar connects the sensors, helping to
keep the distance constant between during measurements.
17.5 Detection of Other Internal Defects in Glulam
Detecting internal decay, holes or other defects in glulam structures is possible by

measuring the transit time of P or S-waves between the two faces of the beam. This
type of defect was simulated on the sample used for this experiment. The test set up
using P waves is shown in Fig. 17.9. The defective zone showing a longer transit
time is located clearely by the red color on the graph.
17.6 Shear Strength Determination Between the Lamellae
The shear strength between the lamellae provides critical information about the glu-
lam beam mechanical capacities. Predicting the shear strength of the glue layer via
nondestructive techniques is possible but quite difficult as can be seen in Fig. 17.10.
Fig. 17.8 Velocity

determination in a lamella
along the fibers, using a
special device for keeping a
constant distance between the
transducers
a) b)
Fig. 17.9 P-wave velocity determination perpendicular to the grain. (a) the device (b) defect
location on the time of flight map. Dark (red) spot shows the location of the defective region
Shear sensors equipped with a knife type wave guide are applied to the opposite
faces of adjacent elements The plane of the knife determines the shearing plane.
This plane is prallel to the glue layer. In this experimental situation there were
no glue in between the lamellae. It was suggested that (Fig. 17.11) the atten-
uation measurements via shear wave amplitude can be a potential tool for the
360 F. Divos
a) b)
Fig. 17.10 Shear transducers. (a) The position of shear transducers on the transversal section of
the laminar structure; (b) the probes
Fig. 17.11 Relationship

between the measured shear
strength and signal amplitude
evaluation of delamination between glued layers in beams. More research and

technical development is necessary for in situ applications.
17.7 Delamination and Other Defects in Structural Element

of Historic Buildings
Hungary abounds in historical buildings, several of which have wooden roof and
ceiling structures. Most of these buildings are in a run-down state, needing reno-
vation. Wood experts evaluate the bio-degradation of wood, identifying fungi and
insect attack by visual inspection, by touching the material or using a simple screw
driver.
In this chapter the effectiveness of the ultrasonic technique, allowing the time of
flight measurements is demonstrated on structural elements and on the ceiling struc-
ture of an old baroque castle – Esterhazy Castle – in Pápa in Hungary (Fig. 17.12).
a) b)
Fig. 17.12 Esterhazy Casel in Papa, Hungary. (a) genral view of the restored casel, (b) plane view
of the first flor
The first floor of the two storied, U-shaped building is more than 500 years old, and
had been used as a fortress until 1752. From the original structure, the builders have
kept the walls of the ground floor. The length of the building is 165 m. The roof and
the top ceiling structure (a system of dowelled, closely aligned beams) is made on
wood (larch, oak, spruce and lime). The first floor and the walls of the second floor
are made on stone and bricks, and have been built probably during the 18th century.
The ceiling structure of the first flor is different from that of thesecond one, the first
being vaulted, and the second composed of closely fitted, doweled beams.
The inspection of the structure started with the visual examination of the sound
and decayed zones of all elements. The second phase of the inspection with ultra-
sonic device and micro drilling device are commented in this chapter and are related
to the physical and mechanical tests of the Sections 16 and 38. Figure 17.13 shows
some aspects during in situ measurements For the ultrasonic test, the piezoelectic
transducers of the device-FAKOPP timer, have been equipped with 60 mm long nails
to facilitate the inspections of wooden beams. Using a long cable of 11 m lenhght,
all beams have been measured without difficulty. The test for velocity measurements
is fast, two experienced person can carry out the test within 30 s.
To obtain more data about the physical state of the inner layers of the beams,
micro drilling technique was used. The screw withdrawal force measurements
(Fscrew ) were performed for 5 mm diameter drill to 120 mm depth. The consis-
tency and the odor of wood particles falling out from the hole were also analyzed
to state about the wood quality of the inspected beams. For the inspected beams,
the strength predictor parameters are stress wave velocity V and screw withdrawal
resistance. The predictor coefficient was calculated as Fscrew · V2 . It was demon-
strated previously (Divos and Tanaka 1997, Divos et al. 1998, 1999) that screw
withdrawal resistance is well correlated shear modulus, withdrawal force and with
density. This suggested to use the empirical relationship σ = FCS v2 (similar to
E = ρv2 ). Moreover, Kollmann (1965) noted a strong relationship between modu-
lus of elasticity and modulus of rupture in bending of full size beams. Using the
screw withdrawal force and the velocity of stress wave the following empirical
strength predictor equation applied for coniferous wood species was derived. The
362 F. Divos
a)
b)
Fig. 17.13 In situ measurements
applied units in the equations are: MORest [MPa], Fscrew [kN] and v, the velocity
[km/s]:
MORest = 0.809Fscrew · v2 + 26.8
A similar MOR predictor formula applies for hardwoods:
MORest = 1.258Fscrew · v2 + 36.9
The correlation coefficients between the bending strength and MORest is 0.74.
Figure 17.14 shows the correlation between modulus of rupture in bending of fill
140
120
MOR [Mpa]
100
80
Fig. 17.14 Relationship
between the modulus of 60
rupture and the predictor
parameters. represents 40
coniferous, ∇ represents 40 60 80 100 120 140
hardwood specimens Predictor [MPa]
Fig. 17.15 Strength distribution over the 214 years old ceiling in larch – a system of doweled,
closely aligned beams. The numbers represent the residual stress bending strength in MPa
size specimens and the predictor parameters.. The residual bending strength of indi-
vidual wooden beams have been estimated with ± 9 MPa accuracy. Figure 17.15
shows the strength distribution in the larch ceiling.
17.8 Summary
In this chapter are discussed several procedures for delamination evaluation of

in-service glulam beams and other structural members via ultrasonics Efforts to
preserve buildings that have nationally significant importance have been based on
the development of nondestructive techniques able to assess their mechanical per-
formances. The stability of existing glulam structures became an important issue
after the collapse of some of the early structures. One of the most frequent observed
defects are the cracks. The primary characteristic of a crack is the depth. The com-
mon test for crack depth determination is the penetration depth of 0.1 mm thick
feller gauge. Ultrasonic technique can be an alternative when applied to crack depth
determination. Typically the depth measured by ultrasonic technique is a bit higher,
than feller gauge plate penetration depth. In glulam structures, two main crack types
are recognized, the crack between the lamellae and the cracks inside the lamellae
material. Cracks form a material discontinuity and as such are a vibration prop-
agation barrier. Re-evaluation after many years of service of an existing glulam
structure needs strength and stiffness data. In the case of old beams, in function for
more than 30 years, often no strength grading was applied to produce those beams.
Wave velocity determination with P waves, in the fiber direction can provides the
modulus of elasticity of the lamellae. The shear strength between the lamellae pro-
vides critical information about the glulam beam mechanical capacities. Predicting
364 F. Divos
the shear strength of the glue layer via nondestructive techniques is possible using
shear probes equipped with a knife type wave guide. The plane of the knife deter-
mines the shearing plane. This plane is parallel to the glue layer. It was suggested
that the attenuation measurements via shear wave amplitude can be a potential tool
for the evaluation of delamination between glued layers for in –situ beams.
References
Associated Press (2006) German ice rink collapse. AP Image January 3, 2006 by Diether Endlicher,
www.highbeam.com. Accessed 3 August 2010
Brashaw BK, Vatalaro RJ, Wacker JP, Ross RJ (2005) Condition assessment of timber bridges.
1. Evaluation of a micro-driling resitance tool. FPL – GTR 159 USDA Forest Service Forest
Products Laboratory. Madison WI, USA
Divos F, Divos P, Divos G (2007) Acoustic techniques: from seedling to wood structures.
Proceedings of the 15th international symposium on nondestructuctive testing of wood. Duluth,
MN, pp 3–12
Divos F, Nemeth L, Bejo L (1999) Evaluation of the wooden structure of a baroque place in Papa,
Hungary. Proceedings of the 11th international symposium on nondestructive testing of wood.
Lausanne, Suisse, pp 153–160
Divos F, Tanaka T (1997) Lumber strength estimation by multiple regression, Holzforshung
51:467–471
Divos F, Tanaka T, Nagao H, Kato H (1998) Determination of shear modulus on construction size
timber. Wood Sci Technol 32:393–402
Kollmann, F. 1965 Relationship between elasticity and bending strength of wood, Proceedings of
the 2nd symposium on nondestructive testing of wood. Spokane, WA
Lee SJ, Oh JK, Yeo H, Lee JJ, Kim KB, Kim KM (2007) Field application on nondestructive
testing for detecting deterioration in Korean historic wood buildings. Proceedings of the 15th
international symposium on nondestructuctive testing of wood. Duluth, MN, pp 227–232
Pellerin RF, Ross RJ (2002) Nondestructive evaluation of wood. Forest Products Society,
Madison, WI
Ross RJ, Pellerin RF (1994) Nondestructive testing of assessing wood members in structures,
USDA, Forest Products Laboratory, FPL-GTR-70, Madison, WI
Sandoz JL, Benoit Y (2007) Acousto-ultrasonic nondestructive evaluation of historic wood struc-
tures. Proceedings of the 15th international symposium nondestructuctive testing of wood.
Duluth, MN, p 245
Tanaka T, Divos F, Fazan, T (1998) Nondestructive evaluation of residual bending strength of
wood with artificial defects by stress wave, Proceedings of the 11th international symposium
on nondestructive testing of wood, Madison, WI
Wacker JP, Wang X, Ross RJ, Brashaw BK (2007) Condition assessment of historic vessels.
Proceedings of the 15th international symposium nondestructuctive testing of wood. Duluth,
MN, pp 223–226
Wang X, Wacker JP (2006) Condition assessment of main structural members of US Brig Niagara.
Final Report Project no 187–2419. Erie Maritime Museum, Erie, PA
Chapter 18
Moisture Induced Stresses and Deformations
in Parquet Floors
Samuel Blumer, Erick Serrano, Per Johan Gustafsson, and Peter Niemz
Contents
18.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365

