Simulation of Taylor Cone for

Electrospinning Process

Capstone Project
by

Karanvir Singh Grewal (18107048)

Avalnoor Singh (17107098)
V Arvind (17107008)
Ankit Kumar (18107042)
Akshat Gaur (18107113)
Ankesh Kumar Singh (16107098)

Supervisor: Dr. Mahesh Yadav

1
 Abstract

Electrospinning is Process of forming Nanofibers using Electrostatic forces to exert

force on Polymer solution and form the Jet. Surface Tension and Viscosity opposed
the Electro-static forces and once the electric forces start domination the Jet forms
the Computational Fluid Dynamic Simulation of this Transient process will be
Discussed In this work and also we try to Optimise the Electric Field for Different
Emitter Designs and then Further Simulate the process of Near field
electrospinning in Ansys and COMSOL Multiphysics. Once the Simulation of the
process is completed, we will compare the results with experimental values and
verify our Simulation. We will also discuss the various model we have used in the
Process and also try to understand the Physical processes involved in this process.
The utmost interest of the author is to Develop the Transient Simulation the Near
Field Electrospinning process and discuss the method Involved

2
3
 Contents
1. Introduction ................................................................................................................. 5

2. Basics of Electrospinning .............................................................................................. 7

2.1 General Theory ............................................................................................................................................ 7

2.1.1 Formation of Taylor Cone ..................................................................................................................... 8
2.1.2 Jet from Taylor cone in straight line ..................................................................................................... 9
2.1.3 Jet become thin in applied electric field and jet bending occur ......................................................... 10
2.1.4 Jet Solidification and collected on the collector ................................................................................. 11
2.2 Effect of parameters .................................................................................................................................. 12
2.2.1 Solution Parameters ........................................................................................................................... 13
2.2.2 Process Parameters ............................................................................................................................ 15
2.2.3 Environment Parameters .................................................................................................................... 17
3.2 Introduction to Solidworks ......................................................................................................................... 18
3.3 Designing of the Nozzle .............................................................................................................................. 19
3.5 Mesh .......................................................................................................................................................... 20
3. Simulation of Droplet formation ................................................................................ 21

3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ 21

3.2 Surface-Tension .......................................................................................................................................... 21
3.2.1 Curvature of the Droplet Due to Surface Tension .............................................................................. 22
3.2.2 Contact angle ...................................................................................................................................... 22
3.3 Ansys ........................................................................................................................................................... 23
3.4 Simulation for the Drop ............................................................................................................................. 24
3.4.1 Multiphase Model ............................................................................................................................... 24
3.4.2 Turbulence Model ............................................................................................................................... 25
3.5 Observations ............................................................................................................................................... 27
4. Coupling of Electric forces on the Fluid ....................................................................... 29

4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................... 29

4.2 Introduction to UDF ................................................................................................................................... 29
4.2.1 Macros ................................................................................................................................................ 30
4.2.2 Interpreting UDF .................................................................................................................................. 32
4.2.3 Compiling UDF .................................................................................................................................... 32
4.3 UDF used for Coupling ............................................................................................................................... 33
4.4 Results Using Ansys.................................................................................................................................... 34
5 Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 35

6 Future work ................................................................................................................. 35

References ..................................................................................................................... 36

4
1. Introduction

Electrospinning is a process of forming the Nanofibers using the Electric forces as

driving forces which provide the Momentum to the charged Polymer solution
coming from the emitter. In this work we will talk the computational fluid
Dynamic simulation of the processes Involved in Electrospinning process such as
Electric field Focussing using different design approaches and further simulate
the Tailor cone formation on the selected Design using the User Define Function
written in C language.

In this whole work will talk about near field electrospinning and build a frame
work for further Advancements in this field. As of Now there is not much
Commercial product available in the market which use the electrospinning process
for an Commercial purpose. This technology has been used for the fabrication of
nano particles as drug/medicine carriers for bio-medical purposes.[1–5] To develop
a concept Design which is able to fulfil user specific demand it is very Important
to first develop the Simulation of such product and the Basis of such simulation,
we will Discuss in this work.

We will also Discuss the working of Some widely used Software such as
ANSYS,COMSOL Multiphysics, Solidworks as for further Advancements it is
important to understand the Definite models used In the Simulation Processes.

