A Level Mathematics For Edexcel C1 C2 Book (Peter Hind)

3 About this book
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1 Indices and surds
Test this rule for yourself by using

1.1 Integer indices Generally, for any number a, a0 = 1 different values of a.
In the quantity 23, the base is 2 and the index is 3. index

23
23 is evaluated as 23 = 2 ´ 2 ´ 2 = 8 base Consider
3
33 ÷ 35 = 35 = 3×3×3 = 1 = 1
3 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 3 × 3 32
Generally, for any number a, the quantity an index From the general rule for dividing indices you know that
has base a and index n. an 33 ¸ 35 = 33-5 = 3-2
base
an is evaluated as an = a ´ a ´ . . . ´ a

Hence it follows that 3−2 = 12
3
n times
There are rules to help you perform arithmetic using indices. Indices is the plural of index.
A negative index is equivalent to
Generally, for any number a, a −n = 1−n a positive reciprocal index.
a
Consider 23 ´ 22 = (2 ´ 2 ´ 2) ´ (2 ´ 2) = 25 5=3+2
3 ´ 33 = 3 ´ (3 ´ 3 ´ 3) = 34 4=1+3
5´ 53 × 52 = 5 ´ (5 ´ 5 ´ 5) ´ (5 ´ 5) = 56 6=1+3+2
Consider (32)3 = (32) ´ (32) ´ (32)
= (3 ´ 3) ´ (3 ´ 3) ´ (3 ´ 3)
This result is true for = 36 6=2´3
Generally, for any number a, am × an = am+n any numbers m and n.
C1
C1
Generally, for any number a, (am)n = amń Test this rule for yourself by using
2 ÷ 2 = 22 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 = 2 × 2 × 2 = 23
5
5 2
Consider 3=5-2 different values of a, m and n.
2 2×2
54 ÷ 22 = 52 = 5 × 5 × 5 × 5 = 5 × 5 = 52
4
2=4-2
You can use the laws of indices to evaluate numerical quantities.
5 5×5
EXAMPLE 1
Simplify
m n m- n
This result is true for
Generally, for any number a, a ¸ a = a any numbers m and n. a 32 ´ 33
Some important results follow from these two index laws. b 27 ¸ 24

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a Use am ´ an = a m+n: 32 ´ 33 = 32+3 a = 3, m = 2 and n = 3

2 3
2×2×2 = 35
Consider 23 ¸ 23 = 3 = 2×2×2 =1
2
b Use am ¸ an = a m-n: 27 ¸ 24 = 27-4 a = 2, m = 7 and n = 4
From the general rule for dividing indices you know that = 23
23 ¸ 23 = 23-3 = 20 Using am ¸ an = am-n
with a = 2, m = 3 and n = 3.
Hence it follows that 20 = 1
2 3
1 Indices and surds 1 Indices and surds
EXAMPLE 2
EXAMPLE 4
Evaluate Simplify
a (0.2)3 a (3a2)3
( 23 )
−2
b b (2a3)-2
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a (0.2)3 = (0.2 ´ 0.2) ´ 0.2 Breaking down the calculation a Use the rule (am)n = amń on both terms:
makes the multiplication easier (3a2)3= (3)3 ´ (a2)3 = 27 ´ a2´3 Splitting the 3 and the a² may
= 0.04 ´ 0.2 help you to simplify the problem.
= 0.008 to do without a calculator. = 27 ´ a6
= 27a6 Remember that both the 3 and
()
−2 the a² need to be cubed.
3
b 2 b Use the rule a-n = 1n :
()
−2 a
3 1
Use a-n = 1n : = a = 3 and n = 2
()
a 2 2 2 (2a3)-2 = 1
3
2 ( 2a3 )2
= 1 Remember that 1 = b Now use the rule (am)n = amń in the denominator:
( 94 ) ()a
b
a
1 = 1 Remember that both the 2 and
(2a ) 3 2 22 × (a3)2 the a3 need to be squared.
= 4 = 2 1 3×2
9
2 ×a
= 1 6
4×a
You can also use the laws of indices to simplify algebraic expressions.
C1
C1
= 16
4a
EXAMPLE 3
Simplify
a p2 ´ p3
EXAMPLE 5
Simplify each expression giving the final answer in the
b t5 ¸ t3 form kxn where k is a constant and n an integer.
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a Use am ´ an = am+n: p2 ´ p3 = p2+3 a 3a3 ´ (4a)2

−3
= p5
b ⎛⎜ 2 ⎞⎟
3
⎝x ⎠
b Use am ¸ an = am-n: t5 ¸ t3 = t5-3 ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
= t2
a 3a3 ´ (4a)2 = 3a3 ´ 16a2 Using the rule (am)n = amń
= 3 ´ 16 ´ a3 ´ a2 Using the rule am ´ an = am+n
You can apply the index laws to simplify expressions which = 48a5
contain numbers and variables. −3
b ⎛⎜ 32 ⎞⎟ = 1
3
Using the rule a-n = 1n
⎝x ⎠ ⎛ 3 ⎞ a
⎜ 2⎟
⎝x ⎠
= 1 Using the rule (am)n = amń
27
x6 ( ) to simplify the denominator.
6
=x Since 1 = b
27 ( ba ) a
4 5
Exercise 1.1 5 Simplify these expressions.

1 Evaluate the following quantities. 2
7 5 a ⎛⎜ 5a2 ⎞⎟ b (-2a2b)4
a 2 b 3 ⎝b ⎠
c 132 d 23 + 42
c (5t2)3 - (5y2)3 d (2y)3 ´ (3z)3
e 25 + 52 f 92 - 34 <3
e (3a)-2 f £2¥
( 43 )
3 ² 2´
¤r ¦
g (22)3 h
( 3b )
2 <1 −2
3 2 2
g £² 2z ¥´ h (4b)−3 × 1
i (0.4) j (1.01) - (0.99) ¤ 3y ¦
k (98)2 - (2)2 l (0.4)2 - (9.6)2 i 4(y2)-3 ¸ (2y)-2 j (3y2t)2 ¸ (3yt2)-2
2 Write each of the following quantities in an index form. 6 Simplify each of the following expressions where possible.
a 32 b 81 c 125 a 4a2 + 9a2 b 9a2 + 4a3
d 0.001 e 25 f 0.04 c 4a2 ´ 9a3 d 4a2 ¸ 9a3

64
e 9a2 - 4a3 f 9a2 ¸ 4a3
g 1 h 441 i 128
10 000 400 243 g 9 ¸ 4a2 h 4a - 9a
C1
C1
3 Evaluate these quantities. i 9a2 ´ 4a - 9a2 j 4a2 ¸ 9a - 4a
a 4-1 b 6-2
INVESTIGATIONS
<3
c 70 d ( 12 ) 7 Which of these numbers can be expressed either as
a power of 3 or as a power of 4?
<3 1 1 64 12 1 1 24 81 36
e ( 23 ) f (0.5)-2 9 24 16 27
<4 <8
8 Which of these expressions simplify to give the
g ()
1
3
h ()
1
2 answer, a?
( a25 )
−1
3 3 −1 3
4 Simplify each expression. 5a 4a 2a 3a 4a
a2 (2a)2 2a2 3a −2 2a2 (5a)−2
a p ´ p3 b 3a ´ 4a2 ´ 5a3
c 12b ¸ 3b4 d (3y2)2 9 A saver deposits £80 with a bank giving an interest rate of
5%. Use your knowledge of indices to express as a ´ bn
e 7p2 + 9p2 f (5a)2 ¸ 5a3 the value of the investment
g (-4b3)2 ´ 5b2 h (3a3)2 ¸ (3a2)3 a after five years
i 4p3(3p3 ¸ 2p3) j (-3y)3 ´ (-2y)2 b after n years.
After how many years and months will the investment
reach £100?
6 7
1 Indices and surds
1.2 Fractional indices

Generally, for any number a, (a ) 1 m
n = (am)n = a n
1 m
( n a )m = n
am = a n
m
The index laws also apply to fractional indices.

You can use the index laws to evaluate expressions involving
fractional indices.
Consider 3 × 3 =3
1 1 1+1
You know that 3 2 × 3 2 = 3 2
EXAMPLE 1
2 Using am ´ an = am+n 2
1
Evaluate a (27)3 b (9)−0.5
=3 ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
=3
You can deduce that 3 is written as
1
32 in index notation. a Rewrite the expression: (272)3
1
or (27 ) 1 2
3 Choose ( 27 )
1 2
3 as this is simpler
1 1 to work with.
1
Similarly 4 = 42 and 5 = 52 You can follow the steps above You know that 27 3 = 3 27 = 3
to show this for yourself.
= (27 )
2 1 2
Hence (27)3 3
= (3)2 = 9 You should recognise that
Now consider 3
2× 2× 2 =2
3 3 3
2 is the cube root of 2. 1
27 3 = 3
27 = 3
1 1 1 1+1+1 b (9) −0.5
= 11
You know that 23 × 23 × 23 = 23 3 3 You can deduce this for yourself (9)2
1
by considering am ´ an ´ ap and 92 = 9 = 3
= 21
using the index laws. =1
=2 3
C1
C1
1
You can deduce that 3 2 is written as 2 3 in index notation. Sometimes the expression will involve a fraction as the
1 1
Similarly 5 =3
53 and 3
7 = 73 base number.
EXAMPLE 2
Evaluate
( ) ( )
1 2 3
−
Generally, for any number a, n
a = an This is the nth root of a. a 125 3
b 256 4
8 81
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The other index laws also apply to fractional indices.

( 1)
2 m
⎡ 1⎤
( ) ( )
2 m
125 3
⎢ 125 3
⎥ Using a n = a n
a =
8 ⎣ 8 ⎦
= (5)
3
Consider ( 8 )2 2
Since 3 125 = 5 and 3 8 = 2
This can be rewritten as ( )
1 2
83 Using (am)n = amń
2
1 ×2 = 25 Remember to square both

4
= 83 the top and bottom numbers.
( ) ( )
−
3 3
2 −n
= 83 b 256 4
= 81 4
Using the rule a = 1n
81 256 a
1 2
( ) =
Similarly 82 3 83 Using (am)n = amń ⎡
= ⎢ 81 ⎥ ( )
1 ⎤3
4
Using a n =
m
( )
1 m
an = n am
Hence ( )
1 2
83 =
1
( ) =
82 3
2
83
⎣ 256 ⎦
(4)
3
= 3
= 27 Remember to cube both the

64 top and bottom numbers.
8 9
You can also apply the laws of indices in algebra questions. 3 Simplify these quantities.
( ) ( )
2 3
EXAMPLE 3
8 19
3 2
Simplify a b
2
27 16
a (4a)2 ´ 4a3 ( 27p ) 6 3
(3 83 )
b 2
(1681 )
3 0.75
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c d
a (4a)2 ´ 4a3 = 16a2 ´ 4a3 Remember to square both the
( 49 )
2 −3
e (1000 )
2
4 and the a in the bracket. 3 f
= 16 ´ 4 ´ a2 ´ a3
= 64a5
( )
−3 1 ⎤2
⎡
g 81 4
h ⎣⎢( 49 )− 2 ⎦⎥
b ( 27p6 ) 3 = ⎢⎣(27p6 ) 3 ⎥⎦
2 ⎡ 1⎤2 m
( )
1 m
Using a n = a n
16
= (3p2)2 −5
Remember to cube root both the i 8 3
= 9p4 27 and the p6 inside the inner

bracket.
4 Simplify each expression.
You can solve equations containing indices. 1
−1
a (y 2) 2 b (4a6)2
EXAMPLE 4
( )
3
Solve 3x = 9 x-1
( )
5
4 a4 2 8 3
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b
3x = (32)x-1
C1
C1
( )
9
3x = 32(x-1) Using (am)n = amn 2 −4
e y 3
3x = 32x-2
So x = 2x - 2
x=2 Check: 32 = 92-1 = 91 5 Simplify these expressions.
1 3
a a 2 × 4a 2 b 5t 0.5 × 2t −1.5
1 1
Exercise 1.2 c 9p2 ÷ (9p2)2 d 4(49t 2)2
1 Evaluate these quantities.
1 −1
1 1 1 e (3t × 9t 2)3 f (16a ÷ 4a3) 2
a 83 b 16 4 c 6250.25 d 243 5
( ) ( )
1
( )
1 1 1 6 Simplify
1 51
12 2 3 2
e f g h (0.04)2
27 125 16
( )
−3
( )
−5
a 1 2
b 0.0001 4
4t 2 t8
2 Evaluate each quantity.
()
−1 −0.5
a 27 3 b 9 c 1 7 Solve 4x = 162x+1
4 −1
36 2
() ( ) ( )
0 −1 −1
d 5 e 125 3
f 25 2
7 216 9
10 11
1 Indices and surds
Sometimes you will need to use a combination of rules to