18.2.1 Tests on the Basic Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
18.2.2 Test on Parquet Planks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
18.2.3 Analytical Model A: Calibration Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
18.2.4 Analytical Model B: Distortional Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
18.2.5 Analytical Model C: Gap Opening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
18.3 Deformations in Parquet Floors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
18.3.1 Model A: Calibration and Comparison to Test Series 2 . . . . . . . . . . 371
18.3.2 Model B: Cupping of the Parquet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
18.3.3 Model C: Stresses in the Glue Line and Gap Opening . . . . . . . . . . . 374
18.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
18.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
18.1 Introduction
During the last decade the use of wood flooring systems in Europe has increased
dramatically. In Sweden for example, the proportion of wood flooring systems rose
steadily from 30% in the seventies to its current proportion which is 80%. This
rapid growth has fostered the development of new products, enabling the industry
to maintain and increase its market share.
The main objective of this paper is to improve understanding of the behaviour
of parquet floors exposed to different climates by applying numerical analysis
techniques using the commercial finite element program ABAQUS. In addition,
S. Blumer (B)
b-h-e GmbH, Holzinnovationszentrum 1a, 8740 Zeltweg, Austria
e-mail: samuel.blumer@b-h-e.at
366 S. Blumer et al.
Bernoulli’s beam theory applied in two dimensions to the square specimens gives
a simple and additional validation instrument for determining the deformational
behaviour of parquet flooring (Bodig and Jayne 1982). This approach is comple-
mented by a parametric study of the long time behaviour of parquet planks that
emphasises the influence of creeping on the aforesaid deformations and failure
modes.
Parquet floor product from Sweden was tested. The parquet specimen as seen in
Fig. 18.1, has three main layers: the surface layer – denoted SL – is 3.6 mm thick,
the core layer – denoted CL – is 8.6 mm thick and backing layer – denoted BL – is
2 mm thick. The layers are glued together crosswise with urea formaldehyde resin.
The geometry of the specimen, a parquet plank, is a plate of size 188 × 14.2 ×
2500 mm.
188 mm
Half element = 94 mm Half element = 94 mm
3.6 mm
8.6 mm
Z
2 mm
14.2 mm
X
Y click joint Surface layer: Oak (Quercus robur L.)
Core layer: Pine (Pinus sylvestris L.)
local coordinate system Backing layer: Veneer pine
Fig. 18.1 Geometry and consistency of the parquet floor
Laboratory tests on the materials which compose the parquet planks (referred
to as basic material) were performed to determine mechanical characterization
and for providing data for calibration and validation of the finite element method
calculations.
18.2.1 Tests on the Basic Material
Wood species used in these experiments are: pine, oak, beech and ash. The adsorp-
tion behaviour, density, static modulus of elasticity in the longitudinal direction and
the hygroexpansion factors of pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and oak (Querqus robur L.)
have been determined. Data for beech and ash were obtained from the literature.
The static modulus of elasticity in the longitudinal direction was determined
using a three point-bending test. The measured values were in the same range
and showed the same variation as noted in the literature (Kollmann 1982, Wood
Handbook 1999).
For determining the adsorption behaviour, 20 samples from each species were
conditioned in a climatic chamber at 20◦ C and 25% relative humidity (RH) until
18 Moisture Induced Stresses and Deformations in Parquet Floors 367
they reached equilibrium moisture content (EMC). Thereafter, the climate was
changed from 25% to over 50% and then up to 85% relative humidity, all at a
temperature of 20◦ C. The shrinkage and swelling coefficients in the longitudinal,
radial and tangential directions were measured by changing the climate from 60%
RH down to 25% RH (shrinking, 20 specimens) and then/from 60% RH up to 85%
RH (swelling, 20 specimens) respectively, all at a temperature of 20◦ C.
18.2.2 Test on Parquet Planks
The influences of different parameters such as material properties, material orienta-

tion, properties of the glue line and the geometry of the product on the stresses and
deformations were tested.
30 square samples with a side length of 150 mm were cut out of parquet planks
and conditioned in a standard climate of 20◦ C/65% relative humidity until reaching
equilibrium moisture content. Ten specimens had a lacquered surface layer (denoted
test series 2, A1–A10) and ten specimens were non-lacquered (denotes test series 1,
and A11–A20). In addition, the transport of moisture in one dimension only was
enforced on 5 lacquered and 5 non-lacquered specimens by applying moisture insu-
lation on the edges. The samples were dried in a climate of 20◦ C for a period of
28 days.
The bending deformation of parquet specimens was measured at four points on
the surface layer of the specimens (Fig. 18.2). The vertical deformation was mea-
sured along two orthogonal directions of the plate. In position A the grain direction
of the core layer and thus x axis was parallel to the primary axis of the global
Position A
G H I
D E F measurement points for
horizontal deformation
2 (Z) A B C
3 (Y) 1 (X)
measurement points for
direction of x axis
horizontal deformation
Position B
G' = I H' I' = C
D' = H E' = E F' = B
A' = G B' = D C' = A

2 (Z)
direction of x axis
3 (X) 1 (Y)
Fig. 18.2 Measurement of the plate’s vertical deformation in two directions and evaluation with
the beam theory of Bernoulli (t: thickness change, κ: curvature in x and y direction respectively)
coordinate system, thereafter 90◦ rotation counter clockwise of the plate was done
for the second measurements. The plate was supported at the downside of point
B, G and I., B’, G’ and I’ respectively. Three variables (thickness of the plate, cur-
vature in the x and y directions respectively), describing the vertical deformation of
the specimen, have been evaluated from the eight data measurements using a least
square fit and Bernoulli beam theory.
Several finite element models were created to simulate the behaviour of the par-
quet planks under different climatic conditions, such as a calibration model, a model
for the study of distortional effects and a model for gap opening. These models are
described in following sections. The influence of different parameters such as the
properties of the material, material orientation, glue line properties and the geometry
of the product on the stress and deformations will be tested using these models.
18.2.3 Analytical Model A: Calibration Model

The calibration model has been constructed for calibration and verification of the
numerical analysis applied to specimens with moisture-isolated edges.
Some assumptions have been made in estimating the effective coefficient of
diffusion, These are:
• The diffusion coefficient of pine and oak wood in the radial and tangential
directions are equal;
• The estimated diffusion coefficient is assumed constant below 15% MC, (Jönsson
2005)
• The model does not explicitly consider any interfacial layer between the wood
layers and the glue layer. The interfacial layers have been reduced to a continua-
tive 0.l mm thick composite layer. The glue lines between the backing and core
and core and surface layer respectively, were modelled as a 0.1 mm thick layer
(UF resin) with material data taken from Hagstrand (1999).
The relationships between the diffusion coefficient, the specific heat, the density
and the thermal conductivity (Carslaw and Jaeger (1959) and Eriksson (2005) are
given in the Eqs. (18.1) and (18.2))

∂T ∂ λ(T) ∂T
= (18.1)
∂t ∂x cρ ∂x

∂u ∂ ∂u
= DW (u) (18.2)
∂t ∂x ∂x
Where the parameters are expressed in the following units:
– diffusion coefficient [m2 s−1 ]

– temperature T
– specific heat c [Jkg−1 K −1 ]
– density ρ [kgm−3 ]
– thermal conductivity λ [Js−1 m−1 K −1 ]
– time t [s]
Thermally coupled and quadratic interpolated brick elements have been used for
the calculation. To simplify the transport model, the moisture content at the sur-
face was set in equilibrium with the moisture content corresponding to the relative
humidity of circulating air, μsurf = μair . This imposed boundary condition is called
the boundary condition of Drichlet (Koc and Houska 2002).
An effective coefficient of diffusion for the entire parquet plank was deter-
mined and compared to experiments on specimens with moisture-isolated edges
(test series 2).
The bending deformations of the plate in plane xz and yz have been calculated
and compared to experiments on test series 2. The static boundary conditions were
included consistent with the test set up of test series 2. The degrees of freedom u1 ,
u2 and u3 were restrained on the lower edge of point B and in the vertical direc-
tion u2 on the lower edge of point G and I respectively, see Fig. 18.4. The gaps
between the pine strips in the core layer were modelled with ABAQUS. The layer
consisted of three strips (left, middle and right) each with different direction of the
growth rings (longitudinal L, radial R and tangential T). The material orientation
of the surface layer has been varied from 0◦ (Tangential direction parallel to u1 or
x direction according to Fig. 18.3) to 90◦ (Tangential direction perpendicular u1 or
x direction). The angle of the growth rings has been set similar to the test speci-
mens of test series 2. Transforming the stiffness matrix of the oak layer’s different
strips simulated the influence of the growth ring’s direction. The transformation
was done for both the stiffness matrix and the hygroexpansion factors. A coordinate
150
425 65 425
SL: left strip SL: middle strip SL: right strip
R (variable)
surface layer T (variable)

G H I
L
D E F
2 (Z) A B C
3 (Y) 1 (X)
T
core layer
L
R R
backing layer T
L
Fig. 18.3 Geometry and material of the parquet plank. The angle of the growth rings in the surface
layer differs between the strips
transformation of the orthogonal coordinate system around the longitudinal axis (L)
has been performed.
18.2.4 Analytical Model B: Distortional Effects
A finite element model (named the analytical model B and shown in Fig. 18.4) was
applied to predict the distortional behaviour of the parquet plank’s central compo-
nent. Parametric study on the influence of geometry, material and creeping of the
surface layer were performed. The model corresponded to half the width of the strip
and a depth of 26 mm. This depth included 2 half width core sticks (2×12.5 mm)
and 1 mm spacing between the sticks. The depth of the model was relatively small
compared to the length of the parquet planks, which is 2500 mm. The parquet strip
was 10 mm wide, 14.4 mm thick in a three-layer structure (3.6 mm surface layer
(SL), 8.6 mm core layer (CL) and 2 mm backing layer (BL)) glued together with
two 0.1 mm thick UF resin layers. The vertical deformation of the parquet planks
has been calculated between point A and point B. These points were located on
nodes, point B on the boundary edge whereas point A was located 10 mm from
the boundary to minimize the local deformation shape of the unconstrained face in
plane yz at x = 0. The surface in plane yz at the value x = 94 mm was constraint in
u1 or x direction according to the coordinate system shown in Fig. 18.2. The surface
could not be blocked in u2 or z direction in order to allow free movement of the
surface layer in the vertical direction. The edge below was also constraint in u2 or
z direction for stability reasons. The surfaces in plane xz were constraint in u3 or y
direction. This boundary condition simulated an infinite depth of the parquet plank.
Coupled temperature-displacement and quadratic interpolated elements have been
chosen for the model.
Moisture exchange B (94/14.2/13)

limited to top surface
A (0/14.2/13)
u1 = 0
2 (z)
u3 = 0
125 + 1 + 125
1(x)
3 (y) 94 u2 = 0
A
v B
Fig. 18.4 Analytical model A: Geometry, static system and boundary conditions used for the
modelling of the distortional effects
18.2.5 Analytical Model C: Gap Opening
The geometry, the static system and the boundary conditions of the model C are
shown in Fig. 18.5. The proposed model was applied to predict the deformation
2 (Z)
94.000 94.000
1 (X)
2 8.6 3.6
A B
A.3 B.3
uA.1 uB.1
Fig. 18.5 Geometry, static system and boundary conditions of model C
behaviour of the click joint and the gaps of the surface layer. The model corre-
sponded to half the width of the parquet plank on the right and left side of the click
joint. Because stresses mainly occurred in xz, the model was reduced to two dimen-
sions. The side edges of the model were coupled to the reference points A and B in
u1 or x direction. The symmetrical behaviour has been introduced to the model by
constraint equations. The rotation of the edge at point A is the same as that of the
corresponding surface at point B (ϕA.3 = ϕB.3 ). The horizontal deformation in u1
or x direction had similar values but opposite signs (uA.1 = −u1.B ). The model was
based on an elastic layer with a very small E-modulus, to give the stability in u2 or
z direction. This was done in order to simplify the model, such that no algorithm for
modelling the contact with the foundation had to be used. The contact of the model
in the click joint was modelled by a contact algorithm triggering reaction forces
in the case where the elements of the tongue come in contact with the element of
the groove in the joint region. Seams have been introduced for simulating the gaps
in the surface layer. Coupled temperature-displacement and quadratic interpolated
triangular and quadratic elements were chosen for this model.
18.3 Deformations in Parquet Floors
In the following the moisture induced stresses and deformation in parquet floors
determined with the models A, B and C will be discussed.
18.3.1 Model A: Calibration and Comparison to Test Series 2
The estimation of the moisture transport using different effective diffusion coef-
ficients resulted in Deff = 1.8e−11 [m2 s−1 ]. The value obtained was about 1.5−2
times smaller than that given by Simpson (1993). This difference may be caused
by the influence of the two glue lines in the parquet element that acts as a moisture
barrier.
L L
Z
X
Y v L
w L
Fig. 18.6 Bending v in xz plane
The specimens without edge isolation (denoted A11–A20 for non lacquered
specimens) reached equilibrium moisture content in a climate of 20◦ C/25% RH after
28 days conditioning. Thus, the numerical analyses were performed as steady state
calculations. The comparison of the vertical deformation v (Fig. 18.6) between the
test specimen and numerical analysis according are shown in Figs. 18.7 and18.8
for lacquered specimens A1 . . .. A10, and for non lacquered specimens were
denoted A11. . ..A20. The bending of the plank in xz plane was strongly dominating
(v >> w). Figure 18.9 gives the comparison between the experimental and the
numerical results with the Analytical model A, for lacquered and non lacquered
–0.05 Numerical simulation