This primary Divided into three Parts as follow:

• Focussing of the Electric Field
• Simulation of Surface forces
• Simulation of Electric forces

5
We have to simulate the Interactions between the Maxwell Stress tensor which is
a driving force in whole process and the Surface tension which held the Liquid
together. As we Increase the Electric Potential Electric forces start domination
and at a critical voltage theatrically from the point where the electric field is
maximum the jet of Polymer solution get injected and equilibrium established as
current start flowing and circuit completes.

If the Distance between the Emitter and the collector is large then, As the jet dries
in flight, the mode of current flow changes from ohmic to convective as the charge
migrates to the surface of the fibre. The jet is then elongated by a whipping process
caused by electrostatic repulsion initiated at small bends in the fibre, until it is
finally deposited on the grounded collector. The elongation and thinning of the
fibres resulting from this bending instability leads to the formation of uniform
fibres with nanometre-scale diameters[6]. But in this work we will talk about the
Near field Electrospinning and try to form straight jet and in advancements of this
work we will also focussed it using different techniques.

First we will optimised the Design as we know Taylor cone is formed at the point
maximum electric field so initial we try to focus the electric field at the centre of
the Nozzle and afterwards we will Simulate the Electrospinning process on that
selected Design in Ansys using the C program as there is no inbuilt feature for
simulation the electric forces in Ansys fluent and Also in COMSOL Multiphysics.

6
2. Basics of Electrospinning

2.1 General Theory

When the polymer solution which is conductive in nature is exposed to an electric
field, It start deforming from the state caused by the Surface Tension of the
Liquid to a cone like structure at that point electric force is a prominent effect as
compare to the surface tension. The electric force effect increases with increase
in the voltage and at a certain threshold voltage the Polymer liquid overpass the
surface forces and get emitted from the tip of previously formed cone of the shape
of a straight generatrix (cone) with a whole angle (width) of 98.6°[7], this voltage
we refer as critical voltage for electrospinning.

The electrospinning process can be divided into four parts

1. Formation of Taylor cone
2. Jet in straight line
3. Jet become thin in applied electric field bending occur
4. Jet Solidification and collected on the collector

Figure 1 Basic Structure of Electrospinning Process [26)

7
2.1.1 Formation of Taylor Cone

In 1964 Sir Geoffrey Ingram Taylor

observe this phenomena and
discrive it theoratically in his work
of Disintegration of water droplet in
an electric field.
Taylor (1964) described the
hydrostatic structure of what we Figure 2 Taylor Cone
shall call the pure Taylor cone, in which a balance between capillary and
electrostatic stresses is satisfied exactly on the surface of an equipotential cone.

𝛄𝛁 · 𝐧 − 𝟏 /𝟐 𝛆𝐨(𝛁𝛗)𝟐 = 𝐩

When there is no space charge in air then the φ can be written as follow in
spherical coordinates
𝛗 = 𝒂 𝟎 𝐫 𝟏/𝟐 𝐏𝟏/𝟐 (𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉)
γ = Interfacial tension between the conductor and the insulator
n = Normal to the surface
∇.n = curvature
εo = electric permittivity of the insulator
p = pressure in the conducting liquid above that in the insulator

𝒂−𝟐
𝟎 = 𝟏 /𝟐 𝛄
−𝟏 𝟐
𝛆𝐨𝐏𝟏/𝟐 (𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛂𝑻 ) 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝛂𝑻 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟓𝟐(𝜺𝒐/𝜸) 𝟏/𝟐

Calculating ∇.n for a Taylor cone of angle 𝛼 𝑇 fixes the constant 𝑎 0 as given in
Equation above, also putting p = 0. The cone angle αT (180◦ − 49.29◦) is fixed by
Equation below after demanding that the surface be equipotential

𝐏𝟏/𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛂𝑻 = 𝟎

8
2.1.2 Jet from Taylor cone in straight line

Once the Jet get injected from the Taylor Cone Due to the Columbic Force acted
on it, It tend to move in the straight line along the electric field lines. Due to this
reason it is important to optimised the electric field line in the used Specified
manner. It can be done by Different techniques that we will talk later.

The Columbic Force accelerate the jet and make is narrower in the same way tap
water falling under the gravity split into droplets but rather in this case there is
polymer solution in the liquid Due to which the jet don’t break into droplets rather
minimised its Diameter to the Nanoscale and Propagate in the Direction of the
electric field. As the Jet propagate the Surface area of the jet also increase and
evaporation of the solution.

