8.1 Introduction-1: Chapter 8 Fracture of Cracked Members

Chapter 8 Fracture of Cracked Members 8.
1 Introduction-1
1. Until 1960, almost all design was based on Figure 8.1 Photos from a natural gas transmission pipeline fracture that
caused an explosion and large fire in San Bruno, CA, on September 9, 2010.
the strength of the material. Many failures Overall views of the pipe section where the fracture initiated are shown in
(a) and (b).
occurred in structures that were stressed
well below the yield strength of the
material.
2. More strength has its limits-Flaws.
3. We can not use Charpy Impact fracture
energy such that fracture mechanics was
developed.
1 2
Figure 8.1 The pipeline, made of a carbon steel, was 30 inches (762mm) in diameter, with a
wall thickness of 0.375 inches (9.53mm), and it was installed in 1956. When the fracture
occurred, the pressure in the pipeline was 386 psi (2.66MPa), somewhat above the normal
operating pressure of 360 psi (2.48 MPa). The fracture initiated at a seam (longitudinal)
weld in the “Pup 1” section, for which a cross section is shown in (c). Instead of being
8.1 Introduction-2
welded completely through the wall thickness, as in (d), this weld was done on only one 8.2 Preliminary Discussion-1
side, and the weld joined only about half of the thickness. Such a partial penetration weld
creates a severe stress raiser that may act as a crack; another from nearby that did not
participate in the fracture is shown in (e).
Cracks as Stress Raisers
3 4
8.2 Preliminary Discussion-2 8.2 Preliminary Discussion-3

Cracks as Stress Raisers Behavior at Crack Tips in Real Materials
c c
 y  S (1  2 )  S (1  2 ) An infinite stress
d  cannot, of course,
y exist in a real material.
c c
kt  1 2  1 2 (stress concentration factor) Intense deformation at
S d  crack tips can cause
blunting of crack tips
Slit-like crack: d0   0  kt, y 
and redistribution of
Ideally, a sharp crack causes a severe concentration of stress over a region
stress and is special in that the stress is theoretically near the crack tips.
infinite if the crack is ideally sharp.
5 6
Effects of Cracks on Strength
1. From theory of fracture mechanics, a quantity called the stress
intensity factor, K, can be defined that characterizes the severity
of the crack situation as affected by crack size, stress, and
geometry. The material is assumed to behave in a linear-elastic
manner so that the approach being used is called linear-elastic
fracture mechanics (LEFM).
2. A given material can resist a crack without brittle fracture
occurring as long as this K is below a critical value Kc, which is
a property of the material called the fracture toughness. Values
of Kc vary widely for different materials and are affected by
temperature and loading rate, and secondarily by the thickness
of the member. The worst case of Kc is called KIc considering
thickness effects.
7 8
9 10

Effects of Cracks on Strength Effects of Cracks on Brittle vs. Ductile Behavior
1. Consider the crack length where the failure stress
K  S a (for a << b) predicted by LEFM equals the yield strength such
that 1 K
at  ( c ) 2
 0
Kc
Sc  2. When a  at, fracture mechanics should be employed
a
in design.
S is the remotely applied 3. When a < at, yielding dominated behavior is
stress and Sc is the critical
value of remote stress to
expected. There will be little or no strength reduction
cause fracture (or strength). due to the crack.
11 12
Effects of Cracks on Brittle vs. Ductile Behavior
(Cracks of moderate size may not affect the low-strength material, but
they may severely limit the usefulness of the high-strength one.)
13 14
8.2 Preliminary Discussion-12 8.3 Mathematical Concepts-1

Internally Flawed Materials
Mode I: opening (tension) mode
Many brittle materials (e.g. glass, natural stone,
ceramics, cast metals, etc.) naturally contain small Mode II: sliding (in-plane shearing) mode
cracks or crack-like flaws. These materials have Mode III: tearing (out-of-plane shearing) mode
considerably higher strengths under compression than
tension, the flaws simply closing under compression
and thus having a much reduced effect.
Kc ut = ultimate tensile strength

 ut 
ai ai = inherent flaw size
15 16
8.3 Mathematical Concepts-2 8.3 Mathematical Concepts-3

Stress Intensity Factor, K Stress Fields at a Crack Tip in Mode I:
In general, K characterizes the magnitude (intensity) of   3 
1  sin sin 
the stresses in the vicinity of an ideally sharp crack tip in  x  2 2
  KI   3 

a linear-elastic and isotropic material.  y   cos 1  sin sin   .....
  2r 2 2 2
 xy   sin  cos 3 