Measurements
Bending v in xz plane [mm]
–0.1
–0.15
Fig. 18.7 Test results versus –0.2
numerical FEM calculations,
–0.25
moisture content change from
10.25 to 6.85%. Bending –0.3 Mean values
deformation of lacquered –0.35
specimens (A1–A10 are the
specifications of the samples A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 A9 A10
of test series 2) Specification of lacquered specimens
–0.05 Numerical simulation

Measurements
Bending v in xz plane [mm]
–0.1
–0.15
Fig. 18.8 Test results versus –0.2
–0.25
10.25 to 6.85%. Bending –0.3
Mean values
deformation of non lacquered –0.35
specimens (A11–A12 are the
specifications of the samples A11 A12 A13 A14 A15 A16 A17 A18 A19 A20
of test series 2) Specification of non lacquered specimens
Fig. 18.9 Overall 0
comparison of Analytical Laquered specimens
Bending v, measurements [mm]

–0.05
Non lacquered specimens
model A: Test results versus –0.1
–0.15
10.25 to 6.85% –0.2
–0.25
–0.3
–0.35
–0.4
–0.4 –0.35 –0.3 –0.25 –0.2 –0.15 –0.1 –0.05 0
Bending v, numerical analyse [mm]
specimens, for moisture content decreasing between 10.25 and 6.85%. Further
comments regarding this model are:
– the introduction of different angles of the growth rings for each of the tree strips
of the surface layer shown in Fig. 18.3 had an important influence on the plate
deformation behaviour;
– the surface treatment (lacquered or non lacquered) did only slightly influence the
bending behaviour of the square samples.
18.3.2 Model B: Cupping of the Parquet
The cupping effect under different drying conditions using different materials, angle
of the growth rings and geometry has been calculated. At the start of the calcu-
lation, the boundary condition of the surface layer was determined for moisture
content decreasing from 7.5 down to 5% and for different angles of growth rings
(Fig. 18.10). The cupping minimum occurs under 45◦ in both strips of the surface
layer. The influences of the surface thickness on the cupping of the parquet are
0.8
Angle = 30 deg
0.7 Angle = 45 deg
Angle = 90 deg
0.6 Angle = 0 deg
Cupping v [mm]
0.5
0.4
Fig. 18.10 Influence of the 0.3
surface layer’s angle of Beech
Beech
Angle SL 3.6mm
==Beech
30deg Beech
Angle 30deg
growth rings after reduction 0.2 Angle
Angle
Oak
Oak=SL
45
=Oak
45deg
3.6mm
deg Oak
Angle
Angle=SL
90
=Ashdeg
03.6mm
deg
of the moisture content from 0.1 Ash
Ash
Angle
Angle==090
deg
deg
Ash
7.5 down to 5%. (Local
0
tangential direction parallel to 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
horizontal plane at α = 0◦ ) Time [days]
surface layer’s thickness after 0.7

reduction of the moisture
0.6
content from 7.5 down to 5%
Cupping v [mm]
0.5
0.4
0.3
Surfacelayer
Surface 4.8 mm
layer2.6mm
2.6mm
0.2 Surfacelayer 3.6 mm
layer3.6mm
3.6mm
Surface
Surfacelayer
Surface 2.6 mm
layer4.8mm
4.8mm
0.1
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time [days]
surface layer’s material after 0.7

reduction of the moisture
0.6
content from 7.5 down to 5%
Cupping v [mm]
0.5
0.4
0.3
Beech SL 3.6mm
Beech
0.2 Oak Oak
SL 3.6mm
Ash SL
Ash3.6mm
0.1
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time [days]
shown in Fig. 18.11, for moisture content decreasing from 7.5 to 5%. The influ-
ences of the surface layer’s material – beech, oak and ash – on the cupping of the
parquet are shown in Fig. 18.12, for the same moisture content decreasing range.
The significant influence of the geometry (layers thickness) and of the species can
be observed. Beech had the highest cupping , a maximum of 0.78 mm after 20 days
while ash had the lowest cupping , 0.44 mm after 20 days.
18.3.3 Model C: Stresses in the Glue Line and Gap Opening
Figure 18.13 shows the model and the cuts for stress calculation for the model
C where S11 is the horizontal stress, S22 the vertical stress and S12 the shear
stress. The influence of the materials used for the surface and core on the verti-
cal stress as a function of the horizontal distance to the middle of the gag is shown
in Fig. 18.14.
Figure 18.15 shows the variation of the horizontal stress through the cut of the
parquet plank for different geometries of the surface layer and core. It is notable that
the absolute values of the stresses are extremely mesh-size dependent. Maximum
Fig. 18.13 Model and cuts for stress calculation. S11 : Horizontal stress, S22 Vertical stress and
S12 Shear stress
values of the stresses cannot be evaluated in this model. For this reason the curves
have to be compared on the basis of their gradients. The main target of the para-
metric study was to minimize the gradient of the vertical, horizontal and shear
stresses. The vertical stress S22 and the shear stresses S12 in the glue line can lead
to delamination. A steeper curve close to the gap indicates an increased risk for
crack formation and propagation of delamination. Here, the highest gradient of ver-
tical stresses can be observed for the beech wood. The creeping is stress depending
as demonstrated by Jönsson (2005) and Hanhijärvi (1995). Thus, higher horizontal
stresses can lead to higher creeping effect in the wood. A stress gradient in the sur-
face layer may result in stronger creeping of the surface layer at the bottom as on the
top. The effect of a creeping gradient in the surface layer has been modelled and the
variation of the vertical stresses S22 after creeping gradient is shown in Fig. 18.16.
The minimum is observed at about 6 mm distance to the gap.
Fig. 18.14 Vertical stresses S22 in CUT A: Different materials in the surface and core layer (HDF)
respectively
15
SL 4.8 mm/CL 8.6 mm
Cut through the parquet plank [mm]

SL 3.6 mm/CL 8.6 mm Surface layer (SL)
SL 2.6 mm/CL 8.6 mm
10
Groove
Core layer (CL)
5
Backing layer (BL)

0
–30 –20 –10 0 10 20 30
Horizontal stresses S11 [MPa]
Fig. 18.15 Horizontal stresses S11 in CUT B Influence of the geometry of the surface layer
3
φR,T = 0.8 2.5
Vertical stresses S22 [MPa]
2
φR,T = 1.6 1.5
ΦR,T = 0
1
φR,T = 3 0.5
ΦR,T = 0.8..1.6..3 (gradient)
0
hoak
–0.5
–1
hpine
–1.5
–2
0 5 10 15 20
Horizontal distance to the gap [mm]
Fig. 18.16 Influence of creeping gradient in the surface layer
18.4 Conclusion
As concluding remarks it is noted that a model that includes the whole parquet sys-
tem helps find optimal solutions as a function of stresses in the glue line and gap
opening of the surface layer. In the previous discussion, it was demonstrated that
the finite element method brings several advantages compared to traditional testing
in laboratory conditions. The time needed for simulating changing climatic cycles
is much smaller compared to laboratory tests. In the future, the design process for
wood flooring systems should include basic material testing, finite element analyses
and, finally, testing of the developed product. Other advantages with modelling tech-
niques include the possibility to optimize the geometry of the joint and the lay-up of
the planks in a rather straightforward manner. The material and the angle of growth
ring in the surface layer have a considerable influence on the deformation and stress
distribution of the parquet planks. An angle of 45◦ (between tangential direction and
horizontal plane) in the surface layer minimized the cupping deformation. From the
design perspective, results based on calculations with elastic properties of the glue
line without introducing creeping factors are conservative; bigger deformations than
experienced in practice are predicted. The material properties of the glue line and
lacquer are difficult to determine, although the finite element method can be used for
parameter estimation. The long time behaviour of the glue line did not significantly
influence the deformation and stress distribution. It seems to be a good approach in
terms of modelling to assign the UF resin layer properties making it less hygroscopic
than wood and acting as a linear elastic layer. A hygroscopic material model may
make more sense for the wood material than for the glue line. Periodic loading can
increases the creeping effect, delamination may also occur after several summer –
winter cycles.
18.5 Summary
The indoor climate in buildings has changed in the last decade due to more efficient
climatic systems, floor heating systems and larger open floor areas with more natural
light. All these factors have induced increasing ranges of relative humidity between
different seasons. Also with decreasing relative humidity (in the winter 30–50%
RH, in the summer 70–90% RH), floor-heating systems increase the temperature
in wooden parquet planks for example. Such variations can result in troublesome
deformations, delamination of the surface layer and development of cracks in the
parquet flooring boards. Sometimes there is only deterioration of the appearance
but the durability of the flooring system can also be reduced. Many laboratory tests
have to be done before reaching an optimal design of the parquet elements. Due
to the high costs and time constraints of experiments, other supplementary research
methods should be tested and evaluated. The articles’ main objective was to improve
understanding of the behaviour of parquet floors exposed to different climatic condi-
tions by using numerical calculation. The use of the finite element models provides
options for design purposes of wood flooring systems. Several finite element models
to aid adequate design have been created, tested and applied. After calibration and
validation of the calculation method, parametric studies on the influence of material
properties, geometry of the parquet floors and the long-term behaviour of the wood
and glue line were performed. The results show a strong relation between material
and geometry choice on the deformation, for example the gap opening and the stress
distribution in the glue line, which can induce delamination of the surface layer and
distortional effects of the parquet boards.
References
Bodig J, Jane A (1982) Mechanics of wood and wood composites. – Van Nostrand Reinhold,
New York, NY
Carslaw HS, Jaeger JC (1958) Conduction of heat in solids. Oxford University Press, London
Eriksson J (2005) Moisture transport and moisture induced distortions in timber. – Doctoral Thesis,
Department of Applied Mechanics, Chalmers University of Technology, Göteborg
Hagstrand PO (1999) Mechanical analysis of melamine-formaldehyde composites – Doctoral
Thesis, Department of Polymeric Materials, Chalmers University of Technology, Göteborg
Hanhijärvi A (1995) Modelling of creep deformation mechanisms in wood. – Dissertation,
Technical Research Centre of Finland, Espoo
Jönsson J (2005) Moisture induced stresses in timber structures. -Doctoral Thesis, Report TVBK-
1031, Division of Structural Engineering, Lund University
Koc P, Houska M (2002) Characterisation of the sorptive properties of spruce wood by the inverse
identification method. Holz als Roh und Werk 60:265 – 270
Kollmann F (1982) Technologie des Holzes und der Holzwerkstoffe 2. Auflage- Springer, Berlin,
Heidelberg, New York, NY
Simpson WT (1993) Determination and use of moisture diffusion coefficient to characterize drying
of northern red oak (Quercus rubra). Wood Sci Technol 27:409–420
Wood Handbook (1999) Wood as an engineering material. -USDA Forest Products Laboratory,
Forest Laboratory, Madison, WI
Chapter 19
Glue Line Nondestructive Assessment in Timber
Laminates with an Air-Coupled Ultrasonic
Technique
Sergio J. Sanabria, Christian Müller, Jürg Neuenschwander,

Peter Niemz, and Urs Sennhauser
Contents
19.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379