Figure 3 Injected Jet From Taylor Cone

9
2.1.3 Jet become thin in applied electric field and jet bending occur

After Some distance travelling straight along the electric field the Jet solution
evaporate and the Plastic deformation due to high electric forces starts taking
place and resulting in ultrafine fibre diameter and leads to an unstable and
whipping motion of the jet, which is generally termed bending instability[8].
To eliminate this bending instability Near field Electrospinning usually work in
the range of 500um to 3mm.

Figure 4 Instability in the formed Jet

10
2.1.4 Jet Solidification and collected on the collector

As the Solvent get evaporate only the polymer left behind in the Jet and this
phenomena is refer as jet solidification which when get deposited on the Collector
is only Dry fibre. As Discuss earlier the evaporation of the jet start place from the
very first point and rate of evaporation increased as the surface area increased
under the Coulombic forces and sometime get fully evaporated. The rate of
solidification can be controlled by the Concentration of the Solution, Voltage
applied, Distance between emitter and collector, type of the solvent used and also
depend upon the environmental factors like temperature and humidity of the
Sounding air.

It is important to control this process because if the solidification occur too fast
result in loss of material and it do not get solidify at proper time can cause the
Defects in the Smoothness of the Fibres. As Shown in the Image we can see
different defects in the fiber due to Solidification
(a) smooth fibres
(b) flattened fibres
(c) wrinkled fibres
(d) merged fibres

Figure 5 (a) Smooth Fibre, (b) flattened fibres, (c) wrinkled Fibres,
(d) merged fibres[28-29]

11
2.2 Effect of parameters

The process of electrospinning is affected by various parameters which can be

divided in main three variables and sub-divided in to various parameter listed
below. If we optimised these parameters we can control the electrospinning
process for desire morphology.

• Solution Parameters
o Concentration
o Molecular Structure
o Solution viscosity
o Surface tension
o Electrical conductivity:
o Dielectric constant
o Volatility:
o Solvent choice:

• Processing parameters
o Voltage
o Flow rate
o Emitter
o Emitter-to-collector distance

• Environment Parameters
o Temperature
o humidity

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2.2.1 Solution Parameters

Concentration
The concentration of the polymer solution is a major factor affecting the Diameter
as well as morphology of the fibres. The is a lower limit for the Concentration often
called critical concentration 𝑐𝑒 which is needed below this instead of
electrospinning electro spraying occur and instead of jet, droplets form. And at
values above 𝑐𝑒 fibre diameter increase. The value of 𝑐𝑒 depend upon the Molecular
structure as discuss below.

Molecular Structure
The polymer molecular weight inversely affects the value of 𝑐𝑒 (critical
concentration) required for electrospinning[9]. The longer the Polymer is lower the
value of 𝑐𝑒 is there. Some time there is cross linkage or branches in polymer lead
to high molecular weight which do not lower the value of 𝑐𝑒

Solution viscosity
Viscosity reveal the degree of polymer molecular chain entanglement in a solution.
The viscosity is effected by the molecular weight of the polymer and the properties
of the solvent used to form the solution. With the lower viscosity instead of jet
droplet forms and with high-viscosity jet can lead to the formation of thick
flattened ribbon-like fibres[10 -11].

Figure 6 Viscosity effect on Jet morphology

13
Surface tension
Surface tenting with the viscosity
help the solution to stick together to
the emitter and act opposite to the
electrostatic forces. Higher the
Surface tension is more the Applied
voltage is required to form the
Taylor cone and also lead to higher
potential leaks from the surface
and make the Taylor Cane as well
as the jet unstable and can cause
defects in the fibres formed in the
process.
Figure 7 Forces acting in the Taylor cone

Electrical conductivity
Electric conductivity of the fluid mean the current holding capacity of the fluid
and higher the value is more the electrostatic force will act on the liquid and easier
it is to form the Jet under lower applied voltage. And also cause the fibres to get
more thinner. By adding the small amount of inorganic salts one can easily
increase the conductivity of the solution. But with high electric conductivity ( more
then 0.5 S 𝑚−1) can cause the jet to be unstable by high amount of electric
discharge to the Surrounding air[12]

Volatility
Volatility of the solution mean the evaporation taking place in solution which has
a great role in diameter and the morphology of the fibre. High volatile solvent
cause solidification before needed and trap the solvent in the fibre and cause
defects in fibre.

