CE 474: MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANGEMENT

MODULE III
Syllabus: Collection – collection services- collection systems, collection routes-Need for
transfer operation. Resource conservation and recovery.

COLLECTION
Gathering of wastes as well, the transporting of wastes to transfer stations and/or disposal sites.

The factors that influence the waste collection system include the following:
i. Collection points: These affect such collection system components as crew size and
storage, which ultimately control the cost of collection. Collection points depend on
locality and may be residential, commercial or industrial.

ii. Collection frequency: Climatic conditions and requirements of a locality as well as

containers and costs determine the collection frequency.
In hot and humid climates, for example, solid wastes must be collected at least twice a
week, as the decomposing solid wastes produce bad odour and leachate.
Besides climates, the quality of solid waste containers on site also determines the
collection frequency. For instance, while sealed or closed containers allow collection
frequency up to three days, open and unsealed containers may require daily collection.

iii. Storage containers: Proper container selection can save collection energy, increase the
speed of collection and reduce crew size.

iv. Collection crew: The optimum crew size for a community depends on labour and
equipment costs, collection methods and route characteristics.

v. Collection route: An efficient routing of collection vehicles helps decrease costs by

reducing the labour expended for collection.

vi. Transfer station: A transfer station is an intermediate station between final disposal
option and collection point in order to increase the efficiency of the system, as collection
vehicles and crew remain closer to routes.

Criteria to evaluate, and make decisions about, collection systems:

i. Efficiency: Do the services help minimise the cost per household?

ii. Effectiveness: Do the services satisfy the community needs?

iii. Equity: Do the services address equally the concerns of all social and demographic
groups?
 iv. Reliability: Do the services ensure consistency?

v. Safety and environmental impact: Do the services ensure safety of workers, public
health and protection of the environment?

COLLECTION SERVICES

2 types: 1) Municipal Collection Services 2) Commercial-Industrial Collection Services

1) Municipal Collection Services

3 types:

i. Curb, Alley, and backyard collection

 100-120 litres
 Quickest/ economical
 Crew: 1 driver + 1 or 2 collectors
 No need to enter property
 Most common in Malaysia

ii. Set-out, Set back

 Collectors have to enter property
 Set out crew carries full containers from resident storage location to curb/ alley
before collection vehicle arrives
 Collection crew load their refuse into vehicle
 Set-back crew return the container to storage area

iii. House to house collection

 Refuse bags used in 20-30 litre bins

iv. High rise apartments or flats: specially designed chutes or a communal storage or roll-
on-roll-offs (ROROs)

v. Future trends: Mechanicaly equipped trucks

2) Commercial-Industrial Collection Services (>12m3)
Collection services provided to large apartment buildings, residential complexes and commercial
and industrial activities typically is centred around the use of:

i. Large movable and stationary containers

ii. Large stationary compactors: used to compress material directly into large containers
or to form bales that are then placed in large containers.
COLLECTION SYSTEMS
Classified based on:
1) Availability of collection services
2) Mode of operation
3) Types of waste materials collected

Based on availability of service:

1) House to house collection or Door to door collection
 Waste collectors visit each individual house to collect garbage. The user generally
pays a fee for this service.
 More common in industrialized countries.
2) Communal System
 Users bring their garbage to community bins that are placed at fixed points in a
neighborhood or locality. MSW is picked up by the municipality, or its designate,
according to a set schedule.
 Principal disadvantage of this system is that containers/ collection points are
located in a public place (lacking ownership by the public) which in many
situations, leads to indiscriminate disposal of waste outside the container.
 Thus, the actual economy of this system mostly depends on public co-operation
3) Block collection
 Waste generators are responsible for bringing their waste to collection vehicles.
 This system has low to medium labour and vehicle productivity, but it minimizes
the spread of waste on streets.
4) Kerbside/ alley
 Users leave their garbage directly outside their homes in a kerb/alley on a specific
day/days according to a garbage pick-up schedule set with the local authorities
(secondary house-to-house collectors not typical).
 Most common collection method in industrialized countries and in wealthier
communities of some developing countries.
 A regular and well organized collection service is essential so that the generators
know exactly when to leave out their waste.
5) Self Delivered
 Generators deliver the waste directly to disposal sites or transfer stations, or hire
third-party operators (or the municipality).

