Chemistry Mal Part 1 c10

ckX{¥w
Ãm≥tU¿Uv X
`mKw˛1
NT-215-1-CHEMISTRY-10-M-VOL.1
tIc-f-k¿°m¿
s]mXphnZym-`ym-kh
- I
- p∏v
kwÿm\ hnZym-`ymk Kth-jW ]cn-io-e\ kanXn (SCERT), tIcfw

201
tZio-b-Km\w
P\-K-W-a-\- -A-[n-\m-bI Pbtl
`mc-X -`m-Ky-hn-[mXm,
]©m-_-kn‘p KpP-dmØ admTm
{ZmhnU DXv°e - - _w-Km,
hn‘y-ln-am-N-e -b-ap\mKwKm,
D—e Pe-[nX-cwKm,
Xh-ip-`\ - mta PmtK,
Xh-ip` Bin-j -am-tK,
Kmtl Xh- P-b- KmYm
P\-KW- a- w-Ke- Z- m-bI Pbtl
`mc-X- `m-Ky-hn-[mXm,
Pb-tl, Pb-tl, Pb-tl,
Pb Pb Pb Pbtl!
{]Xn⁄
C¥y Fs‚ cmPy-am-Wv. F√m C¥y-°mcpw Fs‚
ktlm-Z-co- ktlmZc-∑m-cm-Wv.
Rm≥ Fs‚ cmPysØ kvt\ln- ° p∂p;
kºq¿Whpw sshhn-[y-]q¿W-hp-amb AXns‚
]mc-º-cy-Øn¬ Rm≥ A`n-am\w sIm≈p∂p.
Rm≥ Fs‚ amXm-]n-Xm-°s - fbpw Kpcp-°∑
- m-scbpw
apXn¿∂-hscbpw _lp-am-\n-°pw.
Rm≥ Fs‚ cmPy-Øn-s‚bpw Fs‚ \m´p-Im-cp-
sSbpw t£a-Øn\pw sFiz-cy-Øn-\pw- th≠n
{]bXv\n°pw.
State Council of Educational Research and Training (SCERT)

Poojappura, Thiruvananthapuram 695012, Kerala
Website : www.scertkerala.gov.in, e-mail : scertkerala@gmail.com
Phone : 0471 - 2341883, Fax : 0471 - 2341869
Typesetting and Layout : SCERT
First Edition : 2016, Reprint : 2018
Printed at : KBPS, Kakkanad, Kochi-30
© Department of Education, Government of Kerala
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1234567890123456 imkv{X-Øns‚ {]h¿Ø-\-ßƒ kmaq-lnI]ptcm-KXn km[y-am-°p-
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1234567890123456 ∂-Xn-t\m-sSm∏w {]Ir-Xn-sbbpw ]cn-ÿn-Xn-sbbpw apdn-th¬∏n-°m-
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1234567890123456 Ø-Xp-am-I-Ww. ]cn-ÿnXnkulr-Z-]-c-amb Cu Hcwiw GsXmcp
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1234567890123456 imkv{X-N¿®-bp-sSbpw {]h¿Ø-\-Øn-s‚bpw B¥-cn-I-[m-c-bmbn
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1234567890123456 h¿Øn- t °≠Xp- ≠ v . km[y- a m- b n- S - t Ømfw CØcw Awi- ß ƒ
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Dƒs∏Sp-Øm\pw \qX-\m-ib - ß
- ƒ N¿®sNøm\pw Cu ]p-kX v Iw {ian-
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1234567890123456 ¢mkvapdn-I-fn¬ {]h¿Ø-\m-[n-jvTnX]T\w km[y-am-Ipw-hn[w Ipń-
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1234567890123456 I-fp-tS-Xmb kPoh{]h¿Ø-\-ßƒ°v Cu ]mT-]p-kvXIw Ah-kcw
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\¬Ip-∂p≠v. At\z-j-Wm-flI]T-\-ØneqsS ]ØmwXc-Øn¬ e`y-
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1234567890123456 am-tI≠ Bi-b-{K-l-W-Øn\v Du∂¬ \¬In-s°m≠mWv ]mT-]p-
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1234567890123456 kvX-I-Ønse {]h¿Ø-\-ßƒ Nn´-s∏-Sp-Øm≥ {ian-®n-´p-≈-Xv.
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1234567890123456 Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ym-k-Øn-eqsS aqeI-ß-fpsS khn-ti-j-X-Iƒ hni-
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1234567890123456 Zo-I-cn-°m\pw ]Zm¿Y-ß-fpsS amkpw X∑m-{X-I-fpsS FÆhpw XΩn-
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ep≈ _‘w Is≠-Øm\pw ck-X-{¥-Øn¬ tamƒ Af-hn-\p≈
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1234567890123456 {]m[m\yw Xncn-®-dn-bm\pw BZy bqWn-‰p-I-fn-eqsS {ian-°p-∂p. cmk-
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1234567890123456 {]-h¿Ø\ thKhpw kwXp-e-\m-h-ÿbpw teml-ß-fpsS cmk-{]-
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1234567890123456 h¿Ø-\-ti-jnbpw \n¿amWL´-ßfpw XpS¿∂v N¿®sNøp-∂p.
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1234567890123456 Hm¿Km-\nIv ck-X-{¥-Ønse Nne ASn-ÿm\ Bi-b-ßƒ ChnsS
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1234567890123456 N¿®bv°v hnt[-ba- m-Ip-∂p.
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1234567890123456 ka{K F∂ hnZym-`ymk t]m¿´-epw, kmt¶-Xn-I-ambn i‡n-s∏-Sp-
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1234567890123456 Ønb Iyp.B¿. tImUv tcJ-s∏-Sp-Ønb ]mT-]p-kvXI - ß
- fpw ¢mkvdqw
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1234567890123456 ]T-\{- ]-h¿Ø-\ß
- ƒ Bbm-kc - l
- n-Xhpw ck-Ic
- hpw B°nØo¿°pw.
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tZio-b-sXm-gn¬ ss\]pWn N´-°q-Spw (F≥.-F-kv.-Iyp.-F-^v), ImenI-
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1234567890123456 {]-k-‡n-bp≈ Zpc-¥-\n-hm-c-Whpw sF.kn.-Sn. km[y-X-Ifpw Cu
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1234567890123456 ]mT-]p-kvX-I-Øn¬ ]cn-K-Wn-®n-´p-≠v.
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1234567890123456 Cu ]mT-]p-kvX-I-Ønse Bi-b-ßƒ Dƒs°m≠v {]h¿Ø-\-ßƒ
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1234567890123456 Imcy-£-a-X-tbmsS sNbvXv e£yw ssIh-cn-t°-≠Xv \nßfn¬
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1234567890123456 Hmtcm-cp-Ø-cp-sSbpw IS-a-bm-Wv. XnI®pw kPo-h-amb N¿®-I-fn-
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1234567890123456 te¿s∏´pw {]h¿Ø-\-ßƒ Bkq-{XWw sNbvXv \S-∏n-em-°nbpw
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1234567890123456 At\z-j-Wm-flI coXn-bn-eqsS ]mT-]p-kvXI{]h¿Ø-\-ßƒ k^-
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1234567890123456 eam°m≥ \nßƒ°v Ign-bs´.
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hnP-bm-iw-k-I-tfm-sS,
tUm. sP. {]kmZv

Ub-d-IvS¿
Fkv.-kn.-C.-B¿.Sn.
`mc- X - Ø ns‚ `c- W - L - S \
`mKw ,9I
auenI I¿Ø-hy-ßƒ
51 I. auenI I¿Ø-hy-ßƒ ˛ Xmsg-∏-d-bp-∂h `mc-X-Ønse Hmtcm

]uc-s‚bpw I¿Øhyw Bbn-cn-°p-∂-XmWv:
(I) `c- W - L - S - \ sb A\p- k - c n- ° p- I bpw AXns‚ BZ¿i- ß - s fbpw ÿm]- \ - ß - s fbpw

tZiob]Xm-Is - bbpw tZiobKm\-sØbpw BZ-cn-°p-Ibpw sNøpI;
(J) kzmX-{¥y-Øn-\p-th-≠n-bp≈ \ΩpsS tZiobka-cØ - n\v {]tNm-Z\w \¬Inb al-\o-bm-
Z¿i-ßsf ]cn-t]m-jn-∏n-°p-Ibpw ]n≥Xp-Sc
- p-Ibpw sNøpI;
(K) `mc-XØ
- ns‚ ]c-am-[n-Im-chpw sFIyhpw AJ-fiX
- bpw \ne-\n¿Øp-Ibpw kwc-£n-°p-
Ibpw sNøpI;
(L) cmPysØ ImØp-kq-£n-°p-Ibpw tZiob tkh\w A\p-jvTn-°p-hm≥ Bhiy-s∏-Sp-tºmƒ
A\p-jvTn-°p-Ibpw sNøpI;
(M) aX-]c
- hpw `mjm-]c
- hpw {]mtZ-in-Ihpw hn`m-Ko-bh
- p-amb sshhn-[y-ßƒ°Xo-Xa - mbn `mc-
X-Ønse F√m P\-ßƒ°p-an-Sb - n¬, kulm¿Zhpw s]mXp-hmb kmtlm-Zc - y-at- \m-`m-hhpw
]pe¿Øp-I. kv{XoI-fpsS A¥- n\v Ipdhp hcp-Øp∂ BNm-cß - ƒ ]cn-Xy-Pn-°pI;
(N) \ΩpsS kwkvIm-cka-\zb-Øns‚ kº-∂a
- mb ]mc-ºc
- ysØ hne-aX
- n-°p-Ibpw \ne-\n-dp-
Øp-Ibpw sNøpI;
(O) h\-ßfpw XSm-Iß
- fpw \Zn-Ifpw h\yPo-hn-Ifpw Dƒs∏-Sp∂ {]IrXym D≈ ]cn-ÿnXn
kwc-£n-°p-Ibpw A`n-hr-≤n-s∏-Sp-Øp-Ibpw Pohn-I-tfmSv ImcpWyw ImWn-°p-Ibpw
sNøpI;
(P) imkv{Xo-ba- mb ImgvN∏
- mSpw am\-hn-IX
- bpw, At\z-jW
- Ø
- n\pw ]cnjvIcWØn\pw D≈
at\m-`m-hhpw hnI-kn-∏n-°pI;
(Q) s]mXp-kzØv ]cn-c£
- n-°p-Ibpw i]Yw sNbvXv A{Iaw Dt]-£n-°p-Ibpw sNøpI;
(R) cmjv{Sw bXv\Ø- n-s‚bpw e£y-{]m-]vXn-bp-sSbpw D∂-XX
- e
- ß
- f
- n-te°v \nc¥cw Db-cØ- -
°-hÆw hy‡n-]c - hpw Iq´m-bX
- p-amb {]h¿Ø-\Ø- ns‚ F√m afi-eß - f
- nepw D¬Ir-
jvSX
- b
- v°p-th≠n A[zm-\n-°p-I.
(S) Bdn\pw ]Xn-\m-en\pw CSbv°v {]mb-ap≈ Xs‚ Ipńt°m Xs‚ kwc-£-W-bn-ep≈
Ipń-Iƒt°m, AXXp kwKXn t]mse, amXm-]n-Xm-°tfm c£mI¿Ømthm hnZym-`ym-k-
Øn-\p≈ Ah-kc - ß
- ƒ G¿s∏-Sp-Øp-I.
1 ]ocn-tbm-UnIv tS_nfpw
CeIvt{Sm¨ hn\ym-khpw ......................... 07
2 hmXI\nb-aß
- fpw tamƒ k¶¬∏\hpw ........ 32
3 {Inbm-io-e t- {i-Wnbpw
sshZypX ck-X-{¥hpw ........................... 47
4 teml\n¿amWw.................................... 62
Cu ]pkvXIØn¬ kuIcyØn\mbn
Nne ap{ZIƒ D]tbmKn®ncn°p∂p.
A[nIhmb\bv°v
(hnebncpØen\v hnt[bamt°≠Xn√)
Bibhy‡X hcpØp∂Xn\v ICT km[yX
hnebncpØmw
XpS¿{]h¿Ø\ßƒ
tlm.... t_m¿ amXr-Ib - v°p-a∏
- pdw
as‰mcp B‰w amXr-Itbm? sj√p-
Iƒ°p-≈n¬ ho≠pw sj√p-Itfm?
...... B‰-Øn-\p-≈nse cl-ky-
ßƒ°v Hcp Ah-km-\hp-ant√....
B‰w LS-\-sb-°p-dn®v hmbn-®-t∏mƒ Ipń-°p-≠mb BImw-£ \nßƒ°p-ap-≠m-Imw.

\nc-h[n ]co-£W {]h¿Ø-\-ß-fn-eq-sSbpw A\p-am-\-ß-fn-eq-sS-bp-amWv B‰-sØ-
°p-dn-®p≈ [mcW imkv{X-temIw cq]-s∏-Sp-Øn-sb-Sp-Ø-Xv. B‰w-L-S-\-bpsS ASn-
ÿm-\Ø - n-emWv aqe-Iß- sf ka-{K-ambn h¿Ko-Ic
- n-®p-sIm-≠p≈ ]ocn-tbm-UnIv tS_nƒ
Xbm-dm-°n-bn-cn-°p-∂-sX∂v \nßƒ a\- n-em-°n-bn-´p-≠v.
]ocn-tbm-UnIv tS_n-fn¬ aqe-I-h¿KoIc-W-Øns‚ ASn-ÿm\w F¥mWv?
ckX{¥w $ Ãmt‚¿Uv - X
Hcp aqe-IØ
- ns‚ At‰m-an-I\
- º
- ¿ Adn-bm-sa-¶n¬
]ocn-tbmU-nIv tS_n-fn¬ AXns‚ ÿm\hpw
k_vsj-√p-Iƒ kz`m-hhpw \n¿W-bn-°m-at√m?
(k_vsj-√p-Iƒ°v s, p, d, f F∂v t]cv DZm: tkmUn-b-Øns‚ At‰m-an-I-\-º¿ 11 BWv.
sImSp- Ø n- c n- ° p- ∂ Xv ) aqe- I - ß - f psS Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ymkw ˛ 2, 8, 1
At‰m- a n- I - L - S - \ - b p- a mbn _‘- s ∏´
{Kq∏v \º¿ ˛ ..............................
Nne khn-tijXIƒ kqNn-∏n-°p∂
hm°p- I - f n¬ \n∂mWv. sosharp, ]ocn-bUv \º¿ ˛ ..............................
poprincipal, dodiffuse, fofundamental. $ H∂mw {Kq∏n¬ hcp∂ Cu aqeIw teml-am-Im-
B‰w LS-\sb kw_-‘n® B[p-\nI \mtWm Atem-l-am-Im-\mtWm km[yX?
kn≤m-¥-{]-Imcw \yq¢n-b- n-\v Np‰pw
Ce- I v t {Sm- W p- I ƒ {Xnam- \ - t aJ- e bn-
emWv k©-cn-°p-∂-Xv. {][m\ Du¿P- CØ-cØ - n¬ aqe-Iß - f
- psS KpW-ßƒ IrXy-ambn hni-
\n-e-I-fn¬Øs∂ D] Du¿P-\n-e-Iƒ I-e\w sNøm\pw {]h-Nn-°m\pw Ign-bp∂ Xc-Øn-
(Subshells) D≠v. Cu D] Du¿P-\n-eI - f- n¬ em-Wt√m Cu tS_n-fn¬ aqe-I-ßsf h¿Ko-I-cn-®n-cn-
Ce- I v t {Sm- W p- I ƒ ImW- s ∏- S p- h m≥ °p-∂-Xv. ]ocn-tbmUnIv tS_n-fn¬ aqe-I-kz-`m-h-ß-
km[yX IqSnb taJ-e-Iƒ D≠v. Ch
fpsS {Iam-h¿Ø-\-Øns‚ ASn-ÿm\w Ah-bpsS
Hm¿_n-‰epIƒ (Orbitals) F∂mWv Adn-
B‰w-LS- \ - b
- m-Wv. B‰-sØ-°p-dn-®p≈ \qX-\a
- mb Adn-
b-s∏-Sp-∂X - .v Hcp Hm¿_n-‰e - n¬ Dƒs°m-
hp-Iƒ ]ocn-tbm-UnIv tS_n-fp-ambn Fßs\ _‘-
≈m-hp∂ ]c-am-h[n Ce-Itv {Sm-Wp-If - psS
FÆw 2 BWv. s k_vsj-√n¬ CØ-c- s∏-Sp-∂p-sh∂v \ap°v ]cn-tim-[n-°mw.
Øn¬ Hcp Hm¿_n-‰¬ am{Xsa D≈p. hnhn[ B‰w amXr-I-Isf Ipdn®v \nßƒ a\- n-em-
CXn\v tKmfm-Ir-Xn-bm-Wv. °n-bn-´p-≠v. t_m¿ amXrI{]Imcw B‰-Øn-\p-≈n¬
p k_vsj√n¬ 3 Hm¿_n-‰epIƒ D≠m- \yq¢nb n\p- Np-‰p-ap≈ hnhn[ sj√p-I-fn-emWv Ce-
bn-cn-°pw. CXn\v Uws_-√ns‚ BIr- Ivt{Sm-Wp-Iƒ {Iao-I-cn-®n-cn-°p-∂-sX∂pw Du¿P-\ne
Xn-bm-Wv D≈-Xv. d k_vsj√pIfn¬ 5 IqSn hcp∂ {Ia-Øn-emWv sj√p-I-fn¬ Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-
Hm¿_n- ‰ - e p- I - f pw, f k_v s j√n¬ 7 Iƒ \nd-bp-∂-sX∂pw \nßƒ°-dn-bm-at√m.
Hm¿_n-‰-ep-Ifpw D≠v. Cu Hm¿_n-‰-ep- \yq¢n-b- n¬\n∂v AIew IqSp-∂-X-\p-k-cn®v
I-fpsS BIrXn k¶o¿W-am-Wv. sj√p-I-fnse Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-I-fpsS Du¿Pw IqSn-
hcpIbpw \yq¢n-b- p-w Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-I-fpw XΩn-
ep≈ BI¿j-W-_ew Ipd-bp-Ibpw sNøp-∂p.
- ns‚ (3Li) Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ymkw 2, 1 F∂m-
enXn-bØ
W-t√m.
CXp-t]mse tkmUn-bw, B¿tKm¨ F∂n-hb - psS Ce-
Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ymkw Fgp-Xn- ]ńI 1.1 ]q¿Øn-bm-°q.
aqeIw sj√p-Iƒ
K L M
s k_vsj¬
11
Na ......... ......... .........
18
Ar ......... ......... .........
p k_vsj¬ ]ńI 1.1
8
]ocn-tbm-UnIv tS_nfpw Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ym-khpw
$ B¿tKmWns‚ _mly-X-a-sj-√mb M˛¬ F{X Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-I-
fmWv D≈Xv?
$ M sj√n¬ Dƒs°m-≈m-hp∂ ]c-am-h[n Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ F{X-bmWv?
B¿tKm-Wns‚ ASpØ aqe-I-amb s]m´m-ky-Øn¬ (19K) B¿tKm-Wn-

s\-°mƒ Hcp Ce-Ivt{Sm-WmWv IqSp-X-ep-≈-Xv. s]m´m-ky-Øns‚ Ce-
Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ymkw 2, 8, 8, 1 BWv. aq∂m-asØ sj√n\v C\nbpw ]Øv
Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-Iƒ IqSn Dƒs°m-≈m-\p≈ tijn Ds≠-∂n-cns°, F¥p-
sIm-≠m-bn-cn°mw s]m´m-ky-Ønse Ah-km-\sØ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ aq∂m-
asØ sj√n¬ \nd-bmsX, 4˛masØ sj√n¬ t]mbXv?
BapJ Nn{X-Øn¬ Ipń {]I-Sn-∏n® kwibhpw \nßƒ I≠t√m?
B‰-Øns‚ LS\-bp-ambn _‘-s∏´ ]T-\ß - ƒ°v XpS¿®bpw hf¿®bpw
Ds≠∂v \nßƒ a\- n-em-°n-bn-´p≠v. B‰w LS-\-sb-°p-dn®p≈ efn-
X-amb hni-Zo-I-c-W-amWv t_m¿am-Xr-I. B‰-Øn¬ Ce-Ivt{Sm-WpI-fpsS
ÿm\-hpw -kz`mhhp-ambn _‘-s∏´v XpS¿∂v \S-Ønb ]T-\ßfn¬
t_m¿am-Xr-I-bpsS ]cn-anXn t_m[y--s∏-Sp-Ibpw ]pXnb ]cn-I-ev]-\-Iƒ
cq]o-I-cn-°p-Ibpw sNbvXp. CXp-{]-Imcw Hmtcm Du¿P-\n-e-I-fn-ep≈
Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-Iƒ AXnse D]-Du¿P-\n-e-I-fn-emWv (Sub energy level) IT @ School Edubuntu
hn\y-kn-®n-cn-°p-∂-Xv. Hmtcm sj√n-ep-ap≈ D]-Du¿P-\n-e-Isf k_vsj- hnse KALZIUM
√p-Iƒ F∂mWv hnfn-°p-∂-Xv. Ch s, p, d, f F∂n-ßs\ {Ia-Øn¬ tkm^v‰vshb¿ D]-tbm-
Kn®v ]ńI 1.1 se
\ma-I-cWw sNø-s∏-ń-cn-°p-∂p. K HgnsI-bp≈ F√m apJy Du¿P-\n-e- {]h¿Ø\w icntbm
I-fnepw H∂n-e-[nIw k_v-sj√p-Iƒ D≠v. K ˛ ¬ CØ-c-Øn-ep≈ Hcp F∂v ]cn-tim-[n-°p-I.
Du¿P-\ne am{Xsa D≈p.
Hmtcm Du¿P-\n-ebnepw AXns‚ sj√ns‚ {Ia-\-º-dn\v Xpey-amb
FÆw k_vsj√p-I-fm-Wv D≠m-bn-cn-°p-I.
$ H∂m-asØ sj¬ Bb K sj√n¬ 1, ASpØ sj¬ Bb L
sj√n¬ 2, F∂n-ß-s\. M, N sj√p-I-fnse k_vsj-√p-I-fpsS
FÆw F{X hoX-am-bn-cn°pw?
M = ............, N = ............
Hmtcm sj√nsebpw k_vsj- √ p- I ƒ GsXm- s °- b m- s W∂v

]ńI 1.2 ¬ \¬In-bn-cn-°p-∂Xv {i≤n-°q.
sj¬ \-º¿ 1 2 3 4
k_vsj-√p-Iƒ s s, p s, p, d s, p, d, f
]ńI 1.2
F√m sj√p-I-fnepap≈ s]mXp-hmb k_vsj¬ GXmWv?
9
Hmtcm k_vsj-√pw GXv sj√n-te-Xm-sW∂v Fßs\ Xncn-®-dn-bmw?

sj√ns‚ {Ia-\-º¿ IqSn tN¿Ømtem? DZm-l-c-W-Øn\v 1˛mw sj√nse
s k_vsj√ns\ kqNn-∏n-°m-\mbn "1s', c≠mw sj√nse s k_vsj-
√ns\ "2s' F∂n-ß-s\.
]ńI 1.3 ]q¿Øn-bm°n t\m°q.
sj¬ \º¿ 1 2 3 4
k_vsj-¬ s s p s p d s p d f
k_vsj-√p
Isf kqNn∏n 1s - - - 3p - - - 4d -
°p-∂ -coXn
]ńI 1.3
k_vsj-√nse Ce-Ivt{SmWpI-fpsS FÆw
Hmtcm sj√n-ep-ap≈ k_vsj-√p-Iƒ GsXm-s°-bm-sW∂v ]ń-I-bn¬
\n∂v \nßƒ Is≠-Øn-bt√m?
Hmtcm sj√nepw Dƒs°m-≈m-hp∂ ]c-am-h[n Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-If
- psS FÆw
F{X- b m- s W∂pw \nßƒ°- d n- b mw. F¶n¬ Hmtcm k_v s j- √ nepw
Dƒs°m-≈m-hp∂ Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-I-fpsS FÆw F{X hoX-am-bn-cn-°pw?
N¿®m-kq-N-I-ß-fpsS ASn-ÿm-\-Øn¬ Xmsg sImSpØncn-°p∂ ]ńI
1.4 ]q¿Øn-bm-°q.
sj¬ \º¿ 1 2 3 4
Hmtcm sj√nepw 2 8 18 32
Dƒs°m≈mhp∂ ]c-am-h[n
CeIvt{Sm-WpI-fpsS FÆw.
k_vsj-¬ 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s 4p 4d 4f
k_vsj√p-I-fn¬
Dƒs°m≈m-hp∂ ]camh[n 2 2 - - - - - - - -
CeIvt{Sm-Wp-I-fpsS FÆw. -
]ńI 1.4
s k_vsj√n¬ Dƒs°m-≈m-hp∂ ]c-am-h[n Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-I-fpsS FÆw

F{X?
c≠mw sj√nse 8 Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-I-fn¬ cs≠Æw s k_vsj-√n¬ Bbn-
cn-°p-at√m? F¶n¬ p k_vsj√n¬ \nd-bp∂ ]c-am-h[n Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-
I-fpsS FÆw F{X-bm-bn-cn°pw? ]ńI ]q¿Øn-bm°n Is≠-Øq.
10
s epw p epw ]c-am-h[n F{X Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-Iƒ hoXw Dƒs°m-≈p-∂p-
sh∂v I≠t√m? F¶n¬ d k_vsj-√n¬ ]c-am-h[n F{X FÆw
Dƒs°m-≈m≥ Ign-bp-sa∂v aq∂m-asØ sj√nse tImf-ßƒ ]qcn-∏n®v
Is≠-Øp-I.
CXp-t]mse \mem-asØ sj√nse 32 Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-Iƒ s, p, d, f
k_vsj√p-I-fn-embn Fßs\ hn\y-kn-°p-∂p-sh∂v ]ńI (1.4) ]qc-
W-Øn-eqsS Is≠Ømat√m?
Hmtcm k_vsj-√nepw Dƒs°m-≈m-hp∂ ]c-am-h[n Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-I-
fpsS FÆw Xmsg ]ń-I- 1.5˛¬ t{ImUo-I-cn-®ncn-°p-∂p.
k_vsj-¬ s p d f
Dƒs°m≈m≥ Ign- b p∂ 2 6 10 14
]camh[n CeIv t {Sm-W p- I -
fpsS FÆw. -
]ńI 1.5
k_vsj-√nse Ce-Ivt{Sm¨]qcWw
Du¿Pw IqSn-h-cp∂ {Ia-Øn-emWv sj√p-I-fn¬ Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-Iƒ \nd-
bp-∂-sX∂v \nßƒ a\- n-em-°n-bn-´p-≠v. DZm-l-c-W-Øn\v Im¿_-Wns‚
(6C) Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ymkw 2, 4.
BZysØ c≠v Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ Du¿Pw Ipd™ K sj√nepw _m°n 4
Ce-Ivt{SmWpIƒ Du¿Pw IqSnb L sj√nepw Bbn-cn°pw \nd-bp-∂-Xv.
CXp-t]mse B‰-Ønse Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-Iƒ k_vsj-√n¬ hn\y-kn-°-
s∏-Sp-tºmƒ Du¿Pw Ipd™ k_vsj-√n¬ \n∂v IqSn-b-Xn-te°v {Ia-
ambn \nd-bp∂p. CXns\ k_vsj¬ CeIv-t{Sm¨ hn\ymkw (sub shell
electronic configuration) F∂p- ]d-bp-∂p. At∏mƒ Im¿_-Wns‚
k_vsj¬ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ymkw Fß-s\-bm-bn-cn°pw?
k_vsj¬ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ymkw Fgp-Xp∂ coXn ]cn--N-b-s∏Smw.
aqeI B‰-Ønse Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-I-fpsS FÆw AXns‚ At‰m-anI
\ºdn\v (Z) ka-am-sW∂v Adn-bm-at√m? ssl{U-Ps‚ At‰m-anI
\º¿ 1 BWv. (1H)
$ F{X- Ce-Ivt{Sm¨?
$ GXv sj√n-emWv Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ h∂p-tN-cp-∂Xv?
$ GXv k_vsj-√n¬?
ssl{U-Ps‚ k_vsj¬ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ymkw Cßs\ kqNn-∏n°mw.
1s 1
(h¨ Fkv h¨ F∂mWv hmbn-t°-≠-Xv).
loen-b-Øn¬ (2He ) F{X Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-Iƒ D≠v?
11
k_vsj¬ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ymkw ]q¿Øn-bm-°q.