19.2 Theoretical Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
19.3.1 Sample Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
19.3.2 Experimental Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
19.4 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
19.4.1 Imaging of Glue Presence and Repeatability of Measurements . . . . . . . 383
19.4.2 Influence of Natural Variability and Anisotropy of Wood . . . . . . . . . 385
19.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
19.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
19.1 Introduction
Glued solid wood products have gained much importance during the last years, as
they allow an efficient and versatile use of the renewable timber material. Current
standardized methods for bonding quality assessment consist of tests of small spec-
imens cut from the structure during production or visual in-service inspection.
Ultrasonic diagnostics are traditionally based on discrete point measurements using
contact techniques. Transducers are generally pressed onto the timber surface with a
coupling gel, liquid, or membrane couplant. Large glue line defects in glued timber
constructions have been detected with this method (Dill-Langer et al. 2005). The
disadvantages are a low precision in signal level measurements, which are highly
dependent on the coupling pressure, and that the coupling agent may deteriorate the
object. Better repeatability and one-dimensional continuous scanning is achieved
S.J. Sanabria (B)

Electronics/Metrology/Reliability Laboratory, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science
and Technology, Empa, Überlandstrasse 129, CH-8600, Dübendorf, Switzerland
e-mail: sergio.sanabria@empa.ch
380 S.J. Sanabria et al.
with roller transducers, which have been applied to defect inspection in hardwood
lumber (Kabir et al. 2002). Non-linear effects have been used to assess delamina-
tions between veneer lamina and particle board (Solodov et al. 2004); a welding
piezoelectric stack couples high power ultrasound into the sample and its surface is
scanned with a laser vibrometer.
Air-coupled ultrasonics (ACU) provides much more flexibility than traditional
techniques since the transducer can be moved at a certain distance from the sur-
face of the object, so fine and reproducible scanning in any direction is possible. A
high-power low-frequency ACU system for split detection in wood composites is
currently used in production lines (Niemz and Sander 1990). Ultrasonic imaging
has been performed in solid wood using through-transmission mode for inspec-
tion of density, knots, microcracks and drilled holes (Gan et al. 2005; Hasenstab
2006). Delaminations in wood panel paintings between solid wood and a thin plaster
layer have been assessed with both through-transmission and single-sided inspection
(Siddiolo et al. 2007).
In this work we present preliminary results of the application of ACU to assess
disbonding in glued solid wood objects. A specific measurement set-up and data
evaluation based on voltage level measurements of recorded A-scans allows pre-
cise imaging of areas with and without adhesive. Advantages and limitations of this
method are discussed.
19.2 Theoretical Considerations
The interpretation of the measurements is based on the theory of plane waves in

homogeneous isotropic layered media (Brekhovskikh 1980). The sample is modeled
as a three layers system, i.e. wood/glue/wood for glued material and wood/air/wood
in the case of non-glued material. Due to the high acoustic impedance mismatch
between air and solids the pressure level of an ACU signal which propagates through
non-glued material is significantly lower than the level for glued material. Only a
single echo of a longitudinal wave propagating through the three layers is consid-
ered. The acoustic attenuation in the glue line is neglected. It is assumed that the
voltage level measured with an ACU transducer is proportional to the force exerted
on its surface by ultrasonic waves (Schmerr and Song 2007). A simplified expression
for the level ratio is given in Eq. (19.1):
Vglued
Lglued/non glued = 20 · log10 = Twood→glue→wood − Twood→air→wood
Vnon glued

1 ·Z2
T1→2→1 = 20 · log10 (Z4·Z+Z )2 Zi = ρi · ci
1 2
(19.1)
Where: Lglued/non glued (dB) is the amplitude level ratio between ACU signals prop-
agating through glued and non-glued material; Vglued (V) and Vnon glued (V) are
corresponding amplitude measurements in the recorded A-scans. T1→2→1 (dB) is
19 Glue Line Nondestructive Assessment in Timber Laminates 381
the transmission coefficient for a single echo propagating through a layer of mate-
rial 2 between two semi-infinite media of material 1. Zi (Pa·s/m), ρi (kg/m3 ) and
ci (m/s) are the acoustic impedance, density and speed of sound in the propaga-
tion direction for medium i. From available data cspruce = 1300 m/s (measured in
T orthotropic direction from ACU data following a similar method to (Vun et al.
2003) and ρspruce = 409 kg/m3 (gravimetrical determination), therefore Zwood =
0.532·106 Pa·s/m . From literature data (Deutsch et al. 1997) Zglue = 2.2·106 Pa·s/m
and Zair = 0.000427 · 106 Pa · s/m (dry air T = 20◦ C). From Eq. (19.1) it follows
that Twood→glue→wood = −4.1 dB and Twood→air→wood = −49.9 dB.
19.3.1 Sample Preparation
A total of 46 samples of common spruce (Picea abies Karst.) were manufactured

in the Wood Physics Laboratory of ETH Zurich; each consisting of two 5 mm thick
solid wood lamellas glued together except for some defined areas (Table 19.1). The
adhesive is a one-component polyurethane resin (PURBOND R
HB 110) applied
2
to one side of the boards with an amount of 200 g/m . The boards were pressed
together hydraulically during 3 h with a stress of 0.8 N/mm2 . Before the gluing
the wood was conditioned to normalized climatic conditions (T = 20◦ C and RH =
65%), which were afterwards also used for storage.
Only solid wood lamellas with a small percentage of knots, resin pockets, grain
distortion, etc. were used in order to analyze the variability of ultrasonic signals
propagating through defect free glued timber. The cross-section of the samples is
approximately in the orthotropic R-T plane and the curvature of the year rings is
negligible (Fig. 19.1).
After ultrasonic measurement, samples of type C and D were broken up and
the profile of the transition between glued and non-glued areas was recorded with
optical means.
Table 19.1 Geometry of glued timber samples manufactured for ACU measurement
Type Description
A Single solid wood lamella of dimensions 500×100×10 mm3

B Two lamellas of dimensions 500×100×5 mm3 glued together to form a glued
timber object of 500×100×10 mm3
C Same geometry as B. No adhesive applied in the left half area (250×100 mm2 ) of
the lamellas
D Same sample type as B. Adhesive only applied in two small areas (about
30×100 mm2 ) on the left and right edges of the lamellas
Fig. 19.1 Photographs of external surfaces of a typical C sample. An aluminum spacer of 1 mm

thickness on the edge of the non-glued part allows control of the gap thickness. The year ring angle
varies between 90º (propagation in orthotropic T direction) and 45º. Small defects like a 26 mm
long resin pocket were allowed
19.3.2 Experimental Setup
The measurement setup is shown in Fig. 19.2. Two ACU broadband planar transduc-
ers (model NCG100-D50, The Ultran Group) with a central frequency of 120 kHz
and 50 mm active diameter were aligned perpendicularly to the surfaces of the sam-
ple, one transmitting an ultrasonic signal and the other one receiving it. The distance
between the transmitter and the sample (210 mm) was chosen to minimize the diam-
eter of the sound field penetrating the latter. A three-axis system from ISELR
moves
the two transducers together as a fixed unit; scanning the surface of the samples with
steps of 1 mm in the fast axis and 4 mm in the slow axis. A sinusoidal pulse of 115
Vpp amplitude and 33 μs length windowed with a Gaussian function was applied
to the transmitter. Received waveforms were amplified with a gain of 52 dB and
digitized with a sampling frequency of 2.5 MHz and 14 bits resolution, the gener-
ated A-scans being stored for each scanned position. No averaging of A-scans was
performed. C-scans were generated from a peak or root mean square (RMS) voltage
measurement for each A-scan and a defined time gate [t1 , t2 ]:

t2
1
VPEAK = max V(t) VRMS = V(t)2 dt (19.2)
[t1, t2] t2 − t1
t1
The distance between receiver and sample (80 mm) allows separating in time
multiple reflections between their surfaces (3) from measured waves (1) and (2).
A-scans received through bonded material (1) present a signal-to-noise ratio of 55
dB, which allows for enough dynamic range to record waveforms from glued and
non-glued areas in a single scan. Waves diffracted at the edges of the sample (4)
are blocked by a frame built around the inspected object. The frame is made from
wood (Norway spruce) covered by several layers of paper with small gaps of air
Fig. 19.2 Experimental set-up. Top image: Inspection principal and main propagation paths. 1
and 2 are waves propagating through the sample for glued and non-glued areas respectively. 3 are
multiple reflections between the receiver and the surface of the sample. 4 are waves diffracted at the
edges of the sample, which are blocked by a frame built around the object. The noise level in the
A-scans is 1.3 mVRMS . Bottom image: Profile of voltage level along the fast axis normalized with
respect to the glued area. The gap thickness decreases linearly between fast axis 0 and 250 mm
from 1 mm down to the glue line thickness
in between. Waves propagating through the frame are highly attenuated due to the
accumulation of impedance mismatch losses.
19.4 Results and Discussion
19.4.1 Imaging of Glue Presence and Repeatability

of Measurements
Figure 19.3 demonstrates successful ultrasonic imaging of absence and presence of
adhesive of a typical glued timber sample of type C, which corresponds to the object
photographed in Fig. 19.1. As expected, there is a strong voltage reduction in the
left area of the board surface, corresponding to the non-glued region. The transition
between glued and non-glued areas could be imaged accurately. Figure 19.4 shows
an ultrasonic image of a sample type D, in this case the two glued areas on the left
Fig. 19.3 ACU imaging of glue presence for the sample in Fig. 19.1. Top image: Photograph of
open board; the transition between glued and non-glued area is highlighted. Bottom image: ACU
C-scan of the sample. Feature 1 of the transition between glue/no glue and the resin pocket (2) can
be visualized
and right sides of the surface of the image can be clearly distinguished; the ampli-
tude values being higher than the ones measured in non-glued areas. In both images,
details of the transition between glued and non-glued regions can be resolved. The
spatial resolution of the images is limited by the sound field diameter (about 35 mm);
features smaller than 20 mm cannot be resolved. Preliminary tests applying spatial
deconvolution algorithms to the ultrasonic images showed an improvement of the
resolution limit down to 10 mm.
Fig. 19.4 ACU imaging of glue presence and absence of a sample type D. Top image: Photograph
of open board; in this case there was a small drop of glue (feature 1) joining the two lamellas,
separated from the glued area on the right side of the sample. Bottom image: ACU C-scan. The
presence of the drop of glue can be clearly recognized; however, the non-glued area between feature
1 and the glued region on the right side is smeared by the finite diameter of the sound field
Figure 19.2 shows in logarithmic scale the voltage level variations between glued
and non-glued area for a typical fast axis amplitude profile of a sample type C, and
for specific air gap thicknesses between the two lamellas. The voltage level in the
non-glued area shows a minimum of –50 dB with respect to the glued area, in good
agreement with the estimation for Twood→air→wood . As the gap thickness between
boards decreases, this level rises due to multiple reflections of the ultrasonic wave
adding constructively in the gap. About 20 mm from the boundary to the glued
area propagation through bonded material becomes dominant, owing to the finite
diameter of the sound field. An amplitude rise is observed in the delaminated area
from fast axis 0 to 50 mm. It probably corresponds to residual ultrasonic energy
diffracting through air at the edges of the sample, which is not blocked by the frame.
Best measurement performance was achieved by limiting secondary ultrasonic
propagation paths by evaluating a reduced number of cycles at the beginning of
the received waveform. RMS voltage and peak voltage give similar results with
sufficiently short temporal gates (less than 40 μs). Repeated ACU measurements of
the same object showed variations of less than 0.1 dB (error < 1%).
A homogenous amplitude level was observed in the ACU images of samples type
A and B. The average voltage level measured for type B glued samples is –1 dB with
respect to the value for type A solid wood samples; a smaller difference than pre-
dicted by Twood→glue→wood , which further enhances the contrast of ACU images.
A probable reason is the constructive interference of multiple reflections of the
ultrasonic wave in the glue line.
19.4.2 Influence of Natural Variability and Anisotropy of Wood