1.3 Manipulation of surd forms simplify an expression.
EXAMPLE 2
The square root is referred to as a surd form. A surd is a quantity that cannot be
expressed as a rational number. It Simplify a 18 + 98 b (5 − 5 )2
Surds can be used to accurately represent solutions. consists of the root of a number. ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
e.g. 2 and 5 are surds. 18 + 98 = 9 × 2 + 49 × 2

a Using (a × b) = a × b in
Surds occur naturally in mathematics. both terms.
= 3 2 +7 2
Since
Consider the square with sides of A B Unit length means = 10 2
1 cm, 1 m etc. 3 2 + 7 2 = (3 + 7) 2 = 10 2
unit length.
b (5 − 5)2 = (5 − 5)(5 − 5)
By applying the theorem of Pythagoras Make sure you multiply each
1 unit
to the right-angled triangle ABC = 25 − 5 5 − 5 5 + 5 × 5 term in the first bracket by each
term in the second bracket.
you can show that = 25 − 10 5 + 5 5× 5 = 5
D 1 unit C By convention is the positive
AC = 2 = 30 − 10 5
square root.
There are rules that you can use to manipulate surds. Without a calculator a seemingly simple calculation can be
tedious to perform.
Generally, (a × b) = a× b 2
e.g. Evaluating 1 given that 2 = 1.4142 Notice that = 1 so
2 2
C1
C1
There is a similar rule for division. It is challenging to calculate 1 ¸ 1.4142 using long division.
multiplying by
2
does not
You can overcome this by multiplying both the 2
numerator and denominator by 2. change the value of the expression.
a= a
Generally, 2
b b 1
=
1
×
2
=
2
and
2 1.4142
= = 0.7071 Multiplying by has
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
eliminated the surd from the
You can use these results to simplify expressions. 1 denominator.
So = 0.7071
2
EXAMPLE 1
Simplify
5 Generally, since a × a = a b = b × a =b a
a 90 b 9 a a a a
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To rationalise the denominator of

a 90 = 9 × 10 b 5= 5 b
9 This method of eliminating a surd from the denominator to a fraction you multiply both
9 a
simplify a fraction is known as rationalising the denominator.
5 top and bottom by a .
= 3 × 10 =
3
= 3 10
EXAMPLE 3
Rationalise the denominator in each expression.
5 2
a b
3 5
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3 5
a Multiply by : b Multiply by : Always multiply the numerator
3 5 and denominator by the same
number so that the value is
5 = 5 × 3 5 3 2 = 2 × 5 2 5
= = not changed.
3 3 3 3 5 5 5 5
12 13
Exercise 1.3
You can rationalise the denominator in expressions
1 Write each expression in the simplified form a n .
of the type 5 .
2− 3 a 8 b 32 c 24 d 50
(2 − 3)(2 + 3) = 22 − ( 3)2 = 4 − 3 = 1 You can show this yourself using 18 98 245

the method of the difference of e 48 f g h
25 121 100
Multiplying both numerator and denominator by two squares (DOTS) seen in
(2 + 3 ) eliminates the surd from the denominator. Chapter 0 . 2 Simplify each of the following.
Hence 5 = 5 × (2 + 3) a 3 2 + 18 b 2 3( 3 − 2 3)
2− 3 (2 − 3 (2 + 3)
)
c 20 − 2 × 45 d 4 2 ÷ 2 +3
= 5 ×2 (2 + 32 )
2 − ( 3)
5 7
e − 28 f (1 + 5 )(1 − 5 )
3
= 5 × (2 + 3)
4−3 g (1 + 3 )2 h 72
÷
24
4 3
= 5(2 + 3)
i ( 3 − 3 )( 2 + 3 ) j 20 × 45 − 80 ÷ 20
3 Rationalise the denominator in each fraction.

To rationalise the denominator of a fraction of the form
C1
C1
}
c you multiply top and bottom by a − b n a 1 b 4 c 7 d 2 3
a+b n 7 13 8 7
}
c you multiply top and bottom by a + b n .
e 3 5 28 4 2 ( 45 +
a−b n f g h 5)
75 18 3 6 3
You can use the method of rationalising the denominator

to simplify expressions containing fractions. 4 Rationalise the denominator in each fraction.
Write the result in the simplest form.
EXAMPLE 4
1 3 4 11 2
3 a b c d e
Rationalise the denominator in 1+ 2 1− 3 2+ 2 5− 3 2+ 2
3+ 2
1+ 2 3− 3 5− 6
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3 4
f g h i j
Multiply top and bottom by 3 − 2 : 1− 3 1− 2 3+ 3 3− 5 3− 2
3
= 3 × (3 − 2)
3 + 2 3 + 2 (3 − 2) 5 Express
2 2
− 2 3 , in the form p 6 + q 3 + r 2 ,
3 −1 2 +1
= 3 × (3 − 2) where the integers p, q and r are to be found.
(3 + 2)(3 − 2) = 32 − 2
9−2
= 3(3 − 2)
7 INVESTIGATION
6 A triangle has base length as given. The area is 6 m2.
Find the height giving your answer in the form a + b 5
where a and b are integers.
14 1 + √5 15
1 Indices and surds
9 Rationalise the denominator and give each answer in its

Review 1 simplest form.
1 3 1+ 2 2
a b c d
1 Evaluate 3 +2 5− 3 2− 2 5− 2
(1 14 )
2
a 43 b 32 - 23 c d (-3)3
10 a Write the expression ( 2 − 3 )2 in the form a + b n where a, b
(1 12 ) (157 )
−6 0 and n are integers.
e 3-2 f g (0.1)-2 h
b Given that 1 = a + b 5, find the values of a and b.
3− 5
2 Write in simplified index form.
c Simplify ( 3 − 2 7 )( 4 − 7 ).
a 625 b 25 c 0.125 d 196
16 169
d Simplify 3 2 + 4 × 2 2 .
3 Simplify
11 One side of a rectangle is of length (3 + 3 ) cm and another
a 3p ´ (3p)2 b (5y3)2 c (-2y2) ´ (3y)2 side is ( 2 + 2 3 ) cm.
−2 Find a the perimeter b the area of the rectangle.
( 45t )
−3
⎛ 3t 2 ⎞
d (-3a2)4 e ⎜ ⎟ f −
⎝ 2 ⎠
12 Simplify
4 Evaluate a ( 144 )
C1
C1
( 259 ) (179 ) ( 254 )
1 1 1.5
2
( 27 )− 3
2 2
a b c d b ( 9 27 )
3 5 −7 1
e (49)2 f (100)2 g (8) 3 h c ( a4 b8 c6 )
−2
( 0.001) 3
13 a Express 45 in the form a 5 , where a is an integer.

5 Simplify
b Express ( 2 − 5 )2 in the form b + c 5, where b and c are integers.
()
1 −1 −1
a (9a 4)2 b 4 2
c (18t ÷ 6
8t 4) 2
t
14 a Write 80 in the form a 5, where a is an integer.
d ( )
1 −8
y4 e
5
(64t 6)6 f
4
(125p6q3)3
4 (3 + 5 )
b Express in the form b + c 5, where b and c are integers.
6 Simplify (3 − 5 )
a 200 b 128 c 400

98 15 a Expand and simplify (3 + 3)(3 − 3) .
b Express 24 in the form a + b 3, where a and b are integers.

7 Rationalise the denominator and simplify 3+ 3
4 2 3 5 4 7
a b c d 16 Find the value of
2 6 5 8
1 3 −
3
a 812 b 814 c 81 4 [(c) Edexcel Limited 2002]
8 Simplify
a 3 2 +4 2×3 b ( 2 + 3 )( 2 − 3 )
16 4 3 3 3 17
c (1 + 5 )2 d −
3 8
2 Coordinate geometry
EXAMPLE 2
2.1 Equation of a straight line A straight line passes through the point P(-2, 4), and has
gradient − 2 . Find the equation of the line and the point
3
The diagram shows a straight line graph with two points marked. where it cuts the x-axis.
(x1, y1) is a known point on the line. ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
(x, y) is a general point (it can be anywhere on the line).

m = − 2 and (x1, y1) = (-2, 4)
3
y
Hence y - 4 = − 2 (x - (-2))
Be careful with the
3 negatives in this example.
2
(x, y) y-4=− x- 4
3 3
2
(x1, y1) y = −3x - 4 + 4
3
0 x =− x+8
2
3 3
Hence the equation of the line is y = − 2x + 8
3 3
y − y1 The line cuts the x-axis when y = 0 giving 0 = − x + 8
2
The gradient m =
x − x1 3 3
2x = 8
Rearrange:
3 3
Rearrange: y - y1 = m(x - x1)
x=4
} The equation of a straight line with gradient m that passes You should already know the
So the line cuts the x-axis at (4, 0).
C1
C1
through the point (x1, y1) is given by general equation of a straight line
y = mx + c You can also find the equation of the line if you know two
y - y1 = m(x - x1)
points on it.
The diagram shows a straight line graph.
You can find the equation of a straight line if you know (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) are known points on the line.
} a point on the line and } the gradient of the line.
y
y2 (x2, y2)
EXAMPLE 1
Find the equation of the straight line which passes through (y2 – y1)
(x1, y1)
the point (1, 3) and has gradient 2. y1
(x2 – x1)
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y
Write the straight line equation:
4
y - y1 = m(x - x1)
3 (1, 3)
0 x1 x2 x
In this case m = 2 and (x1, y1) = (1, 3) 2
Substitute the values for m, x1 and y1: y - 3 = 2(x - 1) 1
Rearrange: y - 3 = 2x - 2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x
–1 y 2 − y1
y = 2x + 1 The gradient of the line, m =
x2 − x1
It often helps to sketch
Hence the equation of the line is y = 2x + 1 the graph with the facts
that you know. } If you know two points, (x1, y1) and (x2, y2), on a straight It doesn't matter which of the two
line then the gradient of the line is given by points you choose to be (x1, y1)
From its equation you can find where a line cuts the axes. A line cuts the x-axis when y = 0. and which you choose to be
A line cuts the y-axis when x = 0. y 2 − y1
m= (x2, y2).
x2 − x1
20 21
2 Coordinate geometry 2 Coordinate geometry
EXAMPLE 3 4 a The points P(a, 3) and Q(4, 5) lie on the line with gradient 2.
Find the gradient of the straight line which passes through What is the value of a?
the points A(1, 4) and B(-3, 2). y
Hence find the equation of the line. 4 (1, 4)
b The two points P(k, 3) and Q(3, k) lie on the line with
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Use the x- and y-values of points A and B to find the gradient: 2
Find the value of k and comment on your result.
(x1, y1) = (1, 4) (x2, y2) = (-3, 2) (–3, 2)
c The points A(3, 4) and B(5, 10) lie on the straight line AB Find the equation of AB.
y −y
m = 2 1 = −2 − 4 = −2 = 1
− Show that C(6, 13) also lies on the line AB produced. Produced means extended.
x2 − x1 3 −1 4 2 –4 –2 0 2 4x
1 Here (x1, y1) = (1, 4) has been 5 a The gradient of a straight line is -2 and it intersects the
Now use y - y1 = m(x - x1): y - 4 = (x - 1)
2 used. You could use (x1, y1) = (-3, 2) x-axis at (3, 0) What is the equation of the line?
Expand: y - 4 = 1x - 1 and get the same answer
b If the gradient of a straight line is -3 and the intercept on the
2 2 - try it.
1 7 y-axis is 1 , write the equation of the line in the form y = mx + c.
Rearrange: y= x+ Give your answer using improper 2
2 2
fractions not mixed numbers.
c The straight line y = ax - 3, where a is a constant, passes through
the point (4, -1). Find the gradient of the line.
Exercise 2.1
1 Find the equation of the straight line passing through d The straight line y = mx + c passes through the points
the given point with the given gradient. (1, -1) and (3, 3).
What is the equation of the line?
a (4, 2); gradient -1 b (2, 0); gradient 3
e The line with equation 2y = 3x - 1 intersects the line x = 0
C1
C1
at P and the line y = 0 at Q.
c (-1, 3); gradient -2 d (3, 4); gradient 1
2 Write down the coordinates of P and Q.
( 12 , 112 ); gradient -1
State the gradient of the line joining P and Q.
e (-1, 5); gradient − 2 f
3
f The two lines, y = 2x - 1 and 2y = x + 4, intersect at P(x, y). See Chapter 0 for revision on
A third line, y = mx + c, also passes through P and has a solving simultaneous equations.
2 Find the equation of the straight line, AB, joining each pair gradient of 4. What is the equation of this third line?
of points.
a A(0, 2), B (3, 6) b A(1, 0), B(3, -2)
INVESTIGATION
c A(1, -3), B(2, -4) d A(-4, 2), B(3, 5) 6 Which four of these six lines would describe a square?
e A 1, 1 , B(5, -2) ( 2) f A(-7, -3), B(-2, -6) y = x + 1 y = -x + 2

y = x - 2 y = -x - 2
y=x-1
y = -x + 4
3 a The line y = mx + 3 passes through the point (3, -2). Is it possible to find the area of the square?
What is the gradient of the line?
b Find the equation of the line which passes through the
origin, (0, 0), and has a gradient − 2 .
3
c Write down the equation of the straight line which has

a gradient of 2 and cuts the y-axis at (0, 3).
d Find the gradient of the line joining (3, -2) and (5, 3).
What is the equation of this line?
22 23
2 a Find the points where the line 2y + 3x - 1 = 0

