Anatomy & Physiology Hannah

Geraghty
5N0749

Assignment 2 – Haematology
Contents
Introductions.........................................................................................................................................3
Innate and Acquired Immunity..............................................................................................................3
Innate Immunity................................................................................................................................3
Acquired Immunity............................................................................................................................4
The Composition of Blood.....................................................................................................................5
Plasma...............................................................................................................................................5
Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes)...........................................................................................................5
White Blood Cells (Leukocytes).........................................................................................................5
Platelets (Thrombocytes)...................................................................................................................6
Cryoglobulinemia...............................................................................................................................7
Conclusions......................................................................................................................................10
Bibliography.........................................................................................................................................11
Introductions 

Our blood is one of the most important parts of our internal make up, carried throughout

our bodies on the aqueducts that are our veins and arteries. More than just a delicious

snack for vampires, it is the transportation system for oxygen, waste materials, hormones,

and the cells of our immune system, like a motorway for everything in the body to get

where it needs to go and vital for almost every part of our body’s function. 

In this assignment I intend to look at the different forms of our immune system, the

differences between them and how they work, as well as discuss the physical composition of

our blood at the job each part of it plays. I will also discuss cryoglobulinemia, a condition

in haemotology that I was unfamiliar with before starting this assingment. 

Innate and Acquired Immunity 

Innate Immunity 

Innate immunity are the defenses of the immune system that we are born with. It is a much

more generalised form of immunity which responds in the same ways to most foreign

pathogens entering the body, attacking and attempting to destroy whatever it deems to be

a foreign threat to the body such as bacteria. It consists of our skin, the single largest barrier

to prevent pathogens entering out bodies, our mucous membranes, which catch and hold

pathogens and particles entering through our nose and throat, and our immune system

cells, which attack and attempt to destroy anything which has managed to get passed the

other barriers and enter the body, such as through an open wound.  

It is our innate immunity that causes inflammation to occur when we have an infection, as

our immune system makes our blood vessels wider and more permeable in the infection site
to allow more immune system cells to reach the area. An immune system cell known as

a neutrophil will be one of the first cells on the scene which attempt to envelop and break

down foreign pathogens. Special proteins will also be released into the infected area which

identify and target pathogens to be destroyed by neutrophil cells, or calling more defensive

cells to the area. Our T cells, also known as natural killer cells, also patrol our body looking

for cells which have either become infected or are becoming tumourous. Once it identifies

such a cell it is destroyed to prevent any further damage. [ CITATION NCB \l 1033 ]

Acquired Immunity 

Acquired immunity is the defenses of the immune system that we gather and develop over

our lifetimes. In contrast to innate immunity, which is far more general, acquired immunity

is extremely specific in what it targets. There are two forms of acquired immunity: Active

immunity, and passive immunity. Active immunity is made up of antibodies that our bodies

has made itself, either through exposure to some form of infection or through a vaccine,

where immune system cells known as T and B cells learn to recognise specific pathogens

and alert our immune system. The next time that pathogen enters our body the T and B cells

will remember it and the immune system will be far more prepared.  

Passive immunity is where we receive already formed antibodies from someone else, either

through the breastmilk of our mother or from medicinal immune serums. This form of

immunity tends to be much shorter lived as, unlike with active immunity, our body doesn’t

learn to recognise the pathogens these antibodies protect against. In either case, these

antibodies are tailor made to fight off an prevent the spread of specific viruses and are mass

produced by our immune system when the recognised virus is detected in the body.

[ CITATION Hea \l 1033 ]

 

The Composition of Blood 

Plasma 
Plasma is the liquid component of our blood, itself composed of a mixture of water, sugar,

fat, protein, and salts. Its primary job is to transport blood cells throughout your body along

with nutrients, waste products, antibodies, clotting proteins, chemical messengers such as

hormones, and proteins that help maintain the body's fluid balance. [ CITATION Hem \l

1033 ]

Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes) 

Our red cells, also known as erythrocytes, are the most common type of cell in our blood,

accounting for about 40 to 45 percent of its volume. They get their red colour from a special

protein they contain called haemoglobin, which helps carry oxygen from the lungs to the

rest of the body and then returns carbon dioxide from the body to the lungs so it can be

exhaled. 

The production of our red blood cells is controlled by a hormone in the kidneys

called erythropoietin and are produced in are bone marrow, taking about a week to mature

before they are released into the bloodstream.  

They are created without any nucleus which allows the cell to be very mobile and flexible as

it can squeeze through our various blood vessels, however this also limits the life of the

blood cell to roughly four months as the constant flexing and squeezing will damage the cell

over time.  [ CITATION Hem \l 1033 ]

White Blood Cells (Leukocytes) 

Our white blood cells, also known as leukocytes, are a part of our immune system

and protect the body from infection. They are much less common than our red blood cells,

only accounting for about one percent of our blood’s volume. There are two major types of

white blood cell: the neutrophil and the lymphocyte. 

The neutrophil, also known as the immediate response cell, is the most common type of

white blood cell, accounting for roughly 60 to 70 percent of our total white blood cell count.

They are an important part of our innate immune system, being among the first cells to be

called to the site of infection to fight invading pathogens. Each neutrophil only lives less

than a day and so our bone marrow is constantly producing a steady stream of them to keep

them circulating in the body, and because of this short lifespan they often cannot be

transfused from one individual to another. [ CITATION Mer \l 1033 ]

The lymphocytes are themselves further broken up into two more types of cells: T cells and

B cells. T cells, as mentioned above, help regulate the function of other immune cells and

directly attack various infected cells and tumors that they find within the body. B

lymphocytes are responsible for producing our antibodies, the proteins that specifically

target bacteria, viruses, and other foreign materials that our active immune system has

learned to recognise. [ CITATION Hem \l 1033 ]

Platelets (Thrombocytes) 

Platelets, also known as thrombocytes, are unlike our red and white blood cells as they are

not actually cells, but rather small fragments of cells. Platelets are an extremely important

factor in the blood clotting process, known as coagulation. The platelets do this by gathering

at the site of an injury and sticking to the lining of the injured blood vessel, forming a

platform on which the coagulation can occur. This results in the formation of a fibrin clot,
commonly called a scab, which covers the wound and prevents blood from leaking out.

Fibrin also forms the initial scaffolding upon which new tissue forms, thus promoting

healing. 

The number of platelets in the bloodstream is a very delicate balance as having either too

many or two few platelets can result in dangerous conditions, with too many platelets

causing blood clots in the arteries which can lead to cardiac arrest or strokes, while too few

platelets can cause a fibrin clot to never form over a wound and lead to excessive bleeding

from even a small wound. [ CITATION Hem \l 1033 ]

Cryoglobulinemia 

Before beginning this assignment I had never heard of cryoglobulinemia before. It is

believed to be a form of Vasculitis, a family of rare disorders characterized by an

inflammation of the blood vessels, restricting blood flow and potentially damaging our vital

organs and tissues. In cryoglobulinemia, abnormal blood proteins called cryoglobulins clump

together at cold temperatures, often just below our own body temperature, becoming a

semi solid, gelatinous mass, restricting blood flow and causing damage to skin, muscles,

nerves, and organs, in particular the kidneys. It is considered a rare disease, estimated to

appear in roughly one person per hundred thousand worldwide, and appears to affect

females more than males and most frequently affects adults over the age of 50.  

The exact symptoms of cryoglobulinemia can vary depending on which organs are being

affected, and some people may experience no obvious symptoms at all except for elevated

cryoglobulin levels detected in a blood test. When symptoms are present, they typically

include the following: 

  Rash with red spots and/or purplish discoloration from bleeding under the skin,

mostly affecting the lower legs. Hives may develop, as well as open sores and necrosis. 

 Severe fatigue 

 Joint pain 

 Numbness, tingling and/or burning sensation of the extremities, especially hands

and feet, caused by nerve damage 

 Muscle pain and weakness 

 Discoloration of hands in cold temperatures 

 Swollen lymph nodes 

 Abdominal pain 

 Kidney damage  

When the brain is involved, a patient may experience headaches or strokes. Heart

involvement can cause chest pain and congestive heart failure. 

The cause of cryoglobulinemia is unfortunately not yet fully understood by researchers.

Vasculitis itself is classified as an autoimmune disorder, a condition which occurs when the

body’s own natural defense system mistakenly attacks its own healthy tissue and cells. Such

conditions can potentially be caused by a wide array of factors including genetics,

medications, infections and viruses, and environmental factors such as pollutants, so it is

possible that cryoglobulinemia is caused by such a factor as well. However, while the exact

cause of cryoglobulinemia is not known, more than ninety percent of cases are associated

with chronic Hepatitis C infections, so treating the hepatitis is a major goal of treatment.

Cryoglobulinemia is also associated with other underlying inflammatory diseases, including

lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis, Sjögren’s syndrome, and blood cancers such as

lymphoma. 
Exactly how cryoglobulinemia is treated depends heavily on which organs affected, the

severity of the symptoms if symptoms are present, and any possible underlying conditions.

Commonly when the associated condition, such as hepatitis C, is treated, the symptoms of

cryoglobulinemia typically improve. For more mild cases, doctors may simply suggest

avoiding cold temperatures and treating pain with over the counter anti-inflammatory

medication, along with regular check-ups to monitor the disease. For moderate and severe

cases, treatments may include the following: 

 Antiviral medications are usually prescribed for those with hepatitis C; if doctors

determine that hepatitis C is the cause of the cryoglobulinemia, the individual would

then likely be referred to a liver specialist. 

 Immunosuppressive drugs are the mainstay of treatment for severe disease where

vital organs are affected. Corticosteroids such as prednisone, and immunosuppressants

such as azathioprine and cyclophosphamide, are widely used. 

 A procedure called plasmapheresis is sometimes used if the cryoglobulinemia has

become life threatening or has the potential to cause great harm to the organs, which

filters clumps of cryoglobulins from the blood plasma, helping to prevent the

cryoglobulins from blocking the arteries and restricting blood flow to organs. 

Exactly how easy of a condition to live with can vary depending on the severity of one’s

symptoms and the presence of any underlying conditions. If the symptoms are mild to non-

existent someone could live well enough with cryoglobulinemia without needing much or

any treatment at all, and if no damage is done to the kidneys or other internal organs then

there is little to worry about. More severe cases will need regular check-ups to monitor their

conditions, but timely and appropriate treatment can reduce cryoglobulinemia’s flare ups

and stave off potential long term complications and organ damage.  

[ CITATION Vas \l 1033 ][ CITATION May \l 1033 ][ CITATION Cle \l 1033 ]

[ CITATION Med \l 1033 ]

Conclusions 

My goal when beginning this assignment was to research and outline the differences

between our innate immunity and our acquired immunity, how each one works and how

they develop, as well as research the composition of our blood and just what each part of

that composition does. I also wanted to specifically pick a condition in haemotology that I

was not familiar with, wanting to expand my knowledge of the field and the possible

conditions there in. Chosing cryoglobulinemia, my goal was to discuss what exactly the

condition is, it’s symtpoms, and its possible treatments. I believe I have achieved all of these

goals, greatly aided my knowledge and learning in the field of haemotology, and have laid

out what I learned clearly. 

Bibliography
Cleveland Clinic. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/13204-
cryoglobulinemia

Heathline, Acquired Immunity. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.healthline.com/health/acquired-

immunity#active-immunity

Hemotology, Blood Basics. (n.d.). Retrieved from

https://www.hematology.org/education/patients/blood-basics

Mayo Clinic. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-

conditions/cryoglobulinemia/symptoms-causes/syc-20371244

Medline Plus. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/000540.htm

Merck Manual, Innate Immunity. (n.d.). Retrieved from

https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/immune-disorders/biology-of-the-immune-
system/innate-immunity

NCBI. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK279396/

Vasculitis Foundation. (n.d.). Retrieved from

https://www.vasculitisfoundation.org/education/forms/cryoglobulinemia/#1545061788247-
e1aef7c8-97b2