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Environment and Intelligence: A Correlation

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 International Journal of Engineering Technology Science and Research
IJETSR
www.ijetsr.com
ISSN 2394 – 3386
Volume 2, Issue 11
November 2015

Environment and Intelligence: A Correlation

Mrs. Jyoti Nagpal1
Associate Professor and Head,
Dept. of Home Science,
Manohar Memorial PG College,
Fatehabad, Haryana, India
Mrs. Kirtika Arora2
Assistant Professor,
Dept. of Home Science,
Manohar Memorial PG College,
Fatehabad, Haryana, India
Dr. Bhuvan Nagpal3
Post Graduate Student,
Dept. of Oral Pathology,
JSS Dental College & Hospital,
JSS University,Mysuru, Karnataka,
India

Abstract
Intelligence is a singular faculty that is brought to bear in any problem-solving situation. A century ago, intelligence was
considered a quality that could be measured by an intelligence quotient (IQ) test. The study of intelligence is important
because findings can give a better understanding of human creativity, psychological development, and emotion. The
existence of intelligence has been attributed to both nature and nurture, but the truth behind it may be something of a mix
of both. There has been great interest in the field of intelligence research to determine environmental influences on the
human development. Environment is an open system, every element of it, whether living or non-living is interrelated.
With the passing of time, the human being gradually occupies the central place in it. This is because the activities of the
human beings are increasingly influencing the direction of development of environment. Environment and intelligence
are correlated with each other and environment is having great impact on different levels of intelligence. The objective of
this paper is to review the evidence for an association between environment and intelligence.
Key words: environment, intelligence, correlation, genius, cognition

Introduction
Environment and intelligence research investigates the impact of environment on intelligence. This is one of
the most important factors in understanding human group differences in IQ test scores and other measures of
cognitive ability. It is estimated that genes contribute about 20-40% of the variance in intelligence in
childhood and about 60% in old age. Thus, the environment and its interaction with genes account for the
remaining approximate 40% of intelligence.[1] Despite the fact that intelligence stabilizes in early adulthood, it
is thought that genetic factors come to play role in our intelligence during middle and old age and that the
importance of the environment dissipates.[2]
According to Neurobiological theory, as babies, our neuronal connections are completely undifferentiated.
Neurons make connections with neighboring neurons, and these become more complex and more
idiosyncratic as the child ages, up until the age of 16, when this process halts. This is also the time frame for
development of what is defined in psychometric studies as the general factor of intelligence, or as measured
by IQ tests. A person‟s IQ is supposed to be relatively stable after they have reached maturity. It is likely that
the growth in neuronal connections is largely due to an interaction with the environment, as there is not even
enough genetic material to code for all the possible neural connections. Even if there was enough genetic
material to code neural connections, it is unlikely that they could produce such fine tuned connections. In
contrast, the environment causes meaningful processing as the neurons adapt to stimuli presented. [3]
The capacity of the brain to adapt its connections to environmental stimuli diminishes over time, and
therefore, it would follow that there is a critical period for intellectual development as well. While the critical
period for the visual cortex ends in early childhood, other cortical areas and abilities have a critical period that
lasts up through maturity. In order for a person to develop certain intellectual abilities, they need to be
provided with the appropriate environmental stimuli during childhood, before the critical period for adapting
their neuronal connections ends. However, the critical period is observed at approximately the same age in all
people, no matter what level of intellectual ability is achieved.[4]

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Various environmental factors which have influence on intelligence are:

(I) Socio-cultural factors

a. Family:
Having access to resources of the home, and having a home life conducive to learning, definitely affects
scores on intelligence tests. However, it is difficult to disentangle possible genetic factors from a parent‟s
attitude or use of language.[5] A child‟s ordinal position in their family has also been shown to affect
intelligence. A number of studies have indicated that as birth order increases IQ decreases with first borns
having especially superior intelligence. Many explanations for this have been proposed but the most widely
accepted idea is that first borns receive more attention and resources from parents and are expected to focus
on task achievement, whereas later borns are more focused on sociability.[6]
The type and amount of praise received from family also affects how intelligence develops. Research done by
Carol Dweck et al. has shown that the type of feedback the family gives a child on their academic
achievements can shape their future intelligence scores. Telling a child that they are intelligent and praising
them for this „intrinsic‟ quality indicates that intelligence is fixed, known as entity theory. A child holding
entity theory is likely to believe that there is no point in them trying to challenge themselves because if they
fail in some task it means that they are not intelligent. According to other theory; incremental theory which
states that intelligence can be improved upon with effort. Children who hold this theory are more likely to
develop a love for learning rather than for achievement. Parents who praise the child‟s effort at a task rather
than the result are more likely to instill this incremental theory of intelligence in their children and thus to
improve their intelligence.[7]
b. Peer group:
An individual's peer group influences their intelligence greatly over time, and that different peer group
characteristics may be responsible for the black-white IQ gap. Several longitudinal studies support the
conjecture that peer groups significantly affect scholastic achievement,[8,9] but relatively few studies have
examined the effect on tests of cognitive ability. However, there is some evidence that peer groups influence
tests of cognitive ability also.[10]
The peer group, an individual identifies can also influence intelligence through the stereotypes associated with
that group. Claude Steele first introduced the stereotype threat. People belonging to a stereotyped group may
perform poorly in a situation where the stereotype is relevant. This has been shown to be a factor in
differences in intelligence test scores between different ethnic groups, men and women, people of low and
high social status and young and old participants.[11]
c. Education:
There is controversy as to whether education affects intelligence in that education has a complicated
relationship with intelligence; it is both a dependent and independent variable.[5] Previously measured
intelligence has been shown to predict educational achievement and attainment. The correlation between IQ
and educational attainment is somewhere between .40 and .60.[12] Those who did better on intelligence tests in
their childhood tend to have a lower education dropout rate, and complete more years of school, therefore
making intelligence a predictive factor of how well someone will succeed in schooling. [5] Intelligence also
affects achievement in examinations with one study finding a correlation of 0.81 between general intelligence
and results.[13] However, on the other hand, education has been shown to improve a person‟s performance on
these intelligence tests, from a very young age.[5] One study illustrated the numerous ways in which education
can affect intelligence. It was found that IQ decreases during summer breaks from schooling, children with
delayed school entry have lower IQ's, those who dropout of education earlier have lower IQ's and children of
the same age but of one years less schooling have lower IQ scores. Thus, it is difficult to unravel the
interconnected relationship of IQ and education where both seem to affect one another. However, it appears
that quantity of schooling may be important as it underpins the cognitive processes of performance on IQ
tests.[14]

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d. Training and interventions:

Research done on the effectiveness of training and interventions and the degree to which fluid intelligence can
be increased; especially after the age of 16 is controversial. Fluid intelligence is typically thought of as
something more innate, and defined as immutable after maturity. However, one study demonstrated that, at
least for a period of time, fluid intelligence can be increased through training in increasing an adult‟s working
memory capacity. Working memory capacity is defined as the ability to remember something temporarily.[15]
A study by Blackwell et al. found that they could improve a child‟s mathematics achievement depending on
which theory of intelligence they were taught; incremental or entity theory. As per entity theory,
intelligence is fixed and cannot be altered by working harder. Incremental theory on the other hand assumes
that intelligence is malleable and can be developed and improved with effort. Over the course of a year, they
found that the student who had been taught the incremental theory of intelligence showed an upward
trajectory in grades in mathematics throughout the year whereas those who had been taught entity theory
showed no improvement. This indicates that teaching incremental theory may improve performance on
academic tasks. However, further research is needed to investigate whether the same results can be found for
general intelligence.[16]
Other studies have looked at improving intelligence and preventing cognitive decline by using cognition
enhancing substances known as nootropics. One such study gave participants a number of know nootropics in
combination in the hopes of targeting numerous cellular mechanisms and increasing the effects on cognition
that each would have if administered individually. The results indicated a significant improvement in
performance for those who had taken the treatment compared to those taking the placebo. The effect was
equivalent to an increase in IQ of around 6 points.[17]
e. Environmental enrichment:
Environmental enrichment affects cognition and intellectual development from a neurobiological perspective.
More stimulating environments can increase the number of synapses in the brain which increases synaptic
activity. In humans, this is most likely to occur during the development of the brain but can also occur in
adults. Most of the research on environmental enrichment has been carried out on non human animals.[3]
In an experiment, four different habitats were set up to test how environmental enrichment or relative
impoverishment affected rats‟ performance on various measures of intelligent behavior. First, rats were
isolated, each to its own cage. In a second condition, the rats were still in isolation, but this time they had
some toy, or enriching object in the cage with them. The third condition placed the rats in cages with each
other, so they were receiving social enrichment, without any enriching object. The fourth and final condition
exposed the rats to both social interaction and some form of object enrichment. In measuring intellectual
capacity, the rats who had both forms of enrichment performed best, the ones with social enrichment
performed second best, and the ones with a toy in their cage performed still better than the rats with no toy or
other rats. When the volume of the rat's cortices was measured the amount of enrichment again correlated with
larger volume, which is an indicator of more synaptic connections, and greater intelligence.[18] Attaining this
sort of information in humans would be difficult as it requires histological research. However, studies where
environmental deprivation has occurred provide insight and indicate that a lack of stimulation can lead to
cognitive impairment.

(II) Biological factors

a. Nutrition:
Nutrition has been shown to affect intelligence prenatally and postnatally. Barker cited nutrition as being one
of the most important intrauterine influences affecting development and that under-nutrition could
permanently change the physiology and development of the child.[19] It has been shown that under-nutrition,
particularly protein malnutrition, can lead to irregular brain maturation and learning disabilities. As prenatal
nutrition is difficult to measure, birth weight has been used as a surrogate marker of nutrition in many studies.

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Birth weight needs to be corrected for gestational length to ensure that the effects are due to nutrition and not
prematurity.[20]
The first longitudinal study looking at the effects of under-nutrition, as measured by birth weight, and
intelligence focused on males who were born during the Dutch famine. The results indicated that there were
no effects of under-nutrition on intellectual development. Post-natal malnutrition can also have a significant
influence on intellectual development. This relationship has been harder to establish because the issue of
malnutrition is often conflated with socioeconomic issues. However, it has been demonstrated in a few studies
where pre-schoolers were given protein nutrition supplements for several years, and even in the
lowest socioeconomic class, those children showed an increase in performance on intelligence tests, relative to
controls with no dietary supplement.[5]
Malnutrition has been shown to affect organizational processes of the brain such as neurogenesis, synaptic
pruning, cell migration and cellular differentiation. Thus, this results in abnormalities in the formation of
neural circuits and the development of neurotransmitter systems. However, some of these effects of
malnutrition have been shown to be improved upon with a good diet and environment.[20]
Another study done by Lucas et al. confirms the conclusions about the importance of nutrition in the cognitive
development of individuals born prematurely. It also found that the cognitive function of males was
significantly more impaired by poorer postnatal nutrition.[21] Breast feeding has long been purported to supply
important nutrients to infants and has been correlated with increased cognitive gains later in childhood. The
link between intelligence and breast feeding has even been shown to persist into adulthood. [22] However, this
view has been challenged in recent times by studies which have found no such link between breast feeding
and cognitive abilities. A meta-analysis by Der, Batty and Deary concluded that there was no link between IQ
and breastfeeding when maternal intelligence had been accounted for and that mothers' intelligence is likely to
be the link between breastfeeding and intelligence.[23]
A study done in provides a possible resolution to the different results found across studies investigating
breastfeeding‟s effect on intelligence. Caspi et al. found that whether breast feeding increased IQ was linked
to whether the infant had a certain variant of the FADS2 gene. Children with the C variant of the gene showed
an IQ advantage of 7 points when breastfed, whereas those with the GG variant showed no IQ advantages
with breastfeeding.[24]
b. Stress:
Maternal stress levels may affect the developing child‟s intelligence. The timing and duration of stress can
greatly alter the fetus‟ brain development which can have long-term effects on intelligence. Maternal reactions
to stress such as increased heart rate are dampened during pregnancy in order to protect the fetus. The impact
of stress can be seen across many different species and can be an indicator of the outside environment which
can help the fetus to adapt for surviving in the outside world. However, not all maternal stress has been
perceived as bad as some has been seen to induce advantageous adaptions.[25]
Stress during early childhood may also affect the child‟s development and have negative consequences on
neural systems underlying fluid intelligence. A 2006 study found that IQ scores were related to the number of
traumas and symptoms of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) in children and adults.[26] Similarly, another
study found that exposure to violence in the community and the subsequent distress, were related to a
significant decrease in intelligence scores and reading abilities in children aged 6–7 years. Exposure to
violence in the community had similar cognitive affects as experiencing childhood maltreatment or trauma. [27]
c. Maternal age:
Maternal age has been shown to be related to intelligence with younger mothers tended to have children of
lower intelligence than older mothers.[28]
d. Exposure to toxic chemicals and other substances:
Lead exposure has been proven to have significant effects on the intellectual development of a child. In a
long-term study done by Baghurst et al. in 1992, children who grew up next to a lead-smelting plant had
significantly lower intelligence test scores, negatively correlated with their blood-lead level exposure. Even
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though lead levels have been reduced in our environment, some areas in the United States, particularly inner
cities, are still at risk for exposing their children.[5]
Furthermore, prenatal exposure to alcohol can greatly affect a child‟s performance on intelligence tests, and
their intellectual growth. At high doses, fetal alcohol syndrome can develop, which causes mental retardation,
as well as other physical symptoms, such as head and face deformities, heart defects and slow growth.[5] It is
estimated that 1 in 1,000 babies born in the general population are born with fetal alcohol syndrome, as a
result of heavy use of alcohol during pregnancy.[21]
However, studies have shown that even at slightly less severe doses, prenatal exposure to alcohol can still
affect the intelligence of the child in development, without having the full syndrome. Through a study done by
Streissguth, Barr, Sampson, Darby, and Martin in 1989, it was shown that moderate prenatal doses of alcohol,
defined as the mother ingesting 1.5 oz. daily, lowered children‟s test scores by 4 point below control levels, by
the age of four. They also showed that prenatal exposure to aspirin and antibiotics is correlated with lower
performance on intelligence tests as well.[5] However, more recent studies have found that low to moderate
alcohol consumption is not associated with children‟s intelligence scores.[29] This contradictory evidence could
perhaps be explained by findings that the effects of alcohol may depend on the genetic makeup of the fetus. In
a recent study Lewis et al., looked at alcohol dehydrogenase genes and their mutations, which humans can
have between 0 and 10. These mutations slow the breakdown of alcohol so the more mutations the fetus has
the slower they will breakdown alcohol. They found that in children whose mothers had drank moderately,