2.2 General equation of a straight line
cuts the x- and y-axes.
b Find the equation of the line whose gradient is − 1
2
} You can express the equation of a straight line in the
and whose y-intercept is 3 .
general form 4
Give your answer in its general form, ax + by + c = 0.
ax + by + c = 0 where a, b and c are constants.
c The point (2, 3) lies on the line ax + by = 4
which has a gradient of 2.
EXAMPLE 1
Write the straight line equation y = 3 - x in the form Find the values of the constants a and b and hence,
ax + by + c = 0 in its general form, the equation of the straight line.
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d The lines 2y = 3x - 2 and 3y + 2x = 1 See Chapter 0 for revision on

y=3-x
intersect each other at the point P. simultaneous equations.
Rearrange: y-3+x=0 Take all the terms to one side
Hence x+y-3=0 of the equation. i Find the coordinates of P.
ii Sketch the two lines.
What do you notice?
You can also rearrange equations containing fractions.
EXAMPLE 2
Write the following equation in the form ax + by + c = 0 INVESTIGATION

1 = 3 3 The equations of two straight lines are
1 + x 1 − 2y
C1
C1
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ax + by + c = 0
1 = 3 and dx + ey + f = 0
1 + x 1 − 2y
a Given that the lines do not intersect, write down
Eliminate the fractions: (1 - 2y) ´ 1 = 3(1 + x) Multiply each term by
(1 + x) and (1 - 2y). an equation connecting a, b, d and e.
1 - 2y = 3 + 3x
Collect all the terms on the left-hand side:
b Given that the lines have the same y-intercept,
1 - 2y - 3 - 3x = 0 write down another equation.
Rearrange and simplify: -3x - 2y - 2 = 0 You should give the equation c Given that the first line has identical x- and
Multiply through by (-1): 3x + 2y + 2 = 0 in its simplest form. y-intercepts, write down a third equation.
Exercise 2.2
1 Rearrange these straight line equations into the
form ax + by + c = 0, where a, b and c are integers.
a y=x-3 b 4-x=0
c y = 1 (x - 3) d x =5
3 y
y x
e y=7 f + =1
2 3
1− y
g 4 = 3 h 1+ x − =0
x y 2 3
1 = 3
i x +1 y −1 j 2(x - 2) = 5(3 - y)
24 25
If you know the equation of one line, you can use the fact that
2.3 Parallel and perpendicular lines
two lines are perpendicular or parallel to find the equation of
the other line.
} Parallel lines have the same gradient. } Perpendicular lines are at right angles
EXAMPLE 2
to each other. The line ax + by + c = 0 is parallel to the line y - 2x + 1 = 0
Show that a = -2b
The lines y = 3x + 2 and y = 3x - 4 The lines y = 2x + 3 and y = - 1 x - 7 have
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2 Rearrange the equations in the form y = mx + c:

both have gradient 3.
gradients 2 and - 1 .
2 (1): ax + by + c = 0 (2): y - 2x + 1 = 0 It helps to label the
y equations (1) and (2).
y y = 2x + 3 by = -ax - c y = 2x - 1
4
14
y = − ax − c
b b
2
Hence find the gradient of each line:
y = 3x – 4
Equation (1) has gradient − a .
7 b
–4 –2 O 2 4 x
–1 Equation (2) has gradient 2.
y= x+7
y = 3x + 2 2
–2 3 Since the lines are parallel they both have the same gradient.
−
a =2
O x Hence
–4 –3 14 b
2
Rearrange: a = -2b as required.
C1
C1
The two lines are parallel. The two lines are perpendicular.
EXAMPLE 3
The line, L, joining the points A(4k, -3) and B(1, -k) is
} Two lines y = m1x + c1 and y = m2x + c2 are Û means the statements imply perpendicular to the line 2y = x - 3.
parallel Û m1 = m2. each other. Find the coordinates of the points where the line L cuts the axes.
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The line 2y = x – 3 has gradient 1 Perpendicular lines

} Two lines y = m1x + c1 and y = m2x + c2 are In the example, 2 ´ - 1 = -1 2
2 m1 ´ m2 = -1
perpendicular Û m1 × m2 = -1. \ the line L perpendicular to this has gradient -2.
y 2 − y1
= m: 3 + k = -2
−
For L, use
You can use these rules to decide whether a pair of lines is x 2 − x1 4k − 1
perpendicular, parallel or neither without drawing them. Simplify: -3 + k = -8k + 2
9k = 5
EXAMPLE 1
Determine whether the lines y - 3x + 3 = 0 and 3y + x = 6

Hence k=5
are parallel, perpendicular or neither. 9
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Rewrite equations in the form y = mx + c:

Substitute for k in the coordinates of A and B: A is 20 , − 3 , B is 1, − 5
9 9 ( ) ( )
y+3 y − y1
so the equation of line L is = -2 Using = m
y - 3x + 3 = 0 3y + x = 6 x − 20 x − x1
9
y = 3x - 3 (1) y = −x +2 (2)
Equation(1) has gradient 3. Equation(2) has gradient − 1 .

3
Simplify: y = −2x + 13
9 (2 9 )
− × − 20 − 3 = 13
9
3 13
When x = 0, y = 9 and when y = 0, x = 13
1
Find product of gradients: 3 ´ < = -1
3 ( ) 18
Hence the lines are perpendicular. \ L cuts the axes at 0, 13 and 13 , 0 . ( 9 ) (18 )
26 27
Exercise 2.3 3 a The line y = mx + 1 is perpendicular to the line y = 1 x − 3

1 Rearrange the straight line equations in the form y = mx + c 2
Find the value of m.
and determine whether each pair of lines is parallel, perpendicular
or neither. b The line 2y = 3x + 2 is parallel to the line y = ax - 4
Find the value of a.
a y = 2x + 1, y - 2x = 3 b 2y + 4 = 3x, 4y + 8 = 3x
c A straight line with equation y = mx + c passes through
c x + y + 1 = 0, y - x + 1 = 0 d y = 2x - 3, 2y = x - 3
the point P(1, 3) and is parallel to the line y + 2x = 0
e 2y + x + 3 = 0, 4y - 8x + 1 = 0 f 1 + y = 4(x + 2), x + 2 = 4(1 + y) Find the value of m and c.
Hence write down the equation of the line.
g x - 1 = y, y - 2 = x h y = -x + 5, x = -y + 5
d The equation of a line is given by x + 2y - 5 = 0
2 a The line L is parallel to the line 2y = 3x + 4 Write this equation in form y = mx + c.
and passes through the point (-1, 3). State the gradient of a line perpendicular to this line.
Find the equation of the line L.
e Write in the form ax + by + c = 0 the equation of the line
b The line L is perpendicular to the line y + 2x = 4 which is perpendicular to the line y - x + 4 = 0 and passes
and passes through the point (-2, 1). through the point (0, -2).
Find the equation of line L.
f Find the equation of the line which is perpendicular to the
c A line L is parallel to the line K whose equation is line y = 3x - 1 and passes through the point (3, 2).
4x + 3y + 2 = 0 Give the equation in the form y = mx + c
Line L also passes through the point (0, 4).
g The line y = mx + c passes through the point (4, 3) and is
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Find the equation of line L.
parallel to the line x + 2y = 4
d Find the equation of the line joining the points (1, -1) and Determine the values of m and c and write down the
(-2, 3) and state whether this line is parallel, perpendicular equation of the first line.
or neither to the line with equation 4y - 3x + 4 = 0
h The line joining A(3, a) and B(2a, -1) is perpendicular
e The line joining the point P(x, y) to the point Q(3, -2) to the line 2y + x + 1 = 0
is parallel to the line 2x - y + 4 = 0 Find the value of a.
Find the equation of the line PQ.
f Line L is perpendicular to the line 2y - x + 3 = 0 INVESTIGATION
( 2)
at the point 4, 1 . 4 The two boxes below contain equations of straight lines.
Determine the equation of the line L. Each line in Box A is perpendicular to a line in Box B.
Which line in Box B does not have a pair?
g The line L is parallel to the line 3x + 6y - 2 = 0
and goes through the point (5, 0). Box A Box B
What is the equation of the line?
y = 1x +1 y + 3x = 5
h Determine the equation of the line passing through the 3 3y = -x - 1
point (1, -1) which is perpendicular to the line with 5y = -2x + 4 2y - 5x - 2 = 0
equation 3 - 2y - 4x = 0 y = 3x + 2 x - 3y - 2 = 0
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Review 2 5 For the line ABC, A is the point (1, 4) and C is the
point (5, 8). The midpoint of the line is at B(x, y).
A line L is drawn through B and is perpendicular to ABC.
See Chapter 0 for revision on midpoints and lengths of lines and simultaneous equations. Find the coordinates of B and the equation of line L.
1 Rewrite each equation in the form y = mx + c
6 A straight line, PQR, joins the points P(-1, -1), Q(3, 7)
a 3-x-y=0 and R(x, y), where Q is the midpoint of line PR.
Another line, L, is drawn at point R and passes through the
b 2x + 3y = 6
point S(1, -4).
c 1 = 4y + 8x Find the equation of line L.
2 Rewrite each equation in the form ax + by + c = 0 7 The line L1 passes through the point (3, -9) and has gradient 2.
where a, b and c are integers.
a Find the equation of L1 in the form ax + by + c = 0
a 3y - 2x = 5 where a, b and c are integers.
b y = 1x - 1 The line L2 passes through the origin and has gradient − 1 .

2
2 The lines L1 and L2 intersect at the point P.
c 3y = 2 - 1x b Calculate the coordinates of P.
4 2
Given that L1 crosses the y-axis at the point C
3a The line, ax + y + c = 0, passes through the point (1, 2) c calculate the exact area of OCP.
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and has gradient 4. What are the values of a and c?
b Line L passes through the point (-2, 3) and has equation 8 The points, A(1, 7), B(20, 7) and C(p, q) form the y L
vertices of a triangle ABC, as shown in the diagram.
y = 1x + c The point D(8, 2) is the midpoint of AC. 7
A E B
2
Work out the value of c. a Find the value of p and the value of q.
2 D
c Make y the subject of the straight line equation 4x - 2y + 5 = 0 The line L, which passes through D and is
Hence determine the gradient and y-intercept. 0 1 8 20 x
perpendicular to AC, intersects AB at E.
C (p, q)
d A line has gradient b and y-intercept (0, 2b). b Find an equation for L, in the form ax + by + c = 0
Show that the line has equation y = b(x + 2) where a, b and c are integers.
Find the value of b if this line passes through the point ( -1, -2). c Find the exact x-coordinate of E. [(c) Edexcel Limited 2005]
4a Are the lines 3 - y = x and 2 + y = x perpendicular?

