Durability of Structural Concrete

Prepared & Presented By:

Dr. C D Modhera, Professor (HAG), FIE, C. Eng.
Civil Engineering Department, SVNIT - Surat
[Ph. D, IIT Bombay, Presently Chairman of ICI – Surat Center
Former, Head AMD, Dean (P & D) & Secretary of ISTE Gujarat
section]
 Outline of presentation
Durability of concrete & significance of durability
Impact of W/C ratio on durability
Permeability
Factors influencing of cracks in concrete
Sulphate attack & methods of controlling sulphate attack
Chloride attack
Corrosion of steel & methods for controlling corrosion
Surface treatment of concrete

2
 Durability of concrete
 It is defined as its ability to resist weathering action,

chemical attack, abrasion or any other process of

deterioration.
 Durability is much important matter of the concrete and

having importance for modern concrete construction.

3
 Significance of durability
 Now a days pollution is increased particularly in industrially

developed countries or areas at where exposed surface of

the concrete got deteriorate and affect on the durability.
 Even during repairing or maintenance work we do it only

casual manners which carried out from decades.

4
 Significance of durability
 Presently use of concrete extended and even good

material such as good aggregates are short supply.

 We have modern technique for production of the cement

but the second grade raw materials used for economy

reason will affect on the quality of the cement.

5
 Impact of W/C ratio on durability
 Volume changes in the concrete causes cracks in the

concrete. Higher water cement ratio make concrete

permeable and permeability is one of the factor for volume
change in concrete.
 Therefore, use of higher water cement ratio-permeability-

volume change-cracks-disintegration-failure of concrete is

a cyclic process in concrete.
6
 Impact of W/C ratio on durability
Volume Change

Failure
Of Cracks
Permeability
Concrete

Higher w/c ratio Disintegration

7
 Impact of W/C ratio on durability
 Use lower w/c ratio to produce dense and impermeable

concrete.
 The dense and impermeable concrete does not mean that

it does not contain capillaries but the capillaries are so fine

that water can’t flow through them.

8
 Impact of W/C ratio on durability
 In the concrete with lower water cement ratio and adequate

cover can protect the steel against corrosion rather than higher
water cement ratio and then protecting the steel by epoxy
coating.
 Earlier it was impossible to keep water cement ratio lower than

0.40 but now the use of super plasticizers can make the water
cement ratio lower than 0.25 and even low as 0.22. This can
produce high quality and high performance durable concrete.
9
 Impact of W/C ratio on durability
 Cement particles hydrated in presence of water when

water can penetrate from the cracks and hydration take

place from surface to inferior in case of much use of low
water cement ratio.

10
 Permeability
 As we know water cement ratio is one of the factor for

permeability of the concrete it does not involve directly but the

micro cracks at the transition zone is making concrete
permeable.
 These micro cracks in initial stages are very slow and not make

concrete much permeable but with the passage of time and

propagation of cracks and drying shrinkage, thermal shrinkage,
and external load will increase the permeability of the concrete.
11
 Permeability of cement paste
 Cement paste consists of C-S-H gel, Ca(OH)2 and water filled in

the gel pores.

 Gel is porous up to 28% and gel pores are so small that hardly

water can pass through under normal conditions. Therefore the

gel pores do not contribute to the permeability of cement paste.
 Extent and size of the capillaries depend on the water cement

ratio. At lower water cement ratio capillaries are small and less in
diameter.
12
 Permeability of cement paste
 The cavities by lower water cement ratio can be filled

by hydration product within short time period but

cavities by higher water cement ratio (0.7) large
cavities will remain un-segmented and responsible for
the permeability of the cement paste.

13
 Permeability of cement paste
 The higher permeability of mortar or concrete in actual

structure is due to the following reasons:

A. Formation of micro cracks due to drying & thermal stresses.
B. Large micro cracks in transition zone.
C. Volume change and development of cracks with other
reasons.
D. Entrapped air due to insufficient compaction.
14
 Permeability of cement paste
 In concrete, the aggregate particles intercept the

channels of flows. It was found experimentally that the

larger size of the aggregates increase the
permeability.

15
 Permeability of cement paste
 Drying shrinkage, thermal shrinkage and externally applied

load cause the micro cracks in weak transition zone at

young age and size of the cracks is much bigger than most
of the capillary cavities present in cement paste.
 The use of pozzolanic material in optimum proportion

reduces the permeability of the concrete.

