cdongaion, and terlnaon. RNA polymerase in enzyme involved in transcription is RNA polymerase, which uses sin The mai stranded DNA template to synthesize a complementary strand of RNA. Specifically, RNA polymerase builds an RNA strand in the S'to 3° direction, adding each new nucleotide to the ¥end of the strand. step 1: Initiation nzyme RNA polymerase Initiation is the beginning of transcription. It oceurs when the et DNA to unwind so the of gene called the promoter. This signals the binds to a regior ‘The enzyme is now ready 10 make ‘an “read” the bases in one of the DNA strands. enzyme ¢: lence of bases. ‘strand of mRNA with a complementary sequ Recognition sitesCedong sheen SI TORT CTCSTAR? 4a bacterin RNA transcripts can act asmessenger RNAS (@RNAs) right vay. in Seve called apro-sNA sl mos go a of 8 proteincodingThe modifications increase the stability of the mRNA, while splicing gives the mRNA its correct sequence. TRANSLATION RNA nucleotides (Adenine, In an mRNA, the instructions for building a polypeptide are These groups of three are Uracil, Cytosine, and Guanine) read in groups of three. called codons, cach of them is "read" to specify a certain amino There are 61 codons for amino acids, and found in proteins. One codon, AUG, specifies the amino it of protein synthesis, acid out of the 202020 common! acid methionine and also acts as a start codon to signal thi These stop codons, UAA, There are three more codons that do not specify amino acids. complete. All together, this collection of UAG, and UGA, tell the cell when 4 polypeptid. senetic code, because it lets cells “decod: codon-amino acid relationships is called the mRNA into a chain of amino acids mong SPSL Lenni ggg y set codons AUG ACGGAGCUUCG CUAG cet + ‘ ’ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ Metoine Tossorira Chassis \aucinn Aiyiinn Sari — SlowAmino acia Large ribosomal subunit \ tRNA, Anticodon 5 Codon ‘Small ribosomal subunit Ribosomes are the structures where polypeptides (proteins) are built, They are made up of protein and RNA (ribosomal RNA, or rRNA). The ribosome has 2 subunits. There are 3 sites in the ribosome, E, P and A sites. tion, the ribosome assembles around the mRNA to be read and the fist 1RNA which matches the start codon, AUG). This setup, Jn init (carrying the amino acid methionine, called the initiation complex, is needed in order for translation to gt stated s longer. In elongation, the MRNA is the stage where the amino acid chain g ‘and the amino acid matching each codon is added to a growing Elongatio read one codon at a time, protein chain. Each time a new codon is exposed: ‘A matching tRNA binds to the codon ‘The existing amino acid chain (polypept : acid of the ie) is linked onto the aminoDuring elongation, (RNAs move through the A, P, and E sites of the ribosome, as shown above. This process repeats many times as new codons are read and new amino acids are added to the chain, iptide chain is released. It begins when ‘Termination is the stage in which the finished polype 1 stop codon (UAG, UAA, or UGA) enters the ribosome, triggering a series of events that ft out of the ribosome. separate the chain from its tRNA and allow it to drIM, 5 ¢ Nac second Messengers” ular Messenger Substances: Intracell General Functions of Intracellular Messengers Extracellular signals are registered by membrane receptors and conducted into the des of coupled reactions. The first steps of signal transmission often « cell via cascal : ation with the membrane, before the signal is conducted take place in close associ into the cell interior Cell surface receptors are recogni molecules that are either too big (p hydrophilic to rapidly cross the target cel ition sites for the vast majority of signaling rotein or polypeptide hormones) or too | plasma membrane.such molecules interact with the target cell by binding to cell surface receptors that are integral » > membrane proteins.surface proteins are coupled to a variety of intracellular & 2 biochemical reactions termed signal transduction pathways. sig ‘The cell uses mainly two mechanisms for transmission of signels at the cytosolic 3 rs mediated 2 side of the membrane and in the cell interior. Signal transmission ma teraction, The proteins involved may be receptors, proteins by.a protein protein I with adaptor function alone, oof enzymes. Signals may also be transmitted with the help of low-molecular- weight messenger substances. These are known as “second messengers”. ‘The intracellular messenger substances are formed or released by specific enzyme reactions during the process of signal transduction.and serve as sffectors,with which the activity of proteins further in the sequence is regulated (Fig. 6.1). L The intracellular messengers are dif Tusible signal molecules and reach their target proteins mostly nen Chie spatial proximity ofthe signal components, as achieved for transmembrane receptors and their effector proteins with the help of membrane anchoring or with specific protein-protein modules , is not necessarily _ - required for this type of signal transduction. Two types of intracellular messenger ~ substance can be differentiated. hydrophobic character such as diacyl glycerol or the m local The hydrophobic ed effector proteins by diffusing through the messengers Wi