 2 2 
 yz   zx  0
  z  0 for plane stress (thin plate)


 z   ( x   y ) for plane strain, ez = 0, (thick plate)
17 18
Stress Fields at a Crack Tip in Mode II: Stress Fields at a Crack Tip in Mode I:
    3   As r0, the local stresses at a
 sin 2 2  cos 2 cos 2   crack tip approach infinity which
 x    
  K II    3  is a mathematical singularity. In

 y   sin cos cos   .....
  2 r  2 2 2  real materials, this circumstance
 xy   cos  1  sin  sin 3   is precluded by the onset of

 2  2 2  
 plastic deformation at the crack
tip.
 
 xz  K III  sin 2 
Mode III:       .....
 yz  2r  cos  
19  2  20

Stress Fields at a Crack Tip in Mode I:
KI is a measure of the severity of the crack and can
Note the
be defined as K I  lim ( y 2r )
r , 0 surface
factor 1.12.
In general, KI can be conveniently expressed as
K I  FS a
where F is a factor needed to account for different

geometries.
21 22
23 24
8.3 Mathematical Concepts-10 8.4 Application of K-1
Mode I loading is encountered in the overwhelming For fracture mechanics to be put to practical use, values
majority of actual engineering situations involving of K must be determined for crack geometries that may
cracked components. From now on, we only discuss the exist in structural components. Many handbooks
cases of Mode I, and use K for KI. collected extensive analysis work for determining K
values for various combinations of loading and
geometries.
General Mathematical Expression for K:
K  FS g a (Note the definition of Sg for various cases.)

F = F(geometry, a/b); e.g. Fig. 8.12-8.14
25 26
8.4 Application of K-2 8.4 Application of K-3

Other Mathematical Expression for K:
P
K  FP (P is the directly applied load)
t b
FP = FP(geometry, a/b); e.g. Fig. 8.15-8.16
27 28
29 30
31 32
Figure A.16 Freebody diagrams and resulting equations for fully plastic forces or moments, Po or Mo, for
various two-dimensional cases of notched or cracked members. The same equations solved for notch or crack
length, ao, are shown at the bottom. Diagrams and equations labeled (a) all correspond to the same case, and
similarly for (b), (c), and (d).
8.4 Application of K-8
Mechanical Behavior of Materials, Fourth Edition Copyright ©2013 by Pearson Education, Inc.
33 Norman E. Dowling All rights reserved.
Figure A.16 (continued) Freebody diagrams and resulting equations for fully plastic forces or moments, Po or
Mo, for various two-dimensional cases of notched or cracked members. The same equations solved for notch or
crack length, ao, are shown at the bottom. Diagrams and equations labeled (a) all correspond to the same case,
and similarly for (b), (c), and (d).
8.4 Application of K-9
Mechanical Behavior of Materials, Fourth Edition Copyright ©2013 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Norman E. Dowling All rights reserved. 36
Cases related to circular cracks:
For a circular crack of radius of a in an infinite body
under uniform stress S:
2
K S a

Other cases can be found in Figs. 8.17-8.19
37 38
39 40

For an elliptical crack in an
infinite body under uniform With respect to variation of the angle  in an
stress, S:
embedded elliptical crack, the maximum K
a from Eq. 8.20 occurs at  = 90o, where f = 1,
K S f
Q that is, at point D on the minor axis of the
1 ellipse. The minimum K occurs at  = 0o,
 a  4
f   ( ) 2 cos 2   sin 2   ( a  1)
c where f = (a/c)1/2, that is at point E on the
 c 

major axis of the ellipse. This is opposite to
2
the case of a half-circular surface crack as
Q  E (k )   1  k 2 sin 2  d
0 shown in Fig. 8.18.
2
a
k 2  1  
41 c 42
Superposition for Combined Loading
P
K1  F1S1 a S1 
bt
6M 6 Pe
K 2  F2 S2 a S2   2
b 2t bt
P 6F e
K  K1  K 2  ( F1  2 ) a
bt b
43 44

Superposition for Combined Loading (p. 368 in textbook) Cracks Inclined or Parallel to an Applied Stress
45 46

Leak-Before-Break Design of Pressure Vessels Leak-Before-Break Design of Pressure Vessels
In a thin-walled pressure vessel with a crack growing in

the wall, two possibilities exist: (1) The crack may
gradually extend and penetrate the wall, causing a leak
before sudden brittle fracture can occur. (2) Sudden
brittle fracture may occur prior to the vessel leaking.
Since a brittle fracture in a pressure vessel may involve
explosive release of the vessel contents, a leak is by
far the more preferable of the two undesirable
possibilities.
47 48
A crack in a pressure vessel may grow due to cyclic 8.5
loading. The crack usually starts from a surface flaw

and extends in a plane normal to the maximum stress
(e.g. hoop stress) as shown in Fig. 8.25. If no brittle
fracture occurs, the growth will result in a through-wall
crack with surface length 2c that is approximately twice
the thickness, 2t. However, sudden brittle fracture will
occur before the crack penetrates the wall unless the
material has sufficient fracture toughness to support a
through-wall crack of at least this size. (i.e., c c  t)
1 K Ic 2 Hence, cc may be calculated and compared
cc  ( ) with the thickness to determine whether the
 t leak-before-break conditions is met.
49 50
8.4 Application of K-24 Homework-1