Based on Mode of Operation:

1) Hauled Container System (HCS)
 Containers used for the storage of wastes are hauled to the processing, transfer, or
disposal site, emptied and returned to either their original location or some other
location are defined as hauled container systems
 2 main types: (a) tilt-frame container and (b) trash-trailer
 Collector is responsible for driving the vehicle, loading full containers and
unloading empty containers, and emptying the contents of the container at the
disposal site. In some cases, for safety reasons, both a driver and helper are used.
 The time required per trip:
Thcs= Phcs + s + a + bx
Where,
Thcs= time per trip for hauled container system, h/ trip
Phcs= pickup time per trip for HCS, h/trip
s= at-site time per trip, h/trip
a= empirical haul constant, h/trip
b= empirical haul constant, h/km
x= round-trip haul distance, km/trip
 The pick-up time per trip Phcs is equal to:
Phcs= pc + uc + dbc
Where,
Phcs= pickup time per trip for HCS, h/trip
pc= time required to pickup loaded container, h/trip
uc= time required to unload empty container, h/trip
dbc= average time spent driving between container locations, h/trip (determined
locally)
 The number of trips that can be made per vehicle per day with a hauled-container
system, including a factor to account for off-route activities, is determined using:
Nd= [(1-W)H – (t1 + t2)]/( Phcs + s + a + bx)
Where,
Nd= number of trips per day, trip/d
W= off-route factor, expressed as a fraction
H= length of working day, h/d
t1 = time from garage to first container location, h
t2 = time from last container location to garage, h
 Typical values for haul constant coefficients:
Speed Limit a (h/trip) b (h/km)
(km/h)
88 0.016 0.011
72 0.022 0.014
56 0.034 0.018
40 0.050 0.025

2) Stationary Container System (SCS)

 In this system, containers used for the storage of waste remain at the point of
collection. The collection vehicles generally stop alongside the storage
containers, and collection crews load the waste from the storage containers into
the collection vehicles and then transport the waste to the processing, transfer or
disposal site.
 2 main types: (1) those in which self loading compactors are used and (2) those
in which manually loaded vehicles are used.

 For systems using mechanically self-loading compactors, the time per trip is:
Tscs= Pscs + s + a + bx
Where,
Tscs= time per trip for stationary-container system, h/trip
Pscs= pick-up time per trip for stationary-container system, h/trip
 The pick-up time per trip for SCS is given by:
Pscs = Ctuc + (np – 1) (dbc)
Where,
Pscs = pick-up time per trip for stationary-container system, h/trip
Ct= number of containers emptied per trip, container/trip
uc = average unloading time per container for stationary-container systems,
h/container
np= number of container pick-up locations per trip, locations/trip
dbc= average time spent driving between container locations, h/trip (determined
locally)
 The number of containers that can be emptied per collection trip is related directly
to the volume of the collection vehicle and the compaction ratio that can be
achieved. This number is given by:
 Ct = vr/cf
Where,
Ct = number of containers emptied per trip, container/ trip
v= volume of collection vehicle, m3 /trip
r= compaction ratio
c= container volume, m3 /container
f= weighted container utilization factor
 The number of trips required per day is given by:
Nd = Vd/vr
Where,
Nd = number of collection trips required per day, trips/day
Vd= daily waste generation rate, m3/day
 Where an integer number of trips are to be made each day, the proper combination
of trips per day and the size of the vehicle can be determined by:
H= [(t1 + t2) + Nd (Pscs + s + a + bx)]/(1-W)

Comparison of various methods of collection

Frequency of Waste collection depends on:

• Quantity of waste
• Rate of generation
• Characteristics of waste
• Climate
• Density and type of housing
• Availability of space within the premises
• Size and type of storage facilities (small, large, individual or communal)
• Attitude of generators

Based on Types of waste materials collected:

1) Primary Collection
Collection of solid waste from the source of generation and transportation of waste to the
final disposal site, but more often it involves transportation to communal collection bins or
points, processing or transfer stations.

2) Secondary Collection
Collection of solid waste from communal bins, storage points or transfer stations and
transportation to final disposal site.

COLLECTION ROUTES
Efficient routing and re-routing of solid waste collection vehicles can help decrease costs by
reducing the labour expended for collection. Routing procedures usually consist of the following
two separate components:

i. Macro-routing: Macro-routing, also referred to as route-balancing, consists of dividing

the total collection area into routes, sized in such a way as to represent a day’s collection
for each crew. The size of each route depends on the amount of waste collected per stop,
distance between stops, loading time and traffic conditions. Barriers, such as railroad
embankments, rivers and roads with heavy competing traffic, can be used to divide route
territories. As much as possible, the size and shape of route areas should be balanced
within the limits imposed by such barriers.
ii. Micro-routing: Using the results of the macro-routing analysis, micro-routing can define
the specific path that each crew and collection vehicle will take each collection day.
Results of micro-routing analyses can then be used to readjust macro-routing decisions.
Micro-routing analyses should also include input and review from experienced collection
drivers.

Districting is the other method for collection route design. For larger areas it is not possible for
one institution to handle it then the best way is to sub divide the area and MSW collection
districting plan can be made. This routing will be successful only when road network integrity is
good and the regional proximity has been generated.