1s.......
ASpØ aqe- I - a mb enYn- b - Ø ns‚ ( 3Li) k_v s j¬ Ce- I v t {Sm¨
hn\ymkw Fg-pXp-∂-sX-ßs\-sb∂v t\m°mw.
BsI-bp≈ 3 Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-I-fn¬ cs≠Æw 1s ¬ \nd-™m¬ Du¿Pw
IqSn hcp∂ {Ia-a-\p-k-cn®v 2s emWv ASpØ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨]qcWw \S-
t°-≠-Xv. 2s ¬ _m°n F{X Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ \ndbpw?
1s2 2s......
enYn-b-Øns‚ k_vsj¬ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ym-ksØ "h¨ Fkv Sp'
"Sq Fkv h¨' (1s2 2s1) F∂mWv hmbn-t°-≠-Xv.
s_do-en-b-Ønse {I-ao-I-cWw ]q¿Øn-bm-°q.
$ Be[Z=4] - 1s...... 2s......
XpS¿∂p hcp∂ aqeIw t_mtdm¨ BWt√m? 1s Dw 2s Dw \nd-
™m¬ ASpØ Du¿Pw IqSnb {Iaw 2p BWv. t_mtdm-Wns‚
k_vsj¬ {Iao-I-cWw FgpXn t\m°q.
$ B[Z=5] - 1s2 2s2 2p.........
$ XpS¿∂v Im¿_-Wns‚ k_vsj¬ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn-\ymkw Fgp-
Xm-at√m?
C[Z=6] - 1s......... 2s......... 2p.........
k_vsj¬ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ymksa-gp-Xp-tºmƒ k_vsj-√p-I-fpsS
CS-Xp-h-iØv tN¿°p∂ kwJy sj¬ \º-dn-t\bpw heXp hiØv
apI-fnse kwJy Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-I-fpsS FÆ-tØbpw kqNn-∏n-°p-∂p.
NphsS \¬Inbn-´p≈ aqe-I-ß-fpsS k_vsj¬ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ymkw
FgpXn ]ńI 1.6 ]q¿Øn-bm-°q.
aqeIw Ce-Itv {Sm-Wp-If

- psS k_vsj¬ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ymkw
FÆw
7
N 7 1s2 2s2 2p3
9
F 9 1s......... 2s......... 2p.........
11
Na - 1s......... 2s......... 2p......... 3s.........
13
Al - 1s......... 2s......... 2p......... 3s......... 3p.........
17
Cl - -
18
Ar - -
]ńI 1.6
12
At‰m-an-I-\-º¿ 19 Bb s]m´m-kyØns‚ (19K) ImcysaSp-°mw.
CXns‚ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ym-k-Ønse {]tXy-IX apºv kqNn-
∏n®Xv Hm¿°p-at√m.
$ s]m´m-kyØns‚ sj¬ {Ia-Øn-ep≈ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ymkw
Fß-s\-bmWv tcJ-s∏-Sp-Øn--bXv?
k_vsj-√p-Ifpw Ah-bpsS Du¿Phpw XΩn¬ _‘-s∏-Sp-Ønb Nn{Xo-

I-cWw (Nn{Xw 1.1) {i≤n-°q.
$ 1s, 2s F∂o k_vsj-√p-I-fpsS Du¿Pw Xmc-Xayw 4p
sNøq. GXn-\mWv Du¿Pw Ipdhv? 3d
Du¿Pw o
4s
$ 3s, 3p F∂o k_vsj-√p-I-fn¬ Du¿Pw IqSp-X¬ GXn- 3p
\m-Wv? 3d, 4s Chbntem? 3s
2p
2s
3d sb°mƒ Du¿Pw Ipdhv 4s \msW∂v I≠t√m? 1s
$ {Km^n¬ kqNn-∏n-®n-´p≈ k_vsj-√p-I-fpsS Du¿Pw
K L M N
IqSn-h-cp∂ {Iaw FgpXn t\m°q.
Nn{Xw 1.1
1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < ....... < ....... < ....... < .......
$ C\n s]m´m-ky-Øns‚ k_vsj¬ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨
hn\ymkw FgpXq.
k_vsj-√p-I-fpsS Du¿P-Øns‚ ASn-ÿm-\-Øn¬

]cn-tim-[n-®m¬ s]m´m-ky-Øn¬ M sj√n¬ 8 Ce-
Ivt{Sm¨ \nd-™-Xn-\p-ti-j-ap≈ Hcp Ce-Ivt{Sm¨
N sj√nte°v t]mbXv 3d sb°mƒ Du¿Pw Ipdhv
4s \v Bb-XpsIm-≠t√?
hnhn[ sj√p-I-fpsS Du¿Pw IqSn-h-cp∂ {Iaw I≠p-
]n- S n- ° m≥ Nn{Xw 1.2 \nßsf klm- b n- ° pw.

AºSbmf-Øns‚ Zni {i≤n-°p-at√m? At‰m-an-I-
\- º ¿ 30 hsc- b p≈ aqe- I - ß - f psS k_v s j¬
CeIv t {Sm¨ hn\ymkw Nn{X- Ø ns‚ klm- b -
tØmsS H∂v ]cn-N-b-s∏-´p t\m°q.
$ kv I m≥Un- b - Ø ns‚ ( 21Sc ) Ce- I v t {Sm¨
hn\ymkw 2, 8, 9, 2 F∂m-Wt√m. CXns‚
k_vsj¬ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ymkw Fßs\
Fgp-Xmw?
Nn{Xw 1.2
13
ChnsS Sc ¬ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ ]qcWw \S-°p-∂Xv

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d1 F∂ {Ia-Øn-emWv.
F∂m¬ CXv km[m-c-W-bmbn tcJ-s∏-Sp-Øp∂Xv
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d1 4s2 F∂ coXn-bn¬ BWv. AXm-bXv sj¬ {Ia-
Øn¬.
Du¿P{Ia-a-\p-k-cn®v 4s Ign-™m¬ ASpØ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ \nd-bp-∂Xv
3d bn¬ BWv. AXp-sIm-≠m-Wt√m Sc s‚ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ymkw
2, 8, 9, 2 BIp-∂Xv.
$ XpS¿∂p- h - c p∂ 22Ti, 23V F∂o aqe- I - ß - f psS Ce- I v t {Sm¨
hn\ymkw Fgp-Xn-t\m-°q.
k_vsj¬ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ymkw tcJ-s∏-Sp-Øp∂ as‰mcp coXn-IqSn

]cn-N-b-s∏-Smw.
At‰m-anI \º¿ IqSnb aqe-Iß
- f
- psS k_vsj¬ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ymkw
Fgp-Xp-tºmƒ, B aqe-I-Øn\v sXm´p-ap-ºp≈ ]ocn-b-Unse D¬IrjvS
aqe-I-Øns‚ {]XoIw {_mbv°-‰n¬ ImWn-®v, XpS¿∂p≈ k_vsj¬
hn\ymkw am{Xw Fgp-Xnbm¬ aXn-bm-Ipw.
DZmlc-W-Øn\v s]m´m-ky-Øns‚ (19K) Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ymkw
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 F∂m-Wv.
CXns‚ sXm´p- a p- º p≈ ]ocn- b - U nse D¬IrjvS aqe- I - a mb
B¿tKmWns‚ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ymkw. 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 BWt√m?
B¿tKm-Wns‚ {]XoIw tN¿Øv s]m´m-ky-Øns‚ k_vsj¬ Ce-
Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ymkw Xmsg sImSp-Øn-cn-°p∂ coXn-bn¬ Fgp-Xmw.
[Ar] 4s1
- ns‚ [11Na] sXm´p-ap-ºp≈ D¬Ir-jvS-aq-eIw GXmWv?
tkmUn-bØ
k_vsj¬ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn-\ymkw FgpXn t\m°q.
10
Ne
tkmUn-b-Øns‚ k_vsj¬ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ymkw.
11
Na ----
14
\ntbm- W ns‚ {]XoIw tN¿Øv Ce- I v t {Sm¨ hn\ymkw Npcp°n
Fgp-XpI.
]ocn-tbm-UnIv tS_n-fns‚ klm-b-tØmsS sXm´p ap∂nse D¬Ir-jvS-

hmXIw GsX∂v Is≠Øn ]ńI 1.7 ]q¿Ønbm°q.
aqeIw k_vsj¬ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ymkw
21
Sc [Ar] 3d1 4s2
20
Ca ................
IT @ School Edubuntu
12
Mg ................ hnse KALZIUM
tkm^v‰vshb¿ D]-tbm-
27
Co ................ Kn®v ]ńI 1.7 se
{]h¿Ø\w icntbm
30
Zn ................ F∂v ]cn-tim-[n-°p-I.
]ńI 1.7
t{ImanbØns‚bpw (Cr) tIm∏dns‚bpw (Cu) Ce-Ivt{Sm¨
hn\ym-k-Ønse {]tXyIX
$ 24
Cr s‚ k_vsj¬ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ymkw Fgp-XpI.
$ Cr s‚ ÿnc- X - b p≈ k_v s j¬ Ce- I v t {Sm¨ hn\ymkw

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s1 F∂m-Wv.
CXn\v ImcWw NphsS t_mIvkn¬ \¬In-bn-´p≈ hnh-c-ßƒ hni-I-
e\w sNbvXv Is≠Øq.
d k_vsj-√n\v ]c-am-h[n 10 Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-Iƒ Dƒs°m-≈p-hm≥

Ign-bpw. Cu k_vsj¬ ]q¿W-ambn \nd-™n-cn-°p-∂tXm (d10)
]IpXn am{Xw \nd-™n-cn-°p-∂tXm (d5) Bb {Iao-I-c-W-ßƒ
a‰p-≈h - s
- b-°mƒ ÿncX IqSn-bh
- b
- m-Wv. CXns‚ ASn-ÿm-\Ø
- n¬
4 2 9 2
d s , d s F∂o Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ {Iao-I-c-W-w htc≠ B‰-ß-fn¬
ÿncXbv°pth≠n Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ ]qc-WØ - n¬ Nne am‰-ßƒ D≠m-
bn-cn-°pw. CXp-t]mse f k_vsj-√n¬ f7, f14 {IaoI-c-W-ßfpw
IqSpX¬ ÿnc-X-bp-≈-XmWv.
CXns‚ ASn-ÿm-\-Øn¬ 29Cu s‚ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ymkßfn¬

icnbmbXv Is≠-Øn FgpXq:
• 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d9 4s2
• 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s1
15
t{Iman-bw, tIm∏¿ F∂o B‰-ß-fpsS k_vsj¬ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨

hn\ym-k-ß-fn¬ d k_vsj-√n\v ]IpXn \nd-™tXm ]q¿W-ambn
\nd-™n-cn-°p-∂tXm Bb Ah-ÿ-bmWv ÿncX IqSp-X¬ {]I-S-
am-°p-∂-Xv.
Hcm‰-Øns‚ k_vsj¬ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ymkw 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2

F∂mWv. F¶n¬ Xmsg sImSp-Øn-cn-°p-∂h
- bv°v DØcw Is≠Øq.
$ Cu B‰-Øn¬ F{X sj√p-Iƒ D≠v?
$ Hmtcm sj√n-sebpw k_v-sj-√p-Iƒ GsX√mw?
$ Ah-km\ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ ]qcWw \S-∂Xv GXv k_vsj-√n-emWv?
$ B‰-Ønse BsI Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-I-fpsS FÆ-sa{X?
$ At‰m-anI \º¿ F{X-bmWv?
$ k_vsj¬ Ce- I vt{Sm¨ hn\ymkw Fßs\ Npcp°n
FgpXmw?
IT @ School Edubuntu k_vsj¬ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ym-khpw tªm°pw
hnse KALZIUM
tkm^v‰vshb¿ D]-tbm- aqe-Iß
- f
- psS k_vsj¬ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ym-kØ
- ns‚ ASn-ÿm-\Ø- n¬
Kn®v IqSp-X¬ hy‡X tamtU¨ ]ocn-tbm-UnIvtS_n-fn¬ Ahsb s, p, d, f F∂n-ßs\ hnhn[
hcpØq. tªm°p-I-fn-embn {Iao-I-cn-®n-´p-≠v.
CØ-c-Øn¬ tcJ-s∏-Sp-Ønb ]ocn-tbm-UnIv tS_n-fmWv Nn{Xw 1.3 ¬
\¬Inbn-cn-°p-∂-Xv. CXv hni-I-e\w sNbvXv ]ń-I- 1.8 ]q¿Øn-bm°q.
s-tªm°v
p-tªm°v
1
2 13 14 15 16 17
d-tªm°v
Nh Mc Ts Og
f-tªm°v
Nn{Xw 1.3
16
aqeIw At‰m-anI k_vsj¬ Ah-km\ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ tªm°v
\º¿ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ymkw ]qcWw\S∂
k_vsj¬
3
Li ........ ........ ........ ........
12
Mg ........ ........ ........ ........
7
N ........ ........ ........ ........
21
Sc ........ ........ ........ ........
]ńI 1.8
$ enXn- b - Ø n¬ Ah- k m\ Ce- I v t {Sm¨]qcWw \S- ∂ Xv GXv
k_vsj-√n-em-Wv?
$ ss\{S-P-\n¬ Ah-km\ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨]qcWw \S-∂tXm?

IT @ School
Edubuntu hnse
KALZIUM
$ Ah-km\ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨]qcWw \S∂ k_vsj√pw B aqeIw tkm^v‰vshb¿ D]-tbm-
Dƒs∏´ tªm°pw XΩn-ep≈ _‘-sa-¥mWv? Kn®v ]ńI 1.8 se
{]h¿Ø\w icntbm
F∂v ]cn-tim-[n-°p-I.
$ Xmsg sImSp-Øn-cn-°p∂ aqe-I-ß-fpsS k_vsj¬ {Ia-Øn-ep≈
Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ym-k-sa-gpXn tªm°v Is≠-Øq.
a. Be
4
b. 26
Fe
c. 18
Ar
Ah-km\ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨]qcWw \S-°p-∂Xv GXv k_vsj-√n-emtWm

AXm-bn-cn°pw B aqeIw Dƒs∏-Sp∂ tªm°v. ]ocn-tbm-UnIv tS_n-
fn¬ 1, 2 {Kq∏p-I-fn¬ Dƒs∏´ aqe-I-ßsf s tªm°nepw, 13 apX¬
18 hsc {Kq∏p-I-fnep≈hsb p tªm°nepw 3 apX¬ 12 hsc {Kq∏p-
Ifnep≈hsb d tªm°nepw Dƒs∏-Sp-Øn-bn-cn-°p-∂p. f tªm°paqe-
I-ßsf ]ocn-tbm-UnIv tS_n-fn¬ NphsS c≠v {]tXyI \nc-I-fn-em-
bmWv {Iao-I-cn-®n-cn-°p-∂-Xv.
k_vsj¬ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ym-kØ

- ns‚ ASn-ÿm-\Ø
- n¬ ]ocnbUv,
{Kq∏v F∂nh Is≠-Ømw
aqe-I-ß-fpsS sj¬ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ym-k-Øns‚ ASn-ÿm-\-Øn¬
]ocnbUv \º¿ Is≠-Øp-hm≥ \nßƒ°-dn-bm-a-t√m? k_vsj¬
CeIvt{Sm¨ hn\ym-k-Øn¬ \n∂v Fßs\ ]ocnbUv Is≠-Ømsa∂v
t\m°mw. ]ńI 1.9 ]q¿Øn-bm-°q.
17
aqeIw k_vsj¬ _mly-Xa sj√ns‚ ]ocnbUv

Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ymkw \º¿ \º¿
4
Be 1s2 2s2 2 2
6
C 1s2 2s2 2p2 2 2
11
Na 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 3 -
2 2 6 2 6 1
19
K 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s - -
]ńI 1.9
Hcp aqe-I-Øns‚ k_vsj¬ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ym-k-Øn¬ _mly-

Xa sj√ns‚ \- º¿ Xs∂-bmWv AXv Dƒs°m-≈p∂ ]ocnbUv \º¿.
s tªm°v aqe-I-ß-fpsS {Kq∏p\º¿

k_vsj¬ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ym-k-Øns‚ ASn-ÿm-\-Øn¬ aqe-I-ß-
fpsS {Kq∏p\º¿ Is≠-Øp-hm≥ Ign-bpw. Nne aqe-I-ßƒ ]ń-I- 1.10 ¬
\¬In-bn-cn-°p-∂p.
]ocn-tbm-UnIv tS_n-fns‚ (Nn{Xw 1.4) klm-b-tØm-Sp-IqSn ]ńI ]q¿Øn-
bm-°pI.
aqeIw k_vsj¬ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ Ah-km\ s k_vsj {Kq∏p

hn\ymkw √nse Ce-Ivt{SmWp \º¿
IfpsS FÆw IfpsS FÆw
Li 1s2 2s1 1 1
Na 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 - 1
Mg 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 - 2
Ca 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 - -
]ńI 1.10
- ƒ BWv s tªm°n¬ hcp-∂-sX∂v I≠t√m?

1 Dw 2 Dw {Kq∏v aqe-Iß
$ s tªm°v aqe-I-ß-fpsS _mly s k_vsj-√nse Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-I-
fpsS FÆ-w Ah-bpsS {Kq∏v -\-º-dp-ambn Fßs\ _‘n-∏n°mw?
s tªm°v aqe-I-ß-fpsS _mly s k_vsj-√nse Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-I-

fpsS FÆambn-cn°pw {Kq∏v -\-º¿.
18
-71
-Lu
-Lr Nh Mc Ts Og
Nihonium Moscovium Tennessine Oganesson
57
La
2,8,18,18,9,2
89
Ac
2,8,18,32,18,9,2
Nn{Xw 1.4
IUPAC Xocp-am\{]Imcw e≥Ym-\w (57La) em≥Y-t\m-bn-Up-w BIvSn\n-bw (89Ac) BIvSn-t\m-bn-Upw BWv.
19
C\n s tªm°v aqe-I-ß-fpsS Nne s]mXp-hmb khn-ti-j-X-Iƒ \ap°v

]cn-N-bs∏-Smw.
B¬°en teml-ßfpw B¬°-sse≥ F¿Øp teml-ßfpw Dƒs∏-´-h-
bmWv s tªm°v aqe-I-ßƒ F∂v \nßƒ a\- n-em-°n-bn-´p-≠v. Ch-bpsS
HmIvssk-Up-Ifpw sslt{UmIvsskUp-Ifpw t_knI kz`m-ha - mWv ImWn-
°p-∂-Xv.
$ s tªm°v aqe-I-ßƒ cmk-{]-h¿Ø-\-Øn¬ G¿s∏-Sp-tºmƒ Ce-
Ivt{Sm-Wp-Isf hn´p-sIm-Sp-°p-IbmtWm kzoI-cn-°p-IbmtWm sNøp-
∂Xv?
$ km[m-cW cq]o-I-cn-°p∂ _‘\w GXm-bn-cn°pw?
Atbm-Wn-I-_-‘\w / kl-kw-tbm-P-I-_-‘\w
s tªm°v aqe-I-ßƒ km[m-c-W-bmbn Atbm-Wn-I-kw-bp-‡-ß-fmWv
\n¿an-°p-∂-sX∂v a\- n-em-°m-at√m?
$ 1˛mw {Kq∏v aqe-I-ßƒ cmk-{]-h¿Ø-\-th-f-bn¬ F{X Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-

Isf hn´p-sIm-Sp°pw?
$ 2˛mw {Kq∏v aqe-I-ßtfm?
$ H∂pw c≠pw {Kq∏v aqe-I-ßsf bYm-{Iaw X, Y F∂o {]XoIßƒ

sIm≠v kqNn-∏n-°p-∂p-sh∂v Icp-Xp-I.
Xmsg sImSpØ ]ńI ]q¿Øn-bm-°pI.

{Kq∏v kwtbm-P-IX HmIvko-I-c-Wm-hÿ Atbm-Wp-I-fpsS HmIvssk-Up-I-fpsS
(Valency) {]XoIw cmk-kq{Xw
1-mw {Kq∏v [X] 1 +1 - X 2O
2-mw {Kq∏v [Y] 2 - Y 2+ -

]ńI 1.11
s tªm°v aqe-I-ßƒ \n›nX hme≥knbpw HmIvko-I-c-Wm-h-ÿbpw

ImWn-°p-∂-h-bm-sW∂v ]ńI ]qc-W-Øn-eqsS t_m[y-am-bt√m?
]ocn-tbm-UnIv tS_n-fn¬ G‰hpw CS-Xp-`m-K-Øp-≈-h-bmWv s tªm°v

aqeIßƒ. Ch- b psS ÿm\- h p- a mbn _‘- s ∏- S pØn as‰- s ¥ms°
khn-ti-j-X-Iƒ \ap°v enÃv sNømw.
20
$ teml-kz-`mhw IqSp-X¬
$ Atbm-Wo-I-cW Du¿Pw Ipdhv
$ Ce-Ivt{Sm-s\-K-‰n-hn‰n Ipdhv
$
$
s tªm°v aqe-I-ß-fpsS khn-ti-j-X-Iƒ enÃv sNbvXv Hcp Ipdn∏v Xbm-

dm-°pI-.
p tªm°v aqe-Ißƒ
$ GsX√mw {Kq∏p-I-fmWv p tªm°n¬ Dƒs∏-ń-cn-°p-∂-Xv?
2˛mw- ]ocn-b-Unse p tªm°v aqe-I-ßƒ AS-ßp∂ ]ocn-tbm-UnIv tS_n-

fns‚ Hcp `mKw \¬In-bn-cn-°p∂Xv {i≤n-°p-I.
{Kq∏v \º¿ 13 14 15 16 17 18
aqeIw B C N O F Ne
_mly-Xasj√nse 5 6 7 8 9 10
k_vsj¬ LS\ 2s2 2p1 2s2 2p2 2s2 2p3 2s2 2p4 2s2 2p5 2s2 2p6
]ńI 1.12
$ Ah-km\ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ ]qcWw \S-∂Xv GXv k_vsj-√n-emWv?
p k_vsj-√n¬ H∂p apX¬ Bdv hsc Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-I-fmWv ImW-s∏-

Sp-∂-Xv.
]ocn-tbm-UnIv tS_n-fn¬ 12 {Kq∏p-Iƒ Ign™ tij-amWv p tªm°v
XpS-ßp-∂X.v _mly-Xa p Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-I-fpsS FÆtØmsSm∏w 12
Iqń-bm¬ {Kq∏v \º¿ Is≠-Øm≥ Ign-bp-∂pt≠m? ]ń-I-bp-ambn
_‘-s∏-SpØn ]cn-tim-[n®v t\m°q.
aqeIw p Ce-Ivt{SmWns‚ FÆw {Kq∏v \º¿
5
B 1 1+12 = 13
7
N - ...... + 12 = .......
10
Ne - - + - = ........
]ńI 1.13
Y F∂ aqe-I-Øns‚ ({]XoIw bYm¿Y-a-√). _mly-Xa k_vsj¬

LS\ 3s2 3p4 F∂m-Wv.
21
$ Cu aqeIw GXv ]ocn-b-Unepw {Kq∏n-ep-amWv hcp-∂Xv?
$ CtX {Kq∏n¬ sXm´p-Xmsg-bp-≈ aqe-IØ

- ns‚ _mly-Xa k_vsj¬
LS\ FgpXn t\m°q.
Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ym-kØ- n-ep≈ kam-\X Imc-Wa

- m-Wt√m CsX√mw
Fgp-Xm≥ Ign-bp-∂Xv.
p tªm°v aqe-I-ß-fpsS Nne khnt-ij-X-Iƒ t\m°mw
]ocn-tbm-UnIv tS_n-fn¬ p tªm°v aqe-I-ßƒ AS-ßp∂ `mKw Xmsg

sImSp-ØXv {i≤n-°p-I.
p-tªm°v
13 14 15 16 17
teml-ßƒ
Ateml-ßƒ
D]teml-ßƒ
DXvIr-jvS-aq-eI-ßƒ
Nh Mc Ts Og
Nn{Xw 1.5
hyXykv X hn`m- K - ß sf {]Xn- \ n- [ m\w sNøp∂ aqe- I - ß ƒ p

tªm°neps≠∂v Nn{X-Øn¬ \n∂v a\- n-em-°m-a-t√m.
km[m-cW Xm]-\n-e-bn¬ Jcw, {Zmh-Iw, hmXIw F∂o Ah-ÿ-I-fn-
ep≈ aqe-I-ßfpw CXn¬ Dƒs∏-Spw. ]ocn-tbm-UnIv tS_n-fns‚ (Nn{Xw
1.4) klm-b-tØmsS DZm-l-c-W-ßƒ Is≠-Øp-I.
$ s tªm°v aqe-I-ßsf At]-£n®v p tªm°v aqe-I-ßƒ s]mXpsh

Db¿∂ Atbm-Wo-I-cW Du¿P-amWv ImWn-°p-∂-Xv. Hmtcm ]ocn-
b-Un-tebpw Atbm-Wo-I-cW Du¿Pw IqSnb aqeIw GXm-bn-cn°pw?
Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ym-k-Øns‚ ASn-ÿm-\-Øn¬ Nn¥n-°q.
22
$ CeIvt{Sm s\K-‰n-hn‰n G‰hpw IqSnb aqeIw p tªm°n¬ BWv.