14
Solvent choice
The choice of solvent highly affect the electrospinning process as a lot of parameter
like Viscosity, Surface Tension, electrical conductivity, Volatility, dielectric
constant depend upon the properties of the solvent thus it is very important to
carefully choose the solvent

2.2.2 Process Parameters

Voltage
A minimum voltage is require to initiate the process of electrospinning. This
threshold voltage sometime known as critical voltage depend upon mainly two
factors viscosity and surface tension as these are the opposing forces in the Taylor
cone formation

𝑉𝑐 = critical voltage
H = Distance between emitter and collector
L = capillary length
R = capillary radius
𝛾 = surface tension

If we further increase the voltage the increase in degree of whipping instability

also happen and elongate the jet fibre and also sometime multiple jet can be
observe from the droplet. Some studies observe that with increase in voltage fibre
diameter decrease [13]and some shows increase in fibre diameter.[14]

15
Studies also found that we can use AC voltage as well with positive terminal at
Emmiter but in AC fibre formation is with non-uniform diameter on positive
polarity fibre diameter is smaller and at negative polarity fibre diameter is
larger[15-16]

Flow rate
The rate at which the solution come out from the needle is refer as flow rate. With
increase In flow rate the fibre thickness also increase at a fix voltage and cause
the defects in the fibre and also can cause to form multiple jet from the droplet is
flow rate further increase.
If we instead reduce the rate of mass flow can increase the time require but help
in stabilizing the process

Emitter
There emitter are the small needles with small orifice diameter usually below
2mm. Smaller the diameter help in forming narrow fibre diameter. But some
time small diameter is vulnerable of becoming blocked.

Emitter to Collector Distance

With the decrease in Emitter to Collector
Distance electric field strength increase and
the value of critical value also decrease. Also
with decrease in distance the flight time also
decrease and complete evaporation may not
take place and can cause the problems so in
standard optimum range is ussaly between
100mm to 200 mm. larger the distance is
narrower the diameter of fibre is. In near field
electrospinning this distance is between 2-
3mm.
Figure 8 Jet Behaviour with Distance

16
2.2.3 Environment Parameters

Environment Parameters such as temperature and humidity effect the standard

electrospinning process by changing the fibre diameter but in near field
electrospinning these parameters have very little direct effect.

Temperature
With change in Temperature the rate of evaporation changes and effect the
Diameter of the Fibre formed in the electrospinning process. As the temperature
increase the rate of evaporation also increase and decrease the diameter of the
fibre but In Near field electrospinning it does not affect the diameter but effect the
surface tension of the liquid. As with increase in temperature the Surface tension
decrease, and low critical voltage is required but this effect is negligible

Humidity
With change in Humidity the rate of evaporation changes and effect the Diameter
of the Fibre formed in the electrospinning process. As the Humidity increase the
rate of evaporation decrease and increase the diameter of the fibre but In Near
field electrospinning it does not affect the diameter of the jet.

17
3.2 Introduction to Solidworks

Solidworks is a computer aided design as well as computer aided engineering

software used in the research as well as in industry. This software is developed by
the Dassault Systems a France bases multinational company primarily used in
Microsoft Windows. It is first released in 1995 by the Dassault systems and today
it is widely used in the world by more then 165000 company’s and revenue of
across 2 billions USD in 2019-2020.[18]

SolidWorks is a solid modeler, and utilizes a parametric feature-based approach

which was initially developed by PTC (Creo/Pro-Engineer) to create models and
assemblies. The software is written on Parasolid-kernel.
Building a model in SolidWorks usually starts with a 2D sketch (although 3D
sketches are available for power users). The sketch consists of geometry such as
points, lines, arcs, conics (except the hyperbola), and splines. Dimensions are
added to the sketch to define the size and location of the geometry. Relations are
used to define attributes such as tangency, parallelism, perpendicular, and
concentricity. The parametric nature of SolidWorks means that the dimensions
and relations drive the geometry, not the other way around. The dimensions in the
sketch can be controlled independently, or by relationships to other parameters
inside or outside the sketch.

In an assembly, the analogy to sketch relations are mates. Just as sketch relations
define conditions such as tangency, parallelism, and concentricity with respect to
sketch geometry, assembly mates define equivalent relations with respect to the
individual parts or components, allowing the easy construction of assemblies.
SolidWorks also includes additional advanced mating features such as gear and
cam follower mates, which allow modelled gear assemblies to accurately reproduce
the rotational movement of an actual gear train.