8.12 A rectangular beam made of ABS plastic is b = 24 mm deep and t = 8 mm thick.
As shown in Fig. 8.13(a), a bending moment M is applied, and a through-thickness
edge crack may be present. For a safety factor against brittle fracture of 3.5 in stress,
what is the largest crack length a that can be allowed if (a) M = 12.5 N・m, and (b) M
= 3.0 N・m?
51 52
8.5 Fracture Toughness Values and 8.5 Fracture Toughness Values and
Trends-1 Trends-2
KIc Test: We want a minimum value of Kc to be sure we
have a plane strain condition which gives us the most
brittle behavior.
ASTM Standards: E399 for metals or D5045 for polymers.
Specimens: (1) three-point bend bar (SENB); (2) compact
tension specimen (CT); (3) arc-shaped specimen.
Needs fatigue precracking to produce a true crack.
53 54
Trends-3 Trends-4
55 56
Trends-5 Trends-6
A P-v curve was recorded as shown in Fig. 8.27. A
deviation from linearity on the P-v plot, or a sudden drop
in load due to rapid cracking, identifies a point PQ
corresponding to an early stage of cracking. The value
of K, denoted KQ, is then calculated for this point. KQ
decreases with increasing specimen thickness t, as
shown in Fig. 8.30. This occurs because the behavior is
affected by the plastic zone at the crack tip in a manner
that depends on thickness.
57 58
Trends-7 Trends-8
For a valid KIc test: For a given class of
materials, increasing
(1) a, t  2.5 (KQ/o )2
strength generally
(2) W (or b)  5 (KQ/o)2 decreases fracture
toughness and ductility.
(3) Pmax /PQ  1.1
then KIc = KQ.
KIc values of various

materials are listed in
Tables 8.1 and 8.2.
59 60
Trends-9 Trends-10
Effects of Effects of Temperature and Loading Rate
Temperature and
Loading Rate
Fracture
toughness
generally
increases with
temperature.
61 62
Trends-11 Trends-12
Effects of Temperature and Loading Rate Effects of Temperature and Loading Rate
For steels with BCC
crystal structure, an abrupt
change in toughness
occurs over a relatively
small temperature range
(temperature-transition
behavior). Below the
temperature transition, the
fracture mechanism is
identified as cleavage,and
above it as dimpled
rupture (microvoid
coalescence).
63 64
Trends-13 Trends-14
Effects of Temperature and Loading Rate Effects of Temperature and Loading Rate
A higher
loading rate
usually lowers
the fracture
toughness.
65 66
Trends-15 Trends-16
Chemical Variation
Anisotropic Effects
67 68
Trends-17 Trends-18
Mixed-Mode Fracture
Neutron Irradiation KI 2 K
( )  ( II ) 2  1
K Ic K IIc
69 70
8.6 Plastic Zone Size and 8.6 Plastic Zone Size and
Limitations on LEFM-1 Limitations on LEFM-2
Plastic Zone Size for Plane Stress Plastic Zone Size for Plane Stress
Along the crack plane ( = 0), The commonly used estimate is
K that yielding actually extends to
x y 
2r
 z   xy   yz   zx  0 about 2ro. i.e.
1 K 2
First approximation, both maximum shear stress and 2r0  ( )
the octahedral shear stress yield criteria estimate  0
yielding at x = y = o, (o is the yield strength). which is the estimated plastic
zone size.
1 K 2 ro corresponds to the diameter of a circular
ro  ( )
2  0 plastic zone over which the material is
plastically deformed ahead of the crack.
71 72
Plastic Zone Size for Plane Strain
For plane strain, the stress z is nonzero, and this
elevates the value of x = y necessary to cause
yielding, in turn decreasing the plastic zone size
relative to that for plane stress. Irwin’s estimate
1 K 2
2roe  ( )
3  o
73 74
Plane Stress vs. Plane Strain Plane Stress vs. Plane Strain
A situation of constraint is said to exist as the material in the Requirements for plane strain condition:
plastic zone is not free to accommodate deformation by
Poisson contraction in any direction. The state of stress
K 2
influences the size of the plastic zone. On the other hand, the t , a, (b  a), h  2.5( )
size of the plastic zone influences the state of stress. The large o
displacements occurring in the plastic zone require a supply of
material from elsewhere. When the plastic zone is large as
compared to the plate thickness, yielding can take place freely
in the thickness direction. When plastic zone is very small,
yielding in the thickness direction cannot take place freely. In
this case, ez is kept at zero due to the constraint by the
surrounding elastic material.
75 76
Plasticity Limitations on LEFM An overall limit on the use of LEFM is
4 K 2
K-field: outside of a a, (b  a), h  ( )
small plastic zone.  o
The existence of such
a region is necessary
for LEFM to be
applicable. If the
plastic zone is so
large that it eliminates
the K-field, then K no
longer applies.
77 78
8.6
79 80
8.7 Discussion on Fracture 8.5 Fracture Toughness Values and

Toughness Testing-1 Trends-5
1. Nonlinearity in the p-v curve must be due to

growth of the crack. Geometrical
requirements must satisfy the plane strain
condition.
2. Three types of p-v curve: (1) Type I: slow-
stable crack growth; (2) Type II: pon-in,
suddenly grow a short distance; (3) Type III:
suddenly grow to complete failure.
81 82
8.7 Discussion on Fracture 8.7 Discussion on Fracture

Toughness Testing-2 Toughness Testing-3
Effects of Thickness on Fracture Behavior
Plane strain: little crack growth; flat fracture

surface.
Plane stress: considerable slow-stable crack
growth; sloping or V-shaped surfaces fractured
at about 45o on planes of maximum shear
stress.
83 84
8.7 Discussion on Fracture 8.8 Extensions of Fracture Mechanics
Toughness Testing-4 Beyond Linear Elasticity-1
Use of Plane Stress Fracture Data
The J-integral and crack-tip opening
Kc is not a material property in a strict sense as it displacement (CTOD) are the two parameters
depends on thickness, and to an extent on other that can be used to characterize the crack
details of the geometry. Kc = f (ac, Pc) behavior for large amounts of yielding while
The curve of K vs. crack extension Da up to fracture is LEFM is no longer applicable.
called the resistance curve or R-curve. Failure may
occur at different points along the curve if the geometry
or loading configuration is changed drastically, and the
curve itself may change if the thickness is changed.
85 86
Homework-2
8.41
8.41
8.8 Extensions of Fracture Mechanics
Beyond Linear Elasticity-2
Fully Plastic Loads
The plastic zone at a crack tip can extend until
the entire uncracked portion of the member has
yielded, assuming that the combination of
material properties, section size, and geometry
is such that fracture does not occur. It is
suggested that the use of plastic zone
adjustments be limited to loads below 80% of
the fully plastic value.
87 88 8.41
Homework-2
8.51
89

8.1 Introduction-1: Chapter 8 Fracture of Cracked Members

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

8.1 Introduction-1: Chapter 8 Fracture of Cracked Members

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chapter 8 Fracture of Cracked Members 8.

8.2 Preliminary Discussion-2 8.2 Preliminary Discussion-3

8.2 Preliminary Discussion-6 8.2 Preliminary Discussion-7

8.2 Preliminary Discussion-8 8.2 Preliminary Discussion-9

8.2 Preliminary Discussion-12 8.3 Mathematical Concepts-1

Kc ut = ultimate tensile strength

8.3 Mathematical Concepts-2 8.3 Mathematical Concepts-3

  z  0 for plane stress (thin plate)

8.3 Mathematical Concepts-6 8.3 Mathematical Concepts-7

where F is a factor needed to account for different

8.3 Mathematical Concepts-8 8.3 Mathematical Concepts-9

General Mathematical Expression for K:

K  FS g a (Note the definition of Sg for various cases.)

8.4 Application of K-2 8.4 Application of K-3

8.4 Application of K-4 8.4 Application of K-5

8.4 Application of K-8

8.4 Application of K-9

Other cases can be found in Figs. 8.17-8.19

8.4 Application of K-12 8.4 Application of K-13

8.4 Application of K-14 8.4 Application of K-15

8.4 Application of K-18 8.4 Application of K-19

8.4 Application of K-20 8.4 Application of K-21

In a thin-walled pressure vessel with a crack growing in

loading. The crack usually starts from a surface flaw

8.4 Application of K-24 Homework-1

KIc values of various

8.7 Discussion on Fracture 8.5 Fracture Toughness Values and

1. Nonlinearity in the p-v curve must be due to

8.7 Discussion on Fracture 8.7 Discussion on Fracture

Plane strain: little crack growth; flat fracture

You might also like