16
 Factors influencing of cracks in concrete

 Cracking caused by plastic shrinkage in concrete occurs most

commonly on the exposed surfaces of freshly placed floors and

slabs or other elements with large surface areas when they are
subjected to a very rapid loss of moisture caused by low humidity
and wind or high temperature or both.

17
 Factors influencing of cracks in concrete
Plastic Shrinkage Cracks
 Plastic shrinkage usually occurs prior to final finishing, before curing

starts. When moisture evaporates from the surface of freshly placed

concrete faster than it is placed by curing water, the surface concrete
shrinks.

 Due to the restraint provided by the concrete on the drying surface layer,

tensile stresses develop in the weak, stiffening plastic concrete,

resulting in shallow cracks that are usually not short and run in all
18 directions.
 Factors influencing of cracks in concrete
Plastic Shrinkage Cracks
 In most cases, these cracks are wide at the surface. They range

from a few millimeters to many meters in length and are spaced

from a few centimeters to as much as 3 m apart.

19
 Factors Contributed for cracks in Concrete

Settlement of Cracks
 In plastic state of concrete it is possible to uniformly can

settle down (re-vibration) there will be no cracks.

 If there is any restriction by bigger size of aggregate or

steel it is not possible and it create some voids and cracks

this called the “ Settlement of Cracks”. This will happen in
deeper section of the concrete member (beam).
20
 Factors influencing of cracks in concrete
Settlement of Cracks
 Therefore, to avoid this concrete should place in the beam

by layer by layer and with well compaction.

 If this happen try to remove this effect by re-vibration

otherwise it will affect on the integrity of the member and

durability.

21
 Factors influencing of cracks in concrete
Bleeding
 Early bleeding when the concrete mass is fully plastic, may not

cause much harm, because concrete being in a fully plastic

condition at that stage, will get subsided and compacted. It is the
delayed bleeding, when the concrete has lost its plasticity, that
causes excessive harm to the concrete. Controlled re-vibration
may be adopted to overcome the bad effect of bleeding.

22
 Factors influencing of cracks in concrete
Constructional Effects
 Form work

 Vibration

 Finishing

23
 Factors influencing of cracks in concrete
Delayed Curing
 Due to plastic shrinkage cracks are developed.

 In India there is badly practice to cure concrete after the following

day of concreting which is make concrete very thirsty and dry up.
 As during the initial stage hydration process is faster and

required the wetness for complete hydration.

 Insufficient curing is one of the major cause for lack of strength

and durability of the concrete.

24
 Factors influencing of cracks in concrete
Early Frost Damage
 At lower temperature the rate of hydration is slow and stops at
o
about -10 C.
 Protect the fresh concrete from the ice lens and assume that the

volume of the ice lens is 9% more than water volume.

 Once frozen, it is very difficult to bring back the integrity of the

concrete.

25
 Factors influencing of cracks in concrete
Early Frost Damage
 If the concrete is frozen after few hours of placement it reduces

the 50% of the ultimate strength before it attains 3.5 MPa.

o
 Pure water freeze at 0 C. The water in fresh concrete is not pure
o
but it is a solution of various salts so it does not freeze at 0 C.
o
 If the temperature is more than -10 C the hydration process

continues and concrete heat up by heat of hydration.

26
 Factors influencing of cracks in concrete
Early Frost Damage
 Inside temperature of the concrete affected by the material used

in formwork, reinforcement and thickness of the member.

 When concrete attain 3.5 MPa strength some of the water

consumed in the hydration as bound water and some of the

water in gel pores.
 The gel pores are so fine that the water could not freeze in gel

pores and not converted in to the ice form.

27
 Factors influencing of cracks in concrete
Early Frost Damage
 Partially filled capillary water even it freeze there will be no

countable damage will take place.

 If hydration not take place, saturated and fully filled capillary

water get frozen and cause the disruption of concrete and affect
on the durability of the concrete.

28
 Factors influencing of cracks in concrete
Unsound Materials
 If the cement and aggregate can saw the volume change in

hardened concrete it causes cracks and affect the durability.

 More content of the lime present in the raw materials of the

cement can make cement unsound and also MgO and CaO can
also participating to make cement unsound.

29
 Factors influencing of cracks in concrete
Unsound Materials
 The use of gypsum in cement to reduce the flashing time of the

cement but if the gypsum is added by excess amount can make

cement unsound by way of slow expansion in hardened
concrete.
 Aggregates containing coal, clay lumps, iron pyrites, shales etc.

show unsoundness when concrete undergoes freezing and

thawing.
30
 Factors influencing of cracks in concrete
Unsound Materials
 The presence of the silt in the sand caused interface the setting

time, shrinkage and bond strength. The ultimate effect is to

reduction in tensile strength and shrinkage cracks.

31
 Factors influencing of cracks in concrete
Thermal Shrinkage
 Thermal property of the concrete to understand the behavior of

concrete to heating and cooling .

 Concrete is used in all climate and any kind of the structure.

 Concrete subjecting to high temperature and cooling resulting

cracks, loss of serviceability and effect on durability.

32
 Factors influencing of cracks in concrete
Thermal Shrinkage
 The important thermal properties are as following:

 Thermal Conductivity
 Thermal Diffusivity
 Specific Heat
 Co-efficient of thermal expansion

33
 Factors influencing of cracks in concrete
 Thermal Conductivity :
 This measures the ability of the material to conduct the heat.

 Thermal conductivity is measured in joules per second per square

o
meter of the area of the body when the temperature difference is 1 C per
meter thickness of the body.
 The conductivity of the concrete depends on type of aggregate,

moisture content, density and temperature of the concrete.

 When concrete is saturated the conductivity ranges between 1.4 to 3.4
o
j/m2s C/m.
34
 Factors influencing of cracks in concrete


35
 Factors influencing of cracks in concrete
 Specific Heat :
 It is defined as the quantity of heat required to raise the

temperature of unit mass of a material by one degree centigrade.

Common range of values for concrete is between 840 and 1170
o
j/kg per C.

36
 Factors influencing of cracks in concrete
 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion :
 It is defined as the change in unit length per degree change of

temperature and depends on mix proportion.

-6 -6
 It varies for hydrated cement paste is 11 x 10 and 20 x 10 per
o
C.
o
 For aggregate it varies from 5 x 10-6 and 12 x 10-6 per C.

37
 Factors influencing of cracks in concrete
 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion :
 There is thermal incompatibility between aggregate and paste

which cause differential expansion and contraction and rupture of

the bond between them.
 When concrete is subjected to higher temperature it is necessary

to know the values of thermal co-efficient.

38
 Factors influencing of cracks in concrete
 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion :
 Large quantity of heat liberated during the hydration.

 Thermal conductivity of the concrete is low, a very high

temperature could be generated inner mass of the concrete at

the same time exterior of the concrete mass losses the heat due
to that the difference of the temperature establish cracks in
concrete.

39
 Sulphate attack
 Sulphur content present in most of soil and ground water along

with calcium, sodium, potassium and manganese.

 Aluminum sulphate is present in agricultural soil and sewage

water and industrial effluents.

 In mostly shallow lakes H2S converted in sulphuric acid by the

bacterial action.
 Water used in concrete can also be a major source of the

sulphate attack.
40
 Sulphate attack
 Solid sulphate do not attack the concrete but in solution

form it enters in the porous concrete and react with the

hydrated cement products.
 Out of all the sulphates magnesium sulphate damage the

concrete maximum.
 A characteristics whitish appearance is the indication of

sulphate attack.
41
 Sulphate attack
 In the hydrated concrete, calcium aluminate hydrate [ C-A-

H ] can react with the sulphate salt from out side and
produce the product calcium sulpho-aluminate in the
hydrated cement paste.
 Due to that the volume of the concrete paste is increased

up to 227% and cause disintegration of the concrete.

42
 Sulphate attack
 Example of the sodium sulphate attack on Ca(OH)2

 Ca(OH)2 + Na2 SO4 . 10H2O

CaSO4 . 2H2O + 2NaOH + 8H2O

 The reaction with calcium aluminate hydrate:

 2(3CaO . Al2O3 . 12H2O) + 3(Na2SO4 . 10H2O)

3CaO . Al2O3 . 3CaSO4 . 31H2O + 2Al(OH)3

+ 6NaOH + 17H2O
43
 Sulphate attack
 Calcium sulphate attacks only calcium aluminate hydrates

and produce calcium sulpho-aluminate (3CaO.Al2O3.

3CaSO4.32H2O) known as “Ettringite”. Molecules of water
may vary from 31 or 32.
 Magnesium sulphate also decompose hydrated calcium

silicates completely and makes it a friable( breaks in

fragments) mass.
44
 Sulphate attack
 The rate of sulphate attack increase with the increase of

the strength of the solution.

 Saturated solution of magnesium sulphate with higher

water cement ratio cause serious damage the concrete.

 The concrete made with lower water cement ratio can

withstand the action of magnesium sulphate for 2 or 3 yrs.

45
 Sulphate attack
 The concentration of the sulphate expressed as the

number of parts by weight of SO3 per million parts. 1000

ppm consider as moderately severe and 2000 ppm is
consider very severe.

46
 Methods of controlling sulphate attack
Use of Sulphate Resisting Cement
 To resist sulphate attack use the cement with lower C3A
content.
 C3A content with 7% shows good and poor performance in
sulphate water.

47
 Methods of controlling sulphate attack
Quality Concrete
 Well designed, placed and well compacted concrete which

is dense and impermeable having higher resistance to

sulphate attack.
 Concrete with lower water cement ratios exhibits higher

resistance to sulphate attack.

48
 Methods of controlling sulphate attack
Use air-entrainment
 Use of air-entrain reduce segregation, bleeding, and

improve the workability can make concrete impermeable

and increase 6% resistance to sulphate attack.

49
 Methods of controlling sulphate attack
Use of Pozzolana
 Admixing of pozzolana convert calcium hydroxide in to

insoluble cementitious product and make concrete

impermeable.
 Removal of calcium hydroxide reduce the chances to

concrete attack by magnesium sulphate.

50
 Methods of controlling sulphate attack
Use of High Alumina Cement
 High alumina cement contains approximately 40%
alumina, a compound very susceptible to sulphate attack,
when in normal Portland Cement.

51
 Methods of controlling sulphate attack
Use of High Alumina Cement
 But this percentage of alumina present in high alumina cement

behaves in a different way. The primary cause of resistance is

attributed to formation of protective films which inhibit the
penetration or diffusion of sulphate ions into the interior.
 It should remember that high alumina cement may not show

higher resistance to sulphate attack at higher temperature.

52
 Chloride attack
 Chloride attack cause corrosion in reinforcement.

 High alkality of the concrete form protective oxide film on

the surface of the reinforcement, which can be lost by

presence of chloride in the presence of water and oxygen.

53
54
 Chloride attack
 Chloride can enter in to concrete from cement, aggregate,

water and sometimes from admixtures.

55
 Chloride attack
 The amount of chloride to initiating the corrosion depend

upon the ph value of the pore water.

 If the ph value is less than 11.5 corrosion may occur

without presence of chloride. If the ph value is more than

11.5 greater value of the chloride required for corrosion.

56
 Corrosion of steel
 Corrosion of steel in concrete is an electrochemical

process.
 In the steel, one part becomes anode and other part

becomes cathode connected by electrolyte in the form of

pore water in the hardened cement paste.

57
 Corrosion of steel
++
 The positively charged ferrous ions Fe at the anode pass into
solution while the negatively charged free electrons e- pass
through the steel into cathode where they are absorbed by the
constituents of the electrolyte and combine with water and
oxygen to form hydroxyl ions (OH)-
 These travel through the electrolyte and combine with ferrous

ions to form ferric hydroxide which is converted by further

oxidation to rust.
58
 Corrosion of steel

Anodic Reactions:
Fe Fe++ + 2e- Corrosion Mechanism

Fe++ +2(OH)- Fe(OH)2 (Ferrous Hydroxide)

4Fe(OH)2 + 2H2O + O2 4Fe(OH)3 (Ferric Oxide)
Cathodic Reaction:
4e- + O2 + H2O 4(OH)-
59
 Corrosion of steel
 No corrosion take place if the concrete is dry or probably below

the relative humidity of about 60% because enough water is not

there to promote the corrosion.
 It is also noted that corrosion is not take place if concrete is fully

immersed in the water because diffusion of the oxygen does not

take place.
 Corrosion can take place at optimum humidity 70 to 80%

60
 Corrosion of steel
 Product of corrosion can occupy six time volume than the original

volume of steel depending upon the oxidation.

61
 Corrosion of steel
 Increase of rust thrust the concrete

cover and produce cracks and de-

lamination of the concrete.
 In this situation cross section of the

reinforcement progressively reduce

and structure is sure to collapse.

62
 Corrosion of steel
 Use lower water cement ratio and make concrete dense.

 Use of cementitious material such as fly ash, ground granulated

blast furnace slag (GGBS), silica fume etc. make concrete dense
and impermeable so it reduce the corrosion of the steel.
 The improvement of the microstructure of hydrated cement paste

is responsible for protecting steel from corrosion.

63
 Methods for controlling corrosion
Metallurgical methods
 Different methods such as rapid quenching of the hot bars by

series of water jets, or by keeping the hot steel bars for a short
lime in a water bath, and by such other process the mechanical
properties and corrosion resistance property of steel can be
improved.
 There are many situations where stainless steel reinforcements

are used for long term durability of concrete structures.

64
 Methods for controlling corrosion
Corrosion Inhibitors
 Corrosion can be prevented or delayed by chemical method by

using certain corrosion inhibiting chemicals such as nitrites,

phosphates, benzoates etc.
 The most widely used admixture is based on calcium nitrite. It is

added to the concrete during mixing of concrete. The typical

dosage is of the order of 10-30 liters per m3 of concrete
depending on chloride levels in concrete.
65
 Methods for controlling corrosion
Corrosion Inhibitors
 In the high pH of concrete, the steel is protected by a passivating

layer of ferric oxide on the surface of steel.

 The passivating layer also contain some ferrous oxide which can

initiate corrosion when the chloride ions reach the steel. The
nitrite ions present in the corrosion inhibiting admixture will
oxidize the ferrous oxide to ferric oxide, thus stabilizing the
passivating layer even in the presence of chlorides.
66
 Methods for controlling corrosion
Corrosion Inhibitors
 Calcium nitrite in a liquid from containing about 30 per cent

calcium nitrite solids by weight. The more corrosion inhibitor is

added, the longer the onset of corrosion will be delayed. Since
most structures in a chloride environment reach a level of about
7 kg of chloride iron per m3 during their service life, use of less
than 18 liters/m3 of calcium nitrite solution is not recommended.

67
 Methods for controlling corrosion
Coating to reinforcement
 Coating of steel can prevent from the chloride.

 Simple cement slurry coating is a cheap method for temporary

protection against rusting of reinforcement during storage.

 Central Electro Chemical Research Institute (CECRI) has

suggested several methods to protect the steel as below:

68
 Methods for controlling corrosion
Coating to reinforcement
 De-Rusting
 The reinforcements are cleaned with a de-rusting solution. This

is followed without delay by cleaning the rods with wet waste

cloth and cleaning powder. The rods are then rinsed in running
water and air dried.

69
 Methods for controlling corrosion
Coating to reinforcement
 Phosphating
 Phosphate jelly is applied to the bars with fine brush. The jelly is

left for 45-60 minutes and then removed by wet cloth. An inhibitor
solution is then brushed over the phosphated surface.

70
 Methods for controlling corrosion
Coating to reinforcement
 Cement Coating
 Slurry is made by mixing the inhibitor solution with Portland

cement and applied on the bar. A sealing solution is brushed

after the rods are air cured. The sealing solution has an insite
curing effect. The second coat of slurry is then applied and the
bars are air dried.

71
 Methods for controlling corrosion
Coating to reinforcement
 Sealing
 Two coats of sealing solution are applied to the bars in order to

sealing micro-pores of the cement coat and to make it

impermeable to corrosive salts.

72
 Methods for controlling corrosion
Coating to reinforcement
 Fusion Bonded Epoxy Coating
 The fusion bonded epoxy coaling is a specialized job carried out

in a factory and not at site of work.

 Plants are designed to coat the straight bars in a continuous

process.
 Initially the bar is shot blasted to remove all mill scale and to give

the kind of surface finish required.

73
 Methods for controlling corrosion
Coating to Reinforcement
 Fusion Bonded Epoxy Coating
 This ensures an adequate bond between epoxy and steel. The

bar is then heated to a carefully controlled temperature, before

passing through a spray booth.
 Electro-statically charged epoxy powder particles are deposited

evenly on the surface of the bar. It looks; greenish in color. The

coating thickness may vary from 130 to 300 microns.
74
 Methods for controlling corrosion
Coating to Reinforcement
 Galvanized Reinforcement
 Galvanizing of reinforcement consists of dipping the steel bars in

molten zinc. This result in a coating of zinc bonded to the surface

of steel.
 The zinc surface reacts with calcium hydroxide in the concrete to

form a passive layer and prevents corrosion.

75
 Methods for controlling corrosion
Coating to Reinforcement
 Cathodic Protection:
 The cathodic protection comprises of application of impressed

current to an electrode laid on the concrete above steel

reinforcement. This electrode serves as anode and the steel
reinforcement which is connected to the negative terminal of a
DC source acts as a cathode.

76
 Methods for controlling corrosion
Coating to Reinforcement
 Cathodic Protection:
 In this process the negative chloride ions which are responsible

for the damage of the passivating film, are drawn away from the
vicinity of steel towards the anode where they are oxidized to
form chlorine gas.
 The environment around the steel reinforcement reverts back to

alkaline condition which protects the steel.

77
 Methods for controlling corrosion
Coating to Reinforcement
 Coating to Concrete:
 Freshly made concrete members contain plenty of water in the

pore structures it takes long time to dry. Such freshly made

concrete structures should not be coated with epoxy or other
materials which will seal off and prevent the internal moisture
from going out in atmospheric conditions.

78
 Methods for controlling corrosion
Coating to Reinforcement
 Coating to Concrete:
 The moisture trapped inside the concrete can do untold harm to

the durability of concrete in addition to damaging the protective

coating itself.
 For better durability, the concrete should be able to "breathe" i.e,

water vapor should be able to migrate from inside to outside and

from outside to inside.
79
 Methods for controlling corrosion
Coating to Reinforcement
 Coating to Concrete:
 But water as it is, should not be able to enter from outside to

inside. The protective coating given to the concrete should be of

the above characteristics.
 The epoxy coating which does not allow the concrete to breathe

and should not be used for coating concrete members.

80
 Methods for controlling corrosion
Coating to Reinforcement
 Coating to Concrete:
 Instead, the protective coating should be based on acrylics which

retain the breathing property of concrete, while protecting the

concrete from other harmful environmental agencies, in particular
entry of water and carbonation.

81
 Methods for controlling corrosion
Coating to Reinforcement
 Coating to Concrete:
 Epoxy based coating material is not resistant to ultra violet rays

when exposed to sunlight and also it is not flexible. Whereas the

coating material based on acrylic polymer is resistant to ultra
violet rays of sun and is flexible.
 Therefore, acrylic based protective cum decorative coatings can

be given for additional durability of such concrete members.

82
 Methods for controlling corrosion
Coating to Reinforcement
 Designing and Detailing:
 In designing and detailing take care of the spacing between the

bars to flow the concrete in between them, to facilitate for

vibration of concrete, to give proper cover to bars, to restrict the
crack widths etc.,
 Provide nominal cover to all bars including links.

83
 Methods for controlling corrosion
Coating to Reinforcement
 Designing and Detailing:
 In case of column the cover should not less than 40 mm or the

diameter of the bar. For footing it should not less than 50 mm.
 There is always an increase of paste and less of aggregate in

cover areas. So adequate cover protect the steel from the

environmental condition.

84
 Surface treatments of concrete
 There are large varieties of materials, which are applied to

surface of concrete either to waterproof the surface or to resist

the attack of chemical agencies, to give a quick hardening effect
so that concrete is made stronger within a short period to enable
it to withstand destructive forces. Some of the materials used for
surface treatments are listed below

85
 Surface treatments of concrete
 Some of the materials used for surface treatments are listed

below :
(a) Aqueous solution of sodium silicate
(b) Magnesium or zinc silico fluoride
(c) Drying oils such as linseed or tung oil
(d) Chlorinated rubber paints
(e) Neoprene paints
(f ) Epoxy paints or coal tar epoxy paints
86 (g) Silicon fluoride (SiF4) treatment
 Surface treatments of concrete
 The surface of the hardened and air-dry concrete may be treated

with a solution of sodium silicate.

 Treatment with a solution of sodium silicate hardens a concrete

surface and also renders it less dusty Treatment with the

sulphate solutions and silico-fluoride is also effective.
 Tung oil and linseed oil are applied to concrete surface neat, hot

or thinned with turpentine or white spirits. The treatment gives a

hard surface and freedom from dust.
87
 Surface treatments of concrete
 Oil paints with a tung-oil medium, or bituminous paints, can be used, but

paints containing synthetic resins particularly polyurethanes or epoxy

esters, or chlorinated rubber have a greater resistance to wear. None of
these surface treatments are effective on a weak concrete surface.
 A treatment by bitumen and coal tar has been found to give protection

against insects and borers. Some plastic materials, rubber, latex glass
fiber coatings, PVC linings have also been given to concrete in certain
situations for increasing durability.

88
 Surface treatments of concrete
 One of the important surface treatment adopted to increase the

durability of concrete is known as “Ocrate Process”.

 In this, concrete member is saturated with Silico fluoride under

pressure. This method has been adopted to increase the

durability of Pre-cast concrete piles and pipes carrying sewage.

89
Fig. 1
91
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