those children with four or more mutations performed worse on an intelligence test than those with two or less
mutations.[30]
In another study, prenatal drug exposure was shown to have significantly negative effects on cognitive
functioning, as measured at the age of five, compared again controls matched for socioeconomic status and
inner-city environment. The researchers concluded that prenatally drug-exposed children are at greater risk
for learning difficulties and attention problems in school, and therefore should be the subject of interventions
to support educational success.[31]
Exposure to tobacco smoking has been associated with diminished intelligence and attentional
problems.[32] One study indicated that children whose mothers had smoked 10 or more cigarettes a day were
between 3 and 5 months behind schoolmates in reading, maths and general ability.[33] However, other studies
have found no direct link between IQ and tobacco smoking with maternal intelligence accounting entirely for
the relationship.[34]
f. Perinatal factors:
There is also evidence that birth complications and other factors around the time of birth (perinatal) can have
serious implications on intellectual development. Also, low birth weights have been linked to lower
intelligence scores later in lives of the children. There are two reasons for low birth weight, either premature
delivery or the infant‟s size is just lower than average for itsgestational age; both contribute to intellectual
deficits later in life.[5] A meta analysis of low birth weight babies found that there is a significant relationship
between low birth weight and impaired cognitive abilities; however, the relationship is small, and they
concluded that, although it may not be relevant at an individual level, it may instead be relevant at a
population level.[35] Other studies have also found that the correlations are relatively small unless the weight is
extremely low (less than 1,500 g) in which case the effects on intellectual development are more severe and
often result in mental retardation.[5]
Genius development
It has been hypothesized that the development of genius in an area results from early environmental exposure
to the topic in which the “genius” has prodigious knowledge or skill. This is utilizing the definition of genius
that is not just a significantly higher than average IQ score, but also having some type of exceptional
understanding or ability in a specific field. This fits with the model of development of fluid
intelligence before age of maturity because the neuronal connections are still being made in
childhood. However, Garlick proposes that early environmental experience with their field of genius, is
necessary but not sufficient to the development of genius.[3]
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Intelligence alone is not enough for the development of genius but the pathways and neural connections for
divergent thinking are also necessary. Thus, the home must encourage creativity. The parents of gifted
children tend to supply enriching environments with intellectually and culturally stimulating materials thus
increasing the child‟s likelihood to engage in creative activities. There are many environmental influences on
intelligence, typically divided into biological and non-biological factors, often involving social or cultural
factors. The commonality between these two divisions is the exposure in early childhood. It seems as though
exposure to these various positive or negative influences on intelligence levels needs to happen early on in the
development of the brain, before the neuronal connections have ceased forming. Parents of gifted children also
tend to have above average educational achievement and at least one tends to work in an intellectual
profession. There is also evidence that the probability of a gifted child becoming a genius may be increased if
the child has had to face adversity or trauma and that a traditional upbringing may encourage conformity and
discourage the necessary divergent thinking.[36]
Training at an early age reduces synaptic pruning, which helps save neurons and inturn helps in intelligence
development. Early musical training in children is said to improve IQ. Schellenberg conducted a study in
which children either received music lessons, drama lessons or no lessons and measured their intelligence
scores. He found that children in the music group showed a greater overall increase in IQ scores than the
children in the other groups.[37] However, a study claimed that musical training improves verbal, but not visual
memory.[38] Significant differences in brain structure between musicians and non-musicians have been found.
It was shown that there were significant differences in gray matter volume in motor, auditory and visual-
spatial regions of the brain. The authors suggest that this could in part be because musicians from a young age
translate visually perceived musical notes into motor commands whilst listening to the auditory output. [39]
Studies have shown that listening to Mozart before taking an IQ test will improve scores. This is called
the Mozart Effect. The Mozart Effect improves spatial-temporal reasoning.[40]
Studies have shown that chess requires auditory-verbal-sequential skills, not visuospatial skills.
A German study found that Garry Kasparov, a Russian former World Chess Champion, regarded by many
as the greatest chess player of all time, has an IQ of 135 and an extremely good memory. One study found that
students who were taking a chess class improved mathematical and comprehension performance.[41] Despite
this a recent study found that chess did not improve students‟ academic or cognitive abilities. At-risk students
were put into 2 groups: one group was given chess class once a week for 90 minutes, the other group was not.
The results indicated no differences between the groups in changes in math, reading, writing or general
intelligence.[42]

Conclusion
To summarize, development of intelligence is affected by various environmental influences like family, peer
group, education, training and intervention environmental enrichment. Despite this, biological influences i.e.
nutrition, stress, maternal age, perinatal factors, exposure to toxic chemicals and other substances also affects
intelligence and development of genius.

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