Wood inhomogeneity introduces variations of up to 8 dB in voltage measurements
of glued material without compromising the detectability of non-glued areas. Due
to the small uncertainty of ACU measurements specific wood structure features can
be visualized in the C-scans. Regions with highest latewood concentration show
lowest voltage levels. A possible reason is the fact that latewood has higher acoustic
impedance than earlywood and therefore larger impedance mismatch with air. Small
defects in the material decrease the measured voltage, since they scatter partially the
ultrasonic field; for instance, a resin pocket can be visualized in Fig. 19.3. Variations
of the year ring angle could not be correlated to voltage amplitude changes in a clear
fashion, an indication that the influence of anisotropy is not large for the inspected
objects.
19.5 Conclusion
We have demonstrated that air-coupled ultrasound is well-suited for glued timber
inspection; combining the high sensitivity to disbonded interfaces of traditional
ultrasonic methods with a phenomenal reproducibility in amplitude measurements,
and precise spatial data acquisition. Moreover it is a fully non-invasive method,

since no couplant is required between transducers and sample. Current state-of-the-
art transducers plus moderate pulser voltage and receiver gain allow transmission
through 10 mm thick glued timber samples with a signal-to-noise ratio of 55 dB;
therefore inspection of thicker objects is promising. The repeatability error is
smaller than 1%. A through-transmission measurement set-up achieves level varia-
tions of up to 50 dB between glued and non-glued material, which ensures a reliable
glue line assessment despite amplitude variations of up to 8 dB in bonded regions,
due to the heterogeneity of the wood structure.
Future research work is planned to inspect thicker (over 10 cm) multiple lami-
nated glued timber. The main challenge is to resolve small amplitude level variations
between bonded and disbonded areas from larger level variations within bonded
material (higher influence of natural variability and anisotropy).
19.6 Summary
Wood is a sustainable construction material. Glued timber products make effi-

cient use of the strength properties of solid wood; moreover, structural members
of expanded dimensional and geometrical properties can be produced. The integrity
of the glue lines of timber laminates needs to be assessed during the full life cycle of
the product; therefore, a non-destructive reproducible inspection method is required.
As part of an ongoing project, we performed air-coupled ultrasound (ACU) mea-
surements in glued timber laminates. A normal transmission setup with 120 kHz
commercial transducers was used to analyze samples consisting of two spruce
solid wood lamellas glued together with polyurethane adhesive introducing defined
delaminated areas. Ultrasonic scanning with high resolution was performed to suc-
cessfully image the presence or absence of glue. The geometry of the delaminated
regions and features of the wood structure could also be visualized. We have demon-
strated that ACU is a sensitive, accurate, reproducible and non-invasive inspection
alternative with respect to conventional contact techniques; therefore, it is well-
suited for glued timber inspection. Future work is planned for the inspection of
more complex glued timber structures.
Acknowledgements This research has been supported by the Swiss National Science Foundation
under contract 200021-115920. The authors acknowledge the work of Oliver Tolar and Fabian
Binkert in the analysis of optical images and ultrasonic data.
References
Brekhovskikh LM (1980) Waves in layered media. New York, NY, Academic
Deutsch V, Platte M, Vogt M, Verein Deutscher Ingenieure (1997) Ultraschallprüfung Grundlagen
und industrielle Anwendungen. Springer, Berlin
Dill-Langer G, Bernauer W, Aicher S (2005) Inspection of glue-lines of glued-laminated tim-
ber by means of ultrasonic testing. In: Proceedings of the 14th international symposium on
nondestructive testing of wood. Eberswalde, pp 49–60
Gan TH, Hutchins DA, Green RJ, Andrews MK, Harris PD (2005) Noncontact, high-resolution
ultrasonic imaging of wood samples using coded chirp waveforms. IEEE Trans Ultrason
Ferroelectr Freq Control 52(2):280–288
Hasenstab A (2006) Integritaetspruefung von Holz mit dem zerstoerungsfreien
Ultraschallechoverfahren.Technische Universitaet Berlin. PhD Thesis
Kabir MF, Schmoldt DL, Schafer ME (2002) Time domain ultrasonic signal characterization for
defects in thin unsurfaced hardwood lumber. Wood Fiber Sci 34:165–182
Niemz P, Sander D (1990) Prozessmesstechnik in der Holzindustrie. VEB Fachbuchverlag, Leipzig
Schmerr LW, Song SJ (2007) Ultrasonic nondestructive evaluation systems models and measure-
ments. Springer, New York, NY
Siddiolo AM, D’Acquisto L, Maeva AR, Maev RG (2007) Wooden panel paintings investiga-
tion: an air-coupled ultrasonic imaging approach. IEEE Trans Ultrason Ferroelectr Freq Control
54(4):836-846
Solodov I, Pfleiderer K, Busse G (2004) Nondestructive characterization of wood by monitoring
of local elastic anisotropy and dynamic nonlinearity. Holzforschung 58:504–510
Vun RY, Wu QL, Bhardwaj MC, Stead G (2003) Ultrasonic characterization of structural properties
of oriented strandboard: a comparison of direct-contact and non-contact methods. Wood Fiber
Sci 35(3):381–396
Chapter 20
From Present Researches to Future
Developments
Voichita Bucur
Content
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
Delamination phenomena in manmade composites (Tay 2003, Sridharan 2008) as

well as in wood and wood-based composites have received much attention from
scientists and practitioners due to serious technological implications and obvious
scientific curiosity for this subject.
The long term objectives for the application of current research on delamina-
tion in wood and wood-based composites reported in this book are to develop
robust design/modelling tools for minimizing the potential failures of both conven-
tional and new products. Topics such as the theoretical aspects, the methodology
for delamination detection and the factors inducing and affecting delamination were
reviewed. The industry prospective of delamination in different products was also
presented.
The theoretical aspects have been related to physical understanding of phenom-
ena for delamination initiation and growth. For structural health monitoring and
damage detection techniques two approaches were used: the vibration – based
monitoring and the fracture mechanics. The vibration – based approach involves
model-based methods using low frequency vibrations, the fracture mechanics
approach requires linear elastic and nonlinear concepts.
In the vibration-based approach, the specimens are assumed to be free of defects:
however, in numerical approaches, the stress concentration near to a notch or a
flaw leads to mesh dependency. Stress criteria are needed in order to evaluate
the occurrence of failure. Stress criteria require the definition of a critical crack
dimension which depends on the material and stacking sequence. The main purpose
of the model is to predict the deviation in materials properties if damage occurs
(cracks, voids etc). The availability of a reliable model has many benefits such as the
design and optimization of efficient testing configuration, the correct interpretation
V. Bucur (B)
390 V. Bucur
of experimental data, the development of an inverse technique based on quantitative

data and the generation of training set for neural network.
Fracture mechanics approach is based on the concept of strain energy release rate
and assumes the presence of an inherent defect in the specimen (a notch). Crack
propagation occurs when the strain energy at the crack front is equal to the criti-
cal strain energy rate, which is a material property. Fracture mechanics approach
has demonstrated satisfactory accuracy in modelling the propagation of delami-
nation; however, in many structural applications the locus of damage initiation is
not obvious. In order to overcome the referred drawbacks cohesive damage models
combined with continuum damage mechanics emerge as a suitable option which
is not necessary to take into account an initial defect and in the same time, mesh
dependency problems are minimized.
In addition to these two approaches, the analysis of cumulative damage is funda-
mental in life prediction of components and structure under loading (Lemaitre and
Desmorat 2005).
Test procedures related to delamination of wood and wood based composites
were commented. The behaviour of wood and wood-based composites at dif-
ferent length scales was discussed. The mechanism of delamination under static
loading is well understood. Models were developed to explain the delamination
growth and propagation under static loading or induced by other stresses such as
microwave, drying and weathering. The development of ultrasonic techniques for
non-destructive inspection of structural members was emphssized.
Due to the great potential of incorporating novel biomaterials or integrating
nanofibers/nanoparticles advanced wood-based composites are very attractive for
new structural designs and applications. However the heterogeneity of wood –
based composites is the main challenge irrespective to the unique nature of the
constituents in the advance-composite design. In order to avoid over – dimension-
ing in wood or wood-based composites design it is necessary to develop theories
and analytical/numerical tools that can take into account the initiation and growth
of delamination in these new advanced wood-based composites. The delamination
resistant design concept applied to wood-based composites can strongly influence
their performance and cost. However more research is needed in order to achieve
a fully mature methodology for use in design and certification of such wood-based
composites structures.
If delamination onset has been successfully predicted in laboratory samples
using different codes (finite elements, etc), delamination predictions using these
codes need to be validated on full size structural elements by comparing field data
with experimental data. Changes in temperature and hygrometry can result in sig-
nificant properties variations, so laboratory simulated testing is essential both to
check fabrication quality of wood-based composites and to validate design data.
The anisotropic nature of wood and wood-based composites as well as their multi-
ple failure modes, have caused major difficulties in testing procedures for products
strength. With respect to initiation of delamination, their stable propagation or unsta-
ble growth, the effect of load type (tensile, compressive, biaxial, etc) the rate of load
application (monotonic, quasi static, dynamic, combined, etc) and of environmental
conditions (temperature, hygrometry and pressure) should be investigated.
20 From Present Researches to Future Developments 391
Damage involves mechanisms at all scales, from the molecular level revealed by
sophisticated instruments to massive scale during physical inspections. The dam-
ages can be induced by mechanical or thermal loads, environmental influences,
or result from residual stress or combinations of them, such as thermo-mechanical
stress. The ranges of different mechanisms and scales in damage accumulation in
wood or wood-based composites raise permanent problems for a detailed experi-
mental characterization as well as for modelling of delaminations. Implementation
of more sophisticated approaches for mechanical behaviour of wood-based com-
posites will require standardization of all three pure fracture modes and mixed
fracture modes characterization test methods for delamination onset threshold
and growth.
There are new research areas to be suggested, such as: testing of delamination
growth under dynamic loading, testing of multidirectional laminates, adaptation
of tests to new wood-based composites with through- thickness reinforcements,
or determination of in-situ interlaminar shear strength as a controlling factor for
the initiation of delamination. Although the delamination induced by dynamic frac-
ture toughness is of fundamental importance for wood machining and for pulp and
paper industry, the dynamic delamination test is not easy to perform because it is
experimentally difficult to induce high speed delamination growth in a simple and
controlled manner (Ravi-Chandar 2004; Freund 1998).
It must be borne in mind that traditional current, as well as new wood or
wood-based composite structures can be highly vulnerable to damages, in partic-
ular delaminations that might have been introduced during manufacturing, tooling,
processing or in service. Delaminations are difficult to detect by visual inspection,
thus reliable and if possible inexpensive detection methods and technologies (active
or passive) must be developed to improve safety and reliability of new wood – based
laminated composites structures in service. It is of vital importance to identify the
delaminations in new wood-based composites structures at the early stage, so as to
prevent any potential failure.
For further development in structural health monitoring of wood-based compos-
ites, the key issues are the prediction of delamination in different products and the
improvement of the design of new advanced wood - based composites and struc-
tures, to prevent and minimize the products from delaminations. Without doubt,
these fascinating challenges will be solved in the future by scientists and engi-
neers with new perspectives involving in this highly interdisciplinary field, which
has enormous potential for practical applications.
References
Freund LB (1998) Dynamic fracture mechanics. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Lemaitre J, Desmorat R (2005) Engineering damage mechanics. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg
Ravi-Chandar K (2004) Dynamic fracture. Elsevier, Amsterdam
Sridharan S (ed) (2008) Delamination behaviour of composites. Woodhead Publishing, Cambridge
Tay TE (2003) characterization and analysis of delamination fracture in composites: an overview
of development from 1991 to 2001. Appl Mech Rev 56:1–31
Index
A Automatic, 79, 176, 193, 323–324