CXns‚ t]cpw ÿm\hpw \n¿W-bn-°q.
P tªm°v aqe-I-ßfpsS s]mXphmb khnti-j-X-Iƒ hni-I-e\w sNbvXv

Hcp Ipdn∏v Xbm-dm-°pI-.
]ń-I- 1.14 ]q¿Øn-bm-°p-I. (X,Y) F∂nh bYm¿Y {]Xo-I-ßƒ A√.
_mly-Xa ]q¿W-amb k_vsj¬ At‰m-anI ]ocn-bUv {Kq∏v tªm°v

aqeIw Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ymkw \º¿
hn\ymkw Z
X 3s 2
Y 3s 23p 5
]ńI 1.14
$ CXn¬ kwtbm-P-IX 1 Bb aqeIw GXmWv?

$ teml-kz-`mhw {]I-Sn-∏n-°p∂ aqeIw GXv?
$ Atbm-Wo-I-cW Du¿Pw IqSnb aqeIw GXv?
$ X Dw Y bpw tN¿∂v cq]o-I-cn-°m≥ km[y-X-bp≈ kwbp-‡-Øns‚
cmkkq{Xw FgpXn HmIvko-I-c-Wm-h-ÿ-Iƒ tcJ-s∏-Sp-Øp-I.
d tªm°vaqe-Ißƒ
$ ]ocn-tbm-UnIv tS_n-fn¬ d tªm°v aqe-Iß
- f
- psS ÿm\w FhnsS-bmWv?
$ GXv ]ocnbUv apX-emWv d tªm°v XpS-ßp-∂-Xv?
4˛mw ]ocn-b-Un¬ hcp∂ d tªm°v aqe-I-ß-fpsS ]ńI Xmsg sImSp-°p-∂p.

Ah-km-\sØ c≠v k_vsj-√p-I-fmb 3d, 4s F∂nh-bnse Ce-Ivt{Sm¨
LS-\-bmWv ]ń-I-bn¬ tcJ-s∏-Sp-Øn-bn-cn-°p-∂-Xv.
{Kq∏v 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
aqeIw Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn
3d 14s 2 3d 24s 2 3d 34s 2 3d 54s 1 3d 54s 2 3d 64s 2 3d 74s 2 3d 84s 2 3d 104s 1 3d 104s 2
]ńI 1.15
23
3d, 4s Ce-Ivt{SmWpI-fpsS BsI FÆhpw {Kq∏v \ºdpw XΩn¬ _‘-

apt≠m? ]cn-tim-[n-°q.
_mlyXa s k_vsj-√nse Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-I-fpsS FÆhpw sXm´p-

ap-ºp≈ d k_vsj-√nse Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-I-fpsS FÆhpw Iq´p-∂-
Xn\v Xpey-am-bn-cn°pw d tªm°paqe-I-ß-fpsS {Kq∏p\º¿.
d tªm°v aqe-I-ßfpsS Nne {]tXy-I-X-Iƒ ]cn-

12˛mw {Kq∏n¬ hcp∂ Zn, tim-[n°mw
Cd, Hg F∂nh kw{I-aW
aqeI-ßf- psS F√m s]mXp- Ah-km\ CeIvt{Sm¨]qcWw _mly-X-a-sj-√ns‚ sXm´p-
Kp-W-ßfpw ImWn-°p-∂-h- ≈n-ep≈ sj√nse (penultimate shell) d k_vsj-√n¬ \S-
b- √ . AXn- \ m¬ Ch °p-∂-h-bmWv d tªm°paqe-I-ß-sf∂v \nßƒ Xncn-®-dn-™n-
I]Skw{I-a-W-aq-e-I-ßƒ ´p≠v. Ch kw{I-aW aqe-I-ßƒ (Transition elements)
(pseudo transition F∂pw Adn-b-s∏-Sp-∂p.
elements) F∂-dn-b-s∏-Sp-
∂p. Xmsg sImSp-Øn-cn-°p-∂- {]kvXm-h-\-I-fn¬ d tªm°paqe-
I-ßƒ°v tbmPn-°p-∂hbv°v "9' AS-bmfw \¬Iq.
Ch teml-ß-fm-Wv.
Ah-km\ Ce-Ivt{Sm-¨ ]qcWw \S-°p-∂Xv _mly-Xasj√n\v

sXm´p-ap-ºp≈ sj√n-em-Wv.
4˛mw ]ocnbUnse CØcw aqe-I-ß-fpsS Ah-km\ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨
]qcWw \S-°p-∂Xv 4s ¬ BWv.
Ch ]ocntbm-UnIv tS_n-fnse 3 apX¬ 12 hsc {Kq∏p-I-fn¬ ImW-
s∏-Sp∂p.
s, p F∂o tªm°n¬ Dƒs∏Sp-∂ {]mXn-\n-[y-aq-e-I-ßƒ {Kq∏n¬
kmZriyw ImWn-°p-∂p-sh∂v \nßƒ a\- n-em-°n-bn-´p-≠-t√m. Ch-
bn¬ Htc {Kq∏n¬ Dƒs∏´ aqe-I-ß-fpsS _mly-X-a-sj-√nse Ce-
Ivt{Sm-Wp-I-fpsS FÆw Hcp-t]mse Bb-Xp-sIm-≠m-Wt√m Cßs\
kw`-hn-°p∂-Xv.
4˛mw ]ocn-bUnse d tªm°v aqe-I-ß-fpsS 3d, 4s k_vsj√pIfnse
CeIvt{Sm¨ LS\ ]ń-Ibn¬ (]ńI 1.15) \¬In-bn-cn-°p-∂-Xv H∂p
IqSn {i≤n-°q.
_mly-Xa 4s k_vsj√nse Ce-Ivt{Sm-WpI-fpsS FÆ-Øn-ep≈ {]tXy-
IX F¥mWv? kw{I-aW aqe-I-ßƒ ]ocn-b-Unepw kmZriyw ImWn-
°ptam? ]cn-tim-[n-°q. CXp-t]mse XpS¿∂p hcp∂ ]ocn-b-Up-I-fnepw
24
_mly-Xa k_vsj-√p-I-fnse Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ LS-\-bn¬ kam-\X D≠m-bn-cn-

°p-sa∂v Duln-°m-at√m? kvIm≥Un-b-Øns‚ (21Sc) sXm´v Xmsg hcp∂ aqe-
I-Øns‚ _mly-Xa C-e-Ivt{Sm¨ LS\ FgpXn t\m°q.
4d.... 5s.....
kw{I-aWaqe-I-ß-fpsS _mlyXa Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ymkw Htc {Kq∏nepw
]ocn-bUnepw km[m-cW Hcp-t]m-se-bm-Wv. AXp-sIm≠v Ch {Kq∏n¬
am{Xa√ ]ocnbUnepw KpW-ß-fn¬ kmZriyw ImWn-°p-∂p.
d tªm°v aqe-I-ß-fpsS HmIvko-I-c-Wm-hÿ

cmk-_‘ - \
- Ø
- n¬ G¿s∏-Sp∂ B‰-ßƒ hn´p-sIm-Sp-°p-Itbm kzoI-cn-°p-Itbm
]¶p-h-bv°p-Itbm sNøp∂ Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-I-fpsS FÆ-amWv Ah-bpsS kwtbm-
P-IX (valency) F∂v \nßƒ°-dn-bm-a-t√m. HmIvko-I-c-Wm-h-ÿsb°pdn®pw
\nßƒ°v [mc-W-bp≠v.
Ab-Wns‚ (Fe) c≠v t¢mssdUpI-fpsS t]cpw cmk-kq-{Xhpw Fgp-Xn-bncn-°p-
∂Xv {i≤n-°q.
s^dkv t¢mssdUv ˛ FeCl2
s^dnIv t¢mssdUv ˛ FeCl3
t¢mdn\v (–1) HmIvko-I-c-Wm-h-ÿ-bm-W-t√m.
Cu kwbp-‡-ßfnse Fe bpsS HmIvko-I-c-Wm-h-ÿ-Iƒ Is≠-Øn ]ńI
1.16 ]q¿Øn-bm-°q.
kwbp‡w Fe bpsS Fe bpsS AtbmWp-I-fpsS

HmIvko-I-c-Wm-hÿ {]XoIw
FeCl2
FeCl3
]ńI 1.16
d tªm°v aqe-I-ß-ƒ cmk-{]-h¿Ø-\-Øn¬ ]s¶-Sp-°p-tºmƒ _mlyXa-sj-

√nse Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-I-tfm-sSm∏w _mly-X-a-sj-√n\v sXm´p-ap-ºp≈ sj√nse
d Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-Ifpw ]s¶-Sp-°p-∂p. Ce-Ivt{Sm¨]qcWw \S-°p∂ {Ia-Øn-
e√ d tªm°v aqe-Iß- fpsS Ce-Itv {Sm-Wp-Iƒ \jvSs
- ∏-Sp-∂Xv. AXm-bXv _mly-
Xa sj√nse s k_vsj-√n¬ \n∂mWv Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-Iƒ BZyw \jvS-s∏-Sp-
∂-Xv.
26
Fe s‚ k_vsj¬ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ymkw {i≤n-°q.
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d6 4s2
$ Fe Fß-s\-bmWv Fe2+ Bbn amdn-bXv?
25
$ Fe2+ s‚ k_vsj¬ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ymkw Fgp-Xn-t\m-°q.
FeCl3 bn¬ Ab-Wn\v aq∂v Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-Iƒ \jvS-s∏-´v Fe3+ Atbm¨

D≠m-Ip-∂p.
kw{I-aW aqe-I-ß-fpsS _mly s k_vsj√n-s‚bpw sXm´v D≈nse
d k_vsj√n-s‚bpw Du¿P-Øn¬ t\cnb hyXymkw am{X-ta-bp-≈q.
$ F¶n¬ Ab-Wn\v \jvS-s∏-Sp∂ aq∂m-asØ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ GXv
k_vsj-√n¬ \n∂m-bn-cn-°pw?
$ CXns‚ ASn-ÿm-\Øn¬ Fe3+ s‚ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ymkw Fgp-

XpI.
At‰m-anI \º¿ 25 Bb aqe-I-amWv amwK-\okv (Mn).

k_vsj¬ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ymkw
CXns‚ hnhn[ kwbp- ‡ - ß - f mWv MnCl2, MnO2, Mn2O3, Mn2O7.

Chbn¬ Hmtcm- ∂ n- e pw amwK- \ o- k ns‚ HmIv k o- I - c - W m- h - ÿ bpw
AtbmWpI- f psS k_v s j¬ Ce- I v t {Sm¨ hn\ym- k hpw FgpXn
]ń-I 1.17 ]q¿Øn-bm°pI.
kwbp‡w Mn s‚ Mn Atbm-Wp-I-fpsS k_vsj¬

HmIvko-I-c-Wm-hÿ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ymkw
MnCl2 - 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5
MnO 2 +4 -
Mn 2O 3 - -
Mn 2O 7 - -
]ńI 1.17
s, p F∂o tªm°p- I - f nse aqe- I - ß ƒ cmk- { ]- h ¿Ø- \ - Ø n¬

G¿s∏Sp-tºmƒ _mly-X-a-sj-√nse Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-I-fmWv ]s¶-Sp-
°p-∂-Xv. F∂m¬ kw{I-aW aqe-I-ß-fpsS _mly-sj-√nse s k_v
sj√n-s‚bpw sXm´Sp-Øp≈ B¥-cnIsj√nse d k_vsj√n-
s‚bpw Du¿Pßƒ XΩn¬ henb hyXymkw C√m-Ø-Xn-\m¬ A\p-
tbm-Py-amb kml-N-cy-Øn¬ d k_vsj√nse Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-Iƒ
IqSn cmk-{]-h¿Ø-\-Øn¬ ]s¶-Sp-°pw. AXp-sIm-≠mWv kw{I-a-
W-aq-e-I-ßƒ hyXykvX HmIvko-I-c-Wm-hÿ ImWn-°p-∂-Xv.
26
\nd-ap≈ kwbp-‡-ßƒ
kw{I-aWaqe-I-ß-fpsS Nne kwbp-‡-ßsf enÃp
sNbvXncn-°p-∂Xv {i≤n-°q. kw{I-aW
- a- q-eI
- ß
- fpsS
$ tIm∏¿ kƒt^‰v
D¬t{]-cI- kz`mhw
$ tIm_mƒ´v ss\t{S‰v kzbw ÿnc-amb cmk-am-‰-Øn\v hnt[-
b-am-ImsX cmk-{]-h¿Ø-\-th-K-Xsb
$ s]m´mkyw s]¿am-wK-t\‰v
kzm[o-\n-°m≥ Ign-bp∂ ]Zm¿Y-ß-
$ s^dkv kƒt^‰v fmWv D¬t{]- c - I ßƒ (Catalysts) .
$ km[m-c-W-ambn kw{I-a-W-aq-e-I-ßfpw
....................................................................................... Ah-bpsS kwbp-‡-ßfpw D¬t{]-c-I-
ß-fmbn [mcmfw D]-tbm-Kn-°s∏Sp-∂p-
kb≥kv em_n-¬ e`y-amb Cu kwbp-‡-ßƒ ]cn- ≠v. kº¿°-{]-{In-b-bn¬ ht\-Unbw
tim-[n®v Ch-bpsS \nd-ßƒ Is≠-Øq. \nd-ap≈ IqSpX¬ s]t‚m- I vsskUv (V 2 O 5 ), tl_¿
kwbp-‡-ßƒ I≠p-]n-Sn®v enÃv hn]p-eo-I-cn-°q. {]{In-bb
- n¬ kvt]m©o Ab¨, kky-
kw{I-aWaqe-I-ß-fpsS kwbp-‡-ß-ƒ an°-hbpw F-Æ-I-fpsS sslt{Um-P-t\-j≥ hgn
\nd-ap-ff
- h
- b
- m-W.v Ah-bnse kw{I-aW
- a
- q-eI
- ß
- f
- psS h\-kv]X - n-bpsS \n¿am-WØ
- n¬ \n°¬
(Ni) F∂nh Ch-bn¬ Nne DZm-l-c-W-
Atbm-Wp-I-fpsS km∂n-[y-amWv \nd-Øn\v Imc-
ß-fm-Wv. hyXykvX HmIvko-I-c-Wm-
Ww. hÿ ImWn- ° p∂ d tªm°v
$ •m n\v \ndw \¬Im\pw Hmbn¬ s]bn‚nw- aqeIßƒ°v HmIv k o- I m- c n- b mbpw
\ntcm-Ivko-Im-cn-bmbpw Htc kabw
Kn\pw a‰pw kw{I-aW aqe-I-kw-bp-‡-ßƒ D]-
{]h¿Øn-°p-hm≥ Ign-bp-∂-Xm-Wn-Xn\v
tbm-Kn-°m-dp-≠v. IqSp-X¬ hnh-c-ßƒ d^-d≥kn-
Hcp Imc-Ww.
eqsS Is≠-Øp-I.
f tªm°paqe-I-ß-fpsS {]tXy-I-X-Iƒ
e≥Ym\Øn\pw BIv S o- \ n- b - Ø n\pw tijw
hcp∂ 14 aqe-I-ßsf hoXw Xmsg c≠v \nc-I-
fmbn {Iao-I-cn-®n-cn-°p-∂-h-bmWv f tªm°v aqe-
I-ßƒ. tIc-fØ
- ns‚ [mXp-kº
- Øv
Ch- b n¬ Ce- I v t {Sm¨]qcWw \S- ° p- ∂ Xv temI- s Ø- √ m- b n- S Øpw [mXp- ° - f psS
_mly- X a sj√n\v sXm´p≈n- e p≈ sj√n- hn\ymkw Hcp-t]m-se-b-√. \ΩpsS tIcfw
s‚bpw D≈n-ep-≈-Xn-em-Wv (Antepenultimate Nne {]tXyI [mXp-°-fpsS kº∂ tiJ-c-
shell). H∂m-asØ \nc-bn-ep-≈h em≥Y-t\m- Øm¬ A\p-{K-lo-X-am-Wv. tamW-ssk-‰v,
bnUp-Iƒ F∂pw c≠m-asØ \nc-bn¬ {Iao- C¬a-ss\-‰v, kn¿t°m¨, dqssS¬, XpS-
Icn-®h BIv‰n-t\m-bnUpIƒ F∂p-amWv Adn- ßnb hnhn-[-ß-fmb [mXp-°-fpsS Ie-h-d-
b-s∏-Sp-∂-Xv. Ch 6, 7 ]ocn-b-Up-I-fn-embn {Iao- bmWv tIc-f-Ønse Xoc-{]-tZ-isØ aW¬
I-cn-®n-cn-°p-∂p. Ah-km-\sØ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ tiJ-cw. \nXy-Po-hn-X-Øn¬ hf-sc-b-[nIw
h∂p- t N- c p- ∂ Xv f k_vsj- √ n- e m- s W∂v D]-tbm-K-ap≈ ssS‰m-\nbw Utbm-IvsskUv
k_vsj¬ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ymkw ]cntim[n- (TiO 2) D¬∏m- Z - \ - Ø nse Akw- k v I rX
®m¬ ImWm≥ Ign-bpw. hkvXp-hmWv C¬a-ss\-‰v. {_oU¿ \yq¢n-b¿
f tªm°paqe-I-ß-fpsS Nne {]tXy-I-X-Ifpw dnbm-Iv‰-dp-I-fn¬ D]-tbm-Kn-°p-∂ tXmdn-b-
D]tbm-K-ß-fpw Np-hsS \¬In-bn-cn-°p-∂Xv Øns‚ (Th) Dd-hnSw tamW-ssk‰v F∂
{i≤n-°pI.
27
$ d tªm°paqe-Iß
- sf t]mse Chbn¬ an°-
hbpw hyXykvX HmIvko-I-c-Wm-h-ÿ-Iƒ
[mXphm-Wv. \ntbm-Un-anbw (Nd) temlw {]I-Sn-∏n-°p-∂p.
D¬∏m- Z n- ∏ n- ° p- h m- \ p≈ Akw- k v I rX $ BIv‰n-t\mbnUp-Iƒ `qcn-`m-Khpw tdUntbm
hkvXphpw tamW-ssk‰v Xs∂. i‡n-tb- BIvSohv aqe-Iß - f
- mWv. Ch ]eXpw Ir{Xna
dn- b Xpw `mc- a n- √ m- Ø - X p- a mb Im¥- ß ƒ aqe-I-ß-fm-Wv.
\n¿an-°m≥ C∂v hym]-I-ambn D]-tbm-Kn- $ bqtd-\nbw (U), tXmdnbw (Th), πqt´m-Wnbw
°-s∏-Sp∂ teml-amWv \ntbm-Un-an-bw. Dc- (Pu) XpS-ßn-bh \yq¢n-b¿ dnbm-IvS-dp-I-fn¬
I-√p-Iƒ (Flint stones) \n¿an-°m-\m-h-iy-amb
C‘-\-ambn D]-tbm-Kn-°p-∂p.
kodnbw (Ce) temlØns‚ [mXphpw
tamW-ssk‰v BWv. Aaq-ey-amb Cu [mXp- $ Ch-bn¬ ]eXpw D¬t{]-c-I-ß-fmbn s]t{Sm-
ti-Jcw \mw th≠-hn[w {]tbm-P-\-s∏Sp- fnbw hyh-km-b-Øn¬ D]-tbm-Kn-°p-∂p.
tØ-≠-Xp-≠v.
]ocn-tbm-UnIv tS_n-fns‚ Hcp `mKw Xmsg sImSp-Øn-cn-°p-∂Xv {i≤n-

°pI. (]ńI 1.18) tImf-Øn¬ kqNn-∏n® aqe-I-ß-fpsS {]Xo-I-ßƒ
bYm¿Y-a-√.
1 18
Group
2 13 14 15 16 17
E F G H
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
A B C D
]ńI 1.18
$ s tªm°vaqe-I-ßƒ enÃv sNøp-I.
$ +2 HmIvko-I-c-Wm-hÿ ImWn-°p∂ aqeIw GXv?

$ _mly-X-a-sj-√n¬ 5 Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hcp∂ aqeIw GXv?
$ _mly-Xa p k_vsj-√n¬ 5 Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hcp∂ aqeIw GXv?
$ d k_vsj-√n¬ Ah-km\ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ ]qcWw \S-°p∂ aqeIßƒ
GsX√mw?
$ Atbm-Wo-I-cW Du¿Pw IqSnb aqeIw GXm-bn-cn°pw?
$ G‰hpw {Inbm-ioew IqSnb Atemlw GXmWv?
$ ˛2 HmIvko-I-c-Wm-hÿ ImWn-°p∂ aqeIw GXv?
28
$ CXn¬ Hcp aqe-I-Øns‚ Ah-km\ k_vsj¬ LS\ 2s2 2p6
(i) aqeIw GXv?
(ii) ]q¿W-amb k_vsj¬ hn\ymkw Fgp-Xp-I.
(iii) Cu aqe-I-Øns‚ GsX-¶nepw 2 khn-ti-j-X-Iƒ Fgp-Xp-I.
$ A bpw G bpw tN¿∂v cq]o-I-cn-°p∂ kwbp-‡-Øns‚ cmk-kq{Xw
Fgp-XpI-.
]ń-I-bnse Hmtcm aqe-Ihpw DØ-c-ambn hcp∂ ]c-am-h[n tNmZy-
ßƒ CXp-t]mse Is≠ØpI.
ck-X-{¥-]-T-\-Øn¬ ]ocn-tbm-UnIv tS_nƒ D]-tbm-K-s∏-SpØn aqe-Iß-
fpsS khn-ti-j-X-Iƒ hni-I-e\w sNøm\pw Xmc-X-ay-s∏S-p-Øm-\pap≈
km[yXIfmWv \mw Cu ]mT-`m-K-Øn-eqsS ]cn-N-b-s-∏´-Xv. ]Zm¿Y kz`m-
h-sØ-°p-dn-®p≈ XpS¿]-T-\-ß-fnepw ]ocn-tbm-UnIv tS_n-fns‚ klmbw
\nßƒ°v D]-tbm-K-s∏-Sp-Øm-hp-∂-XmWv.
hne-bn-cpØmw
1. Xmsg sImSpØ kqN-\-I-fpsS ASn-ÿm-\-Øn¬ At‰m-anI \º¿
Is≠Øn k_vsj¬ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ymkw Fgp-Xp-I. ({]Xo-I-ßƒ
bYm¿Y-a√.
(i) A - 3˛mw ]ncn-bUv 17˛mw {Kq∏v
(ii) B - 4˛mw ]ncn-bUv 6˛mw {Kq∏v
2. Hcm- ‰ - Ø ns‚ Ah- k m\ Ce- I v t {Sm¨ ]qcWw 3d k_v s j√n¬
\S∂t∏mƒ B k_vsj√nse CeIvt{Sm¨ hn\ymkw 3d8 F∂v
tcJs∏SpØn. Cu B‰sØ kw_-‘n-°p∂ tNmZy-ßƒ°v DØcw
Is≠-Øq.
$ ]q¿W k_vsj¬ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ymkw
$ At‰m-anI\º¿
$ tªm°v
$ ]ocnbUv\º¿
$ {Kq∏v\º¿
3. Xmsg- sIm-Sp-Øn-cn-°p∂ k_vsj¬ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ym-k-Øn¬ icn-

b-√mØh GsX√mw.
a) 1s2 2s2 2p7 b) 1s2 2s2 2p2
c) 1s2 2s2 2p5 3s1 d) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d2 4s1
e) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d2 4s2
29
4. {Kq∏p\º¿ 17 Bb X F∂ aqe-I-Øn\v 3 sj√p-Iƒ D≠v. F¶n¬

a) Cu aqe-I-Øns‚ k_vsj¬ Ce-IvtSm¨ hn\ymkw Fgp-XpI.
b) ]ocnbUv \º¿ F{X-bmWv?
c) p k_v sj√n¬ Hcp Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp≈ aq∂mw ]ocnbUnse Y
F∂ aqe-I-Øns‚ B‰-hp-ambn X {]h¿Øn-®m¬ D≠m-Ip∂ kwbp-
‡-Øns‚ cmk-kq{Xw F¥m-bn-cn-°pw?
5. At‰m-anI \º¿ 29 Bb Cu F∂ aqeIw cmk-{]-h¿Ø-\-Øn¬ G¿s∏-
Sp-tºmƒ +-2 HmIvko-c-Wm-hÿbp≈ Atbm¨ Bbn amdp-∂p.
a) Cu Atbm-Wns‚ {]XoIhpw k_vsj¬ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ymkhpw
Fgp-XpI.
b) Cu aqeIw hyXykvX HmIvko-I-c-Wm-hÿ ImWn-°p-hm≥ km[y-
X-bpt≠m? F¥p-sIm≠v?
c) t¢mdn\pambn (17Cl) Cu aqeIw {]h¿Øn-®m¬ D≠m-Ip∂ Hcp
kwbp-‡-Øns‚ cmk-kq{Xw Fgp-XpI.
6. B‰-Ønse Nne k_vsj-√p-Iƒ Xmsg-sIm-Sp-°p-∂p.

2s, 2d, 3f, 3d, 5s, 3p
a) CXn¬ km[y-X-bn-√mØ k_vsj-√p-Iƒ GsXms°?
b) km[yXbn-√mØXns‚ ImcWw F¥mWv?
XpS¿{]-h¿Ø\w
1. 1 apX¬ 36 hsc Bt‰m-an-I-\-º¿ hcp∂ aqe-I-ß-fpsS t]cv, {]Xo-Iw,
sj¬, Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ym-kw, k_vsj¬ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ymkw
F∂nh kqNn-∏n-°p∂ ka-{K-amb ]ńI Xbm-dm-°p-I.
Bt‰m-anI aqeIw {]XoIw Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ k_vsj¬ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨

\º¿ hn\ymkw hn\ymkw
30
2. ]ocn-tbm-UnIv tS_n-fnse P tªm°n¬ 17˛mw {Kq∏n¬ hcp∂ aqe-

I-ß-fp-ambn _‘-s∏´ Nne hnh-c-ß-fmWv ]ń-I-bn¬ \¬In-bn-
cn-°p-∂-Xv. ]ńI ]q¿Øn-bm°n Xmsg sImSpØ Imcy-ßƒ hni-
I-e\w sNøp-I.
aqeIw {]XoIw STP bnse ssl{U-P\ - p-am-bp≈ km[m-cW HmIvko-I sslss{U-Up-

\º¿ Ahÿ cmk-{]-h¿Ø-\t- ijn c- W
- m-hÿ I-fpsS cmk-kq{Xw
^vfqdn≥ ........... ........... Xo{h-amb {]h¿Ø\w ˛1 HF
........... Cl ........... Xo{h-amb {]h¿Ø\w ˛1 ...........
t{_man≥ ........... {ZmhIw kmh-[m-\Ø

- n-ep≈ ˛ ...........
{]h¿Ø\w
Ab-Un≥ ........... ........... hfsc kmh-[m-\-Øn-ep≈ ˛ ...........

