Al- Balqa' Applied University (BAU)

Faculty of Engineering Technology

DAMAGE DETECTION USING ANSYS

Approved by: Pr. Mohammad Gaith

 PROJECT TITL:

DAMAGE DETECTION USING ANSYS

By:

Ahmad abdel lateef al-gharabli Abdel latif nasr eldeen alsha’bani

Abdelrahman fawwaz al-dalabeeh Yousef Abdallah adnan attieh

Approved by:

Supervisor: Pr. Mohammad Gaith

 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I very warmly thank my thesis supervisor Professor Mohammad Gaith for the
support during this work.
I acknowledge the efforts from all the faculty members who have taught me in
the Faculty of Engineering Technology.

Finally, I am grateful to my colleagues in FET:

Ahmad abdel lateef al-gharabli Abdel latif nasr eldeen alsha’bani

Abdelrahman fawwaz al-dalabeeh Yousef Abdallah adnan attieh

1
 Contents
ABSTRACT 4

CH1: DAMAGE TYPES ON TURBINE BLADE 5

1.1 DEFINITIONS 6
1.2 TYPES OF BLADE DAMAGE 7
1.3 FATIGUE DAMAGE ON WIND TURBINE BLADES 11
1.4 LEADING EDGE EROSION 11
1.5 DAMAGES FROM ICING 15
A. RIME ICE 15
B. GLAZE 16
C. WET SNOW 16
CH2: PROTECTION AND INSPECTION METHODS 17

2.1 OVERVIEW 18
2.2 PROTECTION AGAINST WIND TURBINE BLADE FAILURES 18
2.3 PROTECTION AGAINST FATIGUE 20
2.4 PROTECTION AGAINST EROSION 21
2.5 PROTECTION FROM ICING 22
2.6 WIND TURBINE BLADE INSPECTION METHODS 25
1. VISUAL TESTING 25
2. ULTRASONIC TESTING 25
3. THERMOGRAPHY 26
4. RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING 26
5. ACOUSTIC EMISSION 27
CH3: CRACKS 28

3.1 OVERVIEW 29
3.2 INTRODUCTION 29
3.3 THE COHESIVE ZONE MODEL 33
3.4 FINITE ELEMENT IMPLEMENTATION 36
3.5 INVESTIGATION OF BREATHING MECHANISM 38
CH4: CFD 39

4.1 INTRODUCTION 40

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4.2 FLUID FLOW EQUATIONS 40
4.3 DISCRETIZATION METHODS 42
4.4 METHODOLOGY 44
4.5 CFD PROCEDURE 45
CH5: NATURAL FREQUENCY 58

5.1 INTRODUCTION 59
5.2 THE IMPORTANCE OF CALCULATING NATURAL FREQUENCIES 59
5.3 METHODS FOR SHIFTING NATURAL FREQUENCIES 60
5.4 MODE SHAPE 61
5.5 BLADE GEOMETRY 62
5.6 PROCEDURE: 65
CH6: RESULTS, DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION 68

6.1 OVERVIEW 69
6.2 PROPERTIES TABLE 69
6.3 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES 70
6.4 TABLE: NO CRACK NATURAL FREQUENCY RESULTS. 71
6.5 TABLE: 1ST NATURAL FREQUENCY RESULTS 72
6.6 TABLE: 2ND NATURAL FREQUENCY RESULTS 74
6.7 TABLE: 3RD NATURAL FREQUENCY RESULTS 76
CRACK A 78
CRACK B 79
CRACK C 80
CRACK D 81
6.8 CONCLUSION 82
REFERENCES 83

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 ABSTRACT

The purpose of this project is to define the types of damage that

can affect a tucrbine blade, ways to protect the blade from then
and ways to spot the damages on a blade.
We analyzed the blade on Computational fluid dynamics (CFD)
basis; to simulate the effect of fluids in this case air on the blade.
We also analyzed the blade on Ansys in terms of natural
frequency values, first with no crack, and then we added a crack
with a 3mm base, different locations and different depths, and
compare the natural frequency results, in which our aim is to be
able to detect small cracks that can’t be detected visually and be
able apply maintenance to them before it leads to a bigger or
more costly damage and losses in effectiveness.

4
CH1: DAMAGE TYPES ON TURBINE BLADE

5
1.1 Definitions

➢ Natural Frequency
When any object composed of an elastic material is disturbed, it vibrates as its own special set of
frequencies, which together form its special sound. This called the object’s natural frequency
Natural frequency is the frequency at which a system naturally vibrates once it has been set into
motion. In other words, natural frequency is the number of times a system will oscillate (move
back and forth) between its original position and its displaced position, if there is no outside
interference. The natural frequency depends on factors such as the elasticity and shape of the
object.

➢ Resonance
When the frequency of a forced vibration on an object matches the object’s natural frequency, a
dramatic increase in amplitude occurs This phenomenon is called resonance Resonance is the
buildup of large vibration amplitude that occurs when a structure or an object is excited at its
natural frequency. Resonance can be either desirable or undesirable. Acoustic resonance, a
desirable resonance, occurs in many different musical instruments. Undesirable mechanical
resonance can cause bridges to collapse, aircraft wings to break, and machinery to break or
malfunction.

➢ Crack
A place in or on a solid material where there is an absence of solid material, and the linear
magnitude of either one or two dimensions of this absence (its length and/or width) greatly exceed
the linear magnitude of its third dimension.
Or

The fracture of a solid almost always occurs due to the development of certain displacement
discontinuity surfaces within the solid. If a displacement develops in this case perpendicular to the
surface of displacement, it is called a normal tensile crack or simply a crack; if a displacement
develops tangentially to the surface of displacement, it is called a shear crack, slip band, or
dislocation. - Definition from "Mechanics of Brittle Fracture"

6
1.2 Types of Blade Damage
Many types of damage cause blades to fail, the majority of failures occur in the
blade at the tip region, usually withing several inches from the tip and often due to
a crack initiator such as pit, nick, or gouge. However, a blade failure can occur
along any portion of a blade, including the mid-blade, shank, particularly when
nicks, scratches, corrosion, and cracks are present. Therefore, during inspection and
maintenance, it is important to inspect the entire blade. The severity of the damage
determines the type of repairs required.

Here we can put forward the possible causes of the failure of the wind turbine
blade in general:-

1. Damage from Lightning

Damage from lightning to wind turbine blades strongly depends on the structural
materials. According to relevant experiments, polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and
polyethylene terephthalate (PET) suffered pyrolysis and cracks inside when tested
under severe temperature and increasing pressure strikes, while in cases of balsa
wood blades, fiber breakage and large areas of delamination between the wooden
material and the resin layer have been observed.

fig 1. 1 Delamination and burn at edge point of a turbine blade

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The Most Common Types of Damage in Wind Turbine Blades
Caused by Lightning:-

2. Delamination
Delamination is normally caused by the localized build-up of pressure and
abrupt expansion of the lightning, Usually, lightning-induced delamination is
accompanied by punctures and burns on the laminate near the point of impact.
Although delamination mainly occurs close to the blade tip, it can be found at
any position between the blade tip and the hub. The main problem with
delamination is that it creates favorable conditions for the onset and development
of cracks. (see Figure Below)

3. Debonding
Debonding consists of a localized separation of the upper and lower shells of the
blade. It is usually present at the tip or at the trailing edge in the outer few meters
of the blade. Usually debonding is caused because the heat generated from the
lightning expands the air inside the blade, thus creating internal pressure. The
vaporization of condensed moisture trapped inside the blade can intensify this
phenomenon. Debonding is mainly located very close to the tip of the blade, in
distances lower than 1 m. However, there can be cases of shell debonding traced
in distances up to 6 m from the tip. This is attributed to the fact that the blade is

fig 1. 2 SHELL DEBONDING OF AROUND 1 M LENGTH, STARTING AT 40 CM

FROM THE BLADE’S TIP (LEFT PHOTO) AND EXTENDING 60 CM IN LENGTH
(RIGHT PHOTO).