Figure 9 Solidworks Icon

18
3.3 Designing of the Nozzle

We have gone through lot of different design available in the market to designed
the a perfect Nozzle that has high concentration of electric field at the tip of the
Nozzle and will be in the range of micrometres. For the Simulation in COMSOL
Multiphysics we have developed a lot of different CAD (computer Aided Design)
files in Solidworks as shown in the Figure below. We also have to built the
encloser in which we want to see the electric field lines which can be done by
using the assembly feature where we can assemble different parts namely
1) Nozzle
2) Collector
3) Encloser Volume

Figure 10 Emitter Computer Aided Design

After building the CAD design we Convert the file to Parasolid file. As this file
format can be used in vide range of Software like Solidworks, Ansys, COMSOL
Multiphysics, Catia and many more and also give Precise Definition of the
Geometry we have developed.

19
3.5 Mesh

In a Finite element analysis, solver just have the equations which it can solve
multiple time for a simple element in a homogeneous manner. Meshing is a
technique to break up he entire domain into small elements in which solver can
solve the equations.

Meshing become important when the Model is very huge or when we want more
precise results in specific area. When the model is very large to save the time
and Computational efforts, we change the mesh size to a large element where we
are of least concern and decrease the element size near the point of Interest.
Some examples where we need small elements
1. Near the Tip of the Nozzle from where the electric field have to be start
2. Along the path where we have an Idea of Jet Propagation
3. Near the wall the change of velocity is negligible to capture small changes

Some example where we need large elements

1) In the free are where the velocities are very low

There are also some exceptions where we cant go beyond a limit of element size
not due the computational efforts but due to solver limitations such as in DPM
Module the mesh size can not be less the 1000% of the Discrete particle. But
Most of the time It get limited due to Computational efforts only.

In figure we can see the Mesh of the

Model we have used. Where we can see
the Small elements near the tip and
large element far away as discussed
before.

Figure 11 Emitter Meshing

20
3. Simulation of Droplet formation

3.1 Introduction

In the process of Forming the Taylor Cone It is important to understand the

Surface phenomena’s that produce the opposite force to that of electric field and
stop the Taylor cone formation below a threshold voltage. Once the Electric field
exceed the Critical threshold voltage on after that the jet can ejected from the
cone. With the increase in Surface-tension the threshold voltage also increased
and make it difficult to Inject the Jet.
We will also discuss about the Surface Contact angle of the Liquid with the wall
of the Nozzle. To simulate the Drop formation we have used the Ansys
Simulation software

3.2 Surface-Tension
Due to Inter molecular foces the liquis extend cohesive force on molecules and pull
equally in each direction but at the surface there is only inward force as there is
no molecules there at the top of the surface or only air molecules have very less
intermolecular forces this Phenomena cause the surface to act like stretch
membrane and the force developed by this is when divided by the effective length
give us the Surface.
1𝐹
𝛾=
2𝐿

γ = surface tension.
F = Force
L = Length

21
4.2.1 Curvature of the Droplet Due to Surface Tension
The pressure on one side of the surface differs from pressure on the other side,
the pressure difference times surface area results in a normal force. In order for
the surface tension forces to cancel the force due to pressure, the surface must be
curved.

1 1
∆𝑝 = 𝛾 ( + )
𝑅𝑥 𝑅𝑦

Δp = the pressure difference

γ = surface tension.

Rx , Ry = Radius of Curvature

4.2.2 Contact angle

The surface of any liquid is an interface between that liquid and some other
medium. The top surface of a pond, for example, is an interface between the pond
water and the air. Surface tension, then, is not a property of the liquid alone, but
a property of the liquid's interface with another medium. If a liquid is in a
container, then besides the liquid/air interface at its top surface, there is also an
interface between the liquid and the walls of the container. The surface tension
between the liquid and air is usually different (greater) than its surface tension
with the walls of a container. And where the two surfaces meet, their geometry
must be such that all forces balance.[19-20]