Show how you reach this conclusion. 9 The line L1, y = 1 x + 3, is perpendicular to the line L2, y
2
b Find the equation of the line which is parallel to y = -2x + 9 L2
L1
4y + 8x - 7 = 0 and goes through the point (0, -3). a Find the point of intersection, P, of these two lines.
P
c The line L cuts the x- and y-axes at P and Q respectively. Line L1 cuts the y-axis at A.
If the gradient of L is - 1 and the y-intercept is 3 find the b Find the coordinates of A.
2
A
coordinates of P and Q. By considering the right-angled triangle, APB, as
B
A second line K is perpendicular to L and passes through shown in the diagram, or otherwise
the point Q. What is the equation of line K ? c find the length AP. 0 x
d The line y = ax + b is perpendicular to the line x + 3y - 2 = 0

30 and goes through the point (4, -2). Find the values of a and b. 31
3 Quadratic functions
3.1 Factorising quadratic equations } A quadratic equation that can be written in the form
(x + p)(x + q) = 0 has solutions x = -p or x = -q.
The general form of a quadratic function is f(x) = 2x2 - 3x + 7 is a quadratic

f(x) = ax2 + bx + c function. This method only works if the quadratic expression equals zero.
where a, b and c are constant values and a ¹ 0. You may need to rearrange the equation before solving it.
The simplest form of a quadratic
function occurs when a = 1,
If p is a solution, you can say
EXAMPLE 3
b = 0 and c = 0 giving f(x) = x2 Find the values of x that satisfy x(2x + 1) = 4(2x + 1)
When a > 0 the graph of When a < 0 the graph of that ‘p satisfies the equation’.
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x(2x + 1) = 4(2x + 1)
Rearrange: x(2x + 1) - 4(2x + 1) = 0 Notice that (2x + 1) is common
Factorise: (2x + 1)(x - 4) = 0 to both terms.
y Either 2x + 1 = 0 or x - 4 = 0
2x = -1 x=4
The lowest point on the The highest point on the x = −1
2
curve is called the minimum point curve is called the maximum point 1
(plural minima). (plural maxima). The solutions are x = − 2 or x = 4.
x1 x2 x
The general form of a quadratic equation is
ax2 + bx + c = 0 Sometimes you will need to factorise the equation before you can
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If you need to practise factorising
solve it. quadratics, look at Chapter 0 on
the CD-ROM.
Many quadratic equations can be solved by factorising. The solutions, x1 and x2, or roots, are
EXAMPLE 4
the values of x at the x-intercepts.
Solve a x2 + 9x + 20 = 0 b 2x2 - x - 6 = 0
EXAMPLE 1
Solve the equation x2 - 6x + 8 = 0

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Factorise: (x - 4)(x - 2) = 0 (x + 4)(x + 5) = 0
Either x+4=0 or x+5=0
Either x-4=0 or x-2=0 If two terms A and B multiply to x = -4 x = -5
x=4 x=2 give zero, then either A = 0 or
The solutions are x = -4 and x = -5.
B = 0 or A = B = 0
The quadratic equation has two solutions x = 2 or x = 4. b 2x2 - x - 6 = 0 One factor will start with 2x and
(2x + 3)(x - 2) = 0 one with x.
One factor will have a + and
} A quadratic equation usually has two solutions, but may Solve: Either 2x + 3 = 0 or x-2=0 one a -. This is because the
have only one or none at all. 2x = -3 x=2 constant is negative.
x = −3
2
y
EXAMPLE 2
Find x when (x + 4)(x - 1) = 0

y = (x + 4)(x – 1) The solutions are x = − 3 or x = 2.
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Either x+4=0 or x-1=0
giving x = -4 or x=1 It is often helpful to recognise an expression that is the See Chapter 0 on the CD-ROM.
x
−4 1 difference of two squares (DOTS).
The solutions are x = -4 or x = 1.
You may find it useful to sketch the curve. X 2 - Y 2 = (X + Y )(X - Y )
34 35
3 Quadratic functions 3 Quadratic functions
EXAMPLE 5 4 Factorise these equations using the difference of two squares

a Factorise 4x2 - 25 and solve them to find x.
b Hence solve 4x2 - 25 = 0 a x2 - 9 = 0 b 4x2 - 1 = 0 c 9x2 - 16 = 0
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2
a Rewrite 4x2 - 25 in the form X 2 - Y 2: d x -1=0 e 27x2 - 12 = 0 f 5 - 125x2 = 0
4
4x2 - 25 = (2x)2 - (5)2 2 2
g 12x - 48 = 0 h 2 - x2 = 0 i 3- x =0
Apply X 2 - Y 2 = (X + Y )(X - Y ): 25 4
4x2 - 25 = (2x)2 - (5)2 = (2x + 5)(2x - 5) 5 Factorise these equations and solve them to find x.
b 4x2 - 25 = 0 a 2x2 - x - 1 = 0 b 3x2 - 7x + 2 = 0 c 4x2 + 4x + 1 = 0
so (2x + 5)(2x - 5) = 0 d 6x2 + 5x + 1 = 0 e 12x2 + 13x + 3 = 0 f 6 - 11x + 5x2 = 0
g 12x2 = 25x - 12 h 6x2 = 25 - 5x i 12 + 7x = 10x2
Either 2x + 5 = 0 or 2x - 5 = 0
2x = -5 2x = 5
6 Solve these equations to find the values of x.
x = -5 x= 5
2 2 a 4(x + 2)2 = 0 b x(1 - 2x) = 0 c (3x + 2)(4x - 5) = 0
The solutions are x = - 5 or x = 5 . d 5(x - 3) - x(x - 3) = 0 e x(2x - 1) = 2x - 1 f x2 + 8x + 15 = 0
2 2
g 25x2 - 36 = 0 h 3x2 - 11x = 4 i 30x2 + 49x + 20 = 0
Exercise 3.1 j 21x2 = 55x - 14

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1 Solve these equations.
7 Solve
a (x - 2)(x - 3) = 0 b x(x + 1) = 0 c 2x(x - 3) = 0
a -2x2 - 3x - 1 = 0 b x2 = -3x - 2 c -3x2 + 7x = 2
2
d 3(x + 4)(x - 5) = 0 e (x + 7) = 0 f 5(2 - x)(3 - x) = 0
g -4(4 - x)2 = 0 h (x - 5)(2x + 1) = 0 i x(2x - 3) = 0 INVESTIGATIONS
j 4x(1 - 3x) = 0 k (2x - 5)(2x - 3) = 0 l 5(3x - 5)2 = 0 8 Four equations and their solutions are given:
m (4x + 2)(2 - 4x) = 0 n 3(2x + 5)(5x + 2) = 0 o 9(3 - 2x)2 = 0 Equations: Solutions:
2 Factorise these equations and hence find the values of x that 1. x2 + 3x + 2 = 0 x = -1 x=3 Some solutions may be used
satisfy each equation. more than once.
2. x2 - 3x + 2 = 0 x=1 x = -3
a 2(x - 1) + x(x - 1) = 0 b 3(4x + 1) + x(4x + 1) = 0
3. 2x2 - x - 3 = 0 x = -2 x=3
2
c 7(3x - 1) = 2x(3x - 1) d x(4 - 3x) = 1 (4 - 3x)
2
4. x2 - 4x + 4 = 0 x=2 x = −3
2
3 i Factorise these equations.
ii Hence find the values of x that satisfy each equation. Match each equation with its solution(s).
iii Sketch the graph of the associated quadratic function.
In your sketch, mark the coordinates of the points where Let y = 0 and x = 0. 9 The box contains some linear factors:
the curve crosses the x- and y-axes.
a x2 + 3x + 2 = 0 b x2 + x - 6 = 0 c x2 - 7x + 10 = 0 (2x + 3) (x - 2) (2x + 1) (3x + 1) (x + 1) (x + 4) (x - 4) (2x - 3) (2x - 1)
d x2 - x = 30 e x2 = 11x - 28 f x2 = 24 - 2x Use some of these factors to factorise the quadratics

g x2 = 5x + 36 h x2 = 13x - 30 i 24 + 25x + x2 = 0 a 2x2 - 5x - 12 = 0 b 2x2 - 3x - 2 = 0 c 4x2 + 4x - 3 = 0
36 37
EXAMPLE 4
3.2 Completing the square Use the method of completing the square to solve
a x2 + 10x + 7 = 0 b 2x2 + 5x - 4 = 0
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Such expressions are known as perfect squares. a x2 + 10x + 7 = 0

Rewrite: x2 + 10x = -7 There is a simple rule that can
EXAMPLE 1
2 help you in completing the square:

Solve the equation x + 10x + 25 = 9 The coefficient of x is 10. } If you rewrite ax2+bx + c
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1
´ 10 = 5 so try (x + 5)2: (x + 5)2 = x2 + 10x + 25 as a(x + p)2 + q
x2 + 10x + 25 = 9 x2 + 10x + 25 is a perfect square 2
then p = b
(x + 5)2 = 9 since it factorises into (x + 5)2. Subtract 25: (x + 5)2 - 25 = x2 + 10x = -7 2a
Take square roots of each side: Hence (x + 5)2 - 25 = -7
x + 5 = ±3 Remember to include both
Rearrange: x = -5 ± 3 solutions of x2 = 9. Rearrange: (x + 5)2 = -7 + 25
Either x = -5 + 3 or x = -5 - 3 32 = 9 and (-3)2 = 9 (x + 5)2 = 18
Hence x = -2 or x = -8 Take square roots: x + 5 = ± 18 Remember to include both
solutions of 18.
Simplify: x + 5 = ±3 2 18 = ( 9 × 2 )
} You can rewrite any quadratic expression in factorised
form like this: Rearrange: x = -5 ± 3 2 = (32 × 2) = 3 2
ax2 + bx + c º a(x + p)2 + q º means ‘is identical to’. Either x = -5 + 3 2 or x = -5 - 3 2

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Factorising an equation into this form is called b 2x2 + 5x - 4 = 0
( )
completing the square.
Rewrite: 2 x2 + 5 x − 2 = 0
2
Since 2 ¹ 0, the expression in the bracket must be equal
EXAMPLE 2
Complete the square for the expression x2 + 8x to 0.

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Try (x + 4)2: 4 is chosen because 4x + 4x = 8x Hence x2 + 5 x − 2 = 0

2
(x + 4)2 = x2 + 8x + 16
Rearrange: x2 + 5 x = 2
This is close, however you want x2 + 8x 2
Subtract 16: x2 + 8x = (x + 4)2 - 16 The coefficient of x is 5 .
2
( ) ( x + 45 ) = x + 25 x + 1625
2 2
If the coefficient of x2 is not equal to 1, you can still complete 1 5 5
× = so try x +
5
: 2
2 2 4 4
the square.
( x + 45 ) − 1625 = x + 25 x = 2
2
25 2
Subtract :
EXAMPLE 3
16
Complete the square for the expression 2x2 - 4x
( x + 45 ) − 1625 = 2
2
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Hence
(2 + 1625 ) = ( 1632 + 1625 )

First take out the coefficient of x2:
( x + 45 ) = 2 + 1625
2
2x2 - 4x = 2(x2 - 2x) Rearrange:
Now complete the square inside the bracket:
= 2(x2 - 2x + 1 - 1) (x - 1)2 = x2 - 2x + 1 Simplify and take square roots: x + 5 = ± 57 =
57
4 16 16
= 2[(x - 1)2 - 1] = 2(x - 1)2 - 2 so you must subtract 1.
Rearrange: x = − 5 ± 57
4 4
You can use the method of completing the square to solve
Hence x = −5 + 57 or x = −5 − 57 Leave your answer in surd form.
quadratic equations. 4 4
38 39
Exercise 3.2
1 Take square roots to find the value of x. INVESTIGATIONS
a (x - 3)2 = 25 b (x + 2)2 = 25 4 Completing the square has a useful purpose when

sketching quadratics.
Consider the equation y = x2 + 6x + 5
c (2x + 1)2 = 1 d (2x - 3)2 = 16
a Express y in the form y = (x + a)2 + b
e (5 + 2x)2 = 1 f (3 - 4x)2 = 36
b Find the value of x that gives the minimum value for y.
( 2x + 2)
2
g (5x - 7)2 = 49 h = 25 c What is the minimum value of y? What is the
y-coordinate of the minimum point?
i (x + 4)2 = 3 j (2x - 1)2 = 5 d Hence sketch the curve, showing the intersection
with the axes and the minimum point.
2 Complete the square for each expression, writing your final
answer in the form k(x + a)2 + b. 5 Match the following equations with their minimum
points:
a x2 + 4x b x2 - 4x
Ę
1 y = x2 + 2x - 2 (-1, -3) or (-1, 3)
2
c x + 5x 2
d x - 3x 2 y = x2 + 4x - 1 (-2, 5) or (-2, -5)
3 y = x2 - 4x + 5 (2, 1) or (2, -1)
e x2 - 2x f 2x2 + 4x
6 Two graphs are shown:
C1
C1
g 3x2 - 6x h 5x2 - 3x y
y (−2, 5)
2
i x + 4x j 3 x 2 − 2x
2 4
3 Use the method of completing the square to solve these

equations, leaving your answers in surd form.
x x
a x2 + 4x + 1 = 0
b x2 - 4x - 2 = 0
(1, −3)
c 2x2 + 8x + 3 = 0
Fig. 1 Fig. 2
d 2x2 - 4x + 1 = 0
Find the equation of each graph giving your answer in
e 2x2 - 5 = 6x the form y = ax2 + bx + c.
f 5 + 4x - 2x2 = 0 For Fig. 2, what would the equation be if the point (-2, 5)
was a minimum instead of a maximum?
40 41
You can often use quadratic equations to solve word problems.