Accuracy, 88, 225, 323, 363, 390 Average
Acoustic frequency, 288, 302
coupling, 317 values, 90
emission, 287–303, 308 Axial strains, 88
imaging, 261–265 Axial tension, 103
impedance, 380–381, 385
tomography, 255–266 B
waves, 259, 266, 311, 315, 318–320, 344 Beam, 11, 38–44, 82, 154, 232, 244, 312, 316,
Active control, 391 321, 325–326, 331, 334–335, 340, 342,
Adhesion, 9, 34, 126, 145, 149, 152, 181, 329, 353–364, 366–368
334 Bending stress, 128, 226
Adhesive joints, 72 Bending test, 67
Advanced materials, 3 Bernoulli theory, 42, 366–368
Aging, 25–26, 44, 192 Biomaterials, 5, 145, 390
Air circulation rate, 200 Biomechanical, 236
Air-coupled transducers, 316, 324 Boundary conditions, 104, 111–112, 199,
American society for testing and materials 369–371, 373
(ASTM), 18–19, 24–26, 85, 87, 175, Brittle fracture, 56, 71, 80–81, 90
192, 230, 289, 337 Buckling, 20–23, 26, 28, 38, 76, 79, 166, 222,
Amplitude, 41, 259, 288–289, 291–292, 235
294–295, 299, 301, 311–314, 317,
319–320, 324–331, 334, 336, 341, C
359–360, 380, 382, 384–386 Calibrating, 176, 366, 368–371, 377
distribution, 295 Cantilever, 39, 44
Anatomic features, 124–130 Capacitive sensors, transducers, 320–321, 323,
Anisotropic, 3, 5–7, 9, 34, 53, 63, 75, 83, 92, 337, 344
124, 131–132, 139, 187, 205–206, 211, Cellulose, 5–8, 11, 23, 63, 79, 126, 130–132,
231, 233, 240, 242, 256, 258, 309, 318, 183, 218, 233, 237, 240, 297
328, 339, 344, 390 Chemical, 7, 9, 11, 29, 113, 118, 124–126, 138,
Anisotropy, 60, 75, 78, 175, 179, 184, 193, 145, 169, 173, 175, 189, 191, 198–200,
203–204, 206, 242, 292, 295, 317–320, 233, 242
339, 385–386 Chipboard, 223
Annual rings, 6, 24, 27, 78, 83, 167, 179, Clear wood, 221, 225, 231
181–184, 186, 193, 233, 271–272, 276, Climate, 6, 174–175, 178–179, 181–182, 186,
279, 287, 290, 294–297, 303, 318, 337 234, 270, 272–274, 277, 282, 365, 367,
Array, 6, 45, 75–76, 324 372, 377
Attenuation, 34, 289, 298, 311, 323, 331, climatic cycling, 376
333–339, 359, 364, 380 Coefficient of diffusion, 368–369
DOI 10.1007/978-90-481-9550-3, C Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011
394 Index
Cohesive strength, 9, 240 Crack mouth opening displacements (CMOD),

Collapse, 18, 87, 101–118, 159, 165, 204–205, 301
208, 234, 237–249, 333, 353, 363 Crack opening displacements (COD), 57–58,
Components, 3, 6, 29, 57, 74, 153, 161, 163, 75, 90, 292
166, 179, 182, 185, 198, 217–218, 242, Creeping, 366, 370, 375–377
246, 299–300, 302, 321–322, 326, Curing, 12, 227–232
390 cure, 226–229, 231
Composites Curvature, 19, 39, 48–49, 78, 170, 218, 276,
fiber reinforced, 9 367
wood-based, 3–5, 9–12, 17, 26–27, 29, Curve
45, 51–92, 173–193, 288, 308–309, dispersion, 34, 37
311, 323, 329, 339–340, 343–344, R-curve, 57–59, 75, 89–90
389–391
D
Compression, 5, 7, 10, 22–24, 26–27, 79, 87,
Damage
104, 125–126, 129–131, 133–134, 146,
evolution, 287
166, 210, 219–220, 222–223, 225, 256,
mechanics, 59, 390
261, 266, 297, 310, 332, 337
Damping, 39–40, 321
Concept, 37–38, 51, 53, 55, 152, 169, 208, 390
Debonding, 4–5, 83, 87, 295, 297, 308, 337,
Constitutive
339–340
law, 76
Decay, 22, 125, 126–128, 138, 145, 175, 178,
Constraints
198, 223, 225, 232–234, 343, 358, 361
fracture toughness, 54, 60, 63, 65–67, Decibels (dB), 292, 295, 328–329, 335, 342,
69–70, 72–73, 91, 136, 292, 391 380–382, 385–386
mechanical, 102 Defect, 18–19, 26, 29, 34–36, 57, 90, 159,
Continuous emission, 288, 291–292, 302, 311 165–166, 168, 197, 204–206, 217, 221,
Contrast of the image, 150, 153–154, 385 223–228, 231, 259, 308, 311, 313–316,
Correlations, 88, 147, 149–150, 152, 155, 178, 320, 323, 326–328, 332–334, 336,
362 339–341, 344, 354, 358–363, 379,
Costs, 88, 199, 215–216, 222, 288, 377 380–382, 385, 389–390
Count, 288, 298–299, 302 size, 259, 334
Coupling, 176, 275, 277, 311, 317, 321, Density, 9–11, 25–27, 28, 41, 53, 58, 60,
331–332, 379 65, 69, 90–91, 112, 114–115, 133,
coupling media, 331–332 135–136, 160, 162–163, 179–180, 183,
Crack 205, 208, 218, 221–223, 227, 229,
arrest, 20, 53, 60, 64–65, 79 237–238, 242, 246–247, 250–252, 276,
propagation, 7, 21–22, 54, 59–60, 63, 66, 278, 309, 317, 323, 336–338, 343, 358,
70, 74, 87–88, 90, 124, 126, 134–136, 361, 366, 368–369, 380–381
232, 292, 294, 297, 301–303 Dielectric properties, 160, 162–163, 169
size, 73 Disbonds, 311, 328, 380, 385–386
Crack growth rate Dislocation, 21–23, 151–152, 155, 256–257,
applied stress, 126 261, 288
average crack length, 90, 179–180 Distortional effect, 368, 370, 377
crack propagation, 83, 87 Double cantilever beam (DCB), 73
damage, 83, 91 Drying
environmental effects, 233 air, 200–203, 208
fracture control, 88 kiln, 200–203
fracture initiation, 81, 136 Ductile fracture, 80–81
initiation, 91 Duration, 56, 165, 175, 177, 217, 232,
length, 88 288–289, 299
orientation, 85 Dynamic
stress intensity factor, 53–56, 60, 71, 88, fiber reinforced composites, 9
135–136, 291, 294 fracture, 391
stress intensity rate, 88 toughness, 391
Index 395
E G
Ecological relevance, 91 Gain, 34, 201, 217, 308, 320, 382, 386
Effective Gap opening, 368, 370–371, 374–376
crack length, 88 Geometry, 11, 54, 60, 62, 87, 105, 111, 113,
Elastic constants, 8–9, 55, 78, 113, 115, 309, 163, 167, 244, 329, 333–334, 337, 339,
311 341, 366–371, 373–374, 376–377, 381
Elasticity, 10, 91, 116, 270, 276, 283, 291, 337, Glue, 9–10, 24–25, 126, 134, 138, 192, 199,
339, 358, 361, 366 227, 277, 283, 331, 340, 358–359,
Elliptical, 242 367–368, 371, 374–377, 379–386
Energy Glued laminated timber – glulam, crosslam,
balance, 54 glulam slabs, 307
Energy release rate, 38, 54–55, 58–59, 72–73, Grading, 221, 224–225, 358, 363
88, 90, 390 Grain
Engineered wood products (EWP), 216–217, angle effect, 89
226–232, 235 slope, 166
Engineering materials, 26, 45 Griffith, 52
Errors, 4, 8 Griffith theory, 52
Event, 24, 45, 64, 288–289, 291–294, 297–301, Growth rings, 18, 78, 82, 128, 206, 222, 225,
308 242, 252, 272, 278, 283, 369, 373, 377
Experimental determination of Guided waves, 320
fracture toughness, 391
stress intensity factor, 391 H
Exposure Hardness, 138, 178, 252, 297
artificial, 178, 186–192 Hardwood, 6, 11, 126, 130, 161–162, 164, 176,
outdoor, 149, 174–175, 178–186, 191–192 185, 207–208, 211, 220, 222–223, 230,
235, 291–292, 362, 380
F Harmonic, 39, 290, 328–329, 341–342
Failure Health monitoring, 3, 12, 27, 29, 33–34,
modes, 91, 288, 366, 390 37–38, 40, 44–45, 64, 389, 391
stress, 211, 389 Heat transport, 160
Fatigue Hemicelluloses, 7
tests, 293 Hidden specimens, 220–221, 225, 299–300
Fiber High resolution, 24, 138–139, 145–155, 386
board, 229, 308 Hook’s Law, 311, 344
pullouts, 308 Humidity, 4, 12, 26, 80, 136, 173, 177–178,
Finite 189, 198–203, 206, 233, 239, 244, 270,
ABAQUS, 365 273, 275, 308, 343, 366–367, 369, 377
element method, 43, 116, 366, 376
finite element analysis (FEM), 27, 33, 38, I
45, 76, 78, 102–103, 112, 117, 372–373 Impact testing, 223, 308
Flaws, 34, 53, 308, 313, 320 Impregnation, 159, 163–166, 169, 199
Flexural, 39, 42, 310–311, 316–319 Infrared spectroscopy, 332
Flexural vibration, 39 Inhomogeneities, 385
Focused air-coupled transducers, 324 Initiation, 5, 20, 26, 29, 51–91, 135–136,
Fourier Transform Technique, 35, 37 183–185, 218, 232, 235, 242, 291, 293,
Four-point-bending test, 367 295, 303, 356, 389–391
Fractography, 80, 301 In-plane, 317, 320, 336
Fracture In-service damage, 308
process zone, 56–57, 65, 72, 74, 92 In-situ, 64, 69, 82–83, 134, 288, 295, 297, 358,
Frequency 391
natural, 343 Inspection
spectrum, 327 continuous, 45
Fundamental one side, 316
frequency, 327 two side, 316
396 Index
Integrity, 3, 25, 29, 34, 45, 137–138, 232, 308, 233, 256, 258, 261, 269, 282–283, 309,
354, 386 313, 316, 322, 366–367, 369–370, 380
Interface, 4, 9, 11–12, 24, 34–35, 42–43, Low frequency vibrations, 33, 38, 389
58–59, 74, 87, 127, 132–133, 145–156, Low temperature, 137, 208–210
165, 295, 318, 321 Lumber, 3–4, 9–10, 18–19, 25, 191, 215–217,
Interface wood-cement, 12 221–227, 231, 233–234, 255–256, 297,
Interfacial cracking, 59 300, 307, 324, 380
Interfacial layers, 368
Interlaminar fracture toughness, 391 M
Inverse Machining, 87, 149, 252, 391
Fourier transform, 35, 37 Macrocracks, 56, 64, 291
Irwin lamellar tearing, 55 Main, 19, 35, 45, 56, 64, 69, 87, 112, 116, 139,
Iterative, 110 147, 152–153, 162–163, 179, 192, 206,
220–221, 228, 240, 242, 246, 251, 256,
J 269, 289, 302, 308–309, 311–312, 322,
J-integral, 57–59 333, 337, 343, 355, 365–366, 375, 383,
Joints, 24–25, 72, 84, 87, 192, 226 386, 389–390
amplifier, 312
K Manufacturing
Knots, 25, 166, 204, 217, 221, 223, 225–226, defects, 223–224
231, 380–381 process, 28–29, 223–230
Mass production, 3
L Material properties, 77–78, 101, 103–105,
Lamb wave, 33–35, 37–38, 45, 309–311, 317, 111–112, 115–116, 251, 367, 377
339–341, 344 Maximum, 64, 66–67, 72, 134, 136–137, 168,
Laminated veneer lumber (LVL), 3, 9–10, 12, 178, 185, 198, 202, 206–208, 210–211,
19, 29, 227, 229, 307, 343–344 216, 221, 239, 246, 279, 291, 293, 300,
Laminates, 4, 19, 355, 379–391 325, 329, 353, 374
Laser scanning microscopy, 145, 147–152, 295 Mechanical
Laser vibromerty, 39, 319, 380 performance, 353
Lateral, 104, 166, 220, 260, 262, 266, 323, 327 properties, 3, 6–11, 34, 39, 78, 113, 116,
Leaky surface acoustic waves (SAW), 318–320 166, 175, 193, 205, 225, 233, 240, 292,
Levels, release rate, 38, 54–55, 58–59, 72–73, 307, 329
88, 90, 390 Mechanical properties of cell wall, 7, 113, 240
Life Medium density fiberboard (MDF), 26, 85,
prediction, 390 87–90, 229, 340–341, 343
Lignin, 6–7, 63, 91, 126, 130, 135, 173, 181, Microcracks, 20, 56, 59, 64, 69, 127, 133, 136,
185, 187, 189, 193, 218–220, 233, 235 185, 291–293, 295, 298, 337, 380
Linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM), 53, Microdefects, 35
56, 60, 74, 92 Microfibril angle, 6, 79, 82, 113, 129–131,
Load 134, 219, 240, 242, 260
displacement curves, 59, 64, 67, 74–75, 79, Microscopy
134, 297 confocal, 134, 138
modes, 64 electron, 81, 131, 136, 138–139, 146,
rate, 38, 60, 71–72 149–152
Local, 20, 23–24, 27, 29, 33, 37, 40, 54, 71, light, 9, 21–22, 24, 131, 137–138, 147,
130, 136, 185, 241, 256, 276, 288, 317, 149–152
328, 341, 366, 370, 373 Microstructural, 7, 56, 75, 91
residual stress, 3, 87–88, 112 Micro-voids, 149, 159, 165
Localization, 287, 289, 292, 303, 313 Microwaves, 159–170, 200, 227, 229, 235,
Longitudinal, 6–7, 18, 20, 41, 53, 77, 79, 113, 343, 390
115, 125, 129, 131–137, 159, 161–162, Mineral bonded particleboard and fiberboard,
164–165, 169, 186, 205–206, 217–220, 308
Index 397
Modal analysis, 39, 42 Operational, 44–45, 153, 215