{]h¿Ø\w
(a) 17˛mw {Kq∏n¬ hcp∂ aqeI IpSpw-_-Øn\v ]d-bp∂ t]sc¥v?

(b) Ch-bpsS s]mXp-hmb hme≥kn F{X?
(c) CXn¬ CeIvt{Sm s\K-‰n-hn‰n IqSnb aqeIw GXv?
(d) Atbm-WoI-cW Du¿Pw IqSnb aqeIw GXv?
(e) Ch s tªm°v aqe-I-ß-fp-ambn tN¿∂p≠m-°p∂ ]cn-NnX
kwbp-‡ß-fpsS t]cpw cmk-kq-{Xhpw enÃv sNøp-I.
31
hmX-I-\n-b-a-ßfpw
tamƒ k¶¬∏-\hpw
Jcw, {Zmh-Iw F∂nhsb At]-£n®v hmX-I-ßƒ°v hf-sc-b-[nIw khn-ti-j-X-Iƒ D≠v.

[mcmfw aqe-I-ßfpw kwbp-‡-ßfpw hmXIm-h-ÿ-bn¬ ImW-s∏-Sp-∂p. \nXy-Po-hn-X-Ønepw
hyh-km-b-ß-fnepw ]co-£-W-im-e-I-fnepw hnhn[ hmX-I-ßsf \mw ssIImcyw sNøp-∂p-
≠t√m.
hmXI--ß-sf-∏‰n GXm\pw Nne {]kvXm-h-\-Iƒ X∂n-cn°p∂Xv {i≤n°q...
$ Hmtcm hmX-I-Ønepw AXnkq£va-ß-fmb At\Iw X∑m-{X-Iƒ AS-ßn-bncn°p-∂p.
$ Hcp hmXIØns‚ BsI hym]vX-hpambn Xmc-Xayw sNøp-tºmƒ AXnse X∑m-{X-I-
fpsS bYm¿Y hym]vXw hfsc \nkm-c-am-Wv.
$ hmX-I-Ønse X∑m-{X-Iƒ F√m Zni-I-fn-tebv°pw \nc-¥cw Nen-®p-sIm-≠n-cn-°p-∂p.
32
hmX-I\- n-ba- §
- fpw tamÄ k¦Â¸-\hpw
$ {Ia-c-ln-X-amb Cu Ne-\-¯nsâ ê-ambn X·m-{X-IÄ ]c-kv]cw

Iq«n-bn-Sn-¡p-¶p, hmXIw ØnXnsN¿p¶ ]m{X-¯nsâ `n¯n-I-fnepw
sN¶n-Sn-¡p-¶p. CXnsâ ê-am-bmWv hmX-I-aÀZw A\p-`-h-s¸-Sp-
¶Xv.
$ hmXI X·m-{X-I-fpsS Iq«nap«epIÄ ]qÀW-ambpw Cem-kvXnI
kz`m-h-ap-f-f-Xm-b-Xn-\mÂ DuÀP-\jvSw kw`-hn-¡p-¶n-Ã.
$ hmXI X·m-{X-IÄ X½n-epw, hmXI X·m-{X-Ifpw ]m{X-¯nsâ
`n¯nbpw X½nepw BIÀjWw Xosc-bn-Ã.
apI-fnÂ \ÂInb {]kvXm-h\
- I
- f
- psS ASn-Øm-\¯
- nÂ Xmsg-bpÅ ]«nI
(2.1) ]qÀ¯n-bm-¡p-I.
hmXI X·m-{X-If- psS DuÀPw hfsc IqSp-XÂ
X·m-{XIÄ X½nepff AIew .........................................
X·m{XIfpsS Ne\ kzmXýw .........................................
X·m{XIÄ X½n-epff BIÀj-W_ - ew .........................................
]«nI 2.1
Cu {]kvXm-h-\-IÄ ]cn-tim-[n-¡p-t¼mÄ hmX-I-§-fpsS hym]vXw, aÀZw,
hmXI X·m-{X-I-fpsS DuÀPw Ch-sb-¸-än-bp-ff kqN-\-IÄ \n§Ä¡v
e`n-¡p-¶ptÃm?
hmX-I-¯nsâ hym]vXw
Hcp ]ZmÀY-¯n\v ØnXn-sN-¿m-\m-hi
- y-amb Øe-¯nsâ Af-hns\-bmWv
AXnsâ hym]vXw F¶p ]d-bp-¶-Xv.
Hcp enäÀ {ZmhIw GXp hep-¸-¯n-ep-ff ]m{X-¯n-te¡v amän-bmepw
AXnsâ hym]vX-¯nÂ hyXym-k-ap-m-Ip-¶n-Ã. F¶mÂ Hcp enäÀ
hym]vX-ap-ff knen--dnÂ h¨n-cn-¡p¶ Hcp hmXIw 5 enäÀ hym]vX-ap-
ff Hcp knen--dn-te¡v ]qÀW-ambpw amän-bmÂ, hmX-I-¯nsâ hym]vXw
F{X-bmbn¯ocpw?
Hcp hmX-I¯
- nsâ hym]vXw AXv DÄs¡m-Åp¶ ]m{X-¯nsâ hym]vXw Bbn-cn¡pw.
Hcp kndns©Sp¯v AXnsâ ]nÌ¬ ]n¶n-te¡v hen¨p hbv¡p-I. kndn-
©nsâ t\mknÂ AS-¨p-]n-Sn-¨p-sImv ]nÌ¬ AaÀ¯n-bmÂ kndn-
©n-\p-f-fnse hmbp-hnsâ hym]vX-¯n\v F´p amäw Dm-Ip¶p?
hmX-I-¯nse X·m-{X-I-fpsS AI-ew, Ne-\-kzm-X-{ýw Ch-bpsS ASn-

Øm-\-¯nÂ CXv hni-Zo-I-cn-¡p-I.
33
ckX{´w $ ÌmtâÀUv - X
hmX-I-¯nsâ aÀZw
Hcp ]m{X-¯nÂ AS-¨p-h-¨n-cn-¡p¶ hmX-I X·m{-X-IfmWv Nn{X-¯nÂ
ImWn-¨n-cn-¡p-¶-Xv.
$ X·m-{X-I-fpsS Ne-\-¯nsâ {]tXy-IX F´mWv?
$ X·m-{X-IÄ Iq«n-bn-Sn-¡m-\p-ff km[y-X-sb-¸än F´v

A\p-am-\n¡mw?
]m{X-¯n-\p-f-fnse GsX-¦nepw {]Xew ]cn-K-Wn-¡p-I. X·m-{X-IÄ

\nc-ćw Nen-¡p-t¼mÄ Cu {]Xe-¯nÂ h¶n-Sn-¡p-¶-Xp-aqew Hcp
Nn{Xw 2.1 _ew A\p-`-h-s¸-Sp-atÃm? {]X-e-¯nÂ A\p-`-h-s¸-Sp¶ _e-hpw, {]X-
e-¯nsâ ]c-¸-fhpw Adn-ªmÂ Hcp bqWnäv ]c-¸-f-hnÂ A\p-`-h-s¸-
Sp¶ _ew IW-¡m¡mtam?
{]X-e-¯nÂ A\p-`-h-s¸-Sp¶ BsI _ew
bqWnäv ]c-¸-f-hnse _ew =
{]X-e-¯nsâ ]c-¸-fhv
Hcp bqWnäv ]c-¸f- h- nÂ A\p-`h- s- ¸-Sp¶ _e-amWv aÀZw.

Xm]-\ne
hmX-I-¯nse X·m-{X-IÄ \nc-ćw Nen-¨p-sIm-n-cn-¡p-I-bm-WtÃm?
$ Ne\w aqew e`n-¡p¶ DuÀP-taXv? ØnXn-tImÀPw/KXn-tImÀPw
$ hmX-Is¯ NqSm-¡n-bmÂ Xm]-\n-e- IqSp-¶p. hmXI¯nsâ Xm]-
\ne IqSn-bmÂ X·m-{X-I-fpsS Ne-\-¯nÂ F´v- amäw DmIpw?
$ CXp aqew X·m-{X-I-fpsS DuÀP-¯n\v F´v amä-amWv Dm-Ip-
¶Xv?
Hcp ]ZmÀY-¯nse X·m-{X-If- psS icm-icn KXn-tImÀP-¯nsâ Af-hmWv

AXnsâ Xm]-\ne
hmX-I-¯nsâ Xmsg-¸-d-bp¶ khn-ti-j-X-I-sf-¸än CXp-hsc e`n¨ hnh-

c-§-fpsS ASn-Øm-\-¯nÂ eLp-Ip-dn¸v Xbm-dm-¡p-I.
$ hym]vXw
$ aÀZw
$ Xm]-\ne
34
hmX-I\- n-ba- §
hym]vXhpw aÀZhpw
Nn{Xw A, B Ch {i²n-¡p-I.
Nn{Xw 2.2 (A) Nn{Xw 2.2 (B)

Nn{Xw A bnÂ Hcp \nÝnX amkv hmXIw Hcp knen--dnÂ AS¨p h¨n-
cn-¡p-¶p. Xm]-\n-e-bnÂ amäw hcp-¯msX CtX hmX-Is¯ Nn{Xw B
bnse knen--dn-te¡v amäp¶p F¶v Icp-Xp-I. X·m-{X-I-fpsS F®-
¯nÂ amä-ap-m-Iptam? hym]vXw Ipd-ª-t¸mÄ aÀZ-¯n\v F´v amä-
amWv Dm-bXv?
asämcp ]co-£Ww sNbvXp t\m¡mw.
Hcp 10 mL kndn-©nsâ ]nÌ¬ ]n¶n-te¡v hen¨p hbv¡p-I. kndn©nsâ
t\mknÂ AS¨p ]nSn-¨p-sImv ]nÌ-WnÂ {Ia-ambn aÀZw {]tbm-Kn-¨p-
t\m-¡p-I.
kndn-©n-\p-f-fnse hmbp-hnsâ hym]vX-¯n\v F´v amäw \nco-£n¡mw?
aÀZw Ipd-¨mtem?
aÀZhpw hym]vXhpw X½nÂ F´v _Ô-amWv \n§Ä¡v A\p-am-\n-¡m³

Ign-bp-¶Xv?
hmX-I-§-fpsS hym]vXw, aÀZw Ch-X-½n-ep-ff _Ôw ]co£W§-fn-

eqsS Øm]n-¨Xv {_n«ojv ùXnI þ ck-X-{´-im-kv{X-Ú-\m-b tdm_À«v
t_mbnÂ (1627-þ1691) BWv. Cu _Ôw t_mbnÂ \nbaw F¶v
Adnbs¸-Sp-¶p.
Xm]-\ne Ønc-am-bn-cn-¡p-t¼mÄ Hcp \nÝnX amkv hmX-I-¯nsâ hym]vXhpw
aÀZhpw hn]-coX A\p-]m-X¯ - n-em-bn-cn-¡pw. aÀZw P F¶pw, hym]vXw V F¶pw
kqNn-¸n-¨mÂ P x V Hcp Ønc-kw-Jybm-bn-cn¡pw.
35
Hcp AtIz-dn-b-¯nsâ Nph-«nÂ \n¶v Db-cp¶ hmbp-

Ip-an-fb
- psS hep¸w apI-fn-te¡v F¯pwtXmdpw IqSn-
h-cp-¶p. CXnsâ ImcWw Fs´¶v hni-Zo-I-cn-
¡mtam?
Nn{Xw 2.3
hym]vXhpw Xm]-\n-ebpw
Hcp ]co-£Ww sN¿mw.
d_À AS-¸p-ff CuÀ¸-cl
- n-Xa- mb Hcp Ip¸n (C³P-Ivj³ acp¶nsâ Ip¸n)
FSp-¡pI. d_À AS-¸nÂ Imen-bmb Hcp do^nÂ Syq_v Dd-¸n-¨p\nÀ¯pI.
Syq_nsâ Xmsg A{K-¯nÂ Hcp Xpffn ajn Ib-än, Ip¸n AS-bv¡p-I. Cu
kÖo-I-c-Ws¯ sNdp-Nq-Sp-sh-f-f-¯nÂ ap¡n-t\m-¡pI.
F´mWv \nco-£n-¡p-¶Xv?
Syq_n-eqsS ajn apI-fn-te¡v Db-cm³ Imc-W-sa´v?
Ip¸n ]pd-s¯-Sp¯v XWp-¡m³ A\p-h-Zn-¨mÂ F´v \nco-£n¡mw? Imc-

W-sa-´m-bn-cn¡pw?
hym]vXhpw Xm]-\n-ebpw X½n-ep-ff _Ô-s¯-¸än F´mWv A\p-am-\n-

¡m³ Ign-bp-¶Xv?
Hcp \nÝnX amkv hmX-I-¯nsâ hym]vXhpw Xm]-\n-ebpw X½n-ep-ff

_Ôw sXfn-bn-¡p¶ ]co-£-W-¯nse Nne \nco-£-W-§Ä NphsS
Xcp-¶p. (aÀZw hyXym-k-an-ÃmsX \ne-\nÀ¯n-bn-cn-¡p-¶p)
hym]vXw V Xm]-\ne T (sIÂhn³ kvsIbnÂ) V

T
546
546mL 273 K =2
273
600
600mL 300 K =2
300
640
640mL 320 K =2
320
660mL 330 K ........
]«nI 2.2
36
hmX-I\- n-ba- §
Xm]-\ne GXv bqWn-än-emWv X¶n-cn-¡p-¶Xv?
Xm]-\ne IqSp-t¼mÄ hym]vX-¯n\v F´v kw`-hn-¡p¶p?

hym]v-Xhpw Xm]-\n-ebpw X½n-ep-ff _Ôw Ønco-I-cn-¨Xv {^©v
imkv{X-Ú-\m-b PmIzkv NmÄkv (1746-þ1823) BWv. Cu \nbaw
NmÄkv \nbaw F¶v Adn-b-s¸-Sp-¶p.
aÀZw Ønc-am-bn-cn-¡p-t¼mÄ Hcp \nÝnX amkv hmX-I¯
- nsâ hym]vXw sIÂhn³
kvsIbn-ense Xm]-\n-ebv¡v t\À A\p-]m-X¯nembn-cn-¡pw.
V
hym]vXw V F¶pw Xm]-\ne T F¶pw kqNn-¸n-¨mÂ Hcp Ønc kwJy-
T
bmbncn¡pw.
hmbp-\n-d¨ Hcp _eq¬ shbn-e¯p h¨mÂ AXv s]m«p-¶p. Imc-W-sa-
´m-bn-cn¡pw?
hym]vXhpw X·m-{X-I-fpsS F®-hpw
LÀjWcln-Xa- m-b ]nÌ¬ LSn-¸n¨ Hcp knen-d- nÂ 1atm aÀZ-¯nepw
300K Xm]-\n-e-bnepw hmXIw \nd-¨n-cn-¡p-¶p.
aÀZw Ipd-bv¡p-Itbm Xm]-\ne hÀ²n-¸n-¡p-Itbm sNbvXmÂ knen--
dn-\p-f-fnse hmX-I-¯nsâ hym]vX-¯n\v F´p amäw kw`-hn¡pw?
hym]vXw IqSp-¶p/Ipd-bp¶p.
Xm]-\n-ebpw aÀZhpw Ønc-am-sW-¦nÂ hym]vXw hÀ²n-¸n-¡m³ F´mWv
amÀKw? knen--dnÂ Ipd¨v hmXIw IqSn \nd-¡pI. Ct¸mÄ X·m-{X-I-
fpsS F®w IqSptam Ipd-bptam?
hym]vX-hpw, X·m-{X-I-fpsS F®hpw X½n-ep-ff _Ô-sa´v?
hym]vXhpw X·m-{X-I-fpsS F®hpw X½n-ep-ff Cu _Ôw Is-¯n-

bXv Cäm- e n- b ³ imkv { X- Ú - \ m- b Ata- U ntbm Athm- K mt{Um
(1776þ1856) BWv. Cu _Ôw Athm-Kmt{Um \nbaw F¶-dn-b-s¸-
Sp¶p.
Xm]-\n-e, aÀZw Ch Ønc-am-bn-cn-¡p-t¼mÄ hmX-I§
- f
- psS hym]vXw X·m-{X-I-
fpsS F®-¯n\v t\À A\p-]m-X¯
- n-em-bn-cn¡pw
kq£va-I-Wn-I-I-fpsS F®w IW-¡m-¡p-¶-sX-§s\?

Athm-Kmt{Um \nb-aa-\p-k-cn¨v Xm]-\n-e, aÀZw Ch Ønc-am-bn-cn-¡p-
t¼mÄ hmX-I-§-fpsS hym]vXw Fńs\ B{i-bn-¨n-cn-¡p¶p?
37
X·m-{X-I-fpsS hep¸w Xosc sNdp-Xm-sW-¶dn-bm-atÃm? A§-s\-sb-

¦nÂ Hcp ]ZmÀ°-¯nÂ AS-§n-bn-cn-¡p¶ X·m-{X-I-fpsS F®w
IrXy-ambn IW-¡m-¡m³ F´mWv amÀ¤w?
henb _m¦p-I-fnepw aäpw Htcbn\w \mW-b-¯p-«p-IÄ F®n-¯n-«-
s¸-Sp-¯p-t¼mÄ, Ah IrXy-ambn F®n-sb-Sp-¡m³ F{X Bfp-IÄ
thn-hcpw? F{X kabw thn-hcpw? DZm-l-c-W-¯n\v 10 e£w
cq]bpsS \mW-b-¯p-«p-IÄ (Htc hep-¸hpw amkpw Df-f-h-bmWv \mW-
b-§Ä F¶v Icp-Xp-I) F®n-sb-Sp-¡-W-sa-¦nÂ F{X-kabw Bh-iy-
ambnhcp-sa¶v Nnń¨p t\m¡q...
Hcp \mW-b-¯nsâ amkv 5g BsW-¶n-cn-¡-s«. 1000 \mW-b-§-fpsS
amkv F{X-bm-bn-cn¡pw? Hcp k©n-bnse \mW-b-§-fpsS amkv 50,000g
BsW-¦nÂ AXnÂ F{X \mW-b-§Ä DmIpw?
C§s\ amkv ASn-Øm-\-¯nÂ \mW-b-§-fpsS F®w IW-¡m-¡m³
{ian-¨mÂ Ffp-¸-am-hntÃ?
Htc amkp-ff IW-§-fm-sW¦nÂ Ah-bpsS amkpw F®hpw X½nÂ
Fs´-¦nepw _Ô-aptm?
XnI¨pw Htct]mep-ff IW-§-fm-sW-¦nÂ, Ah tImSn-¡-W-¡n\v Ds-¦nÂ
t]mepw amkv ASn-Øm-\a- m¡n F®w IrXy-ambn Is-¯mw.
Bt]-£nI Atäm-anI amkv
Nne aqe-I-§-fpsS Atäm-anI amkv X¶n-cn-¡p-¶Xv {i²n-¡q...
aqeIw ssl{U-P³ loenbw tkmUnbw
Atäm-anI amkv 1 4 23
]«nI 2.3
apI-fnÂ X¶n-cn-¡p¶ kwJy-IÄ Bä-§-fpsS bYmÀY amkv AÃ.
Bä-§f- psS amkv {]kvXm-hn-¡p-¶X- n-\p-ff coXn F´m-bn-cn¡pw? loen-
b-¯nsâ Atäm-anI amkv 4 F¶XvsImv F´mWv AÀY-am-¡p-¶Xv?
kq£va- I- W - n-II- f- psS amkv IrXy-ambn Is-¯p-¶X- n\v B[p-\nI kwhn-[m-\-
§-fn-eqsS Ign-ªn-«p-v. DZm-l-c-W-¯n\v Hcp ssl{U-P³ Bä-¯nsâ amkv
1.67x10þ-24- {Kmw BWv. F-¶mÂ CXv {]kvXm-hn-¡p-¶Xn\v Bt]-£nI amkv coXn-
bmWv D]-tbm-Kn¨v hcp-¶X- v.
Hcp Bä-¯nsâ amkv asämcp Bä¯nsâ amkp-ambn Xmc-Xayw sNbvXv, AXnsâ
F{X aS-§m-sW¶v {]kvXm-hn-¡p¶ coXn-bm-Wn-Xv. ImÀ_¬þ12 Bä¯nsâ
amknsâ 12þÂ Hcp `mKs¯ Hcp bqWn-ämbn ]cn-K-Wn-¨mWv aqe-I-§-fpsS
Atäm-anI amkv {]kvXm-hn-¡p-¶X- v.
Hcp aqe-I¯ - nsâ hnhn[ sFtkm-tSm-¸p-Is- f¡qSn ]cn-KW - n¨v icm-icn Atäm-
an-I-amkv IW-¡m-¡p-t¼mÄ ]e-t¸mgpw `n¶kwJy-I-fmbn hcm-dp-v. F¦nepw
{]mtbm-KnI Bh-iy-§Ä¡pw IW-¡p-Iq-«e- p-IÄ¡pw thn Ch-bnÂ an¡Xpw
]qÀW-kw-Jy-I-fmbn ]cn-K-Wn-¡p-¶p.
38
hmX-I\- n-ba- §
Bä-§-fpsS F®w
ImÀ_¬ HmIvkn-P-\nÂ Pzen¨v ImÀ_¬ ssUHm-IvsskUv Dm-Ip¶
{]hÀ¯-\-¯nsâ cmk-k-a-hmIyw X¶n-cn-¡p-¶Xv {i²n-¡q.
C + O2o CO2
Hcp ImÀ_¬ Bäw F{X HmIvknP³ Bä-§-fp-am-bmWv kwtbm-Pn-¡p-

¶Xv?
ImÀ_¬ Bä-§Ä F{X HmIvkn-P³ Bä-§-fp-ambn kwtbm-Pn-
1000
¡p¶p?
C¯-c¯- nÂ tImSn-IW- ¡
- n\v Bä-§Ä kwtbm-Pn-¨mWv ]pXnb ]ZmÀ°-
§Ä Dm-Ip-¶-Xv. F¦nÂ F§-s\-bmWv Bä-§-fpsS F®w IrXy-
ambn IW-¡m-¡m³ Ign-bpI?
XnI¨pw Htct]mep-ff IW-§-fm-sW-¦nÂ ]ZmÀY-¯nsâ amkv ASn-
Øm-\am¡n IW-§-fpsS F®w Ip-]n-Sn-¡msa¶v a\-kn-em-¡nbn«p-
tÃm. ImÀ_¬, HmIvkn-P³ Ch-bpsS amknsâ ASn-Øm-\-¯nÂ
Ah-bnse Bä§-fpsS F®w imkv{Xo-b-ambn Is-¯n-bXv ]«n-I-
bnÂ \ÂIn-bn-cn-¡p-¶p.
aqeIw FSp-¯n-cn-¡p¶ amkv Bä-§f
- psS F®w
C 12g 6.022x1023 ImÀ_¬ Bä-§Ä

O 16g 6.022x1023 HmIvkn-P³ Bä-§Ä
]«nI 2.4
12 {Kmw ImÀ_-WnÂ F{X Bä-§-fpv?
Hcp ImÀ_¬ Bäw cv HmIvkn-P³ Bä-§-fp-am-bn-«mWv kwtbm-Pn-¡p-

¶-Xv. 6.022x10 C Bä-§Ä¡v kwtbm-Pn-¡m³ F{X HmIvkn-P³ Bä-
23
§Ä thWw?
C{Xbpw Bä-§-fpsS amkv F{X-bm-bn-cn¡mw?
cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-§fnÂ ]s¦-Sp-¡p¶ IW-§-fpsS F®w CXp-t]mse

amknsâ ASn-Øm-\-¯nÂ IrXy-ambn IW-¡m-¡mw.
{Kmw Atäm-an-I-amkv
ImÀ_-Wnsâ Atäm-anI amkv þ 12 Dw, HmIvkn-P-tâXv 16 Dw BWv.
Hmtcm aqe-Ihpw AXnsâ Atäm-anI amkv F{X-bmtWm A{Xbpw {Kmw
39
hoX-amWv FSp-¯n-cn-¡p-¶-Xv. Ah-bnÂ AS-§-n-bn-cn-¡p¶ Bä-§-fpsS

F®hpw Xpey-ambn (6.022x10 ) ImW-s¸-Sp-¶p.
23
12 {Kmw ImÀ_-Wns\ Hcp {Kmw Atäm-anI amkv ImÀ_¬ (1 GAM)

F¶p hn-fn-¡p-¶p. AXp-t]mse 16 {Kmw HmIvkn-Ps\ Hcp {Kmw Atäm-
anI amkv (1 GAM) HmIvkn-P³ F¶v hnfn-¡p-¶p.
Hcp aqe-I¯
- nsâ Atäm-an-Ia- mkv F{X-bmtWm, A{Xbpw {Kmw B aqe-I¯
- ns\
AXnsâ Hcp {Kmw Atäm-anI amkv (1 GAM) F¶p hnfn-¡p-¶p. CXns\ Hcp
{Kmw Bäw F¶pw Npcp¡n hnfn-¡mw.
aqeIw Atäm-anI amkv amkv {KmanÂ GAM Bä-§f- psS F®w
ImÀ_¬ 12 12g 1GAM 6.022x1023
HmIvkn-P³ 16 16g 1GAM 6.022x1023
ss\{S-P³ 14 ... 1GAM ....................
t¢mdn³ 35.5 ... ... 6.022x1023
]«nI 2.5
1 GAM ImÀ_¬ F¶mÂ 12{Kmw ImÀ_-Wm-WtÃm? CXnÂ AS-§n-
bn-cn-¡p¶ Bä-§-fpsS F®w 6.022x10 BsW¶pw ImWmw. aäv aqe-
23
I-§-fp-sSbpw 1 GAM FSp-¯mÂ Bä-§-fpsS F®w C{X Xs¶ Bbn-

cn-¡pw.
Hcp {Kmw Atäm-anI amkv GXv aqe-Is- a-Sp-¯mepw AXnÂ AS§nbncn-¡p¶
Bä§-fpsS F®w 6.022x1023 Bbn-cn-¡pw. Cu kwJy Athm-Kmt{Um kwJy F¶-
dn-b-s¸-Sp-¶p. CXns\ NA F¶v kqNn-¸n-¡mw.
1 GAM tkmUnbw F¶mÂ 23 {Kmw tkmUnbw BWv. AXnÂ 6.022x1023

Bä-§Ä AS-§n-bn-cn-¡p-¶p. F¦nÂ 46 {Kmw tkmUnbw F{X GAM
Bbn-cn¡pw? AXn-ep-ff Bä-§-fpsS F®tam?
46
46 {Kmw tkmUnbw = = 2 GAM
23
9rODO]QrBNLW \,NBO~
{Kmw Atäm-anI amkp-If- psS F®w = BRF*kOT GAM
CXnÂ 2 x 6.022x1023 Bä-§Ä AS-§n-bn-cn-¡p-¶p. F¦nÂ 69 {Kmw

tkmUnbw F{X GAM BWv? AXnÂ F{X Bä-§Ä AS-§n-bn-cn-
¡p¶p?
NphsS X¶n-cn-¡p¶ Hmtcm aqeI km¼nfpw F{X GAM BWv? Hmtcm-
40
hmX-I\- n-ba- §
¶nepw F{X Bä§Ä AS-§n-bn-cn-¡p¶p F¶v IW-¡m-¡p-I. (Atäm-
an-Ia- mkv N=14, O = 16)
1. 42g ss\{S-P³
2. 80g HmIvknP³
Hcp tamÄ Bä-§Ä

1 {Kmw ssl{U-P³ F¶Xv 1 GAM ssl{U-P³ BsW-¶pw, AXnÂ
6.022x10 F®w Bä-§Ä Ds¶pw \ap-¡-dn-bmw. CXns\ Hcp tamÄ
23
ssl{U-P³ Bä-§Ä F¶p ]d-bmw.

12g C = 1 GAM ImÀ_¬ = 6.022x10 ImÀ_¬ Bä-§Ä = 1 tamÄ C
23
Bä-§Ä
14g N = 1 GAM ss\{S-P³ = 6.022x10 ss\{S-P³ Bä-§Ä = 1 tamÄ
23
N Bä-§Ä
6.022x1023 Bä-§Ä BWv Hcp tamÄ Bä-§Ä.
tamfn-Iyq-emÀ amkpw {Kmw tamfn-IypemÀ amkpw
kzX-{´m-h-Ø-bnÂ aqe-I-§fpw kwbp-à-§fpw X·m-{X-I-fm-bn-«mWv
ImW-s¸-Sp-¶-Xv. Xmsg X¶n-cn-¡p¶ ]«n-I-bnse X·m-{X-I-fpsS cmk-
kq-{Xhpw tamfn-Iyq-emÀ amkpw Xncn-¨-dnªv hn«p-t]m-bh ]qÀ¯n-bm-
¡p-I.
(Atäm-an-I-amkv þ H=1, O = 16, N = 14)
aqeIw/kwbpàw cmk-kq{Xw tamfn-Ip-emÀ amkv
ssl{U-P³ H2 1+1 = 2
HmIvkn-P³ O2 ...........
ss\{S-P³ N2 ...........
Pew H2O 1+1 +16 = 18
Atam-Wnb NH3 ...........
]«nI 2.6
¥qt¡mkv (C H O ), kÄ^yq-cnIv BknUv (H SO ) F¶n-h-bpsS
tamfnIyp-emÀ amkv F{X-sb¶v IW-¡m-¡pI. (Atäm-anI amkv C=12,
6 12 6 2 4
H=1, O=16, S=32)

Hcp aqe-I-¯nsâ Atäm-an-I-amkv F{X-bmtWm A{Xbpw {Kmw B aqe-
I-¯ns\ AXnsâ {Kmw Atäm-anI amkv F¶v hnfn-¡p-a-tÃm. CXp-t]mse
Hcp ]ZmÀ°-¯nsâ tamfn-Iyp-emÀ amkn\v Xpey-am-b-{Xbpw {Kmw B
]ZmÀ°s¯ {Kmw tamfn-IypemÀ amkv (GMM) F¶v ]d-bmw.
41
X·m{XI-fpsS F®w
aqe-I-§-fp-tSbpw kwbp-à-§-fptSbpw amkpw AXn-e-S-§nb X·m-{X-
I-fpsS F®hpw X½n-ep-ff _Ôw F´mWv? NphsS X¶n-cn-¡p¶
]«nI hni-I-e\w sNbvXv ]qÀ¯n-bm-¡p-I.
aqeIw/ tamfn-Iyp-emÀ {Kman-ep-ff GMM X·m-{X-IfpsS
kwbpàw amkv amkv F®w
ssl{U-P³ H2 2 2g 1GMM 6.022 x 1023 H2 X·m-{X-IÄ
HmIvkn-P³ O2 32 32g 1GMM 6.022 x 1023 O2 X·m-{X-IÄ
ss\{S-P³ N2 28 28g .......... ..........
Pew H2O 18 18g 1GMM 6.022 x 1023 H2O X·m-{X-IÄ
Atam-Wnb NH3 17 17g .......... .........
]«nI 2.7
HmIvkn-Psâ tamfn-Iyp-emÀ amkv F{X? ....................................
32 {Kmw HmIvkn-P³ F{X GMM BWv? ....................................
CXnÂ F{X X·m-{X-I-fp?v ....................................
28 {Kmw ss\{S-P³ F{X GMM BWv? ....................................
CXnÂ F{X N2 X·m-{X-I-fpv? ....................................
18 {Kmw Pew F{X GMM BWv? ....................................
CXnÂ F{X H2O X·m-{X-I-fpv? ....................................
Hcp GMM F¶-Xp-sImv AÀ°-am-¡p-¶Xv F´v?
Hcp {Kmw tamfn-IypemÀ amkpw Ah-bn-ep-ff X·m-{X-I-fpsS F®hpw
X½n-ep-ff _Ô-sa-´mWv?
$ Hcp ]ZmÀY-¯nsâ tamfn-Iyp-emÀ amkn\v Xpey-am-b{- Xbpw {Kmw B ]ZmÀYs¯

Hcp {Kmw tamfn-Iyp-emÀ amkv (1 GMM) F¶v hnfn-¡p-¶p.
$ Hcp GMM GXv ]ZmÀY-sa-Sp¯mepw AXnÂ Athm-Kmt{Um kwJybv¡v
Xpey-amb F®w X·m-{X-IÄ Dm-Ipw.
1 GMM HmIvkn-P³ F¶mÂ 32 {Kmw BWtÃm? AXnÂ 6.022 x 1023

F®w O2 X·m-{X-IÄ AS-§n-bn-cn-¡p-¶p. 64 {Kmw HmIvkn-P³ F{X
GMM Bbn-cn¡pw? AXn-ep-ff X·m-{X-I-fpsS F®-sa{X?
64
64 g O2 = = 2 GMM
32
CXnÂ 2 x 6.022 x 1023 X·m-{X-IÄ AS-§n-bn-cn-¡p-¶p.

F¦nÂ 96 {Kmw HmIvkn-P³ F{X GMM F¶v IW-¡m-¡mtam?
42
hmX-I\- n-ba- §
9rODO]QrBNLW \,NBO~
{Kmw tamfn-Iyp-emÀ amkp-If

- psS F®w =
\,NXUBNGO*ZQFN|BNLW
NphsS X¶n-cn-¡p¶ Hmtcm km¼nfpw F{X GMM BWv?
Hmtcm-¶nepw AS-§n-bn-cn-¡p¶ X·m-{X-I-fpsS F®w IW-¡m-¡p-I.
1. 360 {Kmw ¥qt¡mkv (tamfn-Iyp-emÀ amkv = 180)
2. 90 {Kmw Pew (tamfn-Iyp-emÀ amkv = 18)
Hcp tamÄ X·m-{XI-Ä
tamÄ F¶ ]Zw ]cn-N-b-s¸-«tÃm. 6.022 x 10 IWn-I-IÄ DÄs¡m-ffp¶
23
]ZmÀY-¯nsâ Af-hns\ kqNn-¸n-¡p¶Xn\mWv tamÄ F¶ bqWnäv

{]tbm-P-\-s¸-Sp-¯p-¶-Xv.
Hcp tamÄ Pe-¯nÂ F{X H O X·m-{X-I-fp-mhpw?
2
CXnsâ amkv F{X-bmWv?

CXv F{X GMM BWv?
6.022x1023X·m-{X-Isf 1 tamÄ X·m-{X-IÄ F¶v hnfn-¡p¶p.
1 GMM = 1 tamÄ = 6.022x1023 X·m-{X-IÄ
N Hcp Zzb-täm-anI X·m-{X-bm-Wv. ss\{S-Psâ tamfn-Iyp-emÀ amkv 28
2
BWv. Xmsg-bp-ff ]Z-kq-cy³ {i²n-¡p-I.

2GAM ss\{S-P³ 1 GMM ss\{S-P³
28 g N2
2 x 6.022 x 1023 Bä-§Ä 6.022 x 1023 X·m-{X-IÄ
ss\{SP³
2 tamÄ ss\{S-P³ Bä-§Ä 1tamÄ N2 X·m-{X-IÄ

hmX-I-§-fpsS hym]vXhpw tamfpw X½n-epÅ _Ôw
Jc-þ-{Zm-hI Ah-Ø-I-fnÂ \n¶v hn`n-¶-ambn hmX-I-§-fpsS {]tXy-I-
X-IÄ \mw a\-Ên-em-¡n-bn-«p-v. hmX-I-¯nÂ X·m-{X-IÄ hfsc AI-
e-¯n-em-Wp-Å-Xv. X·m-{X-bpsS hep-¸-hp-ambn Xmc-Xayw sN¿p-t¼mÄ
Cu AIew Ht«sd aS§v IqSp-X-em-Wv.
Ønc-aÀZ-¯nepw Xm]-\n-e-bnepw ØnXn sN¿p¶ Hcp hmX-I-¯nsâ
hym]vXw AXnse X·m-{X-I-fpsS F®-s¯-bmWv B{i-bn-¨n-cn-¡p-¶Xv,
X·m-{X-I-fpsS C\-s¯tbm hep-¸-s¯tbm AÃ. AXn-\mÂ Xs¶
hmXIw GXp-X-s¶-bm-bmepw Htc aÀZ-¯nepw Xm]-\nebnepw X·m-
{X-I-fpsS F®w Xpey-am-sW-¦nÂ hym]vXhpw Xpey-am-bn-cn-¡p-atÃm? 43
aÀZhpw Xm]-\n-ebpw amdn-bn-sÃ-¦nÂ, Hcp tamÄ GsXmcp hmX-I-

sa-Sp-¯mepw AXnse X·m-{X-I-fpsS F®w Xpey-amb-Xn-\mÂ Ah-
bpsS hym]vXhpw Xpey-am-bncn-¡pw. CXns\ hmX-I-§-fpsS tamfm-À
hym]vXw (Molar volume) F¶p ]d-bp-¶p.
]t£ Xm]-\n-ebpw aÀZhpw hyXy-kvX-am-bmtem? hmX-I-\n-ba-§Ä
hni-I-e\w sNbvX-XnÂ \n¶v aÀZ-tam Xm]-\n-etbm amdn-bmÂ hmX-I-
¯nsâ hym]vXw amdp-sa¶v t_m[y-am-btÃm.
Xm]-\ne 273 sIÂhn\pw aÀZw 1 A´-co-£-aÀZhpw (1 atm) Bbn \nP-
s¸-Sp-¯n-bmÂ- G-sXmcp hmX-I-¯n-sâbpw 6.022 u 1023 X·m-{X-IÄ (1
tamÄ X·m-{X-IÄ)¡v 22.4 L hym]vX-ap-m-hp-sa¶v imkv{X-ÚÀ ]co-
£-W-§-fn-eqsS sXfn-bn-¨n-«p-v.
273 K Xm]-\n-e, 1 atm aÀZw F¶n-hsb Ìm³tUÀUv sSw]-td-¨À &
{]jÀ (Standard Temperature & Pressure - STP) F¶mWv hnfn-¡p¶Xv.
AXm-b-Xv, STP bnÂ ØnXn sN¿p¶ GsXmcp hmX-I-¯n-sâbpw
Hcp tamfn\v 22.4 L hym]vXa- p-m-Ipw. CXv STP bnse tamfmÀ hym]vXw
F¶-dn-b-s¸-Sp-¶p.
hmXIw hym]vXw
$ STP bnÂ Hcp tamÄ ssl{U-P³ (H2) 22.4 L
$ STP bnÂ Hcp tamÄ ss\{S-P³ (N2) 22.4 L
$ STP bnÂ Hcp tamÄ CO2 22.4 L
$
$
STP bnÂ 22.4 L hmXIw = 1 tamÄ
44.8
STP bnÂ 44.8 L hmXIw = 2 tamÄ
.......
STP bnÂ 224 L hmXIw = ...........
STP bnÂ ØnXn sN¿p¶ hmX-I-§fpsS tamÄ F®w

STP COTFIZN>W9X FO EO~
= 224L
44
hmX-I\- n-ba- §
Hcp tamÄ ]ZmÀY-hp-ambn _Ô-s¸«v NphsS \ÂIn-bn-cn-¡p¶ ^vtfm
Ub{Kw ]qÀ¯n-bm-¡p-I.
F®w
6.022 u 1023
Bä§Ä
1 tamÄ (1 mol)
.................
amkv
X·m-{XIÄ-
.................
STP bnse hmXIhym]vXw
.................
hne-bn-cp-¯mw
1. Xmsg-bp-ff ]«n-I-bnÂ X¶n-cn-¡p¶ hnhc-§Ä ]cn-tim-[n-¡p-I. (hmX-I-
¯nsâ Xm]-\n-ebpw X·m-{X-I-fpsS F®hpw Ønc-am-Wv)
aÀZw P hym]vXw V
1 atm 8L
2 atm 4L
4 atm 2L
F{X-sb¶v IW-¡m-¡p-I.
a) P u V
b) CXv GXv hmX-I-\n-b-a-hp-ambn _Ô-s¸-«n-cn-¡p¶p?
2. Xmsg X¶n-cn-¡p¶ kml-N-cy-§Ä hni-I-e\w sNbvXv GXv hmXI \nb-a-hp-
ambn _Ô-s¸-«n-cn-¡p¶p F¶v hni-Zo-I-cn-¡p-I.
a) hmbp \nd¨ _eq¬ Pe¯n\-Sn-bn-te¡v Xmgv¯p-t¼mÄ AXnsâ hep¸w
Ipd-bp-¶p.
b) _eq¬ DuXn-hoÀ¸n-¡p-¶p.
3. Htc Xm]-\n-e-bnepw aÀZ-¯nepw ØnXn-sN-¿p¶ hyXykvX hmX-I-§sf
kw_-Ôn¨ hnh-c-§Ä NphsS Xcp-¶p.
hmXIw hym]vXw (L) X·m-{XI-fpsS F®w
ss\{S-P³ 10 L x
HmIvkn-P³ 5L ---
Atam-Wnb 10 L ---
ImÀ_¬ ssU
----- 2x
HmIvsskUv
a) ]«nI ]qÀ¯n-bm-¡p-I.
b) ChnsS GXp hmX-I-\n-b-a-amWv {]tbm-P\s¸Sp-¯n-bn-cn-¡p-¶Xv?
45
4. a) STP bnÂ ØnXn sN¿p¶ 112L CO2 hmX-I-¯nsâ amkv IW-¡m-¡pI.

(tamfn-Iyp-emÀ amkv þ 44)
b) C{Xbpw CO2 hnse X·m-{X-I-fpsS F®-sa{X?
5. STP bnÂ ØnXn sN¿p¶ 170g Atam-Wnb hmX-I-¯nsâ hym]vXw IW-¡m-
¡p-I. (tamfn-Iyp-emÀ amkv þ 17)
6. Xmsg X¶n-cn-¡p-¶-h-bnÂ F{X -tamÄ X·m-{X-I-fp-s¶v Is-¯p-I. (GMM
- N2 = 28g H2O = 18g)
a) 56g N2 b) 90g H2O
7. Atam-Wn-b-bpsS tamfn-Iyp-emÀ amkv 17 BWv.

a ) Atam-Wn-b-bpsS GMM F{X?
b) 170 {Kmw Atam-Wn-b-bnÂ F{X tamÄ X·m-{X-IÄ AS-§n-bn-cn-¡p¶p?
c ) C{Xbpw Atam-Wnb-bnÂ AS-§n-bn-cn-¡p¶ X·m-{X-I-fpsS F®w IW-
¡m-¡p-I.
8. HmIvkn-Psâ tamfn-Iyp-emÀ amkv 32 BWv.
a) O2 sâ GMM F{X?
b) 64 {Kmw O2 hnÂ F{X tamÄ X·m-{X-I-fpv? CXnÂ F{X X·m-{X-I-fpv?
c) 64 {Kmw HmIvkn-P-\n-ep-ff Bä-§-fpsS F®w IW-¡m-¡p-I.
XpSÀ{]hÀ¯-\-§Ä
$ Hcp {Kmw loen-b¯
- n-eS
- §
- n-bn-cn-¡p¶ AtX F®w Bä-§Ä e`n-¡m³ ImÀ_¬,
HmIvkn-P³ F¶nh F{X {Kmw hoXw FSp-¡-Ww?
$ \ÂIn-bn-cn-¡p¶ km¼n-fp-IÄ {i²n-¡p-I.
a. 20 g He b. STP bnÂ 44.8 L NH3
c. STP bnÂ 67.2 L N2 d. 1 tamÄ H2SO4
e. 180 g Pew
(i) X¶n-cn-¡p¶ km¼n-fp-Isf X·m-{X-IfpsS F®w IqSn hcp¶ coXn-bnÂ
{Iao-Ic
- n-¡p-I.
(ii) Hmtcm km¼n-fn-sebpw BsI Bä-§-fpsS F®-¯nsâ Btcm-lW {Iaw
F´m-bn-cn-¡pw?
(iii) b, c, d F¶n-h-bpsS amkv F{X hoX-am-bn-cn¡pw?
$ 90 {Kmw Pe-¯nÂ
a. F{X X·m-{X-IÄ DmIpw?
b. BsI F{X Bä-§Ä DmIpw?
c. C{Xbpw IWn-I-I-fnse BsI Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-I-fpsS F®w F{X-bm-bn-cn-¡pw?
46
{Inbm-io-e-t{i-Wnbpw sshZypX ck-X-{´hpw
Nn{X§Ä {i²n-¨ntÃ? sshZypXn D]-tbm-Kn-¡p¶ Nne kµÀ`-§fpw Nne sshZypX

t{kmX-Êp-I-fp-atÃ Nn{X-§fnÂ ImWn-¨n-cn-¡p-¶-Xv.
Ce-Ivt{Sm-WnIv D]-I-c-W-§Ä {]hÀ¯n-¸n-¡m³ \mw hnhn[ Xcw _mä-dn-IÄ D]-
tbm-Kn-¡m-dp-v. cmtkmÀÖw sshZyp-tXmÀÖ-ambpw Xncn¨pw kw`-hn-¡p¶ amä-§-
fmWv ChnsS \S-¡p-¶-Xv. Hcp skÃnÂ Xs¶ hyXykvX teml-§Ä D]-tbm-Kn-¨n-cn-
¡p-¶Xv {i²n-¨n-«ntÃ? F´mhmw CXn\v ImcWw? Ccp¼v Xpcp-¼n-¡p-¶Xpw sN¼nÂ
¢mhv ]nSn-¡p-¶-Xp-saÃmw \n§Ä \nco-£n¨ Imcy-§-fm-Wv. FÃm teml-§fpw CXp-
t]m-se-bmtWm? Nne teml-§Ä hfsc Xo{h-ambn cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-¯nÂ GÀs¸-Sp-
t¼mÄ aäp-Åh hfsc Ipdª Xo{h-X-bn-emWv AtX cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-¯nÂ GÀs¸-
Sp-¶-Xv. teml-§-fpsS {Inbm-io-e-¯n-epÅ hyXymkw Is¯n Ah hnhn[ skÃp-
I-fnÂ F§s\ {]tbm-P-\-s¸-Sp-¯m-sa¶v ]cn-tim-[n-¡mw.
47
Pe-hp-am-bp-ff teml-§-fpsS {]hÀ¯\w

aq¶v _o¡-dp-I-fnÂ Xpey-A-fhv Pe-sa-Sp-¡p-I. tkmUn-bw, aáo-jyw,
tIm¸À Ch-bpsS Htc-t]m-ep-Å IjW-§Ä FSp¯v Hmtcm¶pw Hmtcm
_o¡-dp-I-fnÂ CSp-I. {]hÀ¯\w \nco-£n-¡p-I.
$ GXp teml-amWv Xo{h-ambn {]hÀ¯n-¨Xv?
$ {]hÀ¯-\-^-e-ambn Dmb hmX-I-taXv?
$ {]hÀ¯-\-¯nsâ cmk-k-a-hmIyw Fgp-Xp-I.
aáo-jyw, tIm¸À F¶o teml-§Ä NqSp-sh-Å-¯n-en«v {]hÀ¯-\-

¯nse hyXymkw \nco-£n-¡p-I. cv ]co-£-W-§-fp-tSbpw \nco-£-
W-§Ä Nph-sS-bpÅ ]«n-I-bnÂ tcJ-s¸-Sp-¯p-I.
temlw XWp¯ Pe-¯nÂ NqSpÅ Pe-¯nÂ
tkmUnbw
IT @ School aáojyw
Edubuntu hnse
School Resources tIm¸À
epÅ Chemistry for ]«nI 3.1
Class X open
sNbvXv tem-l§- Ä \nco-£-W-§-fpsS ASn-Øm\-¯nÂ Cu teml-§sf Ah-bpsS
F¶ t]PnÂ \n¶pw {]hÀ¯-\-tijn Ipd-ªp- h-cp¶ {Ia-¯nÂ Fgp-Xp-I.
tkmUnbw apX-emb
teml§Ä Pe-hp- teml-§-fpsS hmbp-hp-am-bp-ff {]hÀ¯\w
ambn {]hÀ¯n-¡p-¶- ]pXp-Xmbn apdn¨ teml-§-fpsS {]X-e-¯n\p Xnf-¡-ap-mhpatÃm.
Xnsâ hoUntbm
\nco-£n-¡p-I. Cu khn-ti-j-X-bmWv teml-Zyp-Xn. I¯n D]-tbm-Kn¨v Hcp IjWw
tkmUnbw apdn-¡pI. apdn¨ `mKw \nco-£n-¡p-I. Iptd t\cw Ign-bp-
t¼mÄ apdn¨ `mK-¯nsâ Xnf¡w Ipd-ª-Xmbn ImWp-¶ntÃ?
Aćo£¯n-epÅ HmIvkn-P³, Pemw-iw, ImÀ_¬ ssUHmIvsskUv
F¶nh tkmUn-b-hp-ambn {]hÀ¯n-¨v AXnsâ kwbp-à-§fmbn amdn-
b-XmWv CXn-\p-Im-c-Ww.
]pXnb aKv\o-jyw dn_¬ Ipsd Znhkw hmbp-hnÂ Xpd-¶p-h-¨n-cp-¶mÂ
Xnf¡w \jvS-s¸-Sp-¶Xv In-«ntÃ? CXn\v Imc-Whpw A´-co-£-hm-
bp-hp-am-bpÅ {]hÀ¯\w Xs¶-bmWv.
2Mg + O2 o
Aeq-an-\nbw ]m{X-§fpsS Xnf¡w Ime-{I-taW Ipd-bp-¶-Xmbn
ImWmw. sN¼p ]m{X-§fmhs« ¢mhv ]nSn¨v Xnf¡w \jvS-s¸-Sm³
amk-§-tfmfw FSp-¡p-¶p. F{X-Imew Ign-ªmepw kzÀW-¯nsâ
Xnf¡w \jvS-s¸-Sptam?
48
teml-§Ä hmbp-hp-ambn hyXykvX thK-¯nÂ {]hÀ¯n-¡p-¶p

F¶tÃ CXv kqNn-¸n-¡p-¶-Xv?
$ aKv\ojyw, tIm¸À, kzÀWw, tkmUnbw, Aeqan-\nbw Ch-bnÂ
Gähpw thKw Xnf¡w \jvS-s¸-Sp¶ temlw GXmWv?
$ hmbp-hp-ambn {]hÀ¯n¨v Xnf¡w \jvSs¸-Sp-¶Xnsâ Ah-tcm-l-

W-{Ia¯nÂ apI-fnÂ \ÂIn-bn-«pÅ teml-§Ä FgpXn t\m¡pI.
Bkn-Up-am-bp-ff teml-§-fpsS {]hÀ¯\w

km[m-c-Wbmbn teml-§Ä t\À¸n¨ HCl ambn {]hÀ¯n¨v ssl{U-
P³ Dm-Ipa-tÃm. Mg, Pb, Zn, Fe, Cu F¶o teml-§Ä t\À¸n¨ HCl
ambpÅ cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-¯nÂ GÀs¸-Sp¶ hn[w NphsS Nn{Xo-I-cn-¨n-
cn-¡p-¶p. cmk-{]-hÀ¯\-thKw Ipdªp hcp¶ coXn-bnÂ Cu teml-
§sf {Iao-I-cn-¡q.
Fe Mg Cu Pb Zn
Nn{Xw 3.1
teml-§Ä¡v hyXy-kvX-amb cmk-{]-hÀ¯\ tijn-bm-Wp-Å-sX¶v
sNbvXp-t\m-¡nb ]co-£-W-§-fnÂ \n¶v a\-Ên-em-¡n-b-tÃm.
Nne teml-§sf Ah-bpsS cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-tijn Ipdªp hcp-¶-X-
\p-k-cn¨v {Iao-I-cn¨ t{iWn-bmWv ]«nI 3.2 Â sImSp-¯n-cn-¡p-¶-Xv.
CXv {Inbm-io-et - {iWn (Reactivity series) F¶-dn-bs
- ¸-Sp-¶p. Cu t{iWn-
bnÂ cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-ti-jn-bpsS Xmc-X-ay-¯n\v thn ssl{U-P³
IqSn DÄs¸-Sp-¯n-bn-cn-¡p-¶Xv {i²n-¡q.
49
s]m«mkyw K
tkmUnbw Na
ImÂkyw Ca t\À¸n¨ BknUpambn {]hÀ¯n¨v ssl{U-
Ps\ BtZ-iw sN¿p-¶p.
aáojyw Mg
Aeq-an-\nbw Al
kn¦v Zn
Ab¬ Fe
\n¡Â Ni
Sn³ Sn
seUv Pb
ssl{U-P³ H
tIm¸À Cu
t\À¸n¨ BknUpambn {]hÀ¯n¨v ssl{U-Ps\
knÂhÀ Ag
BtZ-iw sN¿p-¶nÃ.
tKmÄUv Au
]«nI 3.2
{Inbm-ioe t{iWnbpw BtZi cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-§fpw
Hcp _o¡-dnÂ Ipd¨v CuSO4 emb\n Xbm-dm-¡n, AXn-te¡v Hcp Zn

ZÞv Cd¡n hbv¡p-I. Ipd¨p-k-a-b-¯n\p tijw Dm-hp¶ amäw \nco-
£n-¡p-I.
$ Zn ZÞn\p h¶ amäw F´v?
$ CXn\v Imc-W-sa´v?
$ CuSO4 emb-\n-bpsS \nd-w a§p-¶-Xn-\pÅ Imc-W-sa´v?
CuSO4 emb-\n-bpsS \oe \nd-¯n\p ImcWw Cu2+ Atbm-Wp-I-fm-

Wv. Zn ZÞv CuSO4 emb-\n-bnÂ ap¡n h¨-t¸mÄ emb-\n-bnepÅ
Cu2+ Atbm-Wp-IÄ Cu Bä-§-fmbn Zn ZÞnÂ ]än-¸n-Sn-¡p-¶p.
ChnsS \S¶ cmk-{]-hÀ¯\w NphsS \ÂIp-¶p.
Zn + CuSO4 o ZnSO4 + Cu
$ ChnsS GXv teml-amWv BtZiw sN¿--s¸-«Xv?
$ Zn, Cu Ch-bnÂ GXn-\mWv {Inbm-ioew IqSp-XÂ?
$ F´p-sIm-mWv Cu BtZiw sN¿--s¸-«-sX¶v {Inbm-io-e-t{i-Wn-

bnse Zn, Cu F¶n-h-bpsS Øm\s¯ ASnØm-\-s¸-Sp¯n hni-Zo-
I-cn-¡mtam?
kn¦n\v (Zn) tIm¸-dn-t\¡mÄ (Cu) {]hÀ¯-\t

- ijn IqSp-Xe
- m-bX
- p-sIm-
-tÃ C§s\ kw`-hn-¨-Xv?
50
apI-fnÂ sImSp-¯n-cn-¡p¶ ka-hm-I-ys¯ Atbm-Wp-IÄ hyà-am-¡p¶

hn[-¯nÂ NphsS sImSp-¯n-cn-¡p-¶-Xp-t]mse Fgp-Xn-bmtem?
Zn0 + Cu2+SO42 o Zn2+SO42 + Cu0
Zn \v h¶ amäw : Zn0 o Zn2+ + 2e
$ Cu {]hÀ¯\w HmIvko-I-cWamtWm, \ntcm-Ivko-I-c-W-amtWm?
F´psImv?
Cu2+ \v h¶ amäw :
+ o
$ Cu {]hÀ¯\w GXp t]cn-emWv Adn-bs- ¸-Sp-¶Xv? F´p-sIm-mWv?
Zn \v Hm-Ivko-I-cWhpw. Cu2+\v \ntcm-Ivko-I-c-W-hpw kw`-hn¨p. AXm-

bXv ChnsS Htc kabw HmIvko-I-c-Whpw \ntcm-Ivko-I-c-Whpw \S-¡p-
¶p. Cu {]hÀ¯\w Hcp dntUmIvkv {]hÀ¯-\-atÃ?
AgNO3 emb-\n-bnÂ Hcp Cu XInSv C«p-h-¨mÂ Cu \p apI-fnÂ Ag ]än-¸n-
Sn-¨n-cn-¡p-¶Xp ImWmw. ChnsS \S-¡p¶ cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-¯nsâ ka-
hmIyw ]cn-tim-[n¡q:
2AgNO3 +Cu o Cu(NO3)2 + 2 Ag
{Inbm-ioe t{iWn-bpsS ASn-Øm-\-¯nÂ Cu {]hÀ¯\w hni-Zo-I-cn-

¡q.
+1(.....) o (.....) -1 (.....)
2 Ag NO3 + Cu o Cu (NO3)2 + Ag
Cu cmk-k-a-hm-Iy-s¯ HmIvko-I-cW kwJy \evIn ]qÀ¯n-bm-¡pI.
AgNO3 emb-\n-bpsS \ndw Ipd¨p ka-b-¯n\v tijw \oe-bm-hp-¶-Xn\p
Imc-W-amb Atbm¬ GXm-bn-cn¡pw?
ChnsS HmIvko-I-cWw kw`-hn¨ temlw GXv? \ntcm-Ivko--I-cWw kw`-
hn¨ temltam?
HmIvko-I-cW ka-hm-Iyhpw \ntcm-Ivko-I-cW ka-hm-Iyhpw FgpXn
t\m¡q.
HmIvko-I-cWw : ............................
\ntcm-Ivko-I-cWw : ............................
{Inbm-ioew IqSnb temlw {Inbm-ioew Ipdª temls¯ AXnsâ
ehW emb-\n-bnÂ \n¶v BtZiw sN¿p-¶p. C¯cw cmk-{]hÀ¯-
\-§sf BtZi cmk-{]hÀ¯-\-§Ä F¶p ]d-bp-¶p. {Inbm-ioew
IqSnb teml-¯n\v HmIvko-I-c-Whpw {Inbm-ioew Ipdª teml
Atbm-Wn\v \ntcm-Ivko-Ic
- W
- hpw kw`-hn-¡p-¶p. BtZi cmk-{]-hÀ¯-
\-§Ä dntUmIvkv {]hÀ¯-\-§-fm-Wv.
51
Xmsg sImSp-¯n-cn-¡p¶ Nn{X-§Ä \nco-£n-¡q. {Inbmio-e-t{i-Wn-

bpsS ASn-Øm-\-¯nÂ, Ch-bnÂ BtZi cmk-{]-hÀ¯\w \S-¡p-
¶h GsXÃmw F¶v Is¯n, ]«n-I-s¸-Sp¯p-I.
Mg Ag Mg Mg Cu
CuSO4 CuSO4 ZnSO4 AgNO3 MgSO4

emb-\n- emb-\n- emb-\n- emb-\n- emb-\n-
Nn{Xw 3.2
temlw emb\n BtZ-i-{]-hÀ¯\w
Mg CuSO4 \S-¡p¶p
Ag CuSO4 ......................
Mg ZnSO4 ......................
Mg AgNO 3 ......................
Cu MgSO4 ......................
]«nI 3.3
KmÂh\nIv skÂ
FÃm teml-§-fp-tSbpw {Inbm--ioew Hcp t]mse-b-Ã F¶v \n§Ä¡-dn-
bm-a-tÃm. {Inbmioe¯n-epÅ Cu hyXymkw {]tbmP-\-s¸Sp¯n
sshZypXn \nÀan¡m³ D]tbmKn¡p¶ kwhn-[m-\-amWv KmÂh-\nIv
skÂ. Nn{X-¯nÂ ImWp-¶-Xp-t]mse D]-I-c-W-§Ä kÖo-I-cn-¡p-I.
cp _o¡-dp-I-Ä FSp¯v H¶nÂ 100 mL ZnSO emb-\nbpw cmat¯-
XnÂ AtX Afhv Xpey KmV-X-bpÅ CuSO emb-\nbpw FSp-¡p-I.
4
e {]hmlZni
-
thmÄ«v aoäÀ
Zn ZÞv tkmÄ«v {_nUvPv Cu ZÞv
ZnSO4 CuSO4
Nn{Xw 3.3
52
Zn ZÞv ZnSO4 emb-\n-bnepw Cu ZÞv CuSO4 emb-\n-bnepw ap¡n

hbv¡p-I. Hcp thmÄ«vaoä-dnsâ s\K-äohv sSÀan-\Â Zn ZÞn-t\mSpw
s]mkn-äohv sSÀan-\Â Cu ZÞn-t\mSpw _Ôn-¸n¡pI. cp _o¡-dp-
I-fnse emb-\n-I-fpw X½nÂ kmÄ«v {_nUvPv D]-tbm-Kn¨v _Ôn-¸n-
¡p-I (KCl emb-\n-bnÂ \\¨ Hcp \o ^nÂ«À t]¸À IjWw
kmÄ«v {_nUv P n\v ]I- c - a mbn D]tbmKn¡m- h p- ¶ - X mWv ) . Ct¸mÄ
thmÄ«vaoäÀ doUnwKnse amäw \nco-£n-¡q. C¯cw {Iao-I-cWw hgn
sshZypXn \nÀan-¡m-atÃm?
cmk-{]-hÀ¯\w hgn-bm-Wv ChnsS sshZypXn Dm-b-Xv.
dntUmIvkv cmk-{]-hÀ¯\-¯neqsS cmtkmÀPw sshZyp-tXmÀP-am-¡p¶

{IaoI-cW
- a
- mWv KmÂh-\nIv skÂ AYhm thmÄ«m-bnIv skÂ.
Zn \v Cu s\¡mÄ {Inbm-ioew IqSp-X-em-sW¶v {Inbm-io-e-t{i-Wn-
bnÂ \n¶v a\-Ên-em-¡n-b-tÃm.
$ Ch D]-tbm-Kn¨v \nÀan¨ skÃnÂ Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-Isf

hn«p-sIm-Sp-¡m³ Ign-hv IqSnb Ce-Ivt{SmUv GXmbn-
cn¡pw?
kmÄ«v {_nUvPv
KCl, KNO3, NH4ClCh-bnÂ GsX-
$ Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-Isf t\Sm³ Ign-hp-ÅtXm?
¦nepw Hcp ehWw Pem-än-\nÂ
AsÃ-¦nÂ AKÀ AKÀ sPÃn-bnÂ
Zn Ce-Ivt{Sm-UnÂ \S-¡p¶ cmk-{]-hÀ¯\w NphsS IeÀ¯nb AÀ[- J c cq]- ¯ n-
\ÂIn-bn-cn-¡p-¶-h-bnÂ GXmWv? icn-bm-bXv Is¯n epÅ t]Ìv \nd¨ U BIr-Xn-
ü sN¿pI. bpÅ Syq_mWv tkmÄ«v {_nUvPv.
Zn o Zn2+ + 2e CXv Atbm-Wp-If- psS \o¡w hgn
Zn2+ + 2e o Zn kÀ¡o«v ]qÀ¯n- b m- ¡ p- I bpw
skÃnse \yq{Sm-enän \ne \nÀ¯p-
ChnsS \S-¡p¶ {]hÀ¯\w GXv?
Ibpw sN¿p-¶p.
HmIvko-I-cWw/\ntcm-Ivko-I-cWw
AXm-bXv Zn cv Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-IÄ hn«p-sImSp¯v Zn2+ BIp-¶p. C{]-

Imcw HmIvko-I-cW {]hÀ¯\w \S-¡p¶ Ce-Ivt{SmUv BWv Bt\m-
Uv. Bt\mUn\v s\K-äohv NmÀPm-bn-cn-¡pw.
Zn ZÞnÂ \n¶v kzX-{´-am-Ip¶ Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-IÄ _mly-kÀ¡o-«n-

eqsS tIm¸À ZÞn-se-¯p-Ibpw emb-\n-bnse tIm¸À Atbm¬ Cu
Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-Isf kzoI-cn¨v tIm¸À Bbn amdp-Ibpw sN¿p-¶p.
Cu CeIvt{Sm-Unse cmk-{]-hÀ¯\ ka-hmIyw FgpXn t\m¡q.
ChnsS \S-¡p¶ {]hÀ¯\w GXv?
HmIvko-I-cWw/\ntcm-Ivko-I-cWw.
\ntcm-Ivko-I-cW {]hÀ¯\w \S-¡p¶ Ce-Ivt{SmUv BWv ImtYmUv.

tIm¸À ZÞnÂ t]mkn-äohv NmÀPv BWtÃm?
53
HmIv k o- I - c Ww \S- ¡ p¶ Ce- I v t {SmUv Bt\mUpw

\ntcm-Ivko-I-cWw \S-¡p¶ Ce-Ivt{SmUv . ImtYm-Up-am-Wv
Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ {]hm-lZ- nibpw Bt\mUn\v s\K-äohv NmÀPpw ImtYm-Un\v t]mknäohv NmÀPpw
ssIh-cp-¶p.
sshZypX {]hm-lZ- nibpw
KmÂh- \ nIv skÃnÂ Ce- I v t {Sm¬ Zn Ce-Ivt{Sm-Unepw Cu Ce-Ivt{Sm-Unepw \S¶
{]hmlw s\K- ä ohv Ce- I v t {Sm- U nÂ {]hÀ¯-\-§-fpsS cmk-k-a-hm-Iy-§sf Hcp-an¨v
(Bt\m-Uv) \n¶v t]mkn-äohv Ce-Ivt{Sm- tNÀ¯v Fgp-Xn-bmtem?
Unte¡v- (ImtYm-Uv) B-Wt- Ãm. F¶mÂ Zn Ce-Ivt{Sm-UnÂ : Zn o Zn + 2e
2+
sshZypX {]hm-l-Zni FÃm-bvt¸mgpw Cu Ce-Ivt{Sm-UnÂ : Cu 2+ + 2e- o Cu

t]mkn-äo-hnÂ \n¶v s\K-äo-hn-te-¡mWv Zn + Cu 2+ o Zn 2+ + Cu
]cn-KW- n-¡s¸Sp-¶X- v. BZy-Im-e§ - f- nÂ $ CXv Hcp dntUmIvkv {]hÀ¯-\-amW-tÃm.
sshZypXn t]mkn-äo-hnÂ \n¶v s\K-äo-

hn-te¡v \o§p¶p F¶v hniz-kn-¡p-
Cu dntUmIvkv {]hÀ¯\
- ¯nsâ êa
- mbpm-
I p ¶ C e - I v t { S m ¬ s s I a m - ä a m W v s k Ã n Â
Ibpw CXn-\-\p-k-cn¨v [mcmfw \nb-a- sshZypX {]hmlw Dm¡p¶Xv.
§fpw ka-hm-Iy-§fpw cq]o-I-cn-¡-s¸- $ C e - I v t { S m ¬ { ] h m l Z n i B t \ m - U n Â \ n ¶ v
SpIbpw sNbvXp. ]n¶oSv Ch Xncp-¯p- ImtYm-Un-te-¡m-sW¶v {i²n-¨-tÃm.
¶-Xn-epÅ {]bmkw aqew CXns\ ]c-

¼-cm-KX- a- mb Id (Conventional current)
knÂhÀ Ce-Ivt{SmUpw tIm¸À Ce-Ivt{SmUpw
Bh-iy-amb kma-{Kn-IÄ:
v
F¶ coXn-bnÂ ]cn-KW - n-¡p-Ibpw Ce-

D]-tbm-Kn¨v Hcp skÂ \nÀan-¨mtem?
Ivt{Sm¬ {]hml Znisb Ce-Ivt{Sm¬

Idv F¶ coXn-bnÂ ]cn-KW - n-¡p-Ibpw
knÂhÀ I¼n, tIm¸À ZÞv, cp _o¡-dp-IÄ,
sNbvXp.
tIm¸À kÄt^ä
- v,k
- nÂhÀ ss\t{Sä
- v, kmÄ«v {_nUvPv,
thmÄ«vaoäÀ, tIm¸ÀI¼n, Pew XpS-§n-bh.
$ \nÀan¨ skÂ Nn{Xo-I-cn-¡q.
$ KmÂhm-\nIv skÃnse {]hÀ¯\w Ipdn-¡pI.
$ Nn{Xo-I-c-W-¯nÂ Ce-Ivt{Sm¬ {]hm-l-Zni AS-bm-f-s¸-Sp-¯pI.
ImtYmU
- nepw Bt\mU
- nepw \S¡
- p¶ cmk{
- ]hÀ¯\§Ä FgpX
- n- t\m¡q.
ImtYm-UnÂ:
Bt\m-UnÂ:
kn¦pw tIm¸dpw D]-tbmKn¨v \nÀan¨ skÃnÂ tIm¸À ImtYm-Um-bm-
WtÃm {]hÀ¯n-¨-Xv. F¶mÂ knÂhdpw tIm¸dpw D]-tbm-Kn-¨-t¸mtgm?
C h n s S \ S - ¡ p ¶ d n t U m I v k v c m k - { ] - h À ¯ \ w \ Â I n - b n - c n - ¡ p - ¶ X v
t\m¡q.
54
Cu + 2Ag+ o Cu2+ + 2Ag
\n§Ä Zn, Cu, Ag F¶o 3 teml-§Ä D]-tbm-K-s¸-Sp-¯nbtÃm.

CXp]tbm-Kn¨v F{X-Xcw skÃpIÄ cq]o-I-cn-¡mw.
Ch- b n- t em- t cm¶n- s ebpw Bt\m- U v , ImtYmUv F¶nh FgpXn
]«n-I 3.4 ]qÀ¯o-I-cn¡pI.
skÂ Bt\mUv ImtYmUv
Zn - Cu

]«nI 3.4
cmtkmÀPw sshZyp-tXmÀP-ambn amdp¶ cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-§Ä \½Ä
]cn-N-b-s¸«p -I-gnªp. F¦nÂ sshZyp-tXmÀPw D]-tbm-Kn¨v cmk-
{]hÀ¯\w \S¯m\pw Ign-bpatÃm.
sshZypX hntÇ-jW skÃp-IÄ
sshZyp-tXmÀÖw D]-tbm-Kn¨v cmk-amäw km[y-am-Ip¶ Hcp cmk-{]-
hÀ¯-\-amWv Pe-¯nsâ sshZypX hntÇ-j-Ww. Cu cmk-{]-hÀ¯\w
Xmgv¶ ¢mÊnÂ \n§Ä ]Tn-¨n-«p-tÃm. BknUp tNÀ¯ Pe-¯n-
eqsS sshZypXn IS¯n hnSp-t¼mÄ Fs´Ãmw ]ZmÀY-§-fmWv e`n-
¡pI? teml-§-fn-eqsS sshZypXn IS¶p t]mIp-t¼mÄ C¯cw cmk-
am-ä-§Ä kw`-hn-¡p-¶ptm? sshZypXn IS-¶p-t]m-hp-t¼mÄ cmk-am-
ä-¯n\p hnt[-b-am-hp¶ ]ZmÀY-§-fmWv Ce-Ivt{Sm-sse-äp-IÄ.
Peobemb\n cq]-¯ntem Dcp-Inb Ah-Øb - n-tem sshZyp-Xn IS¯nhnSpIbpw
- n\v hnt[-ba- m-hp-Ibpw sN¿p¶ ]ZmÀY-§f- mWv Ce-Ivt{Sm-sse-äp-IÄ
cmk-am-ä¯
(Electrolytes). Bkn-Up-IÄ - , BÂ¡-en-IÄ
- , eh-W§ - Ä Ah-bpsS Dcp-Inb Ah-
Ø-bnepw, emb-\nIfmbncn¡p-t¼mgpw Ce-Ivt{Sm-sse-äp-I-fm-Wv. sshZypXn
IS¯nhnSpt¼mÄ Hcp Ce-Ivs{Sm-sseäv cmk-am-ä¯ - n\p hnt[-ba- m-hp¶ {]hÀ¯-
\-amWv sshZyp-X-hn-tÇ-j-Ww.
Peo-b emb-\nbntem {Zmh-Im-h-Ø-bntem CeIvt{Smsseäp-I-fnÂ
Atbm-Wp-IÄ kzX-{´-ambn k©-cn-¡p-¶p. Cu Atbm-Wp-I-fmWv Ce-
Ivt{Sm-sse-änse sshZypX Nme-I-Xbv¡v Imc-Ww.
sshZypXhntÇ-j-W¯n\v BZy-ambn Hcp imkv{Xob hni-Zo-I-cWw
\ÂIn-bXv ssa¡Â ^mcsU BWv. Ce-Ivt{Sm-sse-än-te¡v sshZypXn
IS-¯n-hnSp¶ hkvXp-¡-fmWv Ce-Ivt{Sm-Up-IÄ. sshZypX hntÇ-jW
thf-bnÂ Hcp Ce-Ivt{Sm-Uns\ _mä-dn-bpsS t]mkn-äohv sSÀan-\-ep-
ambpw ASp-¯-Xns\ _mä-dn-bpsS s\K-äohv sSÀan-\-ep-ambpw _Ôn-
¸n-¡p-¶p. t]mkn-äohv sSÀan-\-ep-ambn _Ôn-¸n-¨n-cn-¡p¶ Ce-Ivt{SmUv
55
V BWv Bt\m-Uv. s\K-äohv sSÀan-\-ep-ambn _Ôn-¸n-

¨n-cn-¡p¶ Ce-Ivt{Sm-UmWv ImtYm-Uv.
\ntcm-Ivko-I-cWw AYhm dnU-£³ kw`-hn-¡p¶
CeIv-t{SmUv ImtYm-Upw, HmIvko-I-cWw AYhm
HmIv k n- t U- j ³ kw`- h n- ¡ p¶ Ce- I v t {SmUv
+ -
Bt\mUv ImtYmUv Bt\mUpw BWv. sshZypXhntÇ-j-WskÃnÂ

t]mkn-äohv Ce-Ivt{Sm-UnÂ HmIvko-I-c-Whpw s\K-
Ce-Itv {Sm-
sseäv
äohv Ce-Ivt{Sm-UnÂ \ntcm-Ivko-I-c-Whpw \S-¡p-¶p.
Nn{Xw 3.4
$ sshZyp-X-hn-tÇ-jWw sN¿p-t¼mÄ t]mkn-äohv
Atbm-Wp-IÄ GXv Ce-Ivt{Sm-Un-te¡v BIÀjn-
Imä-tbm-Wp-Ifpw B\-tbm-Wp-Ifpw ¡-s¸Spw?
s\K-äohv Ce-Ivt{Sm-Umb ImtYm-Un- $ s\K-äohv Atbm-Wp-IÄ GXv Ce-Ivt{Sm-Un-te¡v

te¡v BIÀjn-¡-s¸-Sp¶ t]mkn-äohv BIÀjn-¡-s¸Spw?
Atbm-Wp-Isf Imä-tbm-Wp-IÄ F¶v
hnfn-¡p-¶p.
$ ImtYm-Un-te¡v BIÀjn-¡-s¸-Sp¶ Atbm-Wp-
t]mkn-äohv Ce-Ivt{Sm-Umb Bt\m-Un- IÄ¡v kw`-hn-¡p¶ amäw F´m-bn-cn¡pw?
te¡v BIÀjn- ¡ - s ¸- S p¶ s\K- ä ohv
Atbm-Wp-Isf B\-tbm-Wp-IÄ F¶v $ Bt\m-Un-te¡v BIÀjn-¡-s¸-Sp¶ Atbm-Wp-
hnfn-¡p-¶p. IÄ¡p kw`-hn-¡p¶ amätam?
Dcp-Inb tkmUnbw t¢mssd-Unsâ sshZyp-X-hn-tÇ-jWw

Jcm-h-Ø-bn-epÅ tkmUnbw t¢mssdUv sshZyp-X-hm-ln-bÃ. Imc-Ww
CXnÂ Atbm- W p- I Ä¡v Ne\ kzmX- { ý- a n- Ã . F¶mÂ Dcp- I nb
tkmUnbw t¢mssd-Un-eqsS sshZypXn IS¶p t]mIpw. tkmUnbw t¢m-
ssdUv Dcp-Ip-t¼mÄ t]mkn-äohv NmÀPpÅ tkmUnbw Atbm-Wp-Ifpw
(Na+) s\K-äohv NmÀPpÅ t¢mssdUv Atbm-Wp-Ifpw (Cl) Ne\ kzmX-
{ýw ssIh-cn-¡p-¶p.
NaCl o Na+ + Cl-
$ t]mkn-äohv Ce-Ivt{SmUn-te¡v (Bt\m-Uv) GXv Atbm-WmWv

BIÀjn-¡-s¸-Sp-I?
56
$ AhnsS \S-¡p¶ cmk-{]-hÀ¯\w F´m-bn-cn¡pw?

$ Bt\m-UnÂ kzX-{´-am-Ip¶ hmXIw GXv?
$ s\K-äohv Ce-Ivt{Sm-Un-te¡v (ImtYm-Uv) BIÀjn-¡-s¸-Sp¶
AtbmtWm? AXn\v kw`-hn-¡p¶ am-äw Fgp-Xq.
$ ImtYm-UnÂ \nt£-]n-¡-s¸-Sp¶ temlw GXv?
Dcp-Inb tkmUnbw t¢mssdUv sshZypX hntÇ-jWw sN¿p-t¼mÄ
t]mkn-äohv Ce-Ivt{Sm-Unepw (Bt\m-Uv) s\K-äohv Ce-Ivt{Sm-Unepw
(ImtYm-Uv) e`n-¡p¶ DÂ¸-¶-§Ä GsXm-s¡-sb¶v hyà-am-b-tÃm.
tkmUnbw t¢mssdUv emb-\n-bpsS sshZypXhn-tÇ-jWw
tkmUnbw t¢mssdUv emb-\n-bnÂ Na , Cl , H O , OH , H O F¶nh
+ - + -
AS-§n-bn-cn-¡p-¶p. 3 2
$ t]mknäohv Ce-Ivt{Sm-Un-te¡v BIÀjn-¡-s¸-Sp-¶h GsXÃmw?
$ s\K-äohv Ce-Ivt{Sm-Un-te¡v BIÀjn-¡-s¸-Sp-¶h GsXÃmw?
$ sshZypXhntÇ-jW - ^- e- a- mbn Bt\m-Une- pw, ImtYm-Unepw \S-¡p¶

cmk-{]-hÀ¯\w ]cn-tim-[n-¡mw.
Na AtbmWpw, H O AtbmWpw ImtYm-Un-te¡v BIÀjn-¡-s¸-Sp-
+ +
¶p. \ntcm-Ivko-I-cW {]h-WX Chsb At]-£n¨v H Obv¡v IqSp-X-

3
em-b-Xn-\mÂ, ImtYm-UnÂ H kzX-{´-am-¡-s¸-Sp-¶p.

2
2
Cl Atbm-Wpw, OH AtbmWpw Bt\m-Un-te¡v BIÀjn-¡-s¸-Sp-¶p.