3.3 The quadratic formula
EXAMPLE 2
Three times a number subtracted from the reciprocal of that
You can apply the method of completing the square to the general
number is equal to 4.
quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0
Find the possible numbers in surd form.
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2
ax + bx + c = 0 a¹0 First express the word problem as an equation using algebra.
Rewrite as: (
a x2 + b x + c = 0 ) a a
Let x be the number: 1 − 3x = 4
x
Hence (x 2
+ bx + c) = 0
a a
Dividing both sides by a.
So
Compare with ax2 + bx + c = 0:
3x2 + 4x - 1 = 0
a = 3, b = 4, c = -1
Multiply each term by x and
rearrange.
Rearrange: x + bx = −c
2
a a −b ± (b2 − 4 ac )
2 2 Use the formula: x=
2a
Complete the square: x2 + b x + b 2 = b 2 − c
a 4a 4a a
−( 4 ) ± ( 4 )2 − 4 ( 3 )( −1)
( ) x=
2
= b − 24ac
2
Factorise: x+ b Put in the values: 2(3)
2a 4a
−4 ± (16 + 12 )
x + b = ± b − 24ac
2
Take square roots: Evaluate: x=
2a 4a 6
(b2 − 4 ac ) −b ± (b2 − 4 ac ) −4 ± 28 28 = 4 ×7 = 4× 7 =2 7
x=− b ± x=
C1
C1
Make x the subject: = Simplify:
6
2a 2a 2a
−4 ± 2 7
x=
6
} You can solve quadratic equations of the form You need to learn this formula. −2 ± 7
Cancel down: x=
ax2 + bx + c = 0 using the quadratic formula: You can quote it without giving 3
the proof.
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x= −2 + 7 −2 − 7
2a The solutions are x= or x=
3 3
The quadratic formula is particularly useful when a quadratic
equation doesn’t factorise easily.
The discriminant
EXAMPLE 1
Use the formula to solve the equation x2 - 2x - 5 = 0 } In the quadratic function f(x) = ax2 + bx + c the expression If the coefficient of x2 is
(b2 - 4ac) is known as the discriminant.
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negative, then the parabola will

Compare x2 - 2x - 5 = 0 with ax2 + bx + c = 0: You should first try to factorise be upside down.
a = 1, b = -2, c = -5 as it is quicker. y
−b ± (b2 − 4 ac ) } You can use the discriminant to investigate the nature of the
Use the formula: x=
2a Take care with the signs. roots of a quadratic equation (two, one or no real roots).
If b is negative then -b is positive.
−( −2 ) ± ( −2 )2 − 4 (1)( −5 ) b2 is always positive. 0 x
Put in the values: x=
2 (1) 24 = 4×6 = 4× 6 =2 6
Remember to divide the whole of the
Simplify: x = 2 ± 24 = 1 ± 6 numerator by 2, not just the square root.
2
The solutions are x = 1 + 6 or x = 1 - 6 Leave your answer in surd form unless

42 43
the question indicates otherwise.
There are three possible cases for the solution of a
EXAMPLE 3 (CONT.)
b Write down the values of a, b and c: y f(0) = -2, f(1) = -2
quadratic equation.
The value of (b2 - 4ac) tells you what type of roots the equation has. a = 1, b = -1, c = -2
b2 - 4ac = 1 - -8
=9
b2 - 4ac > 0 b2 - 4ac = 0 b2 - 4ac < 0 2
b - 4ac > 0 0 x
y y so two real roots
–2
y
c Write down the values of a, b and c: y f(0) = 9, f(-1) = 4

a = 1, b = 6, c = 9
b2 - 4ac = 36 - 36 9
=0
0 x 0 x 0 x 2
b - 4ac = 0
so one real root
0 x
The curve cuts the x-axis The x-axis is a tangent to The curve never touches
in two places. the curve. the x-axis.
There are two real roots. There is one real root. There are no real roots.
Sometimes you can use knowledge of the roots to work out the
equation of a quadratic function.
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C1
EXAMPLE 3
By finding the value of the discriminant, determine the
EXAMPLE 4
nature of the roots of these equations. a The equation 2x2 + kx + 3k = 0 has one (repeated) root.
Find the value of k.
a x2 - 2x + 3 = 0
b The equation x2 + 5x + k = 0 has two real and distinct
b x2 - x - 2 = 0
roots. Find the range of possible values of k.
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a For one (repeated) root b2 - 4ac = 0

Sketch a graph to illustrate each case.
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2x2 + kx + 3k = 0 a = 2, b = k, c = 3k
2
k - 4 ´ 2 ´ 3k = 0
a Write down the values of a, b and c: y To sketch a graph, first find f(0)
a = 1, b = -2, c = 3 and another simple value Simplify: k2 - 24k = 0
e.g. f(1):
b2 - 4ac = 4 - 12
f(0) = 3, f(1) = 2 Factorise: k(k - 24) = 0
= -8
b2 - 4ac < 0 3 Solve: k = 0 or k = 24
so no real roots Example 3 continues on the
O x b For two roots b2 - 4ac > 0
next page. x2 + 5x + k = 0 a = 1, b = 5, c = k
52 -4´1´k>0
Simplify: 25 - 4k > 0
-4k > -25
Remember to change the direction
Divide both sides by -4: k < 25
4 of the inequality sign when
dividing by a negative number.
44 45
Exercise 3.3 7 In a right-angled triangle the shorter sides are of lengths

1 Solve these equations by using the formula (x + 3) and (2x - 1) units and the length of the hypotenuse
is 3x units.
x = b ± (b − 4ac)
2
−
2a Find the lengths of the sides of the triangle.
a x2 + 7x + 10 = 0 b x2 + 2x - 3 = 0 c x2 - 7x + 12 = 0
8 The equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 is such that -b = p, 2a = r and the
d x2 - 2x - 8 = 0 e x2 + 4x + 3 = 0 f 2x2 - 3x - 2 = 0 discriminant is equal to q where p, q and r are constants.
g 2x2 + x - 3 = 0 h 6x2 + 5x + 1 = 0 i 8x2 - 10x + 3 = 0 p2 − q
Show that c = .
2r
2 Rearrange each equation, where necessary, into the form Look at the cases where a solution
9 Given that the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0
ax2 + bx + c = 0 and use the quadratic formula to obtain is not possible - try to think why.
has two solutions, show that the quadratic equation given by
solutions where possible. Give your solutions in a2x2 = b2x - 2acx - c2, where a, b and c are constants and b ¹ 0,
simplified surd form. also has two solutions.
a x2 + 3x + 1 = 0 b x2 - 3x - 2 = 0 c x2 - 5x + 3 = 0
d 2x2 + 6x + 1 = 0 e 2x2 + 3x - 4 = 0 f 3x2 - x + 1 = 0 INVESTIGATIONS
g x2 + 10x + 4 = 0 h 2 - 4x - x2 = 0 i (x + 1)2 = x + 2 10 The golden ratio is a mathematically interesting number

that supposedly represents divine proportion. The golden
3 Find the value of the discriminant, (b2 - 4ac), and decide spiral, occurring in nature, is formed from the golden ratio.
whether each equation has one, two or no roots.
C1
C1
a x2 + 4x + 5 = 0 b x2 - 3x - 10 = 0
x-1
c x2 + 6x + 9 = 0 d x2 - 2x - 1 = 0
e 2x2 + 3x - 5 = 0 f 3x2 - x - 1 = 0
x
g 4x2 - 5x + 2 = 0 h -2x2 + 3x - 1 = 0
The rectangle framing the golden spiral has sides in the
4 Find the range of possible values of k if the following golden ratio if the area of the rectangle is equal to one.
equations have
a Write an equation using this information.
i no roots
b Hence solve to find x, giving your answer in surd form.
ii one (repeated) root
iii two real and distinct roots distinct means not equal
11 Choose values of k to make each of these quadratic equations
a 2x2 - x + k = 0 have just one real (repeated) root.
b kx2 - 4x - 1 = 0 a x2 + kx + 4 = 0 b x2 + kx + 9 = 0 c x2 + kx + 16 = 0
c x2 + k = 0 Can you generalise to a quadratic of the form
x2 + kx + n2 = 0?
5 The difference between two numbers a and b is 1, and the
product of the two numbers is 9. 12 Which integer values for k result in the following equation having
Show that there are two possible pairs of values which satisfy two real roots?
these conditions and evaluate the numbers. x2 + kx + 5 = 0
6 The sum of a number and its reciprocal is 4.

What are the two possible numbers which satisfy this condition?
46 47
5 Factorise completely x3 - 7x2 + 12x

Review 3
6 The equation ax2 + 8x + a = 0, where a is a positive constant,
1 Solve these quadratic equations giving all values of x. has equal roots.
Find the value of a.
a (x - 3)(x + 7) = 0
b x(x + 4) = 0 7 Given that x2 - 4x - 9 = (x + a)2 + b, where a and b are constants
c 5(x - 3)2 = 0 a find the value of a and the value of b
d (3x - 1)(2x - 3) = 0 b Show that the roots of x2 - 4x - 9 = 0 can be written in the form
p ± q 13
2 Factorise these equations and then solve to find the and hence determine the value of the integers p and q.
value(s) of x.
8 Given that x2 + 10x + 36 º (x + a)2 + b, where a and b are
a x(2x - 1) - 3(2x - 1) = 0 constants:
b 4x2 - 25 = 0 a find the value of a and the value of b
c x2 + 6x - 7 = 0 b hence show that the equation x2 + 10x + 36 has no real roots.