Mode I, 52–53, 60, 62–67, 69, 71–72, 74–75, Orientation, 5, 11, 24, 53, 60, 64–67, 71, 75,
80, 84–85, 91, 290, 301, 303 78, 85, 87, 90, 92, 102, 106, 113, 128,
Mode II, 52–53, 60, 62–65, 69, 71, 74 130–131, 136, 152, 167, 184, 186–187,
Model 218–219, 223, 230–231, 233, 243, 256,
analysis of structural, 33 266, 272, 276, 278, 283, 289, 294, 303,
circular based, 102, 104–106 313, 318, 367–368
collapse recovery, 101–119 crack, 64, 90
linear behaviour, 38–40 OSB oriented strandboards, 336
local and global information, 27 Out of plane, 52–53, 71, 92
mathematical, 38, 205–211, 240 Overall mechanical characterization, 34
model-based methods, 38–44, 389
nonlinear behaviour, 40–44 P
squared based, 106–117 Parameters, 3, 5, 34, 39, 54, 55, 59, 64–65, 70,
Modeling, 8–9, 35, 41, 75, 77, 92, 168–169, 72, 76, 79, 91–92, 103, 112, 162–163,
205–206, 297 167, 169, 189, 191, 275–277, 280,
computational modelling, 5, 9 282–283, 288–293, 299–300, 302, 309,
Modulus of elasticity, 91, 116, 291, 337, 358, 313, 321, 324, 327, 329–330, 332,
361, 366 336–337, 339, 361–363, 367–368
Moisture, 136–137, 174, 178, 207, 209, linear fracture mechanics, 72, 92
270–272, 274–278, 297–299, 365–377 Parquet
Monotonic loading, 59 cupping, 373–374
Monte Carlo simulation, 10 deformation, 377
Morphology, 76, 80–82, 84, 91, 134 floors, 365–377
Multi-layered materials, 6 gap opening, 370, 374, 376–377
Multiple delaminations, 29, 39, 42 geometry, 366–371, 373–374, 376, 377
parquet lacquered specimens, 367, 373
N parquet planks, 366–368, 370, 376–377
Natural defects of wood simulate the behaviour of parquet planks,
knots, 204, 225 368
slop of grain, 225 Particle based boards – oriented strandboards,
Neural network, 44, 289, 299, 390 particle board, fiber board, 308
Nominal stress, 53, 295 Pattern recognition, 39, 297
Non-contact, 39, 311, 316–320, 323–324, 329, Peak amplitude, 289, 299, 329, 336
334–344 Periodical, 39, 45, 175
ultrasonic transducers, 320, 323, 329, Phase velocity, 34–35, 340
334–343 Physical methods, 45, 52, 87–88
Nonlinear Piezoelectric
acoustic modulation, 290 actuators, 40
nonlinear behaviour, 40–44, 72, 328, 344 sensors, 40
Nonlinearity, 50, 349 Pin
Nonparametric models methods, 44 contact forces, 42
Notch Planar, 52, 56, 382
effect, 129 Plane stress, 54–55
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), 9 Plane wave propagation, 34
Numerical Plastic
analysis, 365, 368, 372 deformation, 56, 59, 131–132
calculation, 377 strains, 104–106, 137, 337
zone, 53–54, 56
O Plasticity, 88
Opening, 24–25, 41, 52, 56–59, 64, 73–75, Plate wave technique, 329, 339–342, 345
90, 92, 134, 228, 235, 239, 292, 368, Plywood, 9–10, 12, 19, 24–25, 28, 85,
370–371, 374–377 149–155, 174, 191–192, 216, 227, 229,
mode stress intensity, 56 339, 343
398 Index
Point source, 36, 201 Reconditioning, 101, 112, 118, 165, 227–228,
Poisson’s ratios, 8, 271, 276, 280 247–250, 252
Polymers, 103, 119, 217–218 Reference, 11, 18, 20, 34, 39, 51, 54, 63,
Poor cure, 227 74–75, 103–104, 175–176, 191, 240,
Porosity, 34 255, 261, 281–282, 309, 311, 320, 325,
Prediction of life, 390 329, 371
Pressure, 18, 28, 104–105, 108, 111–112, stress, 18, 20, 34, 54, 74–75, 92, 104, 175,
159–163, 167, 192, 200–201, 215, 218, 240, 261, 282, 309, 311, 320, 371
227–228, 230, 233, 235, 238–239, 272, Reflection, 34, 176, 193, 311, 315, 318, 326,
379, 380, 390 343
sound, 380 elastic waves, 34, 311
Principle of superposition, 38 Refraction, elastic waves, 311
Processing, 12, 40, 119, 150, 160, 162, 167, Relative humidity, 26, 80, 173, 189, 199–200,
169, 198, 206, 220–221, 224, 228, 202, 206, 239, 244–245, 270, 273, 275,
237–253, 256, 288–289, 299, 303, 308, 366–367, 369, 377
343, 391 Reproducibility, 323, 332, 385–386
internal checking, 220, 237–253, 343 Residual
Production process, 11, 169, 217, 227, 229, strength, 363
236, 308, 323, 343 stress, 3, 87–88, 112, 363, 391
Propagation, 5, 7, 20–22, 34–35, 53–54, 56–60, Resin pockets, 125, 128, 166, 381–382,
63, 64, 66, 70, 74, 82–83, 87–88, 90, 384–385
92, 124–126, 134–136, 175, 183–184, Resistance, 3, 11, 24, 54, 57–60, 66, 75, 82,
217–218, 221, 232, 235, 255–256, 289, 88, 127–128, 132–133, 135, 191, 232,
291–292, 294–297, 301–303, 309–313, 234, 244, 270, 275, 307, 361
317, 319, 322, 327, 336, 339, 356, 363, Resonance, 316–317, 343–345
375, 381–383, 385, 390 Restraint cracking, 220
Pulp, 11, 22, 92, 133, 135, 216–217, 233, 246, Review, 39, 45, 51, 66, 155, 160, 169, 175,
256, 391 191, 217, 242, 290, 308, 344, 389
P wave, 314 Rise time, 288, 299, 302
Rock, 219
Q Rods, 77, 323, 328
Q factor, 193
Root mean square (RMS) voltage, 288, 302,
Quality assessment, 3, 256, 316, 379
382
Quantitative, 3, 34, 75, 148, 192, 246, 288,
Roughness, 75, 83, 146, 153, 292
303, 390
Round wood, 234
R Rupture, 7, 25, 53, 56, 59, 72, 83, 160–161,
Radial, 6–7, 18–19, 23, 25, 53, 75, 77, 81–84, 166, 168–169, 204, 231, 293, 295–296,
103, 124–131, 134–138, 159, 161–162, 337, 361–362
164–165, 167, 169, 179–180, 183–185,
188, 205–206, 216–262, 217–221, S
233–234, 242, 244, 256–259, 265–266, Safe design, safety, safe performance, 5, 9, 44,
269–270, 275, 279, 282–283, 295, 302, 91–92, 229, 232, 235, 308, 343, 345,
367–369 391
Radiations, 126, 145, 160, 167–168, 173, Safety factors, 91–92
177–178, 185–189, 233, 290, 317, 321 Samples, 82, 112, 127, 133–139, 165, 168,
Radiographic, 303 198, 225, 240–241, 246–248, 251, 260,
Ratios, 8, 180, 271, 276, 279–280, 294, 317 271–273, 275, 278, 366–367, 372–373,
Raw material, 9, 11, 215–217, 220–224, 227, 381–382, 385–386, 390
236, 307 Sampling rate, 382
Rayleigh, 320 Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), 21–24,
R-curve, 57–59, 75, 89–90 62, 72, 131, 134, 136–139, 146,
Reaction wood, 129–130, 179, 193, 220, 256, 149–155, 219, 297
261, 266, 297 Scanning modes, 325
Index 399
Scattering, 261 Strain