- -
Cu Btbm-Wp-Ifpw Pehpw Xmc-Xayw sN¿p-t¼mÄ HmIvko-I-cW

{]hWX Cl BWv IqSp-XÂ. AXn-\mÂ Bt\m-UnÂ Cl hmXIw kzX-
-
{´-am-¡-s¸-Sp-¶p. 2
57
Ce-Ivt{Sm-Up-IÄ cmk-amäw DÂ¸¶w

Bt\mUv 2Cl o Cl2 + 2e t¢mdn³ hmXIw
ImtYmUv 2H2O + 2e o H2 + 2OH ssl{U-P³ hmXIw
]«nI 3.5
tkmUnbw t¢mssdUv emb-\n-bpsS sshZyp-X-hn-tÇ-j-W-^-e-ambn
Bt\m-UnÂ Cl2 Dw ImtYm-UnÂ H2 Dw, emb-\n-bnÂ NaOH Dw e`n-¡p¶p.
sshZypX hntÇ-j-W-¯nsâ {]mtbm-KnI ê-§Ä:
1. teml-§fpsS \nÀ½mWw:
s]m«m-kyw, ImÕyw, tkmUn-bw, Aep-an-\nbw F¶o teml-§Ä

\nÀ½n-¡p-¶Xv Ah-bpsS kwbp-à-§sf sshZyp-X-hn-tÇ-jWw
sNbvXm-Wv.
2. Atem-l-§-fpsS \nÀamWw
Atem-l-§Ä h³tXm-XnÂ \nÀan-¡m³ sshZyp-X-hn-tÇ-jWw

{]tbm-P-\-s¸-Sp-¯mw. ssl{U-P³, HmIvkn-P³, t¢mdn³ apX-em-bh
C¯-c-¯nÂ \nÀ½n-¡-s¸-Sp¶ Atem-l-§-fm-Wv.
3. kwbp-à-§Ä \nÀ½n-¡p-¶-Xn\v
tkmUnbw sslt{Um-Ivssk-Uv, s]m«mkyw sslt{Um-IvsskUv

XpS-§nb kwbp-à-§Ä \nÀan-¡p-¶-Xn\v sshZypXhntÇ-jWw
{]tbm-P-\-s¸-Sp-¯mw.
4. teml-ip-²o-I-cWw
tIm¸À, kzÀ®w apX-emb teml-§f-- psS ip²o-I-cWw sshZypX

hntÇ-j-W-{]-hÀ¯-\s¯ ASn-Øm-\-am-¡n-bmWv \S-¯p-¶Xv.
Ce-Ivt{Sm-t¹-änwKv
sshZypX hntÇ-jWw hgn Hcp teml-¯n\p taÂ asämcp temlw
Bh-cWw sNbvsX-Sp-¡p¶ coXn-bmWv Ce-Ivt{Sm-t¹-änw-Kv. teml-¯nsâ
`wKn hÀ[n-¸n-¡p-¶X - n-\pw, teml-\m-i\w XS-bp-¶X
- n\pw Cu I«nIpdª
Bh-cWw klm-bn-¡p-¶p. Bh-cWw sNt¿ hkvXp hr¯n-bm-¡nb
tijw _mä-dn-bpsS s\K-äohv sSÀan-\-en-t\m-Spw, ]qtitemlw t]mkn-
äohv sSÀan-\-en-t\mSpw _Ôn-¸n-¡p-¶p. Bh-cWw sN¿-s¸-tS teml-
¯n-sâ ehW emb\n Ce-Ivt{Sm-sseäv Bbn D]-tbm-Kn-¡p-¶p.
58
Ccp-¼v hfbnÂ sN¼p ]qip¶ hn[w

Xmsg X¶n-cn-¡p¶ Nn{Xw \nco-£n-¡q. Ccp-¼v hf-bnÂ sN¼p ]qip¶
sshZyp-X-te-]\ {]{In-b-bmWv CXv.
kzn¨v + -
$ _mä-dn-bpsS s\K-äohv sSÀan-\-ep-ambn
_Ôn-¸n¨ temltaXv?
$ _mä-dn-bpsS t]mkn-äohv sSÀan-\e- p-ambn

_Ôn-¸n¨ temltaXv?
Ccp-¼p-hf
$ sshZypX hntÇ-j-W-¯n-\mbn D]-tbm-
Kn-¨n-cn-¡p¶ emb\ntbXv? tIm¸À XInSv
tIm¸À kÄt^äv
emb\n
Nn{Xw 3.4
sshZypXn IS¶p t]mIp-t¼mÄ emb-\n-bn-ep-ff Cu Atbm-Wp-IÄ2+
s\K-äohv Ce-Ivt{Sm-Un-te¡v (Ccp-¼v hf) AYhm ImtYm-Un-te¡v

BIÀjn-¡-s¸-Sp-¶p.
ImtYm-UnÂ Cu Atbm-Wp-IÄ¡v F´p kw`-hn¡mw? ka-hmIyw
2+
]qÀ¯n-bm¡q.
Cu + 2e o ........................
2+ -
ChnsS tIm¸À Atbm-Wp-IÄ¡v HmIvko-I-c-W-amtWm \ntcm-Ivko-I-c-

W-amtWm kw`-hn-¨Xv?
C§s\ Cu Atbm-Wp-IÄ Cu Bä-§-fmbn Ccp-¼v hf-bnÂ \nt£-]n-

2+
¡-s¸-Sp-¶p.
t]mkn-äohv Ce-Ivt{Sm-Umb sN¼p-XI- n-SnÂ \n¶v (Bt\m-Uv), Cu HmIvko-
I-c-W-¯n\p hnt[-b-amhp¶p.
Xmsg-X-¶n-cn-¡p¶ ka-hmIyw ]qÀ¯n-bm-¡q.
Cu o .....+ 2e-
sshZyp-X-hn-tÇ-jWw \S-¡p-t¼mÄ emb-\n-bnse Atbm-Wp-I-fpsS
KmVX \ne-\nÀ¯-s¸-Sp-¶-sX-§n-s\-sb¶v hyà-am-b-tÃm.
59
Bh-cWw sN¿-s¸-tS temlw Ce-Ivt{Sm-sseäv

shÅn knÂhÀ ss\t{Säv emb\n/tkmUnbw kb-ss\Uv
+ knÂhÀ kb-ss\Uv emb\n
kzÀ®w tkmUnbw kb- s s\Uv + tKmÄUv kb- s s\Uv
emb\n
sshZyp-X-te]\w sN¿p-t¼mÄ, Bh-cWw sN¿m-\p-]-tbm-Kn-¡p¶

temlw GXm-tWm, B teml-¯nsâ ehW emb-\n-bmWv Ce-Ivs{Sm-
sse-ämbn D]-tbm-Kn-¡p-¶Xv.
$ sshZypXte]-\-¯n\v Nne DZm-l-c-W-§Ä t\m¡q:
-þ kzÀ®w ]qinb B`-c-W-§Ä
þ t{Imanbw ]qinb Ccp-¼p-ssI-]n-Sn-IÄ
þ shÅn ]qinb ]m{X-§Ä
$ IqSp-XÂ DZm-l-c-W-§Ä Is¯n enÌv hn]p-eo-I-cn¡q:
- þ
þ
-þ
hne-bn-cp¯mw
1. \mev sSÌvSyq_p-I-fn-embn ZnSO4, FeSO4, CuSO4 F¶o emb\nIÄ
FSp-¯n-cn-¡p¶p. Ch-bn-tem-tcm-¶nepw Hmtcm Ccp¼mWn ap¡n
hbv¡p¶p F¶n-cn-¡-s«.
$ GXv sSÌvSyq-_nÂ Xmgv¯n h¨ Ccp-¼m-Wn-bnÂ BWv \nd
hyXym-k-ap-m-Ip-¶-Xv?
$ AhnsS \S-¡p¶ cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-sa´v?
$ \n§-fpsS D¯cw km[q-I-cn-¡p-I.
2. Dcp-Inb s]m«mkyw t¢mssd-Uv, s]m«mkyw t¢mssdUv emb-\n-
F¶n-h-bneqsSbpÅ sshZypXhntÇ-jWw Xmc-Xayw sN¿p-I.
ImtYm-Unepw Bt\m-Unepw \S-¡p¶ {]hÀ¯-\-sa´v?
3. AgNO3 emb-\n, MgSO4 emb-\n, Ag ZÞv, Mg dn_¬ F¶nh
\ÂIn-bn-cn-¡p-¶p. Ch D]-tbm-Kn¨v KmÂhm-\nIv skÂ F§s\
{Iao-Ic- n¡mw? ImtYm-Unepw Bt\m-Unepw \S-¡p¶ cmk {]hÀ¯-
\-§Ä Fgp-Xp-I.
60
XpSÀ{]-hÀ¯-\-§Ä
1. tIm¸À kÄt^äv emb-\n-bnÂ 2 ImÀ_¬ ZÞp-IÄ Xmgv¯n-

hbv¡p-I. emb-\n-bneqsS sshZypXn IS¯n hnSp-I.
(i) GXv Ce-Ivt{Sm-Un-emWv \ndw amäw Dm-Ip-¶Xv? Bt\m-
Untem AtXm ImtYm-Un-tem?
(ii) tIm¸À kÄt^äv emb-\n-bpsS \oe-\n-d-¯n\v Fs´-¦nepw
amä-ap-m-Ip-¶ptm?
(iii) ChnsS \S-¡p¶ amä-§-fpsS cmk-k-a-hm-Iy-§Ä Fgp-Xp-I.
2. Bkn-Up-tNÀ¯ tIm¸À kÄt^äv emb-\n-sb sshZyp-X-hn-tÇ-
jWw sNbvXmÂ Bt\m-UnÂ HmIvkn-P³ e`y-am-Ipw. Fs´Ãmw
{Iao-I-c-W-§-fmWv CXn-\mbn Hcp-t¡--Xv. ImtYm-UnÂ \nt£-
]n-¡-s¸-Sp¶ aqeIw GsX¶v Is-¯p-I.
3. a) aáo-jyw, knÂhÀ F¶o teml-§Ä D]-tbm-K-s¸-Sp¯n
KmÂh-\nIv skÂ \nÀan-¡p-t¼mÄ Hmtcm skÃnepw {]hÀ¯-
\-§Ä F{]-Im-c-am-bn-cn¡pw F¶v Is-¯p-I ({Inbm-ioew
Mg > Zn > Cu > Ag).
b) (Ag, Cu, Zn, Mg) Ch DÄs¸« F{X skÃp-IÄ \nÀan-¡m³
km[n¡pw.
61
tem IsØ am‰n adn® Is≠-Ø-ep-I-fn¬ G‰hpw kp{]-[m-\-amWv teml-Øn-t‚Xv. am\-h-]p-

tcm-K-Xn-bpsS Ncn{X hgn-I-fn¬ teml-bp-K-ß-fmbn Xs∂ Ch AS-bm-f-s∏-Sp-Øn-bn-´p-≠v. arK-
ßsf th´-bm-Sm\pw Blmc kºm-Z-\-Øn-\p-ambn Iq¿Ø ine-Ifpw ac-°-ºp-Ifpw D]-tbm-Kn®
ÿm\Øv teml D]-I-c-W-ßƒ h∂-tXmsS A[zm-\-`mcw eLq-I-cn-°-s∏-Sp-I-bmWv sNbvX-Xv.
Im¿jn-I-ta-J-ebpw hymh-km-bnI taJ-ebpw A`n-hr-≤n-s∏-Sm≥ teml-ßƒ Xs∂-bt√ ImcWw?
Btem-Nn-®p-t\m-°q.
sam´p-kqNn apX¬ hnam\w hsc-bp≈ D]-I-c-W-ßƒ \n¿an-°m≥ D]-tbm-Kn-°p∂ Ccpºpw \nXy-
Po-hn-X-Øn¬ hnhn[ Bh-iy-ßƒ°v D]-tbm-Kn-°p∂ sNºpw Aep-an-\n-b-hp-sams° Ncn-{X-KXn
am‰nb teml-ß-fm-Wv. B`-c-W-\n¿am-W-Øn-\p-]-tbm-Kn-°p∂ kz¿Æhpw sh≈nbpw πm‰n-\-hp-
sa√mw teml-ß-fm-Wt√m?
Ch-sb√mw Fß-s\-bmWv {]Ir-Xn-bn¬\n∂v th¿Xn-cn-s®-Sp-°p-I-sb∂v \nßƒ Nn¥n-®n-´pt≠m?
t\cn´v D]-tbm-Kn-°m-hp∂ Xc-Øn¬ {]Ir-Xn-bn¬\n∂v Ch e`n-°ptam? \ap°v ]cn-tim-[n-°mw.
62
teml-\nÀamWw
`qhÂ¡-¯nÂ {Inbm-ioew IqSnb teml-§Ä Ah-bpsS kwbpàmh-

Ø-bnepw {Inbm-ioew hfsc Ipd-ªh (¹män-\w, kzÀWw apX-em-b-h)
kzX-{´m-hØ
- b- nepw ImW-s¸Sp¶p. `qhÂ¡-¯nÂ ImW-s¸-Sp¶ teml-
kw-bp-à-§sf s]mXpsh [mXp-¡Ä F¶p hnfn-¡p-¶p. Htc temlw
AS-§nb At\Iw [mXp-¡f - p-mImw. DZmlc-W¯- n\v Aepan-\n-b¯
- nsâ
Nne [mXp-¡-fmWv t_mIvssk-äv (Al2O3.2H2O), {Itbm-sseäv (Na3AlF6),
Ifn- a ®v (Al2O3. 2SiO2. 2H 2O) F¶nh. ]t£ FÃm [mXp- ¡ sfbpw
teml§fpsS hymh-km-bnI \nÀam-W-¯n\v D]-tbm-Kn-¡m-dn-Ã.
temlw thÀXn-cn-s¨-Sp-¡m³ D]-tbm-Kn¡p¶ [mXp-¡Ä¡v Fs´ms¡
{]tXy-I-X-IÄ Dm-bn-cn-¡Ww?
$ kpe-`-ambncn¡Ww.
$ Ffp-¸-¯nepw sNehv Ipdª coXn-bnepw temlw thÀXn-cn-s¨-Sp-
¡m-hp-¶-Xm-I-Ww.
$ teml-¯nsâ Awiw IqSn-bn-cn-¡Ww.
Hcp [mXp-hnÂ \n¶v Ffp-¸-¯nepw thK-¯nepw sNehv Ipdª
coXn-bnepw temlw thÀXn-cn-s¨-Sp-¡m³ Ign-bp¶psh¦nÂ AXns\
B teml-¯nsâ Abncv ( Ore) F¶p hnfn¡mw.
Aep-an-\n-b-¯nsâ [mXp-¡-fnÂ Cu {]tXy-I-X-IÄ DÅXv t_mIvssk-
än\m-Wv. AXp-sImv t_mIvssk-ämWv Aeq-an-\n-b-¯nsâ Abncv. FÃm
Abn-cp-Ifpw [mXp-¡f
- mWv. F¶mÂ FÃm [mXp-¡fpw Abn-cp-Ifm-tWm?
Nne teml-§fpw Ah-bpsS Abn-cp-IfpsS t]cpw, cmk-kq{Xhpw ]«nI
cq]-¯nÂ \ÂIn-bn-cn-¡p¶Xv hni-I-e\w sNbvXv (]«nI 4.1) NphsS
sImSp¯ncn-¡p¶h Is¯n tcJ-s¸-Sp-¯p-I.
temlw Abn-cp-IÄ cmk-kq{Xw
Aepan\nbw t_mIvsskäv Al2O3. 2H 2O

Ab¬ tla-ssääv Fe 2O 3
amá-ssääv Fe 3O 4
tIm¸À tIm¸À ss]-ssdävkv CuFeS2
Ipss{]äv Cu 2O
kn¦v kn¦vas»³Uv
Iem- n³ ZnS
ZnCO3
]«nI 4.1
$ Iem-an³ GXp teml-¯nsâ Abn-cmWv?
$ Aep-an-\n-b-¯nsâ Abncv GXv?
$ kÄssÛv Abn-cp-IÄ GsXÃmw teml-§Ä¡m-Wp-f-fXv?
63
Hcp A-bn-cnÂ \n¶v ip² temlw thÀXn-cn-¡p-¶-Xp-h-sc-bpÅ apgp-h³

{]{In-bIfpw tNÀ¶-XmWv teml-\n-jvIÀjWw (saä-eÀPn). CXn\v
{][m-\-ambpw aq¶p L«-§-fp-v.
km{µo-I-cn¨ Abn-cnÂ \n¶v
Abn-cp-I-fpsS km{µWw temls¯ thÀXn-cn-¡Â teml ip²o-I-cWw
(Concentration of ores) (Extraction of metal from (Refining of metals)
concentrated ore)
I Abn-cp-I-fpsS km{µWw (Concentration of ores)

`qhÂ¡-¯nÂ \ - n¶v e`n-¡p¶ Abn-cnÂ AS-§n-b A]-{Z-hy-§sf (KmMv)
\o¡w sN¿p¶ {]{In-b-bmWv Abn-cnsâ km{µWw. Abn-cn-sâbpw A]-
{Z-hy-§-fpsSbpw kz`m-h-a-\p-k-cn¨v hnhn[ km{µW coXn-I-fp-v.
1. Pe- { ]hm- l ¯nÂ Igp- I nsbSp- ¡ Â ( Levigation or hydraulic
washing)
s]mSn¨ Abncv A]-{Zhyw km{µX Ipd-ªXpw
Abncv km{µX IqSn- b - X p- a m- I p-
t¼mÄ `mcw Ipdª A]-
KmMv {Zhy§sf Pe-{]hm-l¯nÂ Igp-
Abn-
kkvsc]³j³
nsâ In- a m- ä p- ¶ p (Nn{Xw 4.1 ). DZm:
HmIvsskUv Abn-cp-I-fpsS km{µ-
Pew Ww, kzÀW-¯nsâ Abn-cpI-fpsS
Nn{Xw 4.1 km{µo-Ic- n¨ Abncv km{µ-Ww.
Id- §
- p¶ ]mUnÂ 2. ¹h\ {]{Inb (Froth floatation)
hmbp A]-{Zhyw km{µX IqSn-bXpw
-
Abncv km{µX Ipd-ª-Xp-am-Ip-

]X t¼mgmWv Cu {]{Inb D]-tbm-Kn-
¡p-¶-Xv (Nn{Xw 4.2). {][m-\-ambpw
Abncv + ss]³ kÄssÛv Abn-cp-I-sf-bmWv Cu
HmbnÂ+ Pew amÀKw D]-tbm-K- n¨v km{µWw sN¿p-
ÌndÀ ¶Xv.
Nn{Xw 4.2 Imń-I-hn-`-P\w (Magnetic separation)
ImńI tdmfÀ Abncv 3.
Abn-cnt\m A]-{Z-hy-¯nt\m GsX-¦nepw H¶n\v
ImńI kz`m-h-ap-s-¦nÂ km{µWw sN¿m³ Cu
amÀKw D]-tbm-Kn-¡mw (Nn{Xw 4.3). amá-ssääv F¶
Ccp-¼nsâ Abn-cns\ km{µWw sN¿p-¶-Xn\pw
Imń-I-a-Ãm¯ Sn¶nsâ Abn-cmb Sn³ tÌmWnÂ
ImńI kz`m-ha- pÅ LSIw (SnO ) \n¶v ImńI A]- { Z- h y- a mb Ab¬
ImńI kz`m-ha- nÃ- m¯ LSIw SwMvtÌäns\ \o¡w sN¿p-¶-Xn\pw Cu {]{Inb D]-
2
64
Nn{Xw
4.3 tbm-Kn-¡p-¶p.
teml-\nÀamWw
4. eo¨nMv (Leaching)
A\p-tbm-Py-amb emb\nbnÂ Abncv tNÀ¡p-t¼mÄ AXv cmk-{]-
hÀ¯-\¯ - nÂ GÀs¸«v ebn¡ - p-¶p. ebn¡ - m¯ A]-{Z-hy-§sf Acn-
¨p-amäp¶p. Acn-¨p-In-«nb emb-\n-bnÂ \n¶v cmk-{]-{In-b-bn-eqsS
ip²-amb Abncv thÀXn-cn-¡p-¶p. Aep-an-\n-b-¯nsâ Abn-cmb
t_mIvsskäv Cu coXn-bn-emWv km{µWw sN¿p-¶-Xv.
teml Abn-cp-I-fp-sSbpw Ah-bnÂ AS-§n-bn-cn-¡p¶ amen-\y-§-fp-sSbpw
Nne {]tXy-I-X-IÄ ]«n-I-s¸-Sp-¯n-bn-cn-¡p-¶p. A\p-tbm-Py-amb km{µ-
W-coXn Is¯n ]«nI 4.2 ]qÀ¯n-bm-¡pI.
Abn-cp-I-fpsS Abn-cnÂ AS-§nb kzoI-cn-¡m-hp¶
{]tXy-IX amen-\y-§-fpsS {]tXy-IX km{µ-W coXn
km{µX IqSnbh km{µX Ipd-ªh ...................................................................
ImńI kz`m-ha- pÅh Im-ńI kz`m-hanÃm-¯h ...................................................................
km{µX Ipdª kÄssÛv Abn- km{µX IqSn-bh

cp-IÄ
...................................................................
emb\nbnÂ ebn-¡p¶ AtX emb\nbnÂ ebn¡

- m-¯h
Aep-an-\nbw Abn-cp-IÄ
...................................................................
]«nI 4.2
NphsS \ÂIn-bn-cn-¡p¶ Abn-cp-IÄ¡v A\p-tbm-Py-amb km{µW coXn
]«n-I-s¸-Sp-¯p-I.
Abncv km{µ-W-coXn
Sn³tÌm¬ ...............................
t_mIvsskäv ...............................
kn¦v s»³Uv ...............................
]«nI 4.3
II. km{µo-I-cn¨ Abn-cnÂ\n¶v temls¯ thÀXn-cn¡Â
(Extraction of metals from concentrated ore)
CXn\v km[m-c-W-bmbn cp L«-§-fp-v.
a) km{µo-I-cn¨ Abn-cns\ HmIvssk-Uv B¡Â
b) HmIvssk-Um-¡nb Abn-cnsâ \ntcm-Ivko-I-cWw.
a) km{µo-I-cn¨ Abn-cns\ HmIvssk-Um-¡Â
i) ImÂkn-t\-j³ (Calcination) : hmbp-hnsâ Akm-¶n-[y-¯nÂ
Abn-cns\ AXnsâ {Zh-Wm-¦t¯¡mÄ Ipdª Xm]-\n-e-
bnÂ NqSm-¡p¶ {]{In-b-bmWv ImÂkn-t\-j³. teml-ImÀ_-
tW-äp-Ifpw sslt{Um-Ivssk-Up-Ifpw hnL-Sn¨v HmIvssk-Umbn
amdp-¶p.
ii) tdmÌnMv (Roasting) : hmbp-hnsâ km¶n-[y-¯nÂ Abn-cns\
AXnsâ {Zh-Wm-¦t- ¯¡mÄ Ipdª Xm]-\n-eb- nÂ NqSm-¡p¶
{]{In-bb- mWv tdmÌnMv.
65
km{µo-Ic- n¨ Abn-cp-Isf tdmÌn-§n\v hnt[-ba- m¡p-t¼mÄ Ah-bnse

Pemw-iw _mjv]-ambn ]pd¯v t]mIp¶p. kÄssÛv Abn-cp-IÄ
HmIvkn-P-\pa-mbn tNÀ¶v HmIvssk-Up-Ifmbn amdp-¶p. DZm: Cu S
Abncv tdmÌnMv hgn Cu O B¡na- m-äp-¶p.
2
2
b) HmIvsskUm¡nb Abn-cnsâ \ntcm-Ivko-I-cWw

HmIvsskUm¡nb Abn-cnÂ \n¶v temlw \nÀan-¡p¶ {]hÀ¯\w
\ntcm-Ivko-I-c-W-am-Wv. A\p-tbm-Py-amb \ntcm-Ivko-Im-cn-IÄ CXn-
\mbn D]-tbm-Kn-¡mw.
teml-§-fpsS {Inbm-io-e-¯nsâ ASn-Øm-\-¯nÂ teml-\nÀam-
W-th-f-bnÂ sshZyp-Xn, ImÀ_¬, ImÀ_¬ tamtWm-IvsskUv
F¶nh \ntcm-Ivko-Im-cn-bmbn D]-tbm-Kn-¡p-¶p.
{Inbm-ioew IqSnb tkmUn-bw, s]m«m-kyw, ImÂkyw t]mepÅ
teml-§sf Ah-bpsS Abn-cpIfnÂ \n¶v thÀXn-cn-¡m³ \ntcm-
Ivko-I-mcn-bmbn sshZypXn D]-tbm-Kn-¡p-¶p.
III. teml-ip-²o-I-cWw Refining of metals
( )
\ntcm-Ivko-I-cWw hgn e`n-¡p¶ teml-¯nÂ aäp teml-§fpw
teml HmIvssk-Up-Ifpw sNdnb tXmXnÂ Nne Atem-l-§fpw
A]-{Z-hy-§fmbn ImWm-dp-v. Cu A]-{Z-hy-§sf \o¡w sNbvXv
ip²-amb temlw \nÀan-¡p¶ {]{In-b-bmWv temlip²o-I-cWw.
ip²o-I-cn-t¡ teml-§fpsSbpw Ah-bnÂ AS-§n-bn-cn-¡p¶
amen-\-y-§-fp-sSbpw kz-`mhw ASn-Øm-\-am¡n teml-ip-²o-I-c-W-
¯n\v hnhn[ amÀK-§Ä kzoIcn-¡p-¶p. Nne amÀK-§Ä NphsS
Aip² temlw \ÂInb- nc- n¡ - p-¶Xv {i²n¡- q.
Ncnª ASp¸v a. Dcp-¡n- thÀXn-cn-¡Â (Liquation)
Ipdª {Zh-Wm-¦a- pÅ Sn³, seUv F¶o teml-§fnÂ
amen-\y-§Ä
ip²-temlw A]- {Z-hy-ambn DbÀ¶ {Zh-Wm-¦a- pÅ aäp teml-§Ä,
teml HmIvssk-Up-IÄ XpS-§n-bh Dm-bn-cn-¡pw.
C¯cw teml-§Ä ^ÀW-knsâ Ncnª {]X-e¯ - nÂ
Nn{Xw h¨v NqSm¡pt¼mÄ ip²-temlw A]-{Z-
h y-
§ f
- nÂ \n¶v
4.4
thÀXncnªv DcpIn Xmtg¡v hcp-¶p (Nn{Xw 4.4). Cu
{]{In-bbmWv Dcp-¡n-thÀXn-cn-¡Â.
b. tkzZ\w (Distillation)
Xmc-X-ta-y\ Ipdª Xnf-\n-e-bpÅ teml-§-fmb kn¦v, ImUvan-
bw, saÀ¡pdn F¶nh ip²o-I-cn-¡p-¶-Xn\v Cu coXn D]-tbm-Kn-¡p-
¶p. A]-{ZhyaS-§nb temlw Hcp dnt«mÀ«nÂ h¨v NqSm-¡p-t¼mÄ
ip²temlw am{Xw _mjv]o-I-cn¡p¶p. Cu _mjv]w L\o`hn¨v
ip²-temlw e`n-¡p¶ coXn-bm-Wv tkzZ\w.
c. sshZyp-X-hn-tÇ-j-W-ip-²o-I-cWw (Electrolytic refining)
Hcp sNdnb IjWw ip² temlw s\K-äohv Ce-Ivt{Sm-Umbpw
ip²oI-cn-t¡ A]-{Z-hy-a-S-§nb temlw t]mkn-äohv Ce-Ivt{Sm-
Umbpw B teml-¯nsâ ehWemb\n Ce-Ivt{Sm-sse-ämbpw
66
teml-\nÀamWw
FSp¯v sshZyp-Xh- n-tÇjW¯neqsS temlw ip²oIcn-¡p¶ {]{In-

bbmWv sshZyp-X-hn-tÇ-jW ip²o-I-cWw. tIm¸-dns\ ip²o-I-cn-
¡m³ Cu amÀKw D]-tbm-Kn-¡mw. tIm¸-dnsâ ip²o-I-c-W-hp-ambn
_Ô-s¸« Nn{Xw NphsS \ÂIn-bn-cn-¡p-¶Xv {i²n-¡p-I.
+ --
ip²oI-cn-t¡
tIm¸À
(Bt\m-Uv)
ip² tIm¸À
(ImtYm-U)v
H2SO4 tNÀ¯
tIm¸À kÄt^äv
emb\n
Nn{Xw 4.5
Nn{Xw \nco-£n¨v ]«nI ]qÀ¯n-bm-¡p-I.
Bt\mUv
ImtYmUv
Ce-Ivt{Sm-sseäv
Bt\m- U nÂ \S- ¡ p¶ cmk- { ]-
hÀ¯-\¯ - nsâ ka-hmIyw
ImtYm- U nÂ \S¡p¶ cmk
{]hÀ¯-\¯ - nsâ ka-hmIyw
]«nI 4.4
Ccp¼nsâ hymh-km-bnI \nÀamWw
Ab-Wnsâ [mXp-¡-fmWv tla-ssä-äv, amKv\ssä-äv, Ab¬ ss]ssäävkv
F¶n-h. Ch-bnÂ Ab-Wnsâ Abn-cp-IÄ GsXÃmw? Ab¬ ss]ssd-
ävkns\ hnUvVn-If- psS kzÀWw F¶-dn-bs- ¸-Sm³ Imc-Ws- a-s´¶v Nnń-
¨n-«ptm? CXnsâ a§nb aªIeÀ¶ {_mknsâ \ndw kzÀW-t¯mSv
kmZriyw ImWn-¡p-¶X- n-\memWv CXns\ hnUvVn-If- psS kzÀWw F¶-
dn-b-s¸-Sp-¶-Xv.
Ccp¼v hymh-km-bn-I-ambn \nÀan-¡p-¶Xv {][m-\-ambpw tla-ssä-änÂ
\n¶m-Wv. CXnÂ\n¶pw km{µX Ipdª A]-{Z-hy-§sf Pe-{]-hm-l-
¯nÂ IgpIn amäp-¶p. Imń-I-hn-`-P-\-¯n-eq-sSbpw amen-\y-§Ä \o¡w
sN¿mw.
67
XpSÀ¶v e`n-¡p¶ Abn-cns\ tdmÌnw-Kn\v hnt[-b-am-¡p-¶p. At¸mÄ

Abn-cnÂ AS-§n-bn-cn-¡p¶ amen-\y-§-fmb kÄ^À, Bgvk-\n-Iv,
t^mkv^-dkv XpS-§nb amen-\y-§sf Ah-bpsS HmIvssk-Up-I-fm¡n
hmX-I-cq-]-¯nÂ \o¡w sN¿p-¶p. CtXm-sSm¸w Pemw-ihpw \o¡w
sN¿-s¸-Sp-¶p. F¶mÂ Abn-cnÂ ImW-s¸-Sp¶ KmMv Bb knen-¡¬
ssU HmIvsskUv (knen-¡) \o¡w sN¿-s¸-Sp-¶n-Ã.
»mÌv ^ÀWkv F¶ kwhn-[m\w D]-tbm-Kn-¨mWv tla-ssä-äns\ Ab-
Wm¡n amäp-¶-Xv. Cu ^ÀW-knsâ ASn-h-i-¯p-IqSn DbÀ¶ Xm]-
\nebnep-ff iàamb hmbp-{]-hmlw IS-¯n-hn-Sp-¶p. AXn-\m-emWv
Cu ^ÀW-kns\ »mÌv ^ÀWkv F¶p-]-d-bp-¶-Xv. ^ÀW-knsâ
apIÄhi-¯pÅ {]tXyI {Iao-Ic- W - ¯- n-eqsS tlassääv, Np®m-¼p-IÃv,
tIm¡v F¶nh \nt£-]n-¡p-¶p.
»mÌv ^ÀW-knsâ hnhn-[-`m-K-§-fnÂ \S-¡p¶ cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\-§Ä
]cn-tim-[n-¡p-I.
tIm¡v, Np®m¼v C + O o CO + Xm]w
IÃv, sla-sääv 2 2
F¶n-hb- psS CO + C + Xm]w o 2CO
an{inXw 2
Cu ImÀ_¬ tamtWm-Ivssk-UmWv {][m-\-ambpw tla-

]pd-t¯-bv¡pÅ ssd-äns\ \ntcm-Ivko-I-cn¨v Ab-Wm-¡n-am-äp-¶-Xv.
hmbp
Fe2O3 + 3CO o 2Fe + 3CO2
^ÀW-knse DbÀ¶ Xm]-\n-e-bnÂ ImÂkyw ImÀ_-
tWäv hnL-Sn¨v ImÂkyw HmIvsskUpw ImÀ_¬
ssUHm-IvsskUpw Dm-Ip-¶p.
CaCO3 o CaO + CO2
Cu ImÂkyw HmIvsskUv (^vfIvkv) Abn-cnse SiO 2
(KmMv) hpambn {]hÀ¯n¨v Ffp-¸-¯nÂ Dcp-Ip-¶
NqSpÅ NqSpÅ hmbp-
{]-hmlw
ImÂkyw knen-t¡äv (ÉmKv) Bbn amdp-¶p.
hmbp-{]-hmlw
Dcp-Inb CaO SiO2 o CaSiO3
ÉmKv
Ab¬
^vfIv + KmMv ÉmKv
Nn{Xw 4.6
KmMn\v BknUv kz`m-hamsW-¦nÂ t_knIv kz`m-h-apÅ ^vfIvkv
Bbn-cn-¡Ww D]-tbm-Kn-t¡--Xv. KmMn\v t_knIv kz`m-h-am-sW-
¦nÂ Akn-UnIv kz`m-h-apÅ ^vfIvkv Bbn-cn-¡Ww D]-tbm-Kn-
t¡Xv.
km{µX Ipdª Dcp-Inb ÉmKv Dcp-Inb Ccp-¼n-\p-aosX s]m§n-In-S-¡p-
¶p. ^ÀW-knÂ \n¶pw Dcp-Inb cq]-¯nÂ ÉmKpw AbWpw {]tXyIw
{]tXy-I-ambn ]pd-s¯-Sp-¡p-¶p.
68
teml-\nÀamWw
»mÌv ^ÀW-knÂ \n¶p e`n-¡p¶ Dcp-Inb Ab-WnÂ 4% ImÀ_Wpw

aäv amen-\y-§-fmb amwK-\okv knen-¡¬, t^mkv^-dkv F¶nh AS-
§n-bn-«p-v. CXns\ ]nKv Ab¬ F¶p-hn-fn-¡p-¶p.
Ab-Wnsâ \nÀam-W-hp-ambn _Ô-s¸«v NphsS sImSp-¯n-cn-¡p¶
]«nI 4.5 ]qÀ¯n-bm-¡p-I.
Ccp¼nsâ Abncv
»mÌv ^ÀWknte¡v \nt£- ] n-
¡p¶ Akw-kvIrX ]ZmÀY-§Ä
tla-ssä-äns\ \ntcm-IvkoI-cn¡m³
D]-tbmKn-¡p¶ ]ZmÀYw
KmMv
^vfIvkv
ÉmKv
ÉmKv cq]o-I-cW {]hÀ¯-\-¯nsâ
ka-hmIyw
]«nI 4.5
hnhn-[-Xcw Atembv Ìoep-IÄ
ÌoenÂ aäp teml-§Ä tNÀ¯v Atembv ÌoÂ \nÀan¡- p-¶p. hnhn[- X- cw
Atembv Ìoep-If- psS t]cv, Ah-bpsS LS-I§
- Ä, {]tXy-IX- , D]-tbmKw
F¶nh ]«nI cq]-¯nÂ (]«nI 4.6) \ÂInb- nc- n¡
- p-¶Xv {i²n¡- q. Ìoen-
tâ-XnÂ \n¶pw hyXykvX kz`mhw ]peÀ¯p-¶-h-bmWv Atembv
ÌoepIÄ.
Atembv ÌoepIÄ LS-I-§Ä {]tXy-IX D]-tbmKw
sÌbn³ekv Fe, Cr, Ni, C Dd-¸p-ÅXv ]m{X-§Ä, hml-\-`m-K-§Ä
ÌoÂ Ch \nÀan-¡p-¶-Xn\v
AÂ\nt¡m Fe, Al, Ni, Co ImńI Ønc-Im-´-§Ä
kz`mhw \nÀan-¡p-¶-Xn\v
\nt{Imw Fe, Ni, Cr, C DbÀ¶ loänMv
{]Xn-tcm[w tImbn-ep-IÄ \nÀan-¡p-¶-Xn\v
]«nI 4.6
$ loänMv tImbn-ep-IÄ \nÀan-¡m³ D]-tbm-Kn-¡p¶ Atembv ÌoÂ
GXv? ImcWw hyà-am-¡p-I.
$ sÌbn³ekv ÌoÂ, \nt{Imw F¶n-h-bnse LS-I-§Ä H¶p Xs¶-
bmsW¦nepw Ah-bpsS KpW¯nse hyXym-k-¯n\v ImcWw
Is¯n tcJ-s¸-Sp-¯p-I.
$ Ønc-Im-´-§Ä \nÀan-¡m³ D]-tbm-Kn-¡p¶ Atembv ÌoÂ GXv?
69
LSI aqe-I§ - Ä hyXym-ks- ¸-Sp-¯nbpw Ah-bpsS A\p-]mXw

hyXym-k-s¸-Sp-¯nbpw hnhn-[-Xcw teml-k-¦-c-§Ä \nÀan-
¡mw.
Aepan-\n-b-¯nsâ \nÀamWw
Aepan-\n-b-¯nsâ khn-ti-j-X-I-Ä {]tbm-P-\-s¸-Sp-¯n \nXy-Po-hn-X-
¯nÂ \mw Cu temls¯ F§-s\-sbÃmw {]tbm-P-\-s¸-Sp-¯p-¶-
sX¶v Nnń-¨n-«ptm?
sshZypXn t{]jWw sN¿p-¶-Xn\pw ]mN-I-¯n-\p-]-tbm-Kn-¡p¶ hnhn-
[-Xcw ]m{X-§Ä \nÀan-¡p-¶-Xn\pw hml-\-§-fpsS t_mUn `mK-§Ä
\nÀan¡
- p-¶X- n\pw dn^vfI- vSä- d- p-IÄ \nÀan¡
- p-¶X- n\pw aäv At\Iw Bh-
NmÄkv amÀ«n³ lmÄ iy-§Ä¡pw Cu temlw D]-tbm-Kn-¡p-¶p. C¯-c-¯n-epÅ D]-tbm-
(1863 - 1914)
K-§Ä¡v B[m-c-amb teml-¯nsâ khn-ti-j-X-IÄ ]«n-I-s¸-Sp-¯q.
D]-tbmKw khn-ti-jX
sshZyp-X-t{]-jWw
]mN-I-]m-{X-§Ä
dn^vfI- vSä- d- p-IÄ
]«nI4.7
BZy Ime-§-fnÂ Aeq-an-\nbw thÀXn-cn-s¨-Sp-¡p-¶-Xnsâ sNehv
t]mÄ slduÄ«v hfsc IqSp-X-em-b-Xn-\mÂ CXn\v kzÀW-s¯-¡mÄ hne-bm-bn-cp-¶p.
(1863 - 1914)
Cu temls¯ lmÄ-þ-sl-duÄ«v {]{In-b-bn-eqsS km[m-c-W-¡m-csâ
temla-m¡n amän.
Aep-an-\n-b-¯nsâ {][m-\s¸« Abn-cmWv t_mIvssk-äv. cv {][m\
L«-§-fn-eqsS-bmWv Aeq-an-\nbw hymh-km-bn-I-ambn \nÀan-¡p-¶-Xv.
t_mIvssk-änsâ km{µ-Whpw km{µo-I-cn¨ Aeq-an-\nbpsS sshZypX
hntÇ-j-W-hp-amWv {][m-\-s¸« L«-§Ä.
t_mIvssk-änsâ km{µ-W-w
t_mIvssk-änsâ km{µ-W¯n\v D]-tbm-Kn-¡p¶ amÀK-amWv eo¨n-Mv.
A]-{Z-hy-§Ä AS-§nb t_mIvsskäv NqSpÅ KmV NaOH emb\n-
bnÂ tNÀ¡p-¶p. t_mIvsskäv tkmUnbw Aep-an-t\-ämbn amdp-¶p.
A]-{Z-hy-§sf Acn¨p amäp-¶p. hfsc Ipd¨v ]pXp-Xmbn Xbm-dm-¡nb
Aep-an-\nbw sslt{Um-IvsskUv Ah-£n]vXw tNÀ¯v Pe-sam-gn¨v
t\À¸n¨v IqSp-XÂ Al(OH) Ah£n-]vX-s¸-Sp-¯p-¶p. Cu Aep-an-\nbw
sslt{Um-Ivssk-UnÂ \n¶v F§s\ Aep-an\ e`n¡pw? Ah-£n]vXw
3
thÀXn-cn¨v \¶mbn Igp-In-b-tijw iàn-bmbn NqSm-¡p-t¼mÄ Aep-

an\ e`n-¡p-¶p.
70
teml-\nÀamWw
t_mIvsskänsâ km{µ-W-hp-ambn _Ô-s¸«v NphsS sImSp¯ncn-

¡p¶ ^vtfm Ub{Kw ]qÀ¯n-bm-¡p-I.
eo¨nMv Acn-¨p-am-änb emb-\n-
t_mIvsskäv ................................... bnÂ AÂ¸w Ah-£n-
NqSpÅ NaOH ]vXhpw Al(OH)3
emb\-n-bnÂ ebn- Pehpw tNÀ¯v Cf-¡p-
¸n-¡p¶p ¶p.
Acn-¨p-amän
................................... NqSm-¡p¶p ...................................
Aep-an-\nbw sslt{Um-IvsskUv NqSm-¡p-t¼mÄ \S-¡p¶ {]hÀ¯-\-

¯nsâ cmk-k-a-hmIyw ]qÀ¯n-bm-¡q.
2Al(OH) o ..................... + 3H O
Aep-an-\-bnÂ\n¶v Aep-an-\nbw thÀXn-cn-¡p-¶-Xn\v GXv amÀKw D]-
3 2
tbm-Kn¡mw? \ntcm-Ivko-Im-cn-bmbn ImÀ_¬ D]-tbm-Kn-¡m³ Ign-bptam

F´p-sImv?
Aep-an-\n-b-¯n\v {Inbm-ioew hfsc IqSp-X-em-b-Xn-\mÂ Aep-an-\sb
sshZypXn D]-tbm-Kn¨v \ntcm-Ivko-I-cn-¨mWv Aep-an-\nbw \nÀan-¡p-¶Xv.
Aeq-an-\-bpsS sshZyp-X-hn-tÇ-jWw
ImÀ_¬ ZÞp-IÄ
Bt\mUv (+)
ImÀ_¬ sse\nMv
ImtYmUv ()
ImÀ_¬ ]uUÀ
ÌoÂ Sm¦v
Dcp-Inb {Itbm-
sseäpw Aepan\bpw
Dcp-Inb
Aepan\nbw
temlw
¹Kv
Nn{Xw 4.7
km{µ-W-¯n-eqsS e`n¨ Aep-an-\-bn-te¡v (Al O ) Dcp-Inb {Itbm-sseäv (Na AlF )
tNÀ¯v sshZyp-X-hn-tÇ-jWw \S-¯p-¶p. Aep-an-\-bpsS {Zh-Wm¦w hfsc IqSp-
2 3 3 6
X-em-Wv. CXv Ipd-bv¡m\pw sshZyp-X-Nm-e-IX hÀ[n-¸n-¡m\pw thn-bmWv Aep-

an\bnÂ {Itbm-sseäv tNÀ¡p-¶-Xv. sshZypXn IS-¯n-hn-Sp-t¼mÄ \S-¡p¶
{]hÀ¯-\-§-fpsS cmk-k-a-hmIyw ]cn-tim-[n-¡p-I.
Al2O3 o 2Al 3+ + 3O2-
Al 3+ + 3e- o Al
71
2O2- o O2 + 4e-
C + O2 o CO2
$ Al 3+ Atbm¬ GXv Ce-Ivt{Sm-Un-te-¡mWv \o§p-¶Xv?
$ HmIvsskUv AtbmtWm?
Aep-an-\-bpsS sshZypX hntÇ-j-W-hp-ambn _Ô-s¸« ]«nI ]qÀ¯n-bm-¡p-I.
Bt\mUv
ImtYmUv
Ce-Ivt{Sm-sseäv
Bt\m-UnÂ \S-¡p¶ cmk-{]-hÀ¯-\¯
- nsâ ka-hmIyw
ImtYm-UnÂ \S¡p¶ cmk {]hÀ¯-\¯ - nsâ ka-hmIyw
]«nI 4.8
hne-bn-cp¯mw
1. NphsS \ÂIn-bn-cn-¡p¶ kµÀ`-§-fnÂ teml-§-fpsS GXv khn-ti-j-X-bmWv {]tbmP\-
s¸-Sp-¯n-bn-cn-¡p-¶Xv?
þ `£Ww ]mIw sN¿m³ Aepan-\nbw ]m{X-§Ä D]-tbm-Kn-¡p-¶p.
þ ]m{X-§Ä \nÀan¡p-¶-Xn\v sN¼v D]-tbmKn¡p-¶p.
þ B`-c-W-§fnÂ kzÀW-¡-¼n-IÄ D]-tbmKn-¡p-¶p.
2. temlw thÀXn-cn-¡m³ [mXp-¡Ä Xnc-sª-Sp-¡p-t¼mÄ {i²n-t¡ Imcy-§Ä Fs´Ãmw?
3. saä-eÀPn-bnÂ DÄs¸-«n-«pÅ hnhn[ L«-§Ä Fgp-Xp-I.
4. teml-ip-²o-I-cW¯nsâ hnhn[ amÀK-§Ä GsXÃmw?
5. Ccp¼v hymh-km-bn-I-ambn \nÀan-¡p¶sX§s\?
6. Xmsg \ÂIn-bn-cn-¡p-¶-h-bpsS D]-tbm-K-§Ä Fgp-Xp-I.
$ \nt{Imw $ sÌbn³ekv ÌoÂ $ AÂ\nt¡m
7. t_mIvssk-änÂ \n¶v Aep-an\ \nÀan-¡p¶ {]{Inb hni-Z-am-¡pI.
8. sshZypXhntÇjWw hgn Aepan-\-bnÂ \n¶v ip²-amb Aep-an-\nbw thÀXn-cn-¡p¶
coXn hni-Z-am-¡p-I. Cu {]{In-b-bnÂ ImÀ_¬ Bt\m-Up-IÄ CS-bv¡n-Sbv¡v amtän
hcp-¶Xv F´p-sImv?
XpSÀ{]-hÀ¯\w
Dcp-Inb teml-kw-bp-à-§-fnÂ \n¶v sshZyp-X-hn-tÇ-jWw hgn teml-§Ä thÀXn-cn-
¡m-atÃm?
Na, Ca, Mg F¶o teml-§Ä thÀXn-cn¡p-¶-sX§s\-sb¶v Is-¯p-I.
72

Chemistry Mal Part 1 c10

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Chemistry Mal Part 1 c10

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Available Formats

ckX{¥w

kwÿm\ hnZym-`ymk Kth-jW ]cn-io-e\ kanXn (SCERT), tIcfw

State Council of Educational Research and Training (SCERT)

tUm. sP. {]kmZv

51 I. auenI I¿Ø-hy-ßƒ ˛ Xmsg-∏-d-bp-∂h `mc-X-Ønse Hmtcm

(I) `c- W - L - S - \ sb A\p- k - c n- ° p- I bpw AXns‚ BZ¿i- ß - s fbpw ÿm]- \ - ß - s fbpw

Bibhy‡X hcpØp∂Xn\v ICT km[yX

B‰w LS-\-sb-°p-dn®v hmbn-®-t∏mƒ Ip´n-°p-≠mb BImw-£ \nßƒ°p-ap-≠m-Imw.

$ M sj√n¬ Dƒs°m-≈m-hp∂ ]c-am-h[n Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ F{X-bmWv?

B¿tKm-Wns‚ ASpØ aqe-I-amb s]m´m-ky-Øn¬ (19K) B¿tKm-Wn-

Hmtcm sj√nsebpw k_vsj- √ p- I ƒ GsXm- s °- b m- s W∂v

Hmtcm k_vsj-√pw GXv sj√n-te-Xm-sW∂v Fßs\ Xncn-®-dn-bmw?

s k_vsj√n¬ Dƒs°m-≈m-hp∂ ]c-am-h[n Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-I-fpsS FÆw

k_vsj¬ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ymkw ]q¿Øn-bm-°q.

aqeIw Ce-Itv {Sm-Wp-If

k_vsj-√p-Ifpw Ah-bpsS Du¿Phpw XΩn¬ _‘-s∏-Sp-Ønb Nn{Xo-

k_vsj-√p-I-fpsS Du¿P-Øns‚ ASn-ÿm-\-Øn¬

]n- S n- ° m≥ Nn{Xw 1.2 \nßsf klm- b n- ° pw.

ChnsS Sc ¬ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ ]qcWw \S-°p-∂Xv

k_vsj¬ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ymkw tcJ-s∏-Sp-Øp∂ as‰mcp coXn-IqSn

k_vsj¬ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn-\ymkw FgpXn t\m°q.

]ocn-tbm-UnIv tS_n-fns‚ klm-b-tØmsS sXm´p ap∂nse D¬Ir-jvS-

$ Cr s‚ ÿnc- X - b p≈ k_v s j¬ Ce- I v t {Sm¨ hn\ymkw

d k_vsj-√n\v ]c-am-h[n 10 Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-Iƒ Dƒs°m-≈p-hm≥

CXns‚ ASn-ÿm-\-Øn¬ 29Cu s‚ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ymkßfn¬

t{Iman-bw, tIm∏¿ F∂o B‰-ß-fpsS k_vsj¬ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨

 Hcm‰-Øns‚ k_vsj¬ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ymkw 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2

$ ss\{S-P-\n¬ Ah-km\ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨]qcWw \S-∂tXm?

Ah-km\ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨]qcWw \S-°p-∂Xv GXv k_vsj-√n-emtWm

k_vsj¬ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ym-kØ

aqeIw k_vsj¬ _mly-Xa sj√ns‚ ]ocnbUv

Hcp aqe-I-Øns‚ k_vsj¬ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ym-k-Øn¬ _mly-

s tªm°v aqe-I-ß-fpsS {Kq∏p\º¿

aqeIw k_vsj¬ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ Ah-km\ s k_vsj {Kq∏p

- ƒ BWv s tªm°n¬ hcp-∂-sX∂v I≠t√m?

s tªm°v aqe-I-ß-fpsS _mly s k_vsj-√nse Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-I-

C\n s tªm°v aqe-I-ß-fpsS Nne s]mXp-hmb khn-ti-j-X-Iƒ \ap°v

$ km[m-cW cq]o-I-cn-°p∂ _‘\w GXm-bn-cn°pw?

$ 1˛mw {Kq∏v aqe-I-ßƒ cmk-{]-h¿Ø-\-th-f-bn¬ F{X Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-

$ 2˛mw {Kq∏v aqe-I-ßtfm?

$ H∂pw c≠pw {Kq∏v aqe-I-ßsf bYm-{Iaw X, Y F∂o {]XoIßƒ

Xmsg sImSpØ ]´nI ]q¿Øn-bm-°pI.

1-mw {Kq∏v [X] 1 +1 - X 2O

2-mw {Kq∏v [Y] 2 - Y 2+ -

s tªm°v aqe-I-ßƒ \n›nX hme≥knbpw HmIvko-I-c-Wm-h-ÿbpw

]ocn-tbm-UnIv tS_n-fn¬ G‰hpw CS-Xp-`m-K-Øp-≈-h-bmWv s tªm°v

s tªm°v aqe-I-ß-fpsS khn-ti-j-X-Iƒ enÃv sNbvXv Hcp Ipdn∏v Xbm-

2˛mw- ]ocn-b-Unse p tªm°v aqe-I-ßƒ AS-ßp∂ ]ocn-tbm-UnIv tS_n-

$ Ah-km\ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ ]qcWw \S-∂Xv GXv k_vsj-√n-emWv?

p k_vsj-√n¬ H∂p apX¬ Bdv hsc Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-I-fmWv ImW-s∏-

aqeIw p Ce-Ivt{SmWns‚ FÆw {Kq∏v \º¿

Y F∂ aqe-I-Øns‚ ({]XoIw bYm¿Y-a-√). _mly-Xa k_vsj¬

$ Cu aqeIw GXv ]ocn-b-Unepw {Kq∏n-ep-amWv hcp-∂Xv?

$ CtX {Kq∏n¬ sXm´p-Xmsg-bp-≈ aqe-IØ

Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ym-kØ- n-ep≈ kam-\X Imc-Wa

p tªm°v aqe-I-ß-fpsS Nne khnt-ij-X-Iƒ t\m°mw

]ocn-tbm-UnIv tS_n-fn¬ p tªm°v aqe-I-ßƒ AS-ßp∂ `mKw Xmsg

hyXykv X hn`m- K - ß sf {]Xn- \ n- [ m\w sNøp∂ aqe- I - ß ƒ p

$ s tªm°v aqe-I-ßsf At]-£n®v p tªm°v aqe-I-ßƒ s]mXpsh

$ CeIvt{Sm s\K-‰n-hn‰n G‰hpw IqSnb aqeIw p tªm°n¬ BWv.

P tªm°v aqe-I-ßfpsS s]mXphmb khnti-j-X-Iƒ hni-I-e\w sNbvXv

]´n-I- 1.14 ]q¿Øn-bm-°p-I. (X,Y) F∂nh bYm¿Y {]Xo-I-ßƒ A√.

_mly-Xa ]q¿W-amb k_vsj¬ At‰m-anI ]ocn-bUv {Kq∏v tªm°v

$ CXn¬ kwtbm-P-IX 1 Bb aqeIw GXmWv?

Hcm‰-Øns‚ k_vsj¬ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ymkw 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2

hym]vXhpw X·m-{X-I-fpsS F®hpw X½n-ep-ff Cu _Ôw Is-¯n-

Hcp ImÀ_¬ Bäw cv HmIvkn-P³ Bä-§-fp-am-bn-«mWv kwtbm-Pn-¡p-

{Kmw Atäm-anI amkp-If- psS F®w = BRF*kOT GAM