The equation x2 + 10x + k = 0 has equal roots.
d 2x2 + 5x + 3 = 0
c Find the value of k.
e 4 x2 − 1 = 0
C1
C1
9 d For this value of k, sketch the graph of y = x2 + 10x + k,
f 10x2 = 12 - 7x showing the coordinates of any points at which the graph
meets the coordinate axes. [(c) Edexcel Limited 2003]
g 5x - 4x2 = 0
9a The equation x2 + ax + 12 = 0 has equal roots.
h 12x2 + 12x - 9 = 0
Find the values of a.
3 Use the method of completing the square to solve these b The equation kx2 - 4x + k = 0 has equal roots.
equations giving your answers in simplified surd form. Find the possible values of k.
a x2 + 4x + 2 = 0 c The equation x2 + 2kx + 2x + 7k - 3 = 0 has repeated roots.
Find the possible values of k.
b 2x2 + 6x - 1 = 0
c 4 - 2x - x2 = 0 10 a Solve the equation 4x2 + 12x = 0
d (2x - 3)2 = x + 1 f(x) = 4x2 + 12x + c, where c is a constant.
b Given that f(x) = 0 has equal roots, find the value of c and
4 Use the formula to solve these quadratic equations leaving
hence solve f(x) = 0 [(c) Edexcel Limited 2003]
your answers in simplified surd form where appropriate.
a x2 - 3x - 3 = 0
b 2x2 = 4x + 1
c (x + 2)2 - (2x + 3)2 = 0
d 3 (x2 - 2x + 3) = x + 1
4
48 49
4 Quadratic and linear relationships
EXAMPLE 2
4.1 Solving quadratic and linear equations simultaneously Solve the equations y = x - 3 and x2 - 3y2 = 9 x² - 3y² = 9 is the equation
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Label the equations: y=x-3 (1) Like a parabola, it is a conic section.
You know how to solve simultaneous linear equations. See chapter 0 on the CD-ROM.
x2 - 3y2 = 9 (2)
y
If the lines intersect there will be a single solution, Use equation (1) to find an expression for y2: y
which can be illustrated with a sketch graph. y2 = (x - 3) = x - 6x + 9 2 2
y=x–3
(x, y) Substitute for y in equation (2): 2
A linear equation can also be solved simultaneously with a (6, 3)
x2 - 3(x2 - 6x + 9) = 9
quadratic equation.
0 x (3, 0)
Expand the brackets: x2 - 3x2 + 18x - 27 = 9 0 x
There are generally but there could be or even no Simplify: 2
-2x + 18x - 36 = 0
two solutions just one solution solutions.
x2 – 3y2 = 9
Take out the common factor -2:
y y y -2(x2 - 9x + 18) = 0
If one of the equations is of Divide both sides by -2: x2 - 9x + 18 = 0
(x2, y2) degree 1 (linear) and one is of
(x1, y1) 0 x 0 x 0 x degree 2 (e.g. quadratic) then Factorise: (x - 3)(x - 6) = 0
(x, y) there will be a maximum of
two solutions. Hence x = 3 or x = 6
Find the y-values by substituting into equation (1): There are two x-values, so there
C1
C1
You can use the substitution method to solve simultaneous equations should be two associated y-values.
y=x-3
when one is linear and one is quadratic.
When x = 3 y=3-3=0
Check your solutions. Make
EXAMPLE 1
Find the values of x and y which satisfy x2 + y = 0 and y = x - 6 You can sketch a diagram to check When x = 6 y=6-3=3
sure you have them in the
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y
Label the equations: x2 + y = 0 (1)
2 y=x–6
y=x-6 (2)
Substitute y = x - 6 into equation (1): –6 –4 –2 O 2 4 6 x
–2 Exercise 4.1
x2 + (x - 6) = 0 –4
(2, –4)
1 Solve these pairs of simultaneous equations.
2 –6
Simplify: x +x-6=0 a y=x-2 b y + 2x + 3 = 0
–8
Factorise: (x + 3)(x - 2) = 0 (–3, –9) y= –x2 x2 + y = 0 x2 + y = 0
–10
Hence x = -3 or x = 2 c y = 4(1 - x) d y + 3x = 1
x2 + y = 0 2x2 + y = 0
Find y by substituting the x-values into equation (2):
You could substitute into equation (1) e y + 3x + 2 = 0 f y = 7x - 12
y=x-6 and get the same y-values. 2x2 + y = 0 x2 -y=0
So when x = -3, y = -9
and when x = 2, y = -4 g y = 6x - 9 h y = 5x - 1
x2 -y=0 4x2 -y=0
The solutions are x = -3 and y = -9 Make sure you write both pairs of
or x=2 and y = -4 solutions separately.
52 53
4 Quadratic and linear relationships 4 Quadratic and linear relationships
2 Solve for x and y.

6 An ellipse is essentially a stretched circle.
a y = 2x2 + 3x - 2 b y = 3x2 - 2x - 1 Some ellipses have equations of the form
y = 2x - 1 y=1-x
2
x2 + y = 1
c x = y2 + 2y - 7 d 4y = 2x2 - 3x + 7 a 2
b 2
y=x+1 y = 1 - 2x
y
e y = 5x2 - 16 f x2 = y + 5
y = 3x -2 y = 3 - 2x (0, 3)
2 C
y
g 3y2 + 2x = 99 h =x+5
2 3 2
y = 2x + 3 y=x-3 (2, 0)
x
3 Find x and y.
D
a x2 + y2 = 1 b x2 - y2 = 2
y=x+1 y=x-1
c x2 + 2y2 = 3 d 2x2 - y2 = 1 a How would you use the graph to find the values of
y = 2x + 1 y = 2x - 1 a and b?
e x2+ y2 = 1 f x2 - 2y2 = 4 b Use these values of a and b to express the ellipse in

y = 1 - 2x x+y=2 a different form, without fractions.
C1
C1
g 2x2 - 3y2 = 20 h 3x2 - 4y2 - 8 = 0 c The line y = 2x intersects the ellipse. Find the
y+2=x y=x-1 coordinates of the points of intersection, C and D.
4 Solve for x and y. 7 Use your knowledge of the discriminant to prove that
the line, y = x, is a tangent to the circle
a y2 - xy = 3 b x2 + xy - y2 = 1
y=x+1 y=x+1 (x - 2)2 + y2 = 2.
c 2x2 - xy + y2 = 2 d x2 - xy + y2 = 2 - x
y=x-1 y = 2x - 1
INVESTIGATIONS
5 Some circles have equations of the form y
x2 + y2 = r2
For the circle x2 + y2 = 9
O r x
a find the values of x and y on the coordinate
axes and hence sketch the circle.
b If the line y = x + 3 is drawn on the graph, how many
times and where would it intersect the circle?
Sketch your solution.
c Investigate the number of solutions using the line y = x + a for
54 i a=0 ii a = 4 55
EXAMPLE 3
4.2 Linear and quadratic inequalities Find the range of values of x which satisfies both the
inequalities
When you solve an equation, you find particular value(s) that You can show an inequality on x2 - 2x - 3 > 0 (1)
satisfy the equation. a number line: and 2x + 3 / 5 (2)
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When you solve an inequality, you find a set of values that

satisfies the inequality. 1 From Example 1 you know that x2 - 2x - 3 > 0
x–
2 is true when x < -1 and x > 3
Remember the general rule for multiplying an inequality by a
Consider equation (2): 2x + 3 / 5
negative number: See Chapter 0 on CD-ROM for
revision on linear inequalities. This inequality has solutions in the range x/1
Draw a number line to show this information:
} When you multiply (or divide) an inequality by a negative This rule applies to the four
number you must reverse the inequality sign. inequality signs <, >, / and 0. –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
{ indicates < or >.
Inequality (1) z indicates / or 0.
You may need to simplify an inequality before you can solve it. Inequality (2) See Chapter 0 on CD-ROM.
The range which satisfies both inequalities is x < -1.
EXAMPLE 1
Find the range of values of t which satisfies 2t - 3(2t + 4) < 0 Simplifying an inequality is very
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2t - 3(2t + 4) < 0 Exercise 4.2
Expand the brackets: 2t - 6t - 12 < 0 1 Find the set of values of x which satisfy each inequality.
Simplify: -4t - 12 < 0
a 4+x>1 b 2x - 3 / 0 c 5x + 3 / x d 2x - 1 > 3x
C1
C1
Rearrange: -4t < 12
Divide by -4 and adjust sign: t > -3 Remember to reverse the e x - 3 0 2x - 4 f 4x > x - 2 g x -1> x +1 h 4 - 2x / 3 - x
inequality sign when you divide 3 2 3 3 4
The solution is t > -3 by a negative number.
2 Find the range of values of the unknown which satisfy each inequality.
To solve a quadratic inequality rearrange it in a form where a 3(t + 1) > 4(t + 2) b 3y < 2(y - 1) c 2y + 2(3 - 3y) / 0
you can solve the associated quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0.
d 7 - 3(a - 2) < 4 e 3 - 4(p + 2) 0 0 f 2(4x - 3) - 4(3x - 1) > 0
EXAMPLE 2
Find the ranges of values of x which satisfy x2 - 2x > 3 3 Find the set of values of x which satisfy each inequality.
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y = x2 – 2x – 3
x2 - 2x > 3 a (x + 3)(x - 2) > 0 b (x - 1)(x - 4) < 0 c (x + 1)(x + 5) > 0 d (2x - 1)(x + 2) < 0
Rearrange: 2
x - 2x - 3 > 0 4 Factorise and solve these quadratic inequalities.
Factorise: (x + 1)(x - 3) > 0
Consider the equation (x + 1)(x - 3) = 0 a x2 + x - 2 > 0 b t2 + 7t + 12 > 0
This has solutions x = -1 and x = 3 c p2 < 3p + 4 d q(q + 3) > 10
–1 0 3 x
Sketch the graph of y = x2 - 2x - 3:
5 Find the set of values which satisfy each inequality.
The required region is where the graph is above the x-axis.
a 2x2 < 9x + 5 b 3t2 < 2(t + 4) c p2 > 9 d 4x2 - 25 > 0
There are two ranges which satisfy the inequality. The graph shows where
They are x < -1 and x > 3 x2 - 2x - 3 > 0 6 Find the set of values of x which satisfy both inequalities.
a x2 - 5x + 4 < 0 x<3 A number line may help.
You can solve a pair of inequalities simultaneously.
b x2 - x - 6 < 0 2(x + 1) > 4
56 c 2x2 - 9x + 9 > 0 2x + 3 / x + 1 57
5 Find the set of values of the variable which satisfies each inequality.
Review 4
a 4x + 7 > 1 b 5(y - 1) < 2 c 3(2t + 1) - 4(t - 2) 0 0
1 Use the substitution method to solve each pair of simultaneous equations. 6a Find the equations of the three lines y
a y=x-3 b y = 2x - 1 on the graph.

x2 + 2y = 9 x2 - 3y = 10 b Hence describe the shaded region
c y= 2x2
- 4x - 5 d y-5= x2 using inequalities. 5 (1, 3)
y=x+7 y-7=x (0, 2) ( 32 , 2)
2a Find x and y when x2 + y2 = 13 and y = 2x - 1 –2 5 x
2
b Solve the simultaneous equations y2 + xy = 0 and y = 2x + 1
3 The diagram shows the curve with equation y = x2 - 2x and the 7 Solve the simultaneous equations
line y = x - 2 x - 2y = 1
y
x + y2 + 2y = 33
2
y = x2 – 2x
8 Find the set of values of x for which

a 2(3x - 1) < 2 + 5x b x2 - 4x - 5 < 0
c both 2(3x - 1) < 2 + 5x and x2 - 4x - 5 < 0
C1
C1
y=x–2
9 Solve the simultaneous equations
y2 - x = 1
0 Q x x = 2y + 2
P
10 a Solve the simultaneous equations
y + 2x = 5
Find, using algebra, the coordinates of P and Q. 2
2x + 9x - y = 16
4 The diagram shows the curve with equation y = 2x2 - 3 b Hence, or otherwise, find the set of values of x for which
and the line y = 7x + 1 2x2 + 9x - 16 > 5 - 2x
y 11 The width of a rectangular sports pitch is x metres, x > 0.

y = 7x + 1
B The length of the pitch is 20 m more than its width.
Given that the perimeter of the pitch must be less than 300 m,
a form a linear inequality in x.
Given that the area of the pitch must be greater than 4800 m2
b form a quadratic inequality in x.
y = 2x2 – 3
c By solving your inequalities, find the set of possible values of x. [(c) Edexcel Limited 2004]
O x
A
58 Find the coordinates of the points A and B. 59

5 Graphs of functions
EXAMPLE 2
5.1 Sketching cubic graphs Sketch the graph of y = (1 – x)(3 + x)(2 + x)
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1 Expand the brackets: y = -x3 - 4x2 – x + 6 This tells you the general
A general cubic equation has the form e.g. y = x³ The coefficient of x3 is negative. shape of the curve:
y = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d y = 2x³ - 3x
where a, b, c and d are constants. y = x³ + 3x² - 6x - 5 2 Let y = 0: (1 – x)(3 + x)(x + 2) = 0
Solve for x: x = 1, x = -3, x = -2
The graph crosses the x-axis at (1, 0), (-3, 0) and (-2, 0).
Generally the graph of a cubic function has the shape
3 Substitute x = 0 into the equation:
y = (1)(3)(2) = 6
The points where the curve The graph crosses the y-axis at the (0, 6).
changes direction are called
turning points. You will learn more Sketch the curve:
about these in Chapter 7. y
if a > O if a < O
6
y = –x3 – 4x2 – x + 6
You can sketch a curve without plotting exact values.