Serviceability of structures, 3 basic concept, 211
Shape change, 355 curves, 88, 134, 232, 294
Shear energy, 38, 54–55, 58, 60, 301, 390
bands, 129 energy release rate, 38, 54, 55, 390
modulus of elasticity, 116, 358, 361, 363 field, 54–55, 233, 390
waves, 309–310, 316–317, 359, 364 hardening, 337
strains, 79, 105 Strength, 5–7, 9–10, 26, 52–53, 59, 74–75,
Shrinkage, 18, 25, 29, 175, 179–180, 183, 185, 77, 87, 91, 116, 129, 134, 136, 149,
192, 198, 203–207, 219–220, 231–233, 152, 192, 199, 205, 210–211, 217, 222,
237, 241–244, 246–252, 271, 367 225–226, 228, 231, 233–234, 238,
Simulation, simulated, 7, 9–10, 13, 26, 35, 38, 240–241, 261, 288, 290–291, 308, 316,
42, 58–59, 64, 74–75, 77, 88, 112, 160, 358–364
162, 168–169, 175, 206, 270, 278–280, Stress
282–283, 290, 331, 337, 339–340, 342, concentration, 72, 225–226, 295, 297, 389
358, 368–372, 376, 390 distribution, 54, 56, 60, 71, 83, 107, 110,
Size, 10, 53–54, 66, 72–73, 78, 82, 87, 146, 112–115, 118, 125, 232, 282–283,
165–169, 176, 218, 225–226, 230–231, 377
239, 247–248, 256, 259–260, 313, 323, distribution in glue line, 377
332–335, 343, 345, 361, 363, 366, 374, field, 54–55, 183
390 stress intensity factor, 53–56, 60, 71, 88,
Smart composites, 43–44 135–136, 291–294
Softwood, 6–7, 11, 53, 63, 76, 128–129, Structural integrity, 137–138, 232, 308
132–133, 136, 161–162, 164, 176, 181, Structures, 5–7, 9, 12, 18–19, 24, 26, 29, 34,
192–193, 198, 202, 208, 211, 218, 220, 38–40, 42, 44–45, 53, 59, 63–64, 69,
230, 234, 279, 291–292 75–79, 81–84, 102, 124, 126, 131,
Solid state adhesive layer, 12 133, 135–137, 139, 159–161, 163–164,
Species, 6, 21–24, 53, 60, 63–65, 67, 69–70, 166–170, 179, 181, 183, 185, 187, 189,
87, 114, 124, 126, 130, 133, 135–136, 193, 207, 217–220, 230–232, 234–235,
159, 161–162, 164, 166–167, 174–175, 255–256, 261–262, 284, 287–303, 308,
178–180, 184–185, 187, 189–191, 198, 313, 316, 326, 337, 344, 354–355, 358,
203, 205, 207, 216, 218, 221–223, 360–361, 363, 370, 379, 385–386,
234–235, 237–240, 242, 246–248, 390
290–294, 303, 320, 358, 361, 366, 374 Substrate, 9, 59, 152
Spectral analysis, 91 Surface, 18, 24, 149–152, 179, 209, 211, 238,
Spectroscopy, 332 241–246, 250, 262, 299, 366, 374, 376
Split, 19, 24, 62–64, 67, 74, 83–85, 88, 92,
125, 159, 165–166, 168, 174, 179, 191, T
197, 203, 204, 208, 211, 217–218, Tangential, 6–7, 18, 53, 57–59, 81–83, 103,
220–226, 231, 233–234, 236, 272, 290, 124–129, 131–132, 134–135, 137–138,
380 166–167, 169, 179–180, 183–187, 189,
Spring, 6, 41–42, 77, 204, 206, 219–220, 235 205–206, 219–220, 233, 242, 244, 258,
Stability, 26, 56, 71, 113, 137, 149, 198, 226, 260, 262–266, 269, 271–272, 275, 279,
241, 269, 279, 307, 353, 363, 370–371 292, 295, 328, 367–369, 373, 377
Static Temperature, 4, 12, 26, 87, 101–105, 110,
curves, 293, 337 112–115, 118, 137, 152, 160–163,
loading, 390 174, 177–178, 181, 198–203, 206–211,
tests, 293 218, 223–224, 227–230, 232–233, 235,
Statistical based methods, 44 238–241, 246, 248–252, 297, 308, 343,
Stiffness, 5, 7, 10, 34–35, 39, 41, 52, 59, 75, 367–368, 370–371, 377, 390
77, 79, 101–102, 135, 225–226, 228, Tensile
241–242, 252, 278–279, 283, 292, 303, loads, 131, 134, 294
358, 363, 369 stress, 74, 81, 175, 182, 205, 210, 297, 328
400 Index
Tension, 5, 18, 22–23, 27, 41, 52–53, 63, 65, U

67, 71, 79, 81–85, 87, 103–104, 110, Ultrasonic
130–131, 134, 136, 165–166, 204, nondestructive evaluation - local damage
210, 219–220, 225–226, 231, 238–241, information, 33, 45, 288, 328
244–245, 255–266, 290, 292, 294–295, path, 260, 333
297–298, 303, 310–311 Ultrasonic techniques
Tests, 25–26, 62, 64, 67, 69, 84, 88–89, 192, contact techniques, 334–340, 343, 379, 386
198, 208, 223, 240, 261, 271–275, 279, non-contact, 329, 334–342
288, 290, 301–303, 312–313, 321, pulse echo, 312–314, 344
322–323, 325, 332, 340, 354 through transmission, 312–314, 324, 329,
testing configuration, 329–331, 389–390 380, 386
Theoretical, 3, 7, 34, 45, 52, 57–58, 64–65, 72, Ultrasound, 165, 229, 316–319, 323, 337,
92, 101–119, 219, 289, 297, 309, 320, 340–343, 380, 385–386
334, 380–381, 389 Ultrastructural features, 130–137
Thermal Uncertainties, 260, 385
stress, 297 Uniaxial loading, 103
Uniform stress field, 83
waves, 161, 297
Thermo mechanical analysis, 135, 391 V
Thickness, 19, 25, 28–29, 34, 36, 39, 89–90, Validity tests, 336
150–152, 174, 176, 193, 203, 206–207, Velocity
227–228, 244, 248, 250–252, 271–274, plate wave, 317–318
276, 279–280, 284, 295, 310–311, 313, stress wave, 258, 262–264, 266, 361
317–318, 320–321, 323, 326, 331–334, surface wave, 320
337, 340–343, 356, 358, 367–368, ultrasonic, 256, 258, 260–262, 266, 332
373–374, 382–383, 385, 391 Veneer, 3, 9–10, 12, 19, 24, 192, 221, 227–229,
Three 256, 307, 318–320, 337, 339–342, 344,
dimensional systems, 270 366, 380
three or Tri or 3D non-linear stochastic Veneer based panels – plywood, laminated
finite element model, 10 veneer lumber, 307
three point bending test method, 67, Verification tests, 368
366 Vibration
Threshold, 87, 208, 211, 241, 288–289, 302, vibration based damage identification, 34
343, 391 Viscoelasticity, 339
Timber, 9, 12, 25, 29, 92, 113, 128, 159–170, Viscoelastic properties of wood, 56, 60, 116
186, 192, 197–211, 215–216, 221, 235, Voids, 25, 27–28, 147–149, 151–153, 155–156,
237, 241, 246–248, 252, 266, 269–284, 159, 161, 165, 167, 226, 229, 308,
307, 331–332, 379–386 336–337, 389
Time Volume, 60, 71, 163, 169, 179, 206–207,
reversal concept, 37 220–221, 270, 274–276, 278, 314,
Tomography, 90, 255–266 325
Toughness, 5, 25, 53–54, 56, 59–60, 63, 65–67, Volumetric strain, 206
69–70, 72–73, 75, 79, 90–91, 127, 136,
W
222, 232, 292, 391
Warping, 167, 174, 191, 204, 206, 269–284
Transform
Waves
Fourier transform, 35, 37 modes, 34, 309–310, 323
Transient, 35, 288 plane, 34, 261, 317, 380
effect, 288 surface, 260, 309, 311, 318–320, 357
Transition, 60, 81–82, 129–130, 132, 137, 229, ultrasonic, 34, 176, 256–257, 261, 311,
235, 296, 381, 383–384 313, 317, 336, 380, 385
Transmission electron microscopy (TEM), 81, Weak bond, 34, 229
128, 131–134, 138–140 Weathering, 125–128, 145, 173–193, 233, 390
Travel time, 326 Wedge loads, 64, 67, 74, 88
Index 401
Wood based composite Y

panels, 192, 308, 311, 329–344 Yield, 53, 92, 146, 153, 206
Wood coating interface, 145–156 strength, 53
Young’s modulus, 7–8, 10, 55, 260, 317, 337
Wood flooring systems, 365, 377 structural modifications, 7
Wood-plastic composites, 311
Wood species, 6, 22–24, 53, 60, 126, 130, 159, Z
161–162, 164, 166, 167, 175, 178, 185, Zone
205, 223, 234–235, 292, 361, 366 plastic deformation, 56, 59

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Delamination in Wood Wood Products and Wood-Based Composites

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Delamination in Wood, Wood Products

and Wood-Based Composites

ISBN 978-90-481-9549-7 e-ISBN 978-90-481-9550-3

Library of Congress Control Number: 2010938326

© Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011

Printed on acid-free paper

Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com)

Project Leader Robert J. Ross, Ph.D.

Melbourne, Victoria Voichita Bucur

Melbourne, Australia Voichita Bucur

Part I General Aspects

Part II Methodology for Delamination Detection and Factors

Part III Delamination in Different Products

Philip Blakemore Division of Materials Science and Engineering, CSIRO,

V. Bucur (ed.), Delamination in Wood, Wood Products and Wood-Based Composites, 3

between plies, debonding of wood–adhesive layers, or wood fibre fracture.

1.2 Solid Wood

A more complex model was proposed by Mark (1981), and consists of a

predictive capacity of this model could be substantially improved by using more

1.3 Wood-Based Composites

With regards to the wood-based composites, the mechanical behaviour of two

and delaminated zones tested with the nanoindentation technique developed by

low cost processes. Durability of these products is related to matrix formulations,

Hofstetter K, Hellmich C, Eberhardsteiner J (2007) Micromechanical modelling of solid-type and

2.1 General Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

2.1 General Terms

V. Bucur (ed.), Delamination in Wood, Wood Products and Wood-Based Composites, 17

2.2 Terms for Delamination in Solid Wood

of the pith, occasionally moving radially to an adjacent latewood ring. A syn-

2.3 Terms for the Delamination in the Cell Wall

2.4 Terms for the Delamination in Laminated Wood Products

Structural laminated products include plywood, various composites of veneer and

Term Author Occurrence Description

Buckle Robinson (1920) Buckling of cell, equivalent to

Table 2.1 (continued)

Term Author Occurrence Description

Crinkling Bienfait (1926) In earlywood Permanent “telescoping

Table 2.1 (continued)

Term Author Occurrence Description

Macroscopic Kisser and Observable with Enlarged microscopic

Table 2.1 (continued)

Term Author Occurrence Description

Radial dislocations Chafe (1977) Radial dislocations found in the

Table 2.1 (continued)

Term Author Occurrence Description

Delamination effects in plywood, as defined in ASTM D 1038 are noted below:

– Blister in plywood is an elevation of the surface of an adherend (separation

– Rupturing of some of wood structural elements which forms cavities of various

– the shear through the thickness of structural panels (ASTM D 2719)

2.5 Terms for the Delamination in Wood-Based Fibre

manufactured from refined or partially refined wood fibres”(for example: medium

2.6 General Classification of Delamination

The myriad of terms related to delamination in wood and wood–based compos-

In the context of structural health monitoring, the mechanical behaviour of

In Material Science, delamination is defined as a sub critical damage to the inter-

In this chapter we shall describe the aspects related to delamination in composites

3.2 Delamination Detection with an Ultrasonic Technique

Interfaces play an important role in determining the performance of laminated com-

V. Bucur (ed.), Delamination in Wood, Wood Products and Wood-Based Composites, 33

3.3 Delamination Detection with a Model-Based Method

Successful application of damage detection and health monitoring of structures

3.3.1 Linear Behavior

Model – based methods implemented by finite element analysis under static or

are synchronous harmonic particular solutions of the homogeneous linear system