The heuristic (i.e., trial and error) route development process is a relatively simple manual
approach that applies specific routing patterns to block configurations. The map should show
collection, service garage locations, disposal or transfer sites, one-way streets, natural barriers
and areas of heavy traffic flow.
Routes should then be traced onto the tracing paper using the following rules:
i. Routes should not be fragmented or overlapping. Each route should be compact,
consisting of street segments clustered in the same geographical area.

ii. Total collection plus hauling time should be reasonably constant for each route in the
community.
 iii. The collection route should be started as close to the garage or motor pool as possible,
taking into account heavily travelled and one-way streets.

iv. Heavily travelled streets should not be visited during rush hours.

v. In the case of one-way streets, it is best to start the route near the upper end of the street,
working down it through the looping process.

vi. Services on dead-end streets can be considered as services on the street segment that they
intersect, since they can only be collected by passing down that street segment. To keep
right turns at a minimum, (in countries where driving is left-oriented) collection from the
dead-end streets is done when they are to the left of the truck. They must be collected by
walking down, reversing the vehicle or taking a U-turn.

vii. Waste on a steep hill should be collected, when practical, on both sides of the street while
vehicle is moving downhill. This facilitates safe, easy and fast collection. It also lessens
wear of vehicle and conserves gas and oil.

viii. Higher elevations should be at the start of the route.

ix. For collection from one side of the street at a time, it is generally best to route with many
anti-clockwise turns around blocks.

x. For collection from both sides of the street at the same time, it is generally best to route
with long, straight paths across the grid before looping anti-clockwise.

xi. For certain block configurations within the route, specific routing patterns should be
applied.

Layout of Routes

Four step process:

First step: Prepare location maps.
On a relatively large-scale map of the area to be served, the following data should be plotted for
each solid-waste pickup point: location, number of containers, collection frequency, quantity of
wastes to be collected
Second step: Prepare data summaries
Estimate the quanity of wastes to be collected from pickup locations serviced each day
Third step: Layout preliminary collection routes starting from dispatch station or where the
collection vehicles are parked.
Fourth step: Develop balanced routes
After the preliminary collection routes have been laid out, the haul distance for each route should
be determined. Next, determine the labour requirements per day and check against the available
work times per day. In some cases it may be necessary to readjust the collection routes to balance
the workload and distance traveled. After the balanced routes have been established, they should
be drawn on the master map.
TRANSFER STATIONS

Transfer station is a centralised facility, where waste is unloaded from smaller collection vehicles
and re-loaded into large vehicles for transport to a disposal or processing site. This transfer of
waste is frequently accompanied by removal, separation or handling of waste.

Need for transfer operation:

1. In areas, where wastes are not already dense, they may be compacted at a transfer station.
2. The technical limitations of smaller collection vehicles and the low hauling cost of solid
waste, using larger vehicles, make a transfer station viable.
3. The use of transfer station proves reasonable, when there is a need for vehicles servicing
a collection route to travel shorter distances, unload and return quickly to their primary
task of collecting the waste.

Factors that affect the selection and design of a transfer station:

1. Types of waste received.

2. Processes required in recovering material from wastes.
3. Required capacity and amount of waste storage desired.
4. Types of collection vehicles using the facility.
5. Types of transfer vehicles that can be accommodated at the disposal facilities.
6. Site topography and access.
7. Environmental requirements

Types of Transfer Stations

Depending on the size, transfer stations can be either of the following two types:
(i) Small to medium transfer stations: These are direct-discharge stations that provide
no intermediate waste storage area. The capacities are generally small (less than 100
tonnes/day) and medium (100 to 500 tonnes/day). Depending on weather, site
aesthetics and environmental concerns, transfer operations of this size may be located
either indoor or outdoor. More complex small transfer stations are usually attended
during hours of operation and may include some simple waste and materials
processing facilities. For example, it includes a recyclable material separation and
processing centre. The required overall station capacity (i.e., the number and size of
containers) depends on the size and population density of the area served and the
frequency of collection.
(ii) Large transfer stations: These are designed for heavy commercial use by private
and municipal collection vehicles. The typical operational procedure for a larger
station is as follows:
 when collection vehicles arrive at the site, they are checked in for billing, weighed
and directed to the appropriate dumping area;

 collection vehicles travel to the dumping area and empty the wastes into a waiting
trailer, a pit or a platform;
  after unloading, the collection vehicle leaves the site, and there is no need to weigh
the departing vehicle, if its weight (empty) is known;

 Transfer vehicles are weighed either during or after loading. If weighed during
loading, trailers can be more consistently loaded to just under maximum legal
weights and this maximises payloads and minimises weight violations.

RESOURCE CONSERVATION AND RECOVERY (Assignment)

The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) protects communities and resource
conservation. To achieve this, EPA develops regulations, guidance and policies that ensure the
safe management and cleanup of solid and hazardous waste, and programs that encourage source
reduction and beneficial reuse.