EXAMPLE 1
Sketch the graph of y = x(x + 1)(x - 2) O x

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–3 –2 1
C1
C1
Find the main features of the graph: This tells you the general shape
1 Consider the sign of the x3-coefficient. of the curve:
Expand the brackets: y = x3 - x2 – 2x
The number of roots of a cubic function determines how many
The coefficient of x3 is positive.
times the curve crosses the x-axis. There are 3 cases:
2 Let y = 0: x(x + 1)(x - 2) = 0 if the function has. . .
Solve for x: x = 0, x = -1, x = 2
The number of x-axis crossings
So the curve crosses the x-axis at (0, 0), (-1, 0) and (2, 0). is the same as the number of three unique roots then one repeated root and one triple root then the
solutions of the equation f(x) = 0. the curve will cross one unique root then curve will cross the
3 Substitute x = 0 into the equation: y = 0
So the curve crosses the y-axis at (0, 0). the x-axis three times. the curve will intersect x-axis once only.
the x-axis twice.
Use these observations to sketch the curve: The curve should be smooth.
Draw it freehand - do not use e.g. e.g. e.g.
y y
a ruler.
y = x3 – x2 – 2x y y
y = x (1 – x)(x + 1)
y = x3
y = (x + 1)(x – 1)2
–1 O 2 x
–1 O 1 x –1 O 1 x O x
64 65
5 Graphs of functions 5 Graphs of functions
You can use alternative methods to find the number of solutions 5 Sketch the curve given by each equation.
of a cubic equation which is difficult to factorise. a y = x3 + 2x2 - 3x b y = x3 + 4x2 + 4x Factorise the equation first.
c y = 6x - x2 - x3 d y = 2x3 - 12x2 + 16x

EXAMPLE 3
By sketching suitable graphs estimate the number of solutions

there are to the equation x3 - x2 + 2x + 3 = 0
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6 Sketch the curve given by each equation.
Rewrite: y a y = x2(x + 2) b y = (2x – 1)(2x + 3)(2 – x)
x3 = x2 - 2x - 3
y = (x – 3)(x + 1) c y = x(3 – 2x)2 d y = 3x - 2x2 - x3
Split in to two equations:
y = x3 (1) 7 Sketch the graphs of these pairs of equations on the same axes
and y = x2 - 2x - 3 (2) and state how many points of intersection there are.
–1 O 3 x
Factorise equation (2): This will make sketching the curve a y = x + 4, y = x3 b y = (x + 1)(x – 1), y = x + 1
y = (x – 3)(x + 1) y= x3 easier.
c y = x2(x – 4), y = x + 1 d y = x(x – 2)(x + 4), y = x - 3
The graph of y = intersects the graph of x3 The solution of the simultaneous
y = x2 - 2x - 3 once only so the equation equations is the solution of the 8 By sketching suitable graphs estimate how many solutions there are
x3 - x2 + 2x + 3 = 0 has only one solution. original equation. to the equation
x3 - x - 1 = 0
Exercise 5.1
1 State where each curve INVESTIGATION
C1
C1
i intersects or touches the x-axis 9 Find the equation of each curve using the information
ii intersects the y-axis. shown in the diagram.
a y = x(x – 5)(x + 2) b y = (x + 1)(x + 2)(x – 3) a y b y
c y = (2x – 1)(x + 4)(1 – x) d y = (x – 1)(x + 2)2 32
3
e y = x2(2x + 5) f y = -x(2x – 1)2
g y = x(x2 - 4) h y = (x – 2)3
−1 O 1 3 x
3 3 2
i y = (2x + 3) j y = x - 3x - 4x
x
–2 O 4
2 Sketch the curves given by each equation.
Show the points of intersection with the x-axis.
10 A quadratic graph can intersect with the line y = 0 once
a y = x(x – 2)(x + 3) b y = x(x + 2)(x – 2) or twice.
c y = x(x – 3)(x + 2) d y = x2(x – 3) How many intersections are possible between
a a linear and a quadratic graph
3 Sketch each curve and mark the points of intersection with the axes.
b a linear and a cubic graph?
a y = (x + 3)(x + 2)(x – 1) b y = (1 – x)(x + 3)(x – 1)
How could you prove your answers without drawing
c y = (2x – 3)(x – 3)(x + 1) d y = (2x + 5)(x – 2)(1 – x) any graphs?
4 Sketch the graph of each equation.

a y = (x + 2)2(x – 1) b y = (x + 1)(2x – 5)2
66 c y = (2x – 3)(x + 2)2 d y = (1 – x)(2 + x)2 67
EXAMPLE 2
5.2 Sketching reciprocal graphs Sketch the graph of y = − 4 and y = − 1 on the same diagram.
x x
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In both functions k < 0 so both
curves will have the shape
A reciprocal curve has an equation of the form e.g y = 1 k=1 The asymptotes of each curve are x = 0 and y = 0.
x y
y = k where k is a constant. Compare the functions:
x y = −2 k = -2
x When x > 0, − 4 < − 1
x x
For very small positive or negative values of x
y ® ¥ or y ® -¥ Try some values of x and y for When x < 0, − > − 1 4 O x
x x
For very small positive or negative values of y yourself.
Use this information to sketch the curves:
x ® ¥ or x ® -¥
y
The x- and y-axes are asymptotes of the curve y = 1 An asymptote is a line which the
x 4
curve approaches but never y=−
The curve y = k has asymptotes at x = 0 and y = 0. actually touches. x
x 1
y=−
x
A sketch of the graph looks like this: O 1 x

y=−
y y x
4
y=−
x
O x O x
A reciprocal function can also be
C1
C1
written in the form yx = k Exercise 5.2
if k > 0 if k < 0 its curve is called a hyperbola. 1 Sketch each pair of curves on the same axes.
2
a y= 1 and y = 4 b y = −x and y = −8
x x x
EXAMPLE 1
Plot the graph of y = 1

x c y= 2 and y= 1 d y = −1 and y= −
1
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x 2x x 4x
The asymptotes are x = 0 and y = 0.
2 Sketch the curve of y = 1 and use it to sketch the curve
Make a table of values: y x
1
x>0 4 of y = 2 on the same diagram. Label the graphs clearly.
x
3
1 1 3
x 1 2 1 2
4 2 4
1
y=
x 3 Sketch the graphs of y = x and y = 42 on the same axes.
y 4 2 1
1
1 x
3
–4 –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 4 x
–1
x<0 –2 INVESTIGATION
–3
4 Consider the curve y = x
1 1 3
x − − − -1 –4 x +1
4 2 4
y -4 -2 −1
1
-1
a Find the value of x that makes y impossible to
3 calculate and hence state an asymptote of the curve.
b Find the y-axis intercept.
c If x took an infinitely large value, what would happen
to y?
68 d Use this information to sketch the curve. 69

EXAMPLE 2
5.3 Translating a graph Sketch the graphs of y = (x + 2)2 and y = (x - 3)2
on the same diagram.
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You can translate the graph of y = f(x) parallel to the y-axis by

Sketch the graph of f(x) = x2
adding a constant.
The function f(x + 2) represents a translation
+a moves the graph in the
} f(x) ± a represents a translation of f(x) parallel to the y-axis parallel to the x-axis by -2 units.
positive y-direction.
by ± a units. -a moves the graph in the The function f(x - 3) represents a translation
negative y-direction. parallel to the x-axis by 3 units.
EXAMPLE 1
Sketch the graphs of y = x2 + 2 and y = x2 - 3 Perform each translation to the graph of f(x) = x2:
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y
y = (x + 2)2 y = (x – 3)2
Sketch the graph of f(x) = x2 You know the graph of y = x2 y = x2
The function f(x) + 2 represents a translation Using the rule for f(x) + a
parallel to the y-axis by 2 units. with a = 2.
The function f(x) - 3 represents a translation –2 O 3 x
parallel to the y-axis by -3 units.
Perform each translation to the graph of f(x) = x2:
You can translate any known curve.
y = x2 + 2
C1
C1
y = x2
EXAMPLE 3
y
Sketch the graph of y = 1 .
x −2
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2
First sketch the curve y = 1 The graph of y = 1 is familiar.
x x
O x The function f(x – 2) represents a translation of 2 units Replace the x in the original
parallel to the x-axis. function with x - 2 to give the
1 new function.
Perform the translation to sketch the curve of y = :
x−2
–3
Use the rule for f(x + a) with
y
1 a = -2.
y=
x Negative a moves the graph in
You can also translate the graph of y = f(x) parallel to the x-axis. 1 the positive x-direction.
y=
x–2
To make your two curves
± +a moves the graph in the O 2 x
} f(x ± a) is a translation of f(x) parallel to the x-axis by a units. negative x-direction.
consistent you may find it
helpful to draw the original
-a moves the graph in the
asymptote and move this to
positive x-direction.
draw the new curve.
You can combine translations in the x- and y-directions to give

a translation in a both directions.
70 71
EXAMPLE 4 5 Sketch the graph of f(x) = x3

If f(x) = x3 sketch the graph of f(x – 1) + 3 On the same diagram sketch the graph of y = f(x – 2)
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Describe the transformation that has taken place.

First let y = f(x)
To create f(x - 1) + 3 you
Sketch the curve of y = x3 replace x with x - 1 and then 6 Sketch the graph of f(x) = x(x – 3) and the graph of y = f(x + 3)
add 3 to the whole function. on the same diagram.
Apply the changes to the original function f(x) = x3:
f(x – 1) + 3 = (x – 1)3 + 3 Show clearly the points where the curves cross the x-axis.
This represents a translation of 1 unit parallel to the x-axis 7 On the same diagram sketch the graphs of y = f(x) and
and a translation of 3 units parallel to the y-axis.
y = f(x – 1) for f(x) = 1
3
x
y y=x
y = (x − 1)3 + 3
8 On the same diagram sketch the graphs of y = f(x) and y = f(x + 2)
(1, 3) where f(x) = x2. What transformation of f(x) = x2 has taken place?
2
(0, 0) 9 Sketch the graph of f(x) = x(x + 2)2 and use this to sketch, on
–1 O 1 x a separate graph, y = f(x) + 2 and y = f(x + 2)
Describe the transformations.
10 Sketch the graph of f(x) = 1 and use this to sketch, on

x
a separate graph, y = f(x – 2) + 3
C1
C1
Exercise 5.3 Mark the new asymptotes on your diagram and write down
1 Write the equation of f(x) + a for f(x) and a given in each case. their equations.
a f(x) = 2x and a=4 b f(x) = 3x - 1 and a=3

c f(x) = x 3
and a = -7 d f(x) = -x + x + 1 2
and a = -4 INVESTIGATION
11 The graph of f(x) = x2 is shown:
2 Write the equation of f(x + a) for f(x) and a given in each case.
y
a f(x) = 3x and a = -1 b f(x) = 2x2 and a=1
y = x2
c f(x) = x3 and a = -3 d f(x) = 4 and a=2
x
2
e f(x) = x (x + 2) and a = -2 f f(x) = x2 + 3 and a = -3
3 a Sketch the graphs of f(x), f(x) + 2 and f(x – 3) when