Figure 12 Contact Angle at wall

22
3.3 Ansys

Ansys develops and markets engineering simulation software for use across the
product life cycle. Ansys Mechanical finite element analysis software is used to
simulate computer models of structures, electronics, or machine components for
analysing strength, toughness, elasticity, temperature distribution,
electromagnetism, fluid flow, and other attributes.[21]
ANSYS is a simulation Software widely used in industry to simulate Complex
CFD(computational fluid Dynamics) as well as FEA(Finite element analysis)
problem. To Form the Droplet we have used the Multiphase model with the
Volume of Fluid method but later change the model to Eulerian model about which
we will discuss in Next chapter.
We have used the Ansys Fluent to form the drop it run the Mathematical
equations in every mesh element and give us a very near reality approximate
results. For the formation of Drop we have run the Transient simulation which
mean it depend upon the Time and also increase the Computational efforts.
For the Drop Formation we have taken the Simple geometry and mesh is using
the Ansys Mechanical and then using the Ansys fluent we have Simulate the Drop.

Figure 13 ANSYS Icon

23
3.4 Simulation for the Drop

A simple 2D face was build and meshed in Ansys Mechanical. Then In Ansys
Fluent using Multiphase Model and k-𝜔 SST model is used to Simulate the Surface
forces and the Viscus flow forces.

4.4.1 Multiphase Model

It is a model used when we have to distinguish between two Phase such as water
and old or water and Air. It is sub-divided in to different model which give us the
option to solve the Continuity equations of both phase simultaneously or
Independently of each phase. As we know we have to later couple the electric field
into One phase only so we have used more complex Independently phase solver
called Eulerian Model.

Eulerian multiphase model

The Eulerian multiphase model in ANSYS FLUENT allows for the modeling of
multiple separate, yet interacting phases. The phases can be liquids, gases, or
solids in nearly any combination. An Eulerian treatment is used for each phase,
in contrast to the Eulerian-Lagrangian treatment that is used for the discrete
phase model.

With the Eulerian multiphase model, the number of secondary phases is limited
only by memory requirements and convergence behavior. Any number of
secondary phases can be modeled, provided that sufficient memory is available.
For complex multiphase flows, however, you may find that your solution is limited
by convergence behavior.[22]

24
4.4.2 Turbulence Model
Turbulence models are used to take into account the influences of small turbulent
eddies with less effort. Turbulence models usually increase the number of
conservation equations considered in the flow, But provide additional equations
for their determination. Due to these additional conservation equations, there is
no need for an extremely fine network like when considering the complete Navier-
Stokes equations, so that despite additional variables the
Computational effort is reduced [23].
The most popular models are two-equation models, in which two additional
differential equations are considered to determine the eddy viscosity. In these
In models, the turbulence is assumed to be isotropic. A complete vortex simulation
is possible, for example, with the help of large eddy simulations, which has been
the case up to now
However, these are only applied to simple currents and are therefore of
subordinate importance in commercial industrial use [17].
There is no best universal turbulence model. Each turbulence model has its own
range of validity and certain advantages and disadvantages, such as the
computational effort or the simulation of special phenomena. So it is important to
be familiar with the to be familiar with the turbulence model used and not to use
it as a black box. Turbulence models can be divided into classes in different ways.
So there is Turbulence models for very large Reynolds numbers and turbulence
models which are better Provide results in the range of low Reynolds numbers.
Turbulence models considered for low Reynolds numbers.

Laminar model
In laminar flows, there are no high-frequency eddies (turbulence) in the flow. It is
therefore sufficient to consider the Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes. Equations
without additional modelling of the energy caused by turbulent eddies dissipated.
The dimensionless Reynolds number, which describes the ratio of inertia to
viscosity forces in a fluid, is used to differentiate between flow regimes, in where
turbulence tends to be reduced and flow regimes in which Increase turbulence or

25
even arise by itself. This means that even with a Reynolds number of 𝑅𝑒 <𝑅𝑒𝑘𝑟𝑖𝑡
= 2300 turbulences can occur, which can however, usually do not reinforce
yourself. Straight, sharp-edged deflections and Rapid enlargements of the cross-
section promote turbulence. In the case of the nozzle dealt with here, there is a
discontinuous cross-sectional enlargement at the outlet. As a rule, free jets also
decay turbulently with Reynolds numbers 𝑅𝑒 ≪ 2300. A characteristic for no
longer negligible turbulence can be a worsened one be convergence. The
convergence of a laminar calculated pipe flow deteriorates in the transition to the
turbulent regime with an increasing Reynolds number. Convergence should still
not be the only criterion, since converged laminar ones too Solutions may exist,
but which are physically impossible. Existing eddies, on the other hand, are not a
sign of turbulence - they are physical in addition to turbulent eddies, there are
also laminar stationary and laminar unsteady eddies possible.

𝑘-𝜖 model
The 𝑘-𝜖 model is a transport model. Since the turbulence is described by two
equations, it belongs to the group of two-equation models. The distribution of the
Turbulence in the fluid is assumed here with the help of transport equations. The
Reynolds stresses are modeled by a single parameter, the eddy viscosity. Therefore
the turbulence model is isotropic. As a characteristic measure of length or time the
turbulent kinetic energy 𝑘 and the Dissipation rate 𝜖 used. Correction terms must
be introduced near the wall in order to be able to take into account the layers
formed here. Generally it is 𝑘-𝜖 model relatively robust, making it one of the most
widely used turbulence models [23].
It makes good predictions for the turbulence inside currents, however detachment
of the flow from the wall is recognized too late [24].

26
𝑘-𝜔 model
The 𝑘-𝜔 model is also an isotropic two-equation model. In contrast to the 𝑘-𝜖
However, in addition to the turbulent kinetic energy 𝑘, the model is also the
turbulent frequency 𝜔 used. This leads to better results near the wall, but it is the
𝑘-𝜖 Model inferior in the interior of currents [24].

𝑘-𝜔 𝑆𝑆𝑇 model

The 𝑘-𝜔-𝑆𝑆𝑇 model (SST = Shear-Stress Transport) offers a combination of the
respective advantages of the 𝑘-𝜖 and the 𝑘-𝜔 model. It is also a two-equation model,
which is robust and with acceptable computing times, the turbulence in the
modelled the entire flow field. Therefore, it is considered industrial today
Standard [24]. At this point it should be pointed out again that the turbulence in
the model can be regarded as isotropic, which in many applications is a
simplification of the actual anisotropic turbulence is.

3.5 Observations

With Proper Parameter Setting First we have Patch a volume of water in the
required number of cell in the mesh and then run the transient simulation to
observe the Formations of Drop In figure below we can See a proper drop with
contact angle of 90 degree with the surface.

Figure 14 Drop Formed In ANSYS-Fluent

27
After the formation of droplet we have to change the parameter such as contact
angle to the practical observations that Dr. Bharat observe in the lab to 15 Degree
Contact angle and we get the following results from the transient Simulation.

Figure 15 Drop formed when we Decreased the Contact Angle to 15 degree

28
4. Coupling of Electric forces on the Fluid

4.1 Introduction
In ANSYS software there is no direct way to couple the electric forces generated
by the potential difference to the conductive Fluid. It can only be done using user
define Function(UDF). Which is a programme written in C language to implement
the user derive equations to the Simulation model. After the Coupling to UDF we
can generate the electric field from the potential difference and can transfer the
momentum develop by the electric forces on the fluid to the Fluid source term. And
make the fluid move with respect to time due to the electric forces. Which is the
similar scenario we observe in Taylor cone. Once the forces get couple we can
simulate the Taylor cone in Ansys fluent. But It is Difficult to Simulate all the
Parameters like Potential variation and Velocity Variation and all these
Multiphysics in ANSYS. For Better optimization COMSOL Multiphysics has been
used for further Investigation.

4.2 Introduction to UDF

A user-defined function, or UDF, is a C function that can be dynamically loaded

with the ANSYS Fluent solver to enhance its standard features[25] . For example,
you can use a UDF to:

• Customize boundary conditions, material property definitions, surface

and volume reaction rates, source terms in ANSYS Fluent transport
equations, source terms in user-defined scalar (UDS) transport
equations, diffusivity functions, and so on.
• Adjust computed values on a once-per-iteration basis.
• Initialize of a solution.
• Perform asynchronous (on demand) execution of a UDF.

29
 • Execute at the end of an iteration, upon exit from ANSYS Fluent, or
upon loading of a compiled UDF library.
• Enhance postprocessing.
So In simple words UDF is a C programme that we Interpreted or compile in Ansys
fluent to enhance its features. In our case the electric forces are not available in
the fluent for that we have to write a User define Function which define the
Electro-static force equations and give us the force exerted on the fluid by the
electric field defined by the electric potential in the UDF.

There are some thing that we have to understand before writing a UDF.
1. Macros
2. Interpreting UDF
3. Compiling UDF

5.2.1 Macros
When we Include udf.h file a number of predefine functions, defined by the ANSYS
get included in the program and we can use them in our Program. There are a
huge number of Marcos define by the Ansys for example:
• Define Marcos
• Data Access Marcos
• Looping Marcos
• Vector and Dimensional Marcos
• Input/Output Marcos
And many mode but we will primary discuss about the Macros used in our UDF
program such as
• DEFINE_SOURCE
• NV_VEC
• NV_VS
• NV_DOT

30
DEFINE_SOURCE
It is a Specific Marcos used for solving different types of transport equations
which include:
• Mass
• Momentum

• Energy

• species mass fractions

• P1 radiation model

• user-defined scalar (UDS) transport

• granular temperature

In our case we have to include the forces in Momentum, so we have to use

this Marcos in our UDF

NV_VEC
It is a simple Vector Marcos use for defining the Vector In a program
For example, x is a vector we will define as
Real NV_VEC(x);
It defines x as a vector.

NV_VS
In is also a Marcos used to multiply vector to a Scaler.
For example
a, x are a vector
NV_VS(a, =, x, any scaler);

31
5.2.2 Interpreting UDF
Interpreting UDF mean coupling of the UDF source file to simulation in a Single
Step. Once you go to the Interpreting Dialog and load the user define function the
ANSYS fluent interpreted it line wise and couple the equations said in UDF to the
Solver. It is important to note for interpreting UDF in ANSYS fluent, UDF must
contain udf.h file. Most of the time all the simple work we only deal with
interpreting UDF but in case of Arrays of function, Multi-dimensional arrays, goto
statement we need to compile the source file.

5.2.3 Compiling UDF

Compiled UDFs are built in the same way that the ANSYS Fluent executable itself
is built. Internally, a script called Makefile is used to invoke the system C compiler
to build an object code library that contains the native machine language
translation of your higher-level C source code. The object library is specific to the
computer architecture being used during the ANSYS Fluent session, as well as to
the particular version of the ANSYS Fluent executable being run. Therefore, UDF
object libraries must be rebuilt any time ANSYS Fluent is upgraded, when the
computer’s operating system level changes, or when the job is run on a different
type of computer architecture. The generic process for compiling a UDF involves
two steps: compile/build and load.[25]
The graphical and text interface processes for a compiled UDF require the use of
a C compiler that is native to the operating system and machine you are running
on. Most Linux operating systems provide a C compiler as a standard feature. If
you are operating on a Windows system, you must ensure that Microsoft Visual
Studio is installed on your machine before you proceed. If you are unsure about
compiler requirements for your system, contact ANSYS Fluent installation
support. For Linux machines, ANSYS Fluent supports any ANSI-compliant
compiler.

32
4.3 UDF used for Coupling

#include "udf.h"
#define ELECTRIC_POTENTIAL 0

DEFINE_SOURCE(ELECTRIC_POTENTIAL,c,t,dS,eqn)
{
real NV_VEC(Electric_field);
real Electric_field_magnitute
real Electrostatic force
real momentum;

NV_VS(Electric_field,=,C_UDSI_G(c,t,ELECTRIC_POTENTIAL),*,-1);

Electric_field_magnitute = NV_MAG(Electric_field)
Electrostatic force = 0.5*Electric_field_magnitute*
Electric_field_magnitute*0.000000000008*79;

NV_VS(momentum,=,Electrostatic force,*,C_VOLUME(c,t));

dS[eqn] = 0;

return momentum;
}

33
4.4 Results Using Ansys

We can Simulate the Forces and Add the transport equations of the forces to the
Source term and observe the Behaviour but it is also very difficult to write number
of UDF for different small purposes like Voltage variation, Velocity variation and
for Coulombic forces. As shown below there are Images of Voltage variation from
3000V to 6000V once the flow injected from the Nozzle. It is also difficult to form
a Boundary layer in Ellucian Method to separate the boundary and to see the
Proper Jet.

Figure 17 Volume fraction of Flow Figure 16 Volume fraction of Flow

formed at 3000V forms at 6000V

34
5 Conclusion
In this work we have tried to simulated the electrospinning process we have
successfully couple the Di-electric force using the UDF in ANSYS.

6 Future work
We will try to couple the Columbic force as well and try to optimize the geometry
of the Nozzle and parametric study of the process should be executed in future

35
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