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more robust near the hub, and therefore the expansion of air is not usually
sufficient to cause the separation of the shells. Additionally, the blade tips are
more likely to attract lightning. (see fig 1.2).

4. Shell Detachment
shell detachment starts with shell debonding. The mechanical forces generated
by blades’ rotation, alongside any flutter induced by the flow characteristics
(which change due to the geometry change) and the strong wind gusts during
adverse weather conditions, eventually lead to shell detachment. Shell
detachment is a rather rare damage caused by lightning strikes on wind turbine
blades. In cases of shell detachment, the lightning strike point is usually located
within the last 3 m of the blade tip, even if the damage affects several meters of
the shell. (see fig 1.3)

fig 1. 3 WIND TURBINE BLADE SHELL DETACHMENT

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5. Tip Detachment
Tip detachment refers to the complete detachment of several meters of the tip
from the rest of the blade. It occurs when the lightning strike severely damages
the structural laminate, such that the laminate cannot support the mechanical
load and breaks. Consequently, tip detachment can be considered as the most
critical case of WTB damage caused by lightning strikes. Tip detachment
occurs rarely, most commonly in blades with a carbon fiber structure.
(see fig 1.4)

FIG 1. 4 WIND TURBINE BLADE TIP DETACHMENT

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1.3 Fatigue Damage on Wind Turbine Blades
The term “fatigue” is used to describe the inability of a material to persistently
withstand cyclic applied loads, which are fully tolerable when applied only once
or for a few repetitions. During its operational lifetime, a wind turbine faces
repetitious loads that contribute to the fatigue of the overall structure. Wind is the
main source of these loads, which can be steady loads, transient loads from events
such as gusts, periodic loads from wind shear, Additional loads can be developed
by the turbine’s cyclic starts and stops, resonance-induced loads from vibration of
the structure and loads from gravity as well.

1.4 Leading Edge Erosion

In general, leading edge erosion of a wind turbine’s blade is the result of its
exposure to:

➢ airborne particulates, mainly in the form of rain, hailstone, sea-spray, dust

and sand.

➢ UV light and humidity/moisture.

The first impact of this exposure is a gradual increase in the blade’s surface
roughness, which negatively affects the blade’s aerodynamic performance by
increasing its friction drag, Depending on the level of leading edge erosion, drag
can increase from 6 to 500%, , leading in turn to an approx. 5% reduction in
annual electricity production. The reduced lift and increased drag become more
intensive with higher levels of erosion. In extreme cases of leading-edge
erosion, the structural integrity of the blade can be affected. (see figure below).

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 FIG 1. 5 LEADING EDGE EROSION

As with all forms of environmental exposure, leading edge erosion is heavily site
dependent. In warm and arid climates, sand and dust may be a common type of
airborne particulate and therefore may pose leading edge erosion problems,
whereas in wetter, greener habitats, the problem may be non-existent. Likewise, at
near-shore locations, the issue of sand erosion may be a considerable threat.

Leading edge erosion can be a result of rain, with the raindrops’ kinetic energy,
diameter, temperature and sea salt content being critical parameters. It has been
also observed that careful handling of the blade during manufacturing, transport
and installation is essential to avoid small tears or scratches that may act as
initiation sites for further wear and erosion.

In order to present an estimation of the forces acting on a blade’s coating from

airborne particles, let us assume a raindrop travelling with the wind. In general, the
diameter of raindrops depends on the climatic conditions under which they are
formed and the conditions of their transportation in the air. Typical raindrop
diameters are commonly cited from 0.5 mm to 5 mm, while for mild to moderate
rain rates, raindrop diameters range from 0.5 mm to 3 mm. Assuming water
density at approximately 1000 kg/m3, the mass of a raindrop of spherical shape
with a diameter of 3 mm is calculated at m = 0.014 gr.

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 The terminal velocity of a falling raindrop is also heavily dependent on the
climatic conditions. The maximum free-falling terminal velocity levels out at
around 9 m/s for diameters in excess of about 3.5 mm. Assuming a rain droplet
with a terminal velocity of 8 m/s, fully entrained in a horizontal 20 m/s wind (i.e.,
assuming that the droplet is also travelling at this speed horizontally), strikes a
rotating blade with a 90 m/s tangential tip speed, it is calculated that the impact
velocity between the rain and blade does not drop below 80 m/s.

Given the assumptions of raindrop mass of m = 0.014 gr, diameter of d = 3 mm,

wind speed 20 m/s, terminal velocity of 8 m/s and blade tip 90 m/s, the impact
force F between the raindrop and the blade is calculated by using the Equation (1):

𝐹 = √𝐹𝑥2 + 𝐹𝑦2 + 𝐹𝑧2 (1)

F= 76N

which means that every travelling droplet hitting the tip of the blade exerts on the
blade’s coating approximately a force equivalent to the weight of a 7.6 kg mass.

In the case of hailstones, the effects on a blade’s coating can be even worse, mainly
due to the expected larger diameters. The average size of hailstones is dependent on-
site location. Measurements on-site are considered the only certain method to obtain
secure estimations regarding the likely average size of hail at a specific location.

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 As the diameter of hailstones increases, their mass mh and kinetic energy Ekin also
increase (see Equation (2)). Additionally, with increasing diameter and mass, the
terminal velocity of a hailstone Vh also increases according to Equation (3), where
g is the gravitational acceleration, CD is the drag coefficient (0.5 for a sphere), ρair is
the air density, Ah is the cross-sectional area of the hailstone in the direction of travel
and rh is the hailstone radius.

1
𝐸𝑘𝑖𝑛 =
2
𝑋 𝑚 𝑋 𝑉2 (2)
2 ∗ 𝑚ℎ ∗ 𝑔
𝑉=√ (3)
𝐶𝑑 ∗ 𝑃𝑎𝑖𝑟 ∗ 𝐴ℎ

Using Equation (3), assuming a density of 900 kg/m3 for the hailstone (this value
varies widely) and of 1225 kg/m3 for the air, and a perfectly spherical hailstone shape
and thus a drag coefficient of 0.5, the theoretical velocity for a range of hailstone
diameters from 5 mm to 90 mm is calculated to be between 10 m/s and 40 m/s,
respectively. Given the above hailstone velocities, it is conclusively proved that the
maximum calculated impact velocity of a 15 mm and 30 mm diameter hailstone,
impacting a blade tip with a tip speed of 90 m/s, in a 20 m/s wind field varies from
70 m/s to 120 m/s [50,61]. Given the above assumptions for the hailstones, the
exerted forces can be calculated using the methodology for Equation (1). For
hailstones of 15 mm and 30 mm diameter, the exerted forces at the tip of the blade
are calculated to be from 1.7 kN to 6.9 kN, respectively.

Surface erosion of a wind turbine’s blade is not the only possible wear from
hailstones. Hailstone impact can result in stress propagation throughout the blade
coating [66], which, in turn, can result in delamination between plies.

Leading edge erosion is directly related to income loss, due to degradation of the
blades’ aerodynamic performance. As the damage concerns only a blade’s outer
coating, the repair cost is not significant, on the condition, of course, that the damage
is detected early and the required repair process is executed in time.

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1.5 Damages from Icing
Atmospheric icing is defined as the gradual growth of ice or snow on structures
exposed to the atmosphere. Two different types of atmospheric icing can be
distinguished: in-cloud icing (rime ice or glaze) and precipitation icing (freezing rain
or drizzle, wet snow). These are described as follows:

A. Rime Ice
Rime ice is formed when the wind transfers supercooled liquid water droplets from
clouds or fog. These droplets might freeze instantaneously as they hit a surface. In
the case of small droplets, soft rime is formed, while hard rime is formed by large
droplets.

Soft rime is a fragile, snow-like formation. Mainly, it consists of thin ice needles
or flakes of ice. Soft rime starts forming in a very localized manner and grows
triangularly into the windward direction. Soft rime usually ranges in density from
200 kg/m3 to 600 kg/m3 and is easily removable. On the other hand, hard rime is an
opaque and usually white ice formation. It adheres firmly onto surfaces and is very
difficult to remove. Hard rime ice density ranges typically between 600 kg/m3 and
900 kg/m3.

The formation of rime ice is asymmetrical, usually taking the shape of needles
following the windward side of a structure. Rime ice is typically formed at
temperatures from −20 °C to 0 °C. The most severe rime icing occurs at exposed
ridges where moist air is lifted and wind speed increases.

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B. Glaze
Glaze is the result of freezing rain or wet in-cloud icing. A smooth, transparent and
homogenous ice layer is formed and strongly adheres on surfaces. Glaze is usually
formed at temperatures from 0 °C to −6 °C with a density of around 900 kg/m3.

Wet in-cloud icing occurs when the surface temperature is close to 0 °C. The water
droplets that hit a surface do not freeze completely. This results in the formation of
a layer of liquid water which, due to wind and gravity, may flow around the surface
and freeze also on its leeward side.

C. Wet Snow
Wet snow is formed by partially melted snow crystals with high liquid water
content. The liquid content of the crystals increases the cohesive forces of this
formation. Thus, it is able to adhere on an object’s surface. Wet snow accretion
occurs when the air temperature is between 0 °C and +3 °C, with typical density
from 300 kg/m3 to 600 kg/m3. If there is a temperature decrease after the wet snow
accretion, then there can be ice formation.

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 CH 2
CH2: PROTECTION AND INSPECTION METHODS

17
2.1 Overview
Continuing from chapter 1, this chapter is going to talk about the ways to protect
the blade from the aforementioned damage types, plus methods on how to inspect
the blade for damage.

2.2 Protection Against Wind Turbine Blade Failures

Several techniques already have been applied in practice or studied in laboratory
settings and presented in research articles on wind turbine blade protection from the
aforementioned potential forms of damage. The most important of them are
presented in the following sub-sections.

Protection from Lightning Damage

As the size of modern wind turbines increases, lightning protection becomes more
and more important from an economic point of view, because the cost of repair for
larger blades after a lightning strike is significantly higher than that for older,
smaller blades. As they are installed at the top of the overall structure, the blades
are commonly considered the most vulnerable part of the wind turbine in terms of
lightning protection.

Lightning protection on wind turbines can be approached in the

following ways:

➢ adequate driving of the lightning strike to a preferred point, such as the

blade’s air termination system.

➢ installation of appropriate grounding, in order to guarantee the lightning

current passage through the turbine’s structure into the earth, without causing
any damage, including damage from strong electric or magnetic fields.

➢ minimization of voltage gradients developed in and around the wind turbine.

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 Currently, there is no definite guidance or technology for guaranteed protection of
wind turbines against lightning. Different methods and approaches have been
introduced by the manufacturers.

The different types of lightning protection installed in wind turbines blades

are:
➢ air termination systems on the blade surfaces

➢ high resistive tapes and diverters

➢ down conductors placed inside the blade

➢ conducting materials for the blade surface.

A commonly used protection method against lightning consists of a conductor

installed inside the blade’s body, aiming to adequately drive the lightning current
away from the blade’s mass. This conductor is connected to metal receptors,
located at the blade’s tip, which in turn, by penetrating the blade’s surface, act as
air terminations. (see fig 2.1)

fig 2. 1 penetrating the blade’s surface

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Another modern approach for lightning protection is the construction of the wind
turbine blade with a non-metallic mesh. This non-metallic mesh is usually a
continuous carbon fiber-reinforced thermoset resin that acts as a protection mesh
on a glass fiber reinforced polymer (GFRP) composite surface. Experimental
investigation of this technique has revealed that the carbon fiber mesh causes the
striking current to spread outside the laminate instead of penetrating inside.

2.3 Protection Against Fatigue

The major cause of wind turbine failure is fatigue. This is due to the vulnerability
of wind turbine blades to cumulative fatigue damage imposed by the cyclic and
repetitive nature of wind loading. Damage to wind turbine blades due to fatigue can
be prevented with two alternative approaches:

➢ adequate prediction of the blade’s material behavior versus fatigue and its
structural properties.

➢ appropriate selection of the wind park’s installation site and the optimum
siting of the wind turbines.

After installation of the wind turbine, the only measure one can introduce
against fatigue is the regular and valid inspection of wind turbine operations.
Obviously, the main idea is that any potential fatigue-induced damage can be
remedied easier and with lower cost if detected in time.

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2.4 Protection Against Erosion
The protection of wind turbine blades against leading edge erosion is approached
by applying plastic or elastomeric anti-corrosion protective tapes (e.g., abrasion-
resistant polyurethane elastomers) or coatings on the blade’s leading edge.
(See fig. 2.2).

fig 2. 2 Application of Anti-

Corrosion on Wind Turbine Edge

The application of a polyurethane coating on the blade leading edges constitutes a

commonly used technique for the protection of wind turbine blades against erosion.
Such coatings have been widely used for the same reason on helicopter rotor blades.
Polyurethane is characterized as segmented material, in the sense that its structure
consists of both hard and soft segments. Hard segments have a direct positive impact
on the stiffness and hardness of the material, while soft segments determine the
toughness and the damping properties. These combined features allow the
development of strong, stiff, tough and composite coatings with good damping
properties.

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 Moving one step ahead, an alternative approach against leading edge erosion is the
application of multilayer coatings. Such multilayer protective coatings can be a
combination of hybrid polycarbonate diol polyurethane-urea technology, polymer–
metal laminates or the introduction of nickel cobalt alloys into the main erosion
protection material and the application of electroformed nickel shields in the outer,
higher speed parts of the blade and cheaper and lighter thermoplastic coatings in the
intermediate regions closer to the hub. These solutions aim to improve the strength
and anticorrosive properties of the main protective polymer material.

2.5 Protection from Icing

The problems raised by ice formation on turbine blades can be treated with anti-
icing or de-icing techniques. De-icing refers to the removal of ice from the blades.
The aim is to reduce the recovery time from an icing event. Anti-icing aims to
prevent or at least delay ice build-up on the wind turbines blades. Effective anti-
icing methods will result in an increase in the incubation time.

➢ Incubation Time: Delay period between the start of meteorological and start
of instrumental icing (dependent on the surface and the temperature of the
structure).
➢ Meteorological Icing: Period during which the meteorological conditions
(i.e., temperature, humidity, wind speed, etc.) favor ice formation (active ice
formation).
➢ Instrumental Icing: Period during which the ice remains at a structure.
During that time the operation of the wind turbines is affected, and their
performance degrades.
Unfortunately, most of the research on wind turbine blade protection against icing
is internally implemented by manufacturers, and therefore, relatively little
information about the technical specifications and the performance of the techniques
under development is available to the public. Currently, the commercially available
and widely used and tested systems in independent R&D projects and in commercial
applications are the hot air heating systems. These systems, and some more still in a
trial phase, are presented in the next paragraphs.

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➢ De-icing: The hot air de-icing system operation is based on heat production
and dissipation across the blade’s whole length, aiming to increase blade
temperature and, therefore, concentrated ice melting. More specifically, hot
air produced by electric resistance is propelled by a fan located in the root of
the rotor blade over the ribs inside the blade all the way to the tip. From the
blade’s tip, the air circulates back to the root via the center rib in the direction
of the fan, creating, thus, a continuous flow. The continuous circulation of hot
air inside the blade causes a temperature increase in the laminate above 0 °C,
resulting, eventually, in the melting of ice or snow.

➢ The automatic operation of a de-icing system is another important field. The

control of de-icing systems is based on ice detectors and blade surface
temperature sensors. Additional temperature sensors are installed inside the
blade to protect it from permanent damage due to overheating, the correct
timing for activation and deactivation of de-icing systems is an operation of
major economic importance. The aim is to achieve the most cost-effective
operating mode in terms of electricity consumed for heating versus the
maximization of electricity production from the wind turbine. Anti-icing:
Anti-icing is mainly approached with the development of coatings with the
ability to act as passive anti-ice surfaces. In most cases, these coatings are
constructed from hydrophobic materials that prevent water from remaining on
their surfaces and, consequently, reduce ice formation. One big advantage of
anti-icing methods is that no control system is needed. Although this approach
sounds sensible, no general hydrophobic coating type has been reported to
exhibit outstanding anti-icing results. This has been attributed to the fact that
ice formation is affected by many factors, thus the importance of
hydrophobicity is limited.

23
 A first approach is the use of biochemical technologies for the prevention of
ice formation on technical surfaces constitutes another promising idea. This
biochemical approach is naturally adopted by organisms in polar and sub-polar
climates (fish, amphibians, plants and insects), enabling them to survive in very
low temperatures. In nature, this is achieved with antifreeze proteins on the
organisms’ skin. Technically, this concept can be implemented by integrating
substances with constitutive properties into a surface coating that can cause
freezing point depression due to the configuration and conformation of the
molecules. These molecules are described as thermal hysteresis proteins or, more
commonly, as anti-freeze proteins (AFPs). They can selectively depress the
freezing point without affecting the melting point of ice.

Another approach is the development of coatings that contain hydrophilic

centers in a hydrophobic environment. This allows water molecules to adhere to
certain positions on the blade surface, yet the hydrophobic surroundings of these
sites promote the removal of ice crystals.

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2.6 Wind Turbine Blade Inspection Methods

1. Visual Testing

Visual testing is a common method applied to inspect the discontinuities and cracks
on wind turbine blade surfaces, especially in wind parks installed in isolated and
difficult-to-access locations. It can be applied with the support of unmanned aerial
vehicles (UAVs) equipped with photogrammetric or pan-tilt zoom cameras to
provide images of the inspected structure. The latter are able to detect 2-cm width
cracks from 200 m away. The entire approach employs several artificial intelligence
methods that aim to interpret the captured images and detect faults on the blade
surfaces.

2. Ultrasonic Testing

With the application of non-destructive ultrasonic evaluation, delamination,

adhesive defects and resin-poor areas can be quickly, reliably and effectively
detected. It is the most widely used non-destructive inspection technology for
composite materials in industry. This technique is capable of detecting surface and
subsurface faults. It is based on the analysis of the wave travelling along the blade.
For the detection of faults, several mathematical and, recently, artificial intelligence
methods have been proposed, aiming to overcome the noise introduced by the
composite material and, of course, the complex geometry.

25
3. Thermography

Infrared thermography can detect variations in the thermodynamic properties of the

object and produce surface temperature patterns. Hot spots, due to degeneration of
components or bad internal contact, can be identified in a simple and fast manner. It
is a fast method and, due to this feature, it can be applied on large surfaces in short
time. Among its main disadvantages, one can mention the misinterpretation of
thermographs, which can be caused by reflections, dirt, etc. Yet, it has been proved
that with the application of the appropriate filters, the noise generated by the
application of this method can be detected and isolated. In any case, the results of
this method are also heavily based on the quality and the resolution of the employed
thermographic camera, the type of heat source and, of course, the accuracy and the
requirements of the investigated problem.

4. Radiographic Testing

Radiographic testing is performed with the application of X-rays. The method is

based on the different levels of absorption of X-ray photons as they pass through a
material. The X-ray measurement data contain quantitative information about
variations in density, which are caused by changes in material properties or internal
delamination. X-rays combined with the new digital tomography technology enable
3D visualization of the structure of an inspected object.

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5. Acoustic Emission

The acoustic emission technique is based on the propagation of elastic waves

through the mass of the material. The acoustic events are passively emitted by the
material itself and not by an external excitation source. The frequency of the acoustic
event and any abnormalities in the wave’s propagation can indicate corresponding
failures in the examined material’s structure, such as cracks, discontinuities,
delamination, breakage, etc. The acoustic emission technique is appropriate to detect
faults on wind turbine blades from their initiation stage; hence, it is usually employed
for early damage detection. Acoustic emission is performed with the installation of
piezoelectric sensors properly allocated on the blade’s surface. (See fig. 2.2).

fig 2. 2 Piezoelectric Sensors for Detection of Faults or

Damage with Acoustic Emission.

27
 CH 3
CH3: CRACKS

28
3.1 Overview
A place in or on a solid material where there is an absence of solid material, and
the linear magnitude of either one or two dimensions of this absence (its length
and/or width) greatly exceed the linear magnitude of its third dimension.
Or
The fracture of a solid almost always occurs due to the development of certain
displacement discontinuity surfaces within the solid. If a displacement develops in
this case perpendicular to the surface of displacement, it is called a normal tensile
crack or simply a crack; if a displacement develops tangentially to the surface of
displacement, it is called a shear crack, slip band, or dislocation. - Definition from
"Mechanics of Brittle Fracture"

3.2 Introduction
Fatigue cracking of rotor shafts has long been identified as a limiting factor for
safe and reliable operation of turbo- machines. It can lead to catastrophic failure
and great eco- nomic loss if not detected early. A crack in the rotor causes local
changes in stiffness. These changes, in turn, affect the dynamics of the system:
frequency of the natural vibrations and the amplitudes of forced vibrations are
changed. If a cracked shaft rotates under external loading, the crack opens and
closes regularly during the revolution of the shaft; it breathes. The breathing
mechanism is produced by the stress distribution around the crack mainly due to
the action of bending moment, while the effect of torsion is negligible. Usually,
shaft cracks breathe when crack sizes are small, runn- ing speeds are low, and
radial forces are large .
The influence of a breathing crack on the vibration of a rotating shaft has been
in the focus of many researchers. Comprehensive literature survey of various
crack modelling techniques, system behaviour of cracked rotor, and detection
procedures to diagnose fracture damage were contributed

Wauer , Dimarogonas , Sabnavis et al. , and Kumar and Rastogi . More recent
studies have been reviewed by Bachschmid et al. . They noted that the breathing
mechanism of cracks in rotating shafts can be accurately investigated by means
of 3D nonlinear finite element models. Based on these simulations, simple

29
approximation of the breathing mechanism, describing the location and
extension of the crack closure line during rotation, can be established.
The breathing mechanism is the result of the stress and strain distribution around
the cracked area, which is due to static loads, like the weight, bearing reaction
forces, and dynamical loads, and due to the unbalance- and the vibra- tion-
induced inertia force distribution . The accurate modelling of the breathing
behaviour, that is, the gradually opening and closing of the crack during one
rotation of the shaft, still needs further investigations. An original method for
calculating the constitutive law of a cracked beam section under bending has
been proposed by Andrieux and Vare´ . Based on three-dimensional
computations taking into account the unilateral contact between the lips of the
crack, it consists in defining a constitutive relation between the bending moment
applied to the cracked section and the resulting field of displacements,
compatible with the beam theory so that it can be used in rotor-dynamics
software. Vare´ and Andrieux extended this method in order to show how
shear effects can be implemented in the model of a cracked section. Arem and
Maitournam presented stiff- ness variations deduced from 3D FE calculations
accounting for the unilateral contact between the crack lips as originally new
model parameters, which are independent of the stress state.

The theory of strain energy release rate and SIF combined with rotordynamics
built the foundation of the dynamic of cracked rotors based on LEFM [23]. This
theory has two major limitations; namely, it can only be used if there is an initial
crack, and the fracture process zone must be small compared with the dimensions
of the shaft. Due to geome-developed by Andreus and Vare´ . Dimarogonas
andtri developed by Andrieux and Vare´ . Dimarogonas and cal complexity,
some simplifications had been made for the Peripeties introduced the FE models
of the rotating shaft cracks. They used the fracture mechanics and obtained a full
6 × 6 flexibility matrix for a transverse open surface crack on shaft. Darpe et al.
studied the coupling between longitudinal, lateral, and torsional vibrations
together for a rotating cracked shaft. By including the axial degree of freedom in
their analysis, the stiffness matrix formulated is an extension of the one
developed by Ostachowicz and Krawczuk . Kulesza and Sawicki used the rigid
FEM for modelling a crack in a rotating shaft. The crack is presented as a set of
spring-damping elements of variable stiffness connecting two sections of the

30
shaft. Bouboulas and Anifantis develop a finite element model in order to study
the vibrational behavior of a beam with a nonpropagating edge crack. According
to their model, the beam is discretized into finite elements while the breathing
crack behavior is treated as a full frictional contact problem between the crack
surfaces.
The cohesive zone model (CZM) has been widely used as an alternative to stress
intensity factor-based fracture mechanics. It can deal with the nonlinear zone
ahead of the crack tip due to plasticity or microcracking. The CZM describes
material failure on a more phenomenological basis (i.e., without considering the
material microstructure). The general advantage of this model when compared
to classical fracture mechanics is that the parameters of the respective models
depend only on the material and not on the geometry. This concept guarantees
transferability from specimen to structure over a wide range of geometries. The
origin of the cohesive zone concept can be traced back to the strip yield model
proposed by Dugdale and Barenblat in which the narrow zone of localized
deformation ahead of the crack tip was substituted by cohesive traction between
the bounding surfaces. The constitutive behaviour which causes the cohesive
elements to open and eventually to fail is described by the so-called traction
separation law. It relates the traction vector to the displacement jump across the
inter- face and is usually called separation. The energy dissipated by the element
until total failure is derived as the integral of the traction-separation. However,
the traction-separation law depends on the stress state, which can be
characterised by the triaxiality (i.e., the hydrostatic stress divided by the von
Mises equivalent stress). This issue was first investigated by Siegmund and
Brocks. The approach was extended to simulation of dynamic ductile crack
growth by Anvari et al. , Scheider . Banerjee and Manivasagam proposed a
versatile CZM to predict ductile fracture at different states of stress. The
formulation developed for mode-I plane strain accounts explicitly for triaxiality
of the stress state by using basic elastic-plastic constitutive relations combined
with two crack profile, such as straight-edged, circular and elliptical crack model
to analyze such crack problem. Since analytical SIFs for an edge crack in a
rotating cylinder are not available, the shaft is considered to be a sum of
elementary independent rectangular strips (Andrieux and Vare´) and no
interaction between them is assumed to take place (Chasalevris and
Papadopoulos). The geometric functions that describe the strain energy density

31
are often not accurate enough, due to the fact that the crack passes from stress
state caused by the vertical moment to that of a horizontal moment. Then, the
compliance is obtained by integrating along the crack tip. If the crack depth
exceeds the radius of the shaft, then the elements of the compliance matrix
present a divergence. This is due to the singularity that the strain energy release
rate method has near the edges of the crack tip, giving thus the infinite values. It
was reported by Papadopoulos
that divergence does not reflect reality. The crack tip is supposed to be formed
by the boundary between the cracked areas and the uncracked areas for the
regions in which the breathing crack is open. However, the SIF will not appear
at the boundary between the closed cracked areas and the open cracked areas .
Liong and Proppe proposed a method for the evaluation of the stiffness losses
in a rotor with a transverse breathing crack. Their method is based on a CZM
and accounts explicitly for triaxiality of the stress state by using constitutive
relations.

The aim of the present study is to propose a method for the evaluation of stiffness
losses of the cracked shaft based on a CZM. The method provides a direct
relationship between the material properties of the shaft and the relative crack
depth, thus representing the physical phenomenon closely. This paper introduces
a method based on a 3D FE model and MBS in order to study the breathing
mechanism of an elastic cracked shaft. The CZM formulation is implemented in
a 3D FE model. The elastic cracked shaft with various relative crack depths is
modelled by 3D FE and then transferred into an MBS model in order to analyze
the dynamic loads acting during rotation at different rotating speeds. The
vibration responses in the centroid of the rotating shaft obtained from MBS have
been exported into FE to observe the breathing mechanism. The accuracy of the
results is demonstrated through comparisons with the results available in the
liter- ature.

32
3.3 The Cohesive Zone Model
Basis of the Cohesive Process Zone Model In the CZM, fracture nucleates as
discontinuity surface able to transmit tensile load before opening above a given
displacement. Formation and extension of this surface require that the maximum
principal stress reaches a given value, namely, the cohesive strength of the material.
When this occurs, the crack surface initiates or grows perpendicularly to the
direction of the maximum principal stress. The two faces of the surface exert on each
other equal and opposite tensile stresses (cohesive stresses) whose value is a unique
function of the separation between the faces. When the separation reaches another
given value (the critical separation, ), the cohesive stress vanishes and fracture takes
place. Fracture consists of the initiation and propagation of a crack produced by the
opening and advance of the cohesive zone (the zone where the cohesive stresses act)
ahead of the crack tip as shown in Fig. (3.1).

FIG. 3. 1 COHESIVE CRACK PROCESS ZONE.

33
The fracture be haviour of each material is described by the cohesive traction as a
function where is the peak value of traction. The function defines the shape of the
traction-separation law and the area under the cohesive law curve is the work of
separation or cohesive energy :
Ideally, the model within the cohesive zone should be able to replicate the
constitutive behavior of the undamaged material: linear elastic followed by strain
hardening, till the conditions for the initiation of softening due to damage are
reached. The softening process representative of increasing material degradation is
triggered by rapid growth of voids as consequence of a highly triaxial state of
stress.
Since the CZM is a phenomenological model, various formulations for defining the
shape of traction-separation law and the cohesive values are in use . A versatile
CZM to predict ductile fracture at different states of stress is proposed in . The
formulation developed for mode-I plane strain accounts explicitly for triaxiality of
the stress state by using basic elastic-plastic constitutive relations combined with
two stress-state-independent new model parameters. The proposed traction-
separation law has three distinct regions of constitutive behavior: the traction
separation law is linear up to the separation limit and exhibits strain hardening up
to followed by a softening curve. The relevant variables and zones are sketched in
Fig. (3.2)

FIG. 3. 2 TRACTION SEPARATION LAW FOR DUCTILE MATERIALS

34
The linear behavior of the cohesive zone exists till the separation limit defined by
the von Mises yield condition is reached:
Further separation results in strain hardening up to Numerical Representation of
Cohesive Zone Models When fracture proceeds, energy must be supplied by
external loads. The bounding material undergoes elastoplastic deformation
involving elastic energy and plastic dissipative energy. In addition to plasticity,
energy is supplied to the fracture process zone in the form of cohesive energy that
is dissipated within the cohesive elements. The cohesive energy is the sum of the
surface energy and all dissipative processes that take place within the crack tip
regime. For the present problem, a perfect energy balance between external work
and the sum of elastic energy and cohesive energy will be assumed. The energy
balance is given by where , , , and are nominal stress tensor, elastic strain rate,
cohesive traction, and cohesive separation rate, respectively (including the terms
for specimen volume and the internal specimen surface ). The external work due
to the applied force is given by where    is the velocity field vector, the exterior
surface traction vector, and the body force vector.
The cohesive surface contribution, representing the crack and the process zone in
front of the crack tip, is described by the integral over the internal surface . In this
formulation, denotes the cohesive strength, that is, the maximum traction value
that can be sustained within the cohesive zone. The cohesive length is the value of
the displacement jump across the crack surfaces at which the stress carrying
capacity of the cohesive elements reaches its maximum value. By creating new
surfaces, the traction and the stiffness of the cohesive zone elements connecting
these newly created surfaces are made to vanish, but the displacements across them
are still continuous. During FE analysis, the amount of external work, elastic work,
and cohesive energy is calculated. The energy balance given by (7) and (8) is
maintained in all FE computations.

35
3.4 Finite Element Implementation
The cohesive surface contribution as shown in Figure 3 is implemented into an FE
code for eight node elements based on CZM concepts. The fine mesh around the
crack tip is shown in Figure 4. After making convergence studies, the shaft is
discretized with 4108 plane strains and 8 node quadrilateral elements. The length
of elements is , where the length of shaft is . Near the crack tip, the size of the
element is . A total of 4833 nodes are used to model the geometry as shown in
Figure 4. The fracture process zone is modeled by 8 node rectangular cohesive
elements having zero thickness. 38 cohesive elements are used. One face of
cohesive elements is connected to continuum elements with 4 nodes, while the
other face is given symmetric displacement boundary conditions. Thus, an artificial
interface is created along the fracture process zone.

FIG. 3. 3 REPRESENTATION OF THE FRACTURE PROCESS USING CZM IN FE

36
 FIG. 3. 4 A PARTIAL CRACK OF THE CODE WE
DID THE RESEARCH ON IT

FIG. 3. 5 THE FULL SECTION OF THE CODE THAT HAS THE CRACK

37
3.5 Investigation of Breathing Mechanism

FIG. 3. 6 PRINCIPLE OF THE BREATHING CRACK SIMULATION USING INTEGRATED

FE AND MBS

38
Computational fluid dynamics

CH4: CFD

39
4.1 Introduction
Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) is a branch of fluid mechanics that uses numerical analysis and data
structures to analyze and solve problems that involve fluid flows. Computers are used to perform the
calculations required to simulate the free-stream flow of the fluid, and the interaction of the fluid (liquid
and gases) with surfaces defined by boundary conditions. With high-speed supercomputers, better solutions
can be achieved, and are often required to solve the largest and most complex problems.
CFD is applied to a wide range of research and engineering problems in many fields of study and industries,
including aerodynamics and aerospace analysis, hypersonic, weather simulation, natural science and
environmental engineering, industrial system design and analysis, biological engineering, fluid flows and
heat transfer, engine and combustion analysis, and visual effects.

4.2 Fluid flow equations

CFD can be seen as a group of computational methodologies used to solve
equations governing fluid flow. In the application of CFD, a critical step is to
decide which set of physical assumptions and related equations need to be used for
the problem at hand. To illustrate this step, the following summarizes the physical
assumptions taken in equations of flow that is single-phase

40
Hierarchy of fluid flow equations

Conservations laws (CL): These are the most fundamental equations

considered with CFD in the sense that, for example, all the following equations
can be derived from them. For a single-phase, single-specie, compressible flow
one considers the conservation of mass, conservation of linear momentum, and
conservation of energy.
Continuum conservation laws(CLL): Start with the CL. Assume that mass,
momentum and energy are locally conserved: These quantities are conserved
and cannot "teleport" from one place to another but can only move by a
continuous flow Another interpretation is that one starts with the CL and
assumes a continuum medium . The resulting system of equations is unclosed
since to solve it one needs further relationships/equations: (a) constitutive
relationships for the viscous stress tensor; (b) constitutive relationships for the
diffusive heat flux; (c) an equation of state (EOS), such as the ideal gas law;
and, (d) a caloric equation of state relating temperature with quantities such as
enthalpy or internal energy.
Ideal flow or potential flow: Assume zero fluid-particle rotation (zero
vorticity) and zero flow expansion (zero divergence). The resulting flow field
is entirely determined by the geometrical boundaries. Ideal flow can be useful
in modern CFD to initialize simulations.
Sound wave: assume that the Mach number at the reference or base state is
very small. The resulting equations for density, momentum and energy can be
manipulated into a pressure equation, giving the well-known sound wave
equation.
Rayleigh flow equation: Consider the flow inside a duct with constant area and
either non-adiabatic walls without volumetric heat sources or adiabatic walls
with volumetric heat sources. Start with the 1D-EE. Assume a steady flow, no
gravity effects, and introduce in the energy-conservation equation an empirical
term to recover the effect of wall heat transfer or the effect of the heat sources.

41
4.3 Discretization methods

The stability of the selected discretization is generally established numerically rather

than analytically as with simple linear problems. Special care must also be taken to
ensure that the discretization handles discontinuous solutions gracefully.

Some of the discretization methods being used are:

1. Finite volume method.
The finite volume method (FVM) is a common approach used in CFD codes, as
it has an advantage in memory usage and solution speed, especially for large
problems, high Reynolds number turbulent flows, and source term dominated
flows (like combustion).

2. In the finite volume method,

the governing partial differential equations (typically the Navier-Stokes
equations, the mass and energy conservation equations, and the turbulence
equations) are recast in a conservative form, and then solved over discrete control
volumes.

3. Finite element method.

The finite element method (FEM) is used in structural analysis of solids but is
also applicable to fluids. However, the FEM formulation requires special care to
ensure a conservative solution. The FEM formulation has been adapted for use
with fluid dynamics governing equations. Although FEM must be carefully
formulated to be conservative, it is much more stable than the finite volume
approach.

4. Spectral element method.

Spectral element method is a finite element type method. It requires the
mathematical problem (the partial differential equation) to be cast in a weak
formulation. This is typically done by multiplying the differential equation by an
arbitrary test function and integrating over the whole domain. Purely
mathematically, the test functions are completely arbitrary - they belong to an
infinite-dimensional function space. Clearly an infinite-dimensional function

42
 space cannot be represented on a discrete spectral element mesh; this is where
the spectral element discretization begins. In a spectral element method however,
the interpolating and test functions are chosen to be polynomials of a very high
order (typically e.g. of the 10th order in CFD applications). This guarantees the
rapid convergence of the method. Furthermore, very efficient integration
procedures must be used, since the number of integrations to be performed in
numerical codes is big.

5. Lattice Boltzmann method.

The lattice Boltzmann method (LBM) with its simplified kinetic picture on a
lattice provides a computationally efficient description of hydrodynamics. Unlike
the traditional CFD methods, which solve the conservation equations of
macroscopic properties (i.e., mass, momentum, and energy) numerically, LBM
models the fluid consisting of fictive particles, and such particles perform
consecutive propagation and collision processes over a discrete lattice mesh.

6. Boundary element method.

In the boundary element method, the boundary occupied by the fluid is divided
into a surface mesh.

43
4.4 Methodology
In all these approaches the same basic procedure is followed:

1. During preprocessing.
A. The geometry and physical bounds of the problem can be defined
using computer aided design (CAD). From there, data can be suitably
processed (cleaned-up) and the fluid volume (or fluid domain) is extracted.

B. The volume occupied by the fluid is divided into discrete cells (the mesh). The
mesh may be uniform or non-uniform, structured or unstructured, consisting
of a combination of hexahedral, tetrahedral, prismatic, pyramidal or polyhedral
elements.

C. The physical modeling is defined – for example, the equations of fluid motion
+ enthalpy + radiation + species conservation.

D. Boundary conditions are defined. This involves specifying the fluid behavior
and properties at all bounding surfaces of the fluid domain. For transient
problems, the initial conditions are also defined.

2. The simulation is started, and the equations are solved iteratively as a

steady-state or transient.

3. Finally, a postprocessor is used for the analysis and visualization of the

resulting solution

44
4.5 CFD Procedure
Practical application of the principle of work of the (CFD) in the simulation and
analysis program Ansys

fig. 4. 1 Blade shape and dimensions without crack

45
I. Step 1: Import Blade into Ansys, by right clicking and pressing on import
and choosing the blade.

II. STEP 2: Open design modeler on Ansys.

fig. 4. 2 step 1

46
III. STEP 3: Create an “Enclosure” around the Blade.

IV. STEP 4: Determine the Dimensions of the Enclosure, that’s gonna surround
the Blade.

47
V. STEP 5 : Press on “Generate” to Generate the Enclosure around the blade.

VI. STEP 6: We are gonna select 2 faces of the enclosure along the length of
the blade to simulate the inlet and outlet of the air.

48
VII. STEP 7: Choosing 1st Face to make an Outlet.

VIII.STEP 8: Choosing the 2nd Face to make an Inlet.

49
IX. STEP 9: Choose “Boolean” from the Create tab; to Create a closed

system.

X. STEP 10: Subtract the Blade from the Enclosure to create the system.

50
XI. STEP 11: Generate the “Boolean” to activate the subtraction.

XII. STEP 12: This is what the system gonna look like after the “Boolean”.

51
XIV. STEP 13: Right click on “Mesh” and Press “Generate Mesh”.

XV. STEP 14: Press on “Update” or “Generate” and we have our system
fully meshed.

52
XVI. STEP 15: Next Open the “Set-up” tab in Ansys Workbench.

XVII. STEP 16: Create the first boundary, which is gonna be our air inlet, and
the air’s velocity.

53
XVIII. STEP 17: Create the second boundary, which is gonna be the air
outlet and its velocity.

XIX. STEP 18: Create the third boundary, which is gonna the wall to simulate
a closed system.

54
XX. STEP 19: Create the fourth and last boundary, which is gonna be our
blade and the temperature of the blade and the air hitting the blade from
the inlet.

XXI. STEP 20: This represents the pressure value along the blade by effect of
the air.

Max pressure= 225pa

Min pressure= -623.6
pa

55
XXII. STEP 21: This shows the effects of the air on the blade as it enters the
system and the velocity of the air.

XXIII. STEP 22: This graph represents the relationship between the air
streamline numbers and the velocity of the air.

56
XXIV. STEP 23: This interface is where you can choose different values
for the system to compute, where we computed the maximum and
minimum pressure values.

57
CH5: NATURAL FREQUENCY

58
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Natural frequency, also known as eigenfrequency, is the frequency at which a
system tends to oscillate in the absence of any driving or damping force.
The motion pattern of a system oscillating at its natural frequency is called the
normal mode (if all parts of the system move sinusoidally with that same
frequency).
If the oscillating system is driven by an external force at the frequency at which the
amplitude of its motion is greatest (close to a natural frequency of the system), this
frequency is called resonant frequency.

5.2 The Importance of Calculating Natural Frequencies

We typically consider the natural frequencies and mode shapes to be the single
most critical property of virtually any system. As you might imagine, excessive
vibrations in any system lead to structural and functional issues.
The reason for this is the natural frequencies can match with a system’s resonant
frequency. For example, if you employ a time-varying force to a system and select
a frequency equivalent to one of the natural frequencies, this will result in immense
amplitude vibrations that risk putting your system in jeopardy.

This is why when designing a mechanical system, it’s important to calculate and
ensure the natural frequencies of vibration are far greater than any possible
excitation frequency that your system is likely to encounter.

59
5.3 Methods for Shifting Natural Frequencies
In general, the following are rules that allow natural frequency shifting and
minimizing the vibrational response of a system:

• To increase the natural frequency, add stiffness

• To decrease the natural frequency, add mass
• An increase in the damping diminishes the peak response, however, it
broadens the response range.
• A decrease in the damping raises the peak response, however, it narrows the
response range.
• Lessening forcing amplitudes mitigates response at the resonance frequency.

60
5.4 Mode Shape

A mode shape is the deformation that the component would show when vibrating at
the natural frequency. The terms mode shape or natural vibration shape are used in
structural dynamics. A mode shape describes the deformation that the component
would show when vibrating at the natural frequency.
Dynamics ``Things that Shake, Rattle and Roll'' Vibration & Modal Analysis
Mechanical systems are rarely if ever static! They are always subjected to Vibration
is the result of energy being transferred back and forth between kinetic and potential
energies.
This may be the result of:
an initial excitation -- natural/unforced vibration e.g., a sharp tap on a ruler, your car
hitting a pothole and shaking itself to pieces after that; a forcing periodic motion --
forced vibration e.g., base of machine excited by motor, your car engine exciting a
vibration of the body. The transfer of energy can be visualized as occurring at certain
discrete rates depending on the stiffness and mass of the system. These rates of
vibration are called natural frequencies. Associated with each of these rates of
vibration is a shape of the structure called the mode shape. Every system's vibration
behavior can be characterized by computing these natural frequencies and mode
shape associated with them. The total vibration of the system can be formed by
summing up different amounts of vibration in each mode. The amount of vibration
in each mode depends on the type of excitation. Note that if we have a cyclic
excitation at one of the natural frequencies then unbounded amounts of vibration
(resonance) and resulting failure of the structure will occur!!
Advantages of modal methods
A few well-chosen modes can represent the response of the system quite well
reducing computation requirements.
Natural frequencies and mode shapes have already been computed to ensure that no
resonance behavior is happening.
We must avoid excitation at or close to the natural frequencies as this leads to very
large responses/rather etc. for small job

61
5.5 Blade Geometry

FIG 5. 1 BLADE SHAPE

FIG5. 1 CRACK SECTION

62
A FIG 5. 2 CARACK AT POINT (A)

B
FIG 5. 3 CARACK AT POINT (B)

63
 C

FIG 5. 4CARACK AT POINT (C)

FIG 5. 5 CARACK AT POINT (D)

64
5.6 Procedure:

I. STEP 1: Submit The Values in The Engineering Data Section.

II. STEP 2: Open Space claim to Import The Blade Into Ansys.

65
III. STEP 3: Create a Mesh In Mechanical, By Right Clicking and Pressing
“Generate Mesh”.

IV. STEP 4: Then By Right Clicking on “Solution” Tab and Pressing Solve, We
Obtain The Natural Frequency Values.

66
V. STEP 5: For Mode Shapes, We Right Click on Every Mode Shape and Press
on “Create Mode Shape Results”, Then “Update” and We Get the Mode
Shape Results.

67
CH6: Results, Discussion And Conclusion

68
6.1 Overview
in this last chapter we are gonna showcase the results we got from our experiment
in evaluating the natural frequency of a cracked aluminum blade, and explain the
effect of the crack on the blade's natural frequency value, plus our thoughts and
conclusions of the whole project

6.2 Properties Table

This table shows the dimensions, volume, mass of the Aluminum blade and some
Ansys properties such as: Number of nodes and elements.

Table 6. 1 Properties Table

State Meshed
Graphics Properties
Visible Yes
Transparency 1
Definition
Suppressed No
Stiffness Behavior Flexible
Coordinate System Default Coordinate System
Reference Temperature By Environment
Treatment None
Material
Assignment Aluminum 6061-T6; 6061-T651
Bounding Box
Length X 504.97 mm
Length Y 322.28 mm
Length Z 3600. mm
Properties
Volume 9.8746e+007 mm³
Mass 266.61 kg
Centroid X 176.69 mm
Centroid Y 64.91 mm
Centroid Z 816.27 mm
Moment of Inertia Ip1 1.4929e+008 kg·mm²
Moment of Inertia Ip2 1.5083e+008 kg·mm²
Moment of Inertia Ip3 3.344e+006 kg·mm²

69
 Statistics
Nodes Nodes
Elements Elements

6.3 Mechanical Properties

FIG. 6. 1MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

These are the mechanical properties of the material that was chosen to be the
material for our blade which was Aluminum 6061-T6; 6061-T651, where we
mainly changed the density and the modulus of elasticity.

70
6.4 Table: No Crack Natural Frequency Results.

Natural 𝝎𝟏 =11.153 𝝎𝟐 =98.124 𝝎𝟑 =161.68

Frequency

71
6.5 Table: 1st Natural Frequency Results
These represent the 1st Natural frequency values (1st Mode shape) of the blade
with different crack positions and different depths, as we increase the depth of the
crack, we can see a decrease of the natural frequency value.

➢ The change in natural frequency at the 0.1 position is 0.678, which is a

decrease of 6.052%.
➢ The change in natural frequency at the 0.3 position is 2.9169, which is a
decrease of 26.04%.
➢ The change in natural frequency at the 0.5 position is 4.6555, which is a
decrease of 41.589%.
➢ The change in natural frequency at the 0.7 position 0.949, which is a
decrease of 8.475%
*RCD represents the depth ratio of the crack.

fig. 6. 2 1ST MODE SHAPE

72
 L1/L RCD=0.1 RCD=0.3 RCD=0.5 RCD=0.7

0.1 11.203 Hz 11.195 Hz 11.157 Hz 10.525 Hz

0.3 11.201 Hz 11.144 Hz 10.678 Hz 8.2841 Hz

0.5 11.194 Hz 11.078 Hz 10.063 Hz 6.5385 Hz

0.7 11.197 Hz 11.138 Hz 10.919 Hz 10.248 Hz

TABLE 6. 1 1ST NATURAL FREQUENCY

*The X-axis is the position, and the Y-axis is the Natural frequency values.

RDCD 0.1 RCD 0.3 RCD 0.5 RCD 0.7

12

10

0
0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0

GRAPH 6. 1

73
6.6 Table: 2nd Natural Frequency Results
These values represent the 2nd Natural frequency values, with the same conclusion
as the 1st Natural frequency values.

➢ The change in natural frequency at the 0.1 position is 29.714, which is a

decrease of 30.149%.
➢ The change in natural frequency at the 0.3 position is 15.253, which is a
decrease of 15.482%.
➢ The change in natural frequency at the 0.5 position is 15.96, which is a decrease
of 16.191%.
➢ The change in natural frequency at the 0.7 position 5.94, which is a decrease of
6.027%

fig. 6. 3 2nd MODE SHAPE

74
L1/L RCD=0.1 RCD=0.3 RCD=0.5 RCD=0.7

0.1 98.556 Hz 97.704 Hz 94.668 Hz 68.842 Hz

0.3 98.52 Hz 98.068 Hz 94.501 Hz 83.267 Hz

0.5 98.57 Hz 98.028 Hz 93.785 Hz 82.61 Hz

0.7 98.542 Hz 98.012 Hz 96.782 Hz 92.602 Hz

TABLE 6. 2 2ND NATURAL FREQUENCY

RCD=0.1 RCD=0.3 RCD=0.5 RCD=0.7

120

100

80

60

40

20

0
0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0

GRAPH 6. 2

75
6.7 Table: 3rd Natural Frequency Results
These values represent the 3rd Natural frequency values, with the same conclusion
as the 1st Natural frequency values.

➢ The change in natural frequency at the 0.1 position is 35.78, which is a

decrease of 21.977%.
➢ The change in natural frequency at the 0.3 position is 21.97, which is a
decrease of 13.531%.
➢ The change in natural frequency at the 0.5 position is 36.55, which is a
decrease of 22.507%.
➢ The change in natural frequency at the 0.7 position 9.57, which is a decrease
of 5.895%

fig. 6. 4 3rd mode shape

76
 L1/L RCD=0.1 RCD=0.3 RCD=0.5 RCD=0.7

0.1 162.28 Hz 159.8 Hz 152.55 Hz 126.5 Hz

0.3 162.36 Hz 162.23 Hz 161.21 Hz 140.39 Hz

0.5 162.39 Hz 162.07 Hz 160.01 Hz 125.84 Hz

0.7 162.33 Hz 161.49 Hz 159.05 Hz 152.76 Hz

table 6. 3 3RD Natural frequency

RCD=0.1 RCD=0.3 RCD=0.5 RCD=0.7

180

160

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0
0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0

GRAPH 6. 3

77
Crack A

Where 𝐿1 represents the length of the blade and is equal to 3600.06mm

And the thickness of the blade at spot (A) which equals to 435.28mm.
𝐿1⁄ 𝐿1⁄
𝐿 = 3600.06 ∗ 0.1 = 360.006𝑚𝑚 Where 𝐿 = 0.1
𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ1 = 435.28 ∗ 0.1 = 43.528𝑚𝑚
𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ2 = 435.28 ∗ 0.3 = 130.584𝑚𝑚
𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ3 = 435.28 ∗ 0.5 = 217.64𝑚𝑚
𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ4 = 435.28 ∗ 0.7 = 304.696𝑚𝑚

Depth 𝜔1 𝜔2 𝜔3
D1 11.203Hz 98.556Hz 162.28Hz
D2 11.195Hz 97.704Hz 159.8Hz
D3 11.157Hz 94.668Hz 152.55Hz
D4 10.525Hz 68.842Hz 126.5Hz
Table: Natural Frequency Results at Crack (A) with Different Depths

78
Crack B

Thickness at spot (B) is equal to 473.55mm.

𝐿1⁄ 𝐿1⁄
𝐿 = 3600.06 ∗ 0.3 = 1080.018𝑚𝑚 Where 𝐿 = 0.3
𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ1 = 473.55 ∗ 0.1 = 47.355𝑚𝑚
𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ2 = 473.55 ∗ 0.3 = 142.065𝑚𝑚
𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ3 = 473.55 ∗ 0.5 = 236.775𝑚𝑚
𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ4 = 473.55 ∗ 0.7 = 331.485𝑚𝑚

Depth 𝜔1 𝜔2 𝜔3
D1 11.201Hz 98.52Hz 162.36Hz
D2 11.144Hz 98.0683Hz 162.23Hz
D3 10.678Hz 94.501Hz 161.21Hz
D4 8.2841Hz 83.267Hz 140.39Hz

Table: Natural Frequency Results at Crack (B) with Different Depths

79
Crack C

Thickness at spot (C) is equal to 278.24mm.

𝐿1⁄ 𝐿1⁄
𝐿 = 3600.06 ∗ 0.5 = 1800.03𝑚𝑚 Where 𝐿 = 0.5
𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ1 = 278.24 ∗ 0.1 = 27.824𝑚𝑚
𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ2 = 278.24 ∗ 0.3 = 83.472𝑚𝑚
𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ3 = 278.24 ∗ 0.5 = 139.12𝑚𝑚
𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ4 = 278.24 ∗ 0.7 = 194.768𝑚𝑚

Depth 𝜔1 𝜔2 𝜔3
D1 11.194Hz 98.57Hz 162.39Hz
D2 11.078Hz 98.028Hz 162.07Hz
D3 10.063Hz 93.785Hz 160.01Hz
D4 6.5385Hz 82.61Hz 125.84Hz
Table: Natural Frequency Results at Crack (C) with Different Depths

80
Crack D

Thickness at spot (D) is equal to 244.47mm.

𝐿1⁄ 𝐿1⁄
𝐿 = 3600.06 ∗ 0.7 = 2520.042𝑚𝑚 Where 𝐿 = 0.7
𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ1 = 244.47 ∗ 0.1 = 24.447𝑚𝑚
𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ2 = 244.47 ∗ 0.3 = 73.341𝑚𝑚
𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ3 = 244.47 ∗ 0.5 = 122.235𝑚𝑚
𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ4 = 244.47 ∗ 0.7 = 171.129𝑚𝑚

Depth 𝜔1 𝜔2 𝜔3
D1 11.197Hz 98.542Hz 162.33Hz
D2 11.138Hz 98.012Hz 161.49Hz
D3 10.919Hz 96.782Hz 159.05Hz
D4 10.248Hz 92.602Hz 152.76Hz

Table: Natural Frequency Results at Crack (D) with Different Depths.

81
6.8 Conclusion
Our focus was to discover the type of damages that can happen on a turbine blade,
their effect on the blade performance and ways to prevent these effects, but our main
objective was to analyze and witness the effect of a crack on a wind turbine blade in
relation to its natural frequency, and as we can see from our results there is a slight
difference in natural frequency values and that can be attributed to the fact that the
crack size was small as it has 3mm base and not a large depth value when compared
to the full length of the blade it is obvious that it will have a small effect on the natural
frequency values, but still noticeable in terms of needing Maintenance, because it may
lead to bigger damage if the blade is left alone with the crack in it and kept on, less
blade effectiveness in terms of Energy conversion and it will cost more to fix when it
inevitably gets worse.

Ansys uses the FEM based dynamics analysis to detect the crack and it’s location
in this study we modeled a 3.6m length blade using solid works, and by using the
change in natural frequency values the crack can be detected efficiently.

We can also notice that as the root or depth of the crack increases there is a decrease
in the natural frequency values, which can be attributed due to the fact that the Mass
of the blade decreases as there is more material “cut out of it” (the crack area
increases).

Our aim with this experiment, after we got these Results is to be able to detect these
small changes in the natural frequency values and immediately be able to tell the
location and the depth of the crack and fix it early before it leads to bigger damage or
loss in Effectiveness.

82
 of course, these Natural frequency values are only meaningful to the material we used
to analyze the blade, because the natural frequency depends on the mass
(density*volume) and the Modulus of Elasticity of the material (k), but it can be
applied to any other material the blade is to be made out of.

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