What is RCRA?
The term RCRA is often used interchangeably to refer to the law, regulations and EPA policy
and guidance. The law describes the waste management program mandated by Congress that
gave EPA authority to develop the RCRA program. EPA regulations carry out the congressional
intent by providing explicit, legally enforceable requirements for waste management. These
regulations can be found in title 40 of the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR),
parts 239 through 282. EPA guidance documents and policy directives clarify issues related to
the implementation of the regulations.

How does RCRA work?

RCRA establishes the framework for a national system of solid waste control. Subtitle D of the
Act is dedicated to non-hazardous solid waste requirements, and Subtitle C focuses on hazardous
solid waste. Solid waste includes solids, liquids and gases and must be discarded to be
considered waste.
Congress has amended RCRA several times, which requires the President’s signature to become
law. EPA translates this direction into operating programs by developing regulations, guidance
and policy.
The regulated community is comprised of a large, diverse group that must understand and
comply with RCRA regulations. These groups can include hazardous waste generators,
government agencies and small businesses, and gas stations with underground petroleum tanks.

Subtitle D – Non-hazardous Waste

Non-hazardous solid waste is regulated under Subtitle D of RCRA. Regulations established
under Subtitle D ban open dumping of waste and set minimum federal criteria for the operation
of municipal waste and industrial waste landfills, including design criteria, location restrictions,
financial assurance, corrective action (cleanup), and closure requirement. States play a lead role
in implementing these regulations and may set more stringent requirements. In absence of an
approved state program, the federal requirements must be met by waste facilities.

Subtitle C – Hazardous Waste

Hazardous waste is regulated under Subtitle C of RCRA. EPA has developed a comprehensive
program to ensure that hazardous waste is managed safely from the moment it is generated to its
 final disposal (cradle-to-grave). Under Subtitle C, EPA may authorize states to implement key
provisions of hazardous waste requirements in lieu of the federal government. If a state program
does not exist, EPA directly implements the hazardous waste requirements in that state. Subtitle
C regulations set criteria for hazardous waste generators, transporters, and treatment, storage and
disposal facilities. This includes permitting requirements, enforcement and corrective action or
cleanup.

RCRA Today
EPA has largely focused on building the hazardous and municipal solid waste programs, and
fostering a strong societal commitment to recycling and pollution prevention. Ensuring
responsible waste management practices is a far-reaching and challenging task that engages EPA
headquarters, regions, state agencies, tribes and local governments, as well as everyone who
generates waste.
It is important to look at the RCRA program’s nationwide accomplishments to understand where
it is now and where it is headed in the future.

 Developing a comprehensive system and federal/state infrastructure to manage hazardous

waste from “cradle-to-grave”
 Establishing the framework for states to implement effective municipal solid waste and non-
hazardous secondary material management programs
 Preventing contamination from adversely impacting our communities and resulting in
future Superfund sites
 Restoring 18 million acres of contaminated lands, nearly equal to the size of South Carolina, and
making the land ready for productive reuse through the RCRA Corrective Action program
 Creating partnership and award programs to encourage companies to modify manufacturing
practices in which to generate less waste and reuse materials safely

Problem 1
Work out the time required to dispose of the waste with density 400 kg/m3, with vehicle capacity
of 12m3 and waste generation per residence is 2kg/service and loading time per residence is 2
minutes.

Solution 1
Density of the waste= 400 kg/m3
Vehicle capacity= 12m3
Total quantity of waste= 400 kg/m3 x 12m3 = 4800kg
Waste generation per residence= 2kg/service
Number of services required to dispose 4800kg of waste= (4800kg)/ (2kg/service)= 2400
services
Time per residence= 2 minutes/ service
Total time required to dispose the waste= 2400 x 2= 4800 minutes= 80hrs
Problem 2
A collection vehicle is found to be able to service customers at a rate of 2 customers per minute.
If actual time spent for collection is 4 hours per day, compute the number of customers served
per day.
Solution 2
If the crew can service 2 customers in one minute, then in 4 hours (i.e., 4 x 60 minutes) the crew
can service:
2 x 4 x 60 = 480 customers per day.

Problem 3
Calculate the number of collection vehicles a corporation ward with 10,000 houses (services)
that are to be collected once per week. (The ward wants the collection on Mondays, Tuesdays,
Thursdays, and Fridays, leaving Wednesdays for special projects and maintenance. A single
collection vehicle can service 250 houses in a single day and still have time to take the full loads
to the landfill.)
Solution 3
Total number of households serviced in one week = 10,000 houses/week
Number of days a single collection vehicle service per week = 4 days/week
Therefore, number of houses to be served per day= 10000/4= 2500 houses/day
Number of houses a single collection vehicle can service in one day= 250 houses/day/vehicle
Therefore number of vehicles required to serve in one day= 2500/250= 10 vehicles