i f(x) = x(x – 2) O x
ii f(x) = x3
3 Find the equations of the following graphs:
iii f(x) = x
y y
(1, 2)
b Describe the transformations involved. 2
O 1 x
4 Sketch the graph of f(x) = x(x – 2)(x + 2) and the graph of
y = f(x) + 4 on the same diagram.
Indicate clearly the points where the curves cross the x-axis.
2
(1, 2)
O 1 x
72 73
EXAMPLE 2
5.4 Reflecting and stretching a graph Write down the function y = f(-x) and sketch the
graph of y = f(-x) where f(x) = 1
x
Reflecting in the x-axis ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
f(x) = 1
The graph of y = -f(x) is a reflection in the x-axis of the x
−
graph of y = f(x) so f(-x) = −1 = 1
x x
Sketch the graph of f(x) = 1 You should know the shape of the
x
graph of y = 1
EXAMPLE 1
Sketch the graph of y = -x2 The function f(-x) represents a reflection in the y-axis. x
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See Section 5.2 for revision.
Sketch the graph of f(x) = x2 Perform the reflection to the graph of f(x) = 1 :
You should know the shape of x
the graph of y = x2 y
The function -f(x) represents a reflection in the x-axis.
1 1
y=− y=
x x
Perform the reflection to the graph of f(x) = x2:
y
y = x2
O x
O x
C1
C1
y = −x2
Stretching parallel to the x-axis
You can transform the graph of y = f(x) by changing the
function to f(ax) where a is a constant.
If a > 1, 1a < 1 and the graph
Reflecting in the y-axis } f(ax) represents a stretch of f(x) parallel to the x-axis
‘shrinks’ parallel to the x-axis.
by a scale factor of 1 . If 0 < a < 1, 1a > 1 and the graph
The graph of y = f(-x) is a reflection in the y-axis of the a
is stretched parallel to the x-axis.
graph of y = f(x)
EXAMPLE 3
If f(x) = x3, sketch the graph of y = f(2x) and write down the
function it represents.
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First sketch the curve of f(x) = x3 y y = 8x3 y = x3 You should know the shape of the
graph of f(x) = x3
Now let y = f(2x).
This represents a stretch
parallel to the x-axis
with a scale factor of 1 .
2 O x Use the rule for f(ax) with a = 2.
3 3
y = f(2x) = (2x) = 8x Remember to cube the 2
and the x.
Perform the stretch to the graph
of f(x) = x3:
74 75
Stretching parallel to the y-axis Sometimes you will be asked to stretch a curve in both directions.
You can also transform the graph of y = f(x) by changing the
function to af(x) where a is a constant.
EXAMPLE 5
On the same axes sketch the graphs of y = f(2x) and y = 1 f(x)
If a > 1 the graph is stretched 2
} af(x) represents a stretch of f(x) parallel to the y-axis where f(x) = (x + 2)(x – 4)
parallel to the y-axis.
by a scale factor of a. If 0 < a < 1 the graph ‘shrinks’ Write down the equations of y = f(2x) and y = 1 f(x)
2
parallel to the y-axis.
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First consider y = (x + 2)(x – 4)

EXAMPLE 4
If f(x) = 1 , sketch the graph of y = 2f(x) and write down The curve cuts the y-axis at x = -2 and x = 4 These are solutions for y = 0.
x
the function it represents. The curve cuts the y-axis at y = -8
This is the value of y when
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Sketch the curve. x = 0.
First sketch the graph of y = 1 Now let y = f(2x). Now let y = 1 f(x)
x 2
Now let y = 2f(x). This represents a stretch This represents a stretch
This represents a stretch along parallel to the x-axis with parallel to the y-axis with
the y-axis with a scale factor of 2. a scale factor of 1 . a scale factor of 1 .
2 2
y = 2f(x) = 2 Using the rule for f(ax) with a = 2. Using the rule for af(x) with a = 1 .
x 2
Perform the stretch to the graph Replace x in the original Multiply f(x) by 1 :
2
of f(x) = 1 : equation with 2x:
C1
C1
x Use the rule for af(x) with a = 2.
y = (2x + 2)(2x – 4) y = 1 (x + 2)(x – 4)
y 2
Perform the stretches to the curve of f(x) = (x + 2)(x - 4):
2
y= y
x
1
y= y = (2x + 2)(2x – 4)
x
x
1
y = (x + 2)(x – 4)
2
–2 –1 O 2 4 x
–4
y = (x + 2)(x – 4)
–8
76 77
Exercise 5.4 8 On the same axes sketch the curves y = f(x) and y = f(-2x)
1 Given y = f(x) in each case, rewrite the equation for for f(x) = x3 + 2
y = f(ax) or y = af(x) as indicated. Estimate the points of intersection of the two curves.
a f(x) = x2 + 1, y = f(2x)
2
b f(x) = x + 1, y = 2f(x)
(2 )
9 Sketch y = f(x) and y = 2f 1 x where f(x) = x2 - x on the
same axes.
From the graph estimate the values of x where the curves
c f(x) = 22 , y = f(3x)
x intersect with the line y = 0
d f(x) = x(x – 2), y = -f(x)
10 Sketch y = f(x), y = f(-x) and y = -f(x) where f(x) = (x - 1)(x + 2)
on the same axes.
e f(x) = x(x – 2), y = f(-x)
Estimate the coordinates of the turning points of each curve.
f f(x) = x2, y = 2f(3x)
11 Sketch the curves y = f(x) and y = -f(-x) for f(x) = x(x - 2)
g f(x) = 1 , y = - f(-x) Write down estimates of the coordinates of the minimum
1− x
and maximum turning points for each curve.
h f(x) = x2(x + 1), y = f(-2x)
INVESTIGATIONS
2 Sketch the graph of f(x) = x2 + 1
On the same diagram sketch the graph of y = f(2x) 12 Identify in which direction the following curves have been
C1
C1
stretched.
3 Sketch the graph of f(x) = 1 a x2 + 1 9x2
x
On the same diagram sketch the graph of y = 4f(x) b x2 + 1 3x2 + 3
c x3 8x3
4 On the same axes sketch the graphs of y = f(x) and
y = f(-x) where f(x) = x3 13 Given f(x) = x2 + 4, match each description with its
corresponding equation.
5 On the same axes sketch the graphs of y = f(x) and y = -f(x)
a Stretch in the x-direction, scale factor = 1 i 2x2 + 8
where f(x) = x(x – 4) 2
b Stretch in the y-direction, scale factor = 2 ii 4x2 + 4
6 Sketch the graph of f(x) = (x - 3)(x + 5)
Sketch the curve y = f(2x) on the same axes. c Stretch in the x-direction, scale factor = 2 iii 1 x2 + 2
2
From the graph estimate the values of x which satisfy the d Stretch in the y-direction, scale factor = 1 iv 1 x2 + 4
relationship f(x) = f(2x) 2 4
7 Sketch the graph of f(x) = x(x2 - 1)

Sketch the curve y = 2f(x) on the same axes.
Estimate the values of x which satisfy both equations.
78 79
EXAMPLE 1 (CONT.)
5.5 Transforming graphs of functions c y = f(2x) y
This is a stretch of y = f(x) parallel to the x-axis 5 y = f(2x)

You can use the rules for transforming graphs to transform the 4
graph of any function f(x). by scale factor 1 .
2 3
The curve cuts the y-axis at y = 4. 2
To do this you first identify key features on the given sketch and Key features may include axis
crossing points, or turning points The curve cuts the x-axis at the points x = -1 and x = 1 1 . 1
then use these and the relevant rule to transform the graph. 2
of the curve. It has a minimum point at x = -1, y = 0.
–2 –1 O 1 2 x
You then mark the particular features on the new sketch. The maximum point lies between x = 0 and x = 1. –1
Hence sketch the curve of f(2x). –2
EXAMPLE 1
The graph of y = f(x) is shown in the diagram. –3

y
Use separate diagrams to show 5 y = f(x)
Use the rule for f(ax) with a = 2.
a y = f(x) + 2 b y = f(x + 2) c y = f(2x) 4
3 d y = 2f(x) y
d y = 2f(x) e y = -f(x) f y = f(-x)
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2 12
1
This is a stretch of y = f(x) parallel to the y-axis
Identify the key features on the sketch of the graph of y = f(x): 10 y = 2f(x)
by scale factor 2.
The curve cuts the x-axis at x = -2 and x = 3. –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 x The curve cuts the y-axis at y = 8.
8
The curve cuts the y-axis at y = 4. –1 6
The curve cuts the x-axis at the points x = -2 and x = 3.
There is a maximum point between x = 1 and x = 2 –2 4
It has a minimum point at x = -2, y = 0.
with a y-value of about 6. y The maximum point lies between x = 1 and x = 2 2
C1
C1
There is a minimum point at x = -2. 8 with a y-value of about 12. x
–2 –1 O 1 2 3
7 Hence sketch the curve of 2f(x).
6 Use the rule for af(x) with a = 2.
5
a y = f(x) + 2 4
e y = -f(x) y
3
This is a translation of y = f(x) by 2 units parallel 3
to the y-axis. 2 This is a reflection of y = f(x) in the x-axis.
y = f(x) + 2 2
The curve cuts the y-axis at y = 6. 1 The curve cuts the y-axis at y = -4.
1
It has a minimum point at x = -2, y = 2. x
The curve cuts the x-axis at the points x = -2 and x = 3.
–3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3
The maximum point lies between x = 1 and x = 2. There is a minimum point between x = 1 and x = 2 with a –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 x
–1
Use the rule for f(x) + a with a = 2. y-value of about -6.
Hence sketch the curve of f(x) + 2. –2
There is a maximum point at x = -2.
–3
y
y = –f(x) –4
5
–5
y = f(x + 2) 4
3
b y = f(x + 2)
2
This is a translation of y = f(x) by -2 units parallel 1
to the x-axis.
The curve cuts the x-axis at x = -4 and x = 1. –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 x
–1
It has a minimum point at x = -4, y = 0.
The maximum point lies between x = -1 and x = 0. –2
Hence sketch the curve of f(x + 2). –3
Use the rule for f(x + a) with a = 2.

80 81
EXAMPLE 1 (CONT.)
y 4 The graph of y = f(x) is shown in the diagram. y
f y = f(-x) 5 The asymptotes have equations 8
4 x = 1 and y = 2. 7
This is a reflection of y = f(x) in the y-axis. y = f(–x)
3 Draw separate diagrams to show the following transformations. 6
The curve cuts the y-axis at y = 4.
In each case state the equations of the asymptotes. 5
The curve cuts the x-axis at the points x = -3 and x = 2. 2
4
There is a maximum point between x = -2 and x = -1 1
a y = f(x) - 3 y = f(x)
3
with a y-value of about 6.
–3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 x 2
There is a minimum point at x = 2. –1 b y = f(x + 2)
–2 1
c y = f(-2x)
–3 O 1 2 3 4 5 6x
d y = -2f(x)
Exercise 5.5
1 The curve with equation y = f(x) is shown in the diagram. y
Sketch separate graphs to show the following transformations. 4 5 The graph of y = 2f(x – 1) is drawn in the diagram. y
Identify the main features of each curve. 3 y = f(x) 4
2 The curve from which it is transformed has an equation
2
a y = f(x) + 3 b y = f(x + 2) 1 of the form y = f(x).
–2 O 2 x
c y = f(2x) d y = 3f(x) –1 O x a Sketch the graph of the curve y = f(x) –2
1 2 3
–4
e y = -f(x) f y = f(-x) b Identify the important features of this curve.
–6
C1
C1
–8 y = 2f (x – 1)
2 The graph of y = f(x) is shown in the diagram. y
Sketch separate graphs to show the following transformations. 4
In each case state the equation of the asymptote. 3
Suggest a possible equation of the curve y = f(x). INVESTIGATION
2
y = f(x)
a y = f(x) + 2 b y = f(x – 1) 1 6 Identify which of the following points
(2 ) −3 −2 −1 O 1 2 3 4 x (1, 4) (1, 5) (2, 0) (2, 2)

c y = f 1x d y = 1 f(x) –1
2
–2 (1, 6) (1, 3) (0, 3)
e y = -f(x) f y = f(-x) –3
would lie on the curve f(x) = x2 + 1
after the following transformations.
3 The diagram shows the sketch of the curve y = f(x). y a f(x + 1)
There is a local maximum point at (0, 8) and a local 8 b f(x) - 3
minimum point at (2, 2). 6
Sketch separate graphs to show the following y = f(x) c 3f(x)
4
transformations. 2
In each case state the coordinates of the maximum and
minimum points. –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 x
a y = f(x) - 2 b y = f(x – 3)
c y = f(-x) d y = -f(x)
e y = f(2x) f y = 1 f(x)
2
82 83
6 The diagram shows the sketch of a curve with equation y = f(x). y

Review 5
The curve crosses the x-axis at points (0, 0), (-2, 0) and (-4, 0). P 4
The point P (-3, 3) lies on the curve. 2
1 Sketch the graphs of these equations indicating where each On separate diagrams sketch the curve with equations
a y = -f(x) b y = 2f(x) –4 –3 –2 –1 O 1 x
curve intersects with the axes. –2
a y = (x – 1)(x + 5) For each curve give the coordinates of the points where the –4
curve intersects the x-axis and show on each diagram the
b y = x2(x – 2) new position of the point P under the given transