‘soda0S\WON2ONCRSE cant nda Phys NU 2\2 OLN sina Ace mah Wish NRO pat ALLEN Physics UNIT-3 ROTATIONAL MOTION*, GRAVITATION, MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS, FLUID MECHANICS, SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION 4, ROTATIONAL MOTION Centre of mass © Rigid body : A rigid body is defined as one for which the distance between any two particles of the body is always constant. © Centre of mass of a system of particles is that single point which moves in the same way in which a single particle having the total mass of the system and subject to the same external force would go. © Centre of mass of a body ar a system of particles is a point where the whole mass of the body or the system is supposed to be concentrated. > Centre of mass depends on (a) the mass of the particles and (b) position of particles relative to one another Le., distribution of masses. > Centre of mass is a fixed point of a body or a system, it does not depend on the choice of origin. > Centre of mass is located at such point around which the majority of mass is concentrated, © Letus consider a system of two particles that have different masses (m, and m,) and they are connected by alight, rigid rod (see fig.) Let m, is greater than m,. The centre of mass ofthe system is located on the line joining the particles and itis closer to the particle having the larger mass i.., m,. Ifa single force is applied ata point on the rod located between the centre of mass and the less massive particle (m,), the system rotates clockwise [see fig()) If the force is applied at a point on the rod at a point between the centre of ‘mass and the more massive particle (m ), the system rotates anticlockwise [see fig.()]). If the force is applied at the centre of mass, the system movzs in the direction of F without rotating [see fig. ()). In this way, the centre of mass can be located easily. fF iy it (0) The system rotates dockowise (0) The system rotates (c) The systern moves in the when a force is applied between anticlockwise when a force is direction ofthe foree without theless massive particle and the applied between the more massive any rotallon when a force Is canter of mass. ‘article and the center of mass. applied atthe center of mass © Two particle system : Let us consider two particles of masses m, and m, respectively, located at (x,y,) and (x. having position vectors 7 and F respectively Coordinate of centre of mass is given by, = Xt MAX. (9) Centre of mass (C) ‘m+m, + Vou = Mave, en ve) fon ey Fy Maz + maze m, +m, z, Position vector of centre of mass is given by, Za’ mites ny +My . Al80, Fon = Ken + Yer) + Zen * Higher topics, may be studied after 1JSO round:WSO ALLEN @ Fora system of n particles, = _ my tmyy +m +— x my +m, +My + Where, fon is the position vector of the centre of mass with respect to a fixed origin. | j,. | is the distance of the centre of mass from the fixed origin, M is the total mass of the system. : ymx, ymy, yma “yt Yen = 4, © Total momentum of the system, B = MVn Similarly, x, Total (net) external force on a system, F = Ma.,, | Where, M = total mass of the system ; J, = velocity of centre of mass ; Jon ~ acceleration of centre of mass. > Two particle system : Vic = MitmaVe : 5, = mt Mees m, +m, m, +m, > Todetermine the motion of the centre of mass of a system no knowledge of internal forces of the system is required. For this purpose we need to know only the external forces on the body. > If net extemal force acting on a system of mass is zero, then centre of mais is either at rest or itis in uniform motion. © Centre of mass of some objects : Greuer Thin Hollow Semicreuar. Semicrcular digo circular ring circulardisc disc ring | ‘AVA @ @ Ss @& Qu oe Solid Hemsphercal Thinholow Soi” Holow sere hemisphere shell cylinder > Inhollow bodies, the centre of mass usually les outside the mass. > Anaxis of symmetry isthe line which divides the body or the system in exactly two equal halves. Centre of mass is the point of intersection of two axes of symmetry. li © Centre of gravity : The point at which the whole weight of a body may be considered to act is called centre of gravity. I © The centre of gravity of the body usually coincides with the centre of mass. This is true because the body being small, g does not vary from one point of the body to the other. If the body is so extended that g varies from part to part of the body, then the centre of gravity and centre of mass will not coincide. © The centre of mass has nothing to do with gravity, it depends only on the distribution of mass of the body. i 106 eS snb\08 NCS mee Pi oP RAMOS OgS-ABURO-HS ths nt Sle ei P RR ll ALLEN Physics © If we assume centre of mass as origin, then the value of f=, will be zero. That is, jm DM 9 or Lixo > The summation of mass moments ofall the components of a system about its centre of mass i always zero. > Let us take a system of two particles of masses m, and m, respectively (see fig). Let us assume their centre of mass as origin, then, m,¢x,) + m, (+x) = 0 > Centre of mass divides internally the line joining the two particles in inverse ratio of their masses. © Gravitational potential energy (E,) of an extended object can be found by taking the height of its centre of mass ie., E, = mgh,, . For example, potential energy of a sold cylinder is E, = mgh,,= mg(h/2). Similarly, potential energy of a cone placed with its base touching the ground, E, = mgh,, = mgh/4).. Es An Solid cylinder Solid cone © A projectile is fired into the air and suddenly explodes into several fragments (see fig.). Let us understand the motion of the center of mass of the system made up of all the fragments after the explosion. Let there is no air resistance, then, the only external force acting on the projectile is the gravitational force. If the projectile did not explode, it would continue to move along the parabolic path (see fig.). Now, the forces caused by the explosion are internal, they do not affect the motion ofthe center of mass of the system (the fregments). Therefore, after the explosion, the center of mass follows the same parabolic path the projectile ‘would have followed if there had been no explosion. When a projectile explodes into several fragments, cantre of mass of the system follows the original parabolic path. = es | () 7USO ‘Example : Suppose, a projectile of mass 'm’ is ; fired into the air over level ground such that it can cover a horizontal range R. Now, suppose if at its highest point, it explodes into two frogments of equal mass. One fragment falls straight down to the ground. Where does the it other fragment land ? » Solution : Since the only external force acting ‘on the system is gravity, the centre of mass, continues on its parabolic path as if there had bbeen no explosion (see fig.). Thus, i lands at x = R. The fragment that falls straight down lands at a point x, = R/2. Let the other fragment lars at a point x, = x. The fragments are of equal mass thus, m, = m, = m/2. = 7 Bil) + (mn / 2k) _ (rm /2HR/2)+) _ R/ 2) x) Nows Kou =n /2em/2 ™ 2 or RalB/2ex} or 2R=(R/2)+x or 2R-(R/2)=x or x= (3/2)R=1.5R © Rotational motion : When an extended object rotates about its axis, its motion cannot be analysed by treating the object asa particle. This is because at any given instant different parts of the object moves with different speeds and in different directions. To analyze the motion of a rotating extended object, we consider ita a collection of many moving particles. Also, we assume that the rotating object is a rigid body, The rigid body model is useful in most of the cases where the deformation of the object is negligible. i © Inanon uniform rotational motion, there are two linear accelerations, ‘The other fragment lands at distance 1.5 R from the point of projection. | namely, centripetal acceleration (a) and tangential acceleration (a). asta; a= rat Net acceleration, anyat+a? = rai +(e"? assuming that itis constant? (b) How many revolutions does it make in 5.5 s? (c) How far does a point on the rim 6 cm from the center travel during the 5.5 s it takes to get to 500 rev/min? Solution : (a) No. of rev/min, N = 500 ; initial angular velocity, @, xx 500 _ 500 tnt anger vty, 0, = 22 «22500 BOF aig i Now, a= 22= 2 . 60%/3)-(0) = 9.51 rad/s? t 55 | 0+), 4 _((508/3)40), 5 50nx5.5 | ! (©) Angular displacement, ( ; ] + -(Seesae0) 55. ee __(y = 22.9 rev ~ 23 rev } No. of evolution = —Total angle covered _(50nx5.5)/6 _ 218 5 ‘Angle covered in 1 rev 2x 50nx5.5 ss tty mshi OU i! {@) The distance traveled, 5 =r 0 = (0.06) x= = 8.635 m (r= 6 cm = 0.06 m) 108FT Ay OR = Rotational kinetic energy and moment of inertia : Let us take a system of n particles rotating about an axis with angular speed o. Let m,, my, my individual masses of 11 particles and v,, vp, Vyy nny Vy are respectively, their individual velocities. The total Kinetic energy of the system is the sum of the kinetic energies of individual particles Le., Kat grin smd + Amyjte—~-—+5 mu. ere Pel 1 zinliial + 5malt,0)" + 5m,(0}" +--—-+5m, 1,07 = dim,g +e! +myrt +-——-4myyilo®= Uyoma ht glenn? + my! + mgr, wf lo* = 51m or Kye pet ‘hiss also called rotational kinetic energy. by © Theterm,1= })m,' is called moment of inertia. ith we © SI. unit of moment of inertia : Kg m? ty. ‘The moment of inertia is a measure of an object's resistance (opposition) to the change in ts angular speed. | ‘Therefore, it plays a role in rotational motion identical to the role mass plays in translational motion. ‘The analogous (equivalent) to mass in translation motion is moment of inertia in rotational motion, ‘The moment of inertia depends on the mass of the rigid object as well as on how the mass is distributed around the rotation axis, § Theorems used for calculating moment of inertia: we x © Perpendicular axis theorem (law of perpendicular axis) : Moment of inertia of a plane lamina about an axis perpendicular to the plane lamina is equal to sum of the moments of inertia of the lamina about the two axes at right angles to each other, in its own plane and intersecting each other atthe point where the on, perpendicular axis passes through it [see fig(a)]. I, = I, + ly the © Law of perpendicular axis can be applied to plane laminae i.e, flat surfaces only, © Parallel axis theorem (law of parallel axis) : The moment of inertia of an object about any axis is equal to its moment of inertia about a parallel axis through its centre of mass plus the product of its mass and the square of the distance between the two axis. I= Igy + Mh? sao cee meh RIOD ls sol WGA le noe Pee 1350.09 gs (@) Perpendicular axis theorem (b) Parallel axis theorem =_ 109‘Moment of inertia of circular ring about an axis passing through its geometric ‘mass of the ting and R is the radius of the ring. Now, to find the moment of inertia about its diameter, we apply, perpendicular axis theorem (see fig.) Thin circular ring Thin circular ring I ‘About an axis touching About an axis touching its tim and to its plane its rim & in the plane of ring MR® (as diameters are symmetrical) I +1,=1+1= 21 ((,= MR} “To find the moment of inertia about an axis touching its circurnference that is in the plane of ring (see fig.) ‘we apply parallel axis theorem, > Te ag MIR = Sure +MR® = Sue? ‘Moment of inertia for some common homogeneous objects : Thin circularring Thin circular ring Thin circular ring Thin circular ring T= MR? T= 2MR? Sur? About its About an axis touching About its About an axis touching geomeiric axis its rim and L to its plane diameter _its rim & in the plane of ring Circular disc Circular dise Circular dise Circular disc 1=2mr* =r 5 wr? 3 MR’ T=2-MR’ a MR’ bouts Aboutanaxistouching — Aboutits About an axis touching geometric axis its circumference diameter its circumference and and to its plane in the plane of disc sot ACE me Pe AOPhysics ‘Hollow circular disc Hollow circular disc Hollow circular disc: ‘circular disc | (ennular disc) _fanmular disc) _—_(annviar dsc) {ennular dis) R, R R [® R, R, T= 3 MRR) MRR,*+3R,'} Leinspa] | 12 MR45R,) About its About an axis touching About its. About an axis touching geometic axis ts outer edge diameter 1s outer edge and and to its plane in the plane of disc Thin rigid rod Thin rigid rod Solid cylinder Thin hollow cylinder 2 . L T ue du | | t-te LMR About perpendicular About perpendicular About its About its line through its center line through its end geometric axis. geometric axis Solid cylinder Thin hollow cylinder Solid sphere __Sphercal shell “pr => or va ani, : "ae Tr Lp? + bot} |1=2et+ SMe} 2p? tek’ + ba] |1=Ert + M 2 ve ‘About diameter About diameter About its through center through center diameter Solid cone Thinhollow cone Solid rectangular plate Thick hollow aylinder hae Meas 8) About its ‘About axis through | geometric axis center perpendicular to face ae eae Torque : In fig(a), a circular disc is set rotating by the forces F, and F, exerted at the edges of the disc. The points at which these forces are applied is important. The same forces applied so that their lines of action pass through the center of the disc [see fig.(b)] will not rotate the disc. ¥ ae Fr 3 w ne A SNE ie Vie Wh OA mda \908:20\CHSE\ El male OHM 111@ Fig.) shows & single force acting on a particular point of a circular disc. ‘The perpendicular distance between the ine of action of a force and the axis of rotation is called the lever arm of the force. A force ‘multiplied by its lever arm is the magnitude of the torque (1) t=FxL —(1) 5a From fig.(c), sin! 5 orL=rsin@ (2) From eq.(1) & eq.(2), we get, t= Fx(rsin®) =F sind] TxF| In vector terms, © Torque, t= 1F sin 0 =r (F sin 6) . A rxF, [see fig. (@] Where, F, = force perpendicular to radius vector or tangential force. Also, torque can be written as, t= | sin®)F=r,xF {see fig (d] Where, r, = perpendicular distance between force and axis of rotation. | | | > Whenever there is a tangential force acting on an object that is free to rotate about some axis, it will rotate and there will always a torque acting on it. > Torque can be thought of as a twist, just as a force is a push or a pull. It is the torque that affects the angular velocity of the object. > The analogous (equivalent) to force in translation motion is torque in rotational mation. > Magnitude of torque, |t/=r Fsin@, direction of torque is perpendicular to beth r and F. Thus, =0. (Scalar product of two 1. vectors is always zero.) © Relationship between torque and angular acceleration : When a rigid object is subject to ’ net torque, it undergoes an angular acceleration that is directly proportional to the net-torque. Fig.(4) shows a system that consists of an object of mass m that is rotating about point O in x-y plane, Assume that a force F, acts perpendicular to radius vector ‘y ’ and hence it is tangential to the circular path of the object Because there isno force to oppose this tangential force, the object undergoes a tangential acceleration (a) | in accordance with Newton's second law, ot F, =m, or rF,= may (Multiply both sides by 1) = 10) (T= mr? = moment of inertia) acacia a | ‘Adjoining figure shows a particle of mass m moving with a velocity v relative toa origin O. The linear momentum of the particle is p = mv. The angular | ‘momentum of the particle relative to the origin O is defined to be the cross 0Q = rsind= r, 3 | - 7 i i product of radius vector F and linear momentum P Since angular momentum is as vector quantity, net or total angular momentum of a system of particles is the vector sum of individual angular momentum of the particles. We know that = [Divas = Li +L2 +L9 +--~+Ln > Relationship between angular mor-nfum, moment of inertia and angular speed : L= To Equilibrium of a rigid body : A rigid body is said to be in mechanical equilibrium, if both its linear momentum and angular momentum are not changing with time, or equivalently, the body has neither linear acceleration nor angular acceleration. This means, © The total force, Le. the vector sum of the forces, on the rigid body is zero ; Fi +Fe+Fs+---+Fn=0 ‘This equation gives the condition for the translational equilibrium of the body. If the total force on the body {s zero, then the total linear momentum of the body does not change with time. © The total torque, i.e. the vector sum of the torques on the rigid body is zero, t1 + t2 +13 + +n =0 This gives the condition for the rotational equilibrium of the body. Ifthe total torque on the rigid body is zero, the total angular momentum of the body does not change with time. ‘Comparison of translational and rotatiorial motion in Pein Displacement, x ‘Angular displacement, 0 Velocity, v= s/t Angular velocity, @ = O/t ‘Acceleration, a= (v-ul/t’ | Angular acceleration, @ = Ao/t ‘Mass, m Moment of inertia, I Force, F= ma Torque, t= 10 Work, W= Fs Work, W= 10 Kinetic energy K = mv'/2 Kinetic energy K = lo%/2 Power P= Fv Power P= +0 [Linear tiomentum p=mv | Angular momentum L = lo Force, F = ap/t Torque, t= AL/t = mii - ui/2 Work, W = m(o,’~ 01/2Uso ‘© ‘Rolling’ is the combination of translation motion and rotational motion. (KE eang = (KEbensaton + (KE)eson ly 2421 oF tng = pM a + Fen © Pure rolling : Net velocity at C, Vay= v= ro Similarly, Voy = V+ v= 2 | Vox = AF +v = V2 v Vinv-v=0 i Vey = Wav =V2v @ Letusconsider a sphere of mass m and radius R, which is initially at rest at a height h on an inclined plane making angle @ with thejhorizontal. Now, the body is alowed to roll down the inclined plane assuming no losses due to friction. Let the balll reaches the ground in time t and its velocity at "the ground is v. Initial velocity, u = Conservation of energy, Initial energy = Final energy 18) ips ‘or mgh giv’ + plo! on? (2) [0 = w/t ar Iga = (2/50 1 elie Tm or mgh=5mv +Emv? or mh = TT 10, 2 h)' h Now, v= ut + 20s of 2282 = (0% +22.) (sxe wPors +) | Sah _ fh Basind ony sin®, xs 7 pas 2. GRAVITATION | Gravitation is the weakest force in nature It is negligible in the interactions of tiny particles, and thus plays no § role in molecules, atoms, and nuclei, The gravitational attraction between objects of ordinary size, such as the 3 gravitational force exerted by a building on a car, is too small to be noticed. When we consider very large 3 objects, such as stars, planets, and satellites (moons), gravitation is of primary importance. The gravitational = force exerted by the earth on us and on the objects around us is a fundamental part of our experience. Its $ ‘gravitation that binds us to the earth and keeps the earth and the other planets on course within the solar system. The gravitational force plays an important role in the life history of stars and in the behaviour of $ galaxies. i = The Newtonion gravitation : Sir Isaac Newton did not discover gravitation, its effects have been known § i throughout human existence. But he was the first one to understand the broader significance of gravitation. § Newton discovered that ‘gravitation is universal itis not restricted to earth only’, as others physicists of his “| | assumed. DSswt S04 DCE Erm hh Wn SLED Tg RR s Newton's universal law of gravitation : ‘Every object in the universe attracts every other object with a force which is proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance ‘between them. The force is along the line joining the centres of two objects’. Let us consider two masses m, and m, lie at a separation distance r, Let the force of attraction between two objects be F, According to the universal law of gravitation, Fomm, Fs Fa 1 m Fed 7 Combining both, we get, F a M2. F or |rF= Su r Where, Gis the constant of proportionality and is called the universal gravitation constant. © Universal gravitation constant is the magnitude of the force (i are kept 1 meter apart. newton) between a pair of 1 kg masses that © Unit of universal gravitation constant : According to the universal law of gravitation, Newton x (meter)? _ Nm? © Thus, Si. unit of G= Nmtkg? t fF Koxkg kg The numerical value of G is 6.673 10 Nm? kg. Characteristics of gravitational force : > Itis a universal force of attraction. ° Tr It acts along the line joining the centres of each mass, en > Ttacts equally on each mass, i.., it obeys Newton's third law ear eee ie, Fy= Fy, > Itis weaker if the masses are farther apart. It acts in an inverse square manner, ie., F + where is the distance between the centres of the masses. > It depends directly on the mass of each body involved, je., F oc m, and F cc m, , its influence is extending to very large distances, > Its along range fore > Itcdoes not depend on the medium present between the two masses. © The Newton's universal law of gravitation successfully explained several phenomena which were believed to be unconnected > The force that binds us to the earth. >. The motion of the moon around the earth. > The motion of planets around the Sun. > The tides due to the moon and the Sun.USO 1B Why moon do not fall on earth directly ? “The motion of moon s just lke the motion of an object in circular motion. ‘The velocty of the moon is directed tangent to the circle at every point along i its path. The acceleration of moon is directed towards the center of the circle Le, towards the earth (the central body) around which it is orbiting, This acceleration is caused by a centripetal force which is supplied by the gravitational force between the earth and the moon. If this force were absent, the moon in motion would continue in motion at the same speed and ina direction tangent to the circular path and would have escaped away from the earth. Ifthe moon had no tangential velocty, it would have fallen on earth due to gravitation. Thus, itis the tangential velocity and the / gravitational force that are perpendicular to each other and keep the moon to fall around the earth without actually falling into i. = Kepler's laws of planetary motion : © Law of orbits : All planets move in eliptical orbits with the Sun situated at one of the foci of the ellipse (see fig.) The closest point is P called the perihelion and the farthest point is A called the aphelion. The semimajor axis (R) is half the distance AP. ! ‘Semi-minor axis ‘Semi-major axis Shee 1OuTA es ‘ Major axis " the line that joins any planet to the sun sweeps equal areas in equal intervals of time i.e, © Lawof areas AA 4 _ constant . This means, the planet moves faster when itis nearer to the Sun and it moves slower when it's farther from the Sun Le, (v « 1/R). For example, Since ty > fpr Vy

The acceleration due to gravity g for any planet is (i) directly proportional to the mass of the planet (i) inversely proportional to the square of the radius of the planet. > Acceleration due to gravity) on earth is 9.8 ms®. In Cgs system, value of gis 980 cm/s. In fps system, value of gis 32 ft/s. > Among the planets, value of 'g) is maximum for jupiter, g,.,, = 26 m/s > For two planets 1 and 2, ratio of their acceleration due to gravity, oe MRE MR > Our earth is not perfectly spherical, The radius of earth at poles (R) is slightly smaller than the radius of earth at equator (R,). og — 0) ; and — (2) ) _, ge GM/ Ry? Q) "9, GM/R,* Since, R > Rp, therefore, g, > g,. he 3 i ‘ 3 1 > Rotation of earth also affects the value of acceleration due to gravity at place on the surface of earth. As ‘we move from a place on equator to.a place on pole, value of g increases. Again, because of rotation, 9, > 9,- In other words, if latitude angle increases from 0° (equator) to 90° (poles), g also increases. > Acceleration due to gravity on the surface of earth is maximum at the poles and minimum at the equator. 28 > If rotation of earth stops, value of g will increase at the equator whife it will remain unchanged at the poles. 0504 S\N Or gs a | | 7SO est ARLEN '@ Acceleration due to gravity (g) above and below the surface of earth : © Above the surface (Point Al : GM__ oR?” Se Rene R+HP > For h< Region AB : In the region from A to B, stress and strain are not proportional. But, the body still returns to its original dimension when the load is removed. The point B in the curve is called yield point (also known as elastic limit) and the corresponding stress is known as yield strength of the material. Region BD : In this region, the stress developed exceeds the yield strength and strain increases rapidly ‘even for a small change in the stress. When the load is removed, say at point C between B and D, the body does not regain its original size. There is a permanent deformation called plastic deformation. 4TI ray Physics Region DE : The stress corresponding point D is the ultimate tensile strength of the material. Beyond point D, additional strain is produced even by a reduced applied force and fracture occurs at point E. Point E is called fracture point, 8 © If the ultimate strength and fracture points D and E are close, the material is sald to be brittle. | If they are far apart, the material is sald to be ductile. 7 © Hooke's law is an empirical law and is found to be valid for most materials, However, there are some materials which do not exhibits this linear relationship. ' © Young's modulus of elasticity : - y = Lengludinal tess FA FL Longitudinal strain” SL/L ~ AAL © Bulk modulus of elasticity : Volume stress _F/A _ FV “Volume strain AV7V AAV © Shear modulus (Modulus of rigidity) : 7 . aF/A_E/A_FL ‘Shearing strain o (x/L) Ax @ When a wire is stretched, work is done against the interatomic forces, which is stored in the form ts of elastic potential energy (U). ry | U-= Zx-tress xstrain x volume of wire Elastic potential energy per unit volume, 1 U = Fxestress x strain = Fx Ye (train)! @ Thermal stress : When a rod whose both ends are clamped, is allowed to cool or warm, a tension is generated in it due to elongation or contraction of the wire. The corresponding stress developed in the rod | is called thermal stress. © IFA is the area of cross-section of a wire, L is the length, Y is the Young's modulus of elasticity, the coefficient of linear expansion and AL. is the increase in length due to change of temperature At, then the thermal stress produced in itis - Thermal stress = Y x strain =¥ x (AL/L) =Yx (LAV) = Yo at ait Tension in the rod = stress xarea= Ya AtA = Y Aa At 4 FLUID MECHANICS ‘The branch of physics dealing with the properties of fluids at rest is known as Hydrostaties. } @ Fluid pressure : The pressure of a fluid at a point inside it is defined to be the magnitude of the normal i force (or thrust) exerted by the fluid on a unit area about that point. ‘Thrust _ Force| j ; Pressure = Fe = ren i 7 © STunit of pressure : 1 Pa = 1 N/m? i % © A.common unit of pressure is the atmosphere (atm) ie. the pressure exerted by the atmosphere'at sea i : level, 1 atm = 1.013 x105 Pa; 1 Bar = 105 Pa od i 1 atm = 760 mm of Hg = 76 cm of Hg bi 4g i © Pressure is a scalar quantity. Always remember it is the component of the force normal (perpendicular) to aye 5 the area under consideration for calculating pressure not the force vector. Ds 3 © Blood pressure in human body is also measured in ‘mm of Hg’. Pressure of flowing blood in major arteries on. § is approx. 120 mm of Hg, when heat is contracted to its smallest siz (systolic pressure). When the heart ‘ expands to its largest size, the pressure is about 80 mm of Hg (diastolic pressure) 1 nes | 2]WSO ALLE @ fp, s the pressure on the surface ofiqud (see fig.) and p, is the pressure at a point within the liquid at a depth h, then, there pressure difference (p, ~ p,) is given by, Ap=p,-P,=Pgh Fluid pressure acts in all directions, not just the direction of the applied force. When you inflate a car tire, you are increasing the pressure in the tire, This force acts up, down, and sideways in all directions inside the tire. The fluid pressure at any point on the object is perpendicular to the surface of the object at that point (see fig.) Pressure applied to any part of an enclosed fluid at rest is transmitted in all directions equally to every portion of fluid and the walls of the containing vessel. This is an another statement of Pascal's law and this, property is used in hydraulic press, hydraulic lft (see fig.), hydraulic brakes in cars, trucks. A hydraulic lit “The pressure fs the same on both sides of the enclosed fluid, allowing a small force to lift a heavy object. Since, Az>>Ay, Fe>>Fi- ‘The pressure depends only on the height of the column of fluid above the surface where you measure the pressure. It does __ Hydrostatic paradox : Pressure at the bottom of each section ofthe vessel is same not depends on the area of the surface in contact or the shape of the liquid column, The greater the height of the column of fluid above a surface, the greater the pressure exerted by the fluid on the surface. ‘The total force on a dam in which water i filled to a height H behind a dam of width W is given by (see fig.) 1 [- =} powH? eswet 1sn nd s\ ct oP WURTIINO Is ds nA 4\ CES noir nk ABOU he Physics a ‘Thickness of wall of the dam gradually increases as the depth increases. This \s because pressure increases with the depth and to withstand great pressure, the thickness of the wall should be more. © Absolute pressure : When pressure is measured above zero pascal (absolute zero or complete vacuum), itis called absolute pressure, (© Gauge pressure (P,) : When the pressure is measured abou the atmospheric pressure, itis called gauge pressure. Absolute pressure, Paresue ™ Pag + Py © Allpressure gauges read zero when open to atmosphere. They read the pressure difference between fluid pressure and the atmospheric pressure. It is measure by a ‘pressure gauge’. 0 represents 0 pascal (absolute vacuum) ‘AB = Gauge pressure = P, AC = Vacuum pressure = P, A = Atmospheric pressure = P, @ Vacuum pressure (P,) : It is the pressure of a fluid below the atmospheric pressure. Its value is the ‘amount by which itis below that of the »imospheric pressure. It is measured by a ‘vacuum gauge’. Absolute pressure, Parise = Pan P, © Equilibrium of two immiscible liquids in a U tube Let two immiscible liquids of different densities be poured into the two limbs of a U tube (see fig). Suppose that, ‘when the liquids are at rest, D is their surface of separation and A and C are their free surfaces. The horizontal plane through D intersects the other limb at E. ‘At equilibrium, the pressures at D and E will be equal. The pressure at D is A P + p,gh, and that at Eis P + p,gh,. Here, P is the atmospheric pressure. i c ‘Therefore, P + p,gh, = P + p,gh, : D E [hx P| or heb That is, at equilibrium, the heights of the two liquid colurns above the common surface of contact are in the inverse ratio of their densities. The height of the heavier liquid will be smaller. Note that the height of the liquid column does not depend on the cross-sectional area of the limb of the U tube. That Is, the above equation will also hold ifthe two limbs have unequal diameters. ‘Manometers are the instruments used to measure gauge pressure of fluids. @ U-tube manometer : yy Gauge pressure = pgh ‘Vacuum pressure = pgh Papaise = P + pgh Prscaae = P- pgh Where, P is the atmospheric pressure. 123USO ‘Mercury barometet pressure at any place I consists of an evacuated glas tube putin a reservoir ‘an instrument used to find the atmospheric of mercury. Atmospheric pressure pushes mercury up in the tube. The mercury reaches a height where the pressure at the bottom of the column of mercury balances the pressure of the atmosphere. Using formula, P = p gh or h=P/pg, we can find the height of ‘mercury column in the glaés tube, which is, 760 mm of Hg = 76 cm of Hg= 1 atm * Mercury barometer ‘Mercury is used in barometer because its density is high, thus, height of mercury column willbe low (h «= 1/ p) If we use water in the barometer, then height of water will be 10.33 meter which is impractical. ‘Another unit of pressure is ‘Torr’, 1 torr = 1 mm of Hg Aneroid barometer is used to measure the pressure inside a fluid. = Buoyancy ; The tendency for an immersed body to be lifted up in a fluid, due to an upward force that acts ‘opposite to the action of gravity is called buoyancy. © The buoyant force :Itis an upward force that is exerted by a fluid on any object immerses partly or wholly in the fluid. © Archimedes’ principle: According to Archimedes’ principle any object completely or partially submerged ina fluid experiences an upward buoyant force equal in magnitude to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object’ © Apparent weight : Because of an upward force acting on a body immersed in a fluid, either wholly or partially, there occur an apparent loss in weight ofthe body. The net weight of an object immersed ina fluid is called ‘apparent weight’ © Sinking and floating : The buoyant force pushes an object in a fluid upward, but gravity pulls the object downward. © If the weight ofthe object is greater than the buoyant force, the net force on the object is downward and it sinks [see fig). Let an object of density p, is immersed in aliquid of density p,, W be the weight of object in air, F, be the buoyant force. I p, > p,, the body will sink to the bottom. Apparent weight, w-w-F, >a. =Mg - Mg=(M-M) 9 ~ (0, -».VJs The body sinks to the bottom = Y, PVs V, = V, because the object is completely immersed in water. 1 Pe , = PWg] Also, |W’ w( 2) @ Ifthe buoyant force is equal to the object's weight, the forces are balanced and the object floats. = rent weight = Pome If p, = py, apparent weight = 0 i.e., The body just floats on liquid i.e, ‘weight of the body in air = buoyant force it is completely immersed in liquid or W=F, or Mg=Mg or M = M, or pV, =—V, or Vi=\Yy ‘This means, the body will ust float or remain hanging at whatever height it is left inside the liquid [see fig.) 1 aS stele pce ne ier NA SEU gt |Ef seta Asn cst tude pV WU AIINO eS po VON NCE mei Vi BROS Hp ALLEM Ifp, Buoyant force isthe loss of weight of an object when itis immersed ina liquid. > The fraction of floating object inside a liquid, [F,= W, — W,] Where, W, is the weight of an object in air and W, is its weight (apparent weigh!) when it is completely immersed in the liquid. Density of object _ 9, Relative d ven by, RD = Sts See are Density of water p, W W-We Also, |RD. ‘Where, W, = weight of object in air ; W, = weight of object in water. ‘Melting of ice that is floating on water : When a piece of ice floating on water in a beaker completely changes (melts) to liquid state, the level of water in the beaker remains unchanged, Let m = mass of ce ; p = density of water ; V = volume of water displaced WF, or mg=p,Vg or m=1xV_ (p,=1g/m’ or m=V —(1) Now, volume V' of water formed on melting, Vi=m/p=m/1 or Vi=m— (2) From (1) & (2), we get, V' = V, ie., there is no change in the volume of the contents of the beaker. Hence, level of water will not change. Let us consider an ice cube containing a lead in it floating on water in a beaker. As ice melts, lead sinks to the bottom and the level of water in the glass fall. Let M = mass of ice cube, m = mass of lead piece. Now, weight of floating body is equal to buoyant force exerted by the liquid ie, WeF, or (M+m)g=p,Va or = (M+m)=1xV_ (p= 1g/em’) or. M+m=V —(1) ‘On melting, the new volume, M,m_M pp ie or | VEM+(m/p.) —(2 [Pr > 1 ‘Now, clearly m/p,,,, will be less than m, thus using (1) & (2), V'< V. Hence, level of water falls in the beaker. i | 25USO Br Fluid dynamics® : The study of fluids in motion is called fluid dynamics © When fluid is in motion, its flow is of one ‘of two main types. The flow is said to be steady or laminar, if ‘each particle of the fluid follows a smooth path so that the paths of different particles never cross each other, Therefore, in steady flow, the velocity ‘of the fluid at any point remains constant in time. ‘e Above. certain critical speed, fluid flow becomes turbulent. Turbulent flow is an irregular flow characterized by small, whiripootke regions. © Continuity equation for flow of liquids through pipes : . Ay = Avy {A = cross-sectional area ; v = velocity of liquid) ‘© The product Av, which has the dimensions of volume per time, is called the volume flow rate. > The continuity equation for fluid, says that the product of the area and the fluid speed at all points along the pipe isa constant. Therefore, the speed is high where the pipe is narrow and low where the pipe is. wide. > Anozzle or your thumb over the garden hose allows youtto project the water farther. By reducing the area through which the water flows, you increase its speed. Therefore, you project the water from the hose with a high initial velocity, resulting in a large value of the range. = Bernoulli's equation applied to fluid flow: 1 Between two regions 1 and 2 ina fluid flow, P; +50¥1 or P+ dev? +a constant} r © Irweneglectthe effect of height. the fluid is flowing through a horizontal pipe or region or the difference of heigh is negligible the, Bernoulli's equation can be written as P+ 5ov! =constant From the above equation, we can say, if pressure increases, than fluid velocity (or speed) decreases and vice-versa, Bernoulli's principle : The pressure in a fluid decreases as the fluid’s velocity increases. } © A piece of paper can be folded as indicated below: High pressure “The top moves down if you blow into the tunnel. This is because the moving air inside has a lower pressure than the still air outside, and so the high pressure above the top pushes it down. sets wnat n\n WE AISO U3and & sete son wat ete elder NBG ANSO UI \ sein cet 06380. gs ” Physics Fluid flow— ‘The above figure shows that pressure Here, velocity of fluid increases (v « 1/4), decreases in the direction of fluid flow, thus, thus, pressure decreases, hence heights (h =P/pg) inthe tubes also decrease. height of liquid column decreases © Aerofoil or lift on aircraft wing : An aerofoll is a solid piece shaped to provide an upward dynamic lift when it moves Lift horizontally through air. The top part of the aerofol is made long and curved while than the bottom part is almost flat. When the aerofoll moves against the wind, strearnlines to crowd together above the wing i.e, the flow speed on top is higher than that blow it. This means the pressure above the top is less than the Cae = pressure under the bottom of the alr foil. Thus, there is an = E Aerofoil upward force resulting in a dynamic lift of the wings and this ‘balances the weight of the plane, Viscosity : It is the property of a fluid by virtue of which it offers opposition to the movement of one layer of fluid over an adjacent layer. Consider two plates placed a small distance Y apart. The space between them is filled with fluid. The lower plate is at rest while the upper one is moving parallel to it with a velocity V by applying a force F. Area of contact of the moving plate with the fluid is A. Particles of the fluid in contact with plates adhere to them. The velocity varies uniformaly from ‘zero’ at lower plate (at rest) to V at upper plate (in motion). FLV Flv avy 8 ATy Newton proposed that any ‘Where n is a constant called ‘coefficient of viscosity’. It can be seen from the figure that the ratio V/Y is equal to Av/Ay by similarity of triangles. The term Av/Ay is called ‘velocity gradient’ Moving plate QW V_, Av] EF Thos, |*= (c= shear stress) “This equation is called ‘Newton's equation of viscosity’. IDB0oO:. Ww Unit of ns Nsom? or kg mst 127USO, ALLER Sn eee ee nen NEE 1 A sphere falling through a fluid : C.G.Stokes developed an expression for resistance (viscous force) ‘F" experienced by a sphere of radius ‘a’ moving with a constant velocity ‘vin a fluid of viscosity 'n’ which is, 5 Fe6nqva © Terminal velocity : If a sphere is moving down through a fluid under its own weight (Le., gravity), at a certain stage its velocity becomes constant when total upward force (buoyant force + viscous force) becomes equal to total downward force (weight). This constant velocity is called ‘terminal velocity’. W-F, +E, {W = weight, F, = buoyant force ; F, = viscous force) } or mg=mg+6nnva . Where, m, = mass of sphere ; m, = mass of fluid displaced ; 11 = viscosity of fluid ; v = terminal velocity ; a = radius of sphere or pVg=pVa+6nnva or pVa=pVa+6nnva (V, = V,= V, as sphere is completely immersed in the fluid) I or 6x va=(9,-p)Va or 6mnva = o,-0)( js [Volume of sphere = (4n29/3] , 2 atglp, -p)) | or 05" a This the formula for terminal veloc. > Terminal velocity of ran drop fling through aii given by, 1s neglected as itis very small as compared 0 Pau) Om © Torricellis law of efflux : Let a vessel is filed with a liquid up to a height H from the bottom and there is an ‘rifce (a small hole) A at a depth h below the surface of ~; the liquid. If the hole Is open, the liquid will come out from it. Let v be the velocity of liquid coming out of the hole (called velocity of ‘efflux). The pressure at the surface } of the liquid (A) and at the hole (B) are same as they ‘open to atmosphere. The pressure at A and B is equal to the atmospheric pressure. The kinetic energy of the SSNS SSIES surface of liquid is almost zero and so there is only potential energy. The liquid coming out of the } hole has both potential and kinetic energy. © Applying Beroul’s theorem at A and B, we get, 2+ dove +0ahiy Ly? Pa +5 P¥a' + PgH, z ] o P+ Zol0 pat) =P +30) + palHi-h) P= Py=P5q20;H,-Hiy-viH,=H-h) | or pghi=Zolvl+paH=pah or Solv}¥—pgh=0 Fgh o Solu = pgh of veth oF bn Habel mage ROL gs This is called Torricelli’s law of efflux, aco 08th EO ps > Time taken by the liquid in falling from the hole B to the ground, t = ft HM > Range of liquid, X =v xt = (2ghx [2A=") 2 9 =A ) From the above result for range, we can say that ‘whether the hole in the vessel is at a depth h or at a depth (H ~ h) from the surface of liquid, the emerging liquid will fall at the same distance ive., the range X of the liquid will remain same > The range X will be maximum when h = H/2 and it is given by, H/,;_H)_. |’ _o(H = 2\-{H-|-2/% 2/2). Xe = af5(H-3) afr -2( Relationship between frequency and time period : | © Equilibrium position : The position at which net force on an oscillating particle is zero is called its equilibrium (or mean) position. © Displacement : It is the distance of an oscillating particle from its equilibrium position at any instant. The displacement can be linear or it may be angular. © Amplitude : The maximum displacement of an oscillating particle from its equilibrium position is called its amplitude. It is the distance between equilibrium position and extreme position of an oscillating particle. © Restoring force : The force which tries to restore the position of the particle back to its equilibrium position after its displacement is called restoring force. It is directed opposite to the displacement. In simple harmonic motion (S.H.M), restoring force, F = ~ kx — (1) (Negative sign shows that restoring force is opposite to displacement, kis force constant or spring constant) Lye Also, potential energy of S.H.M. is given by, U = 5! Now, F = ma —(2) From (1) and (2), we get, ma =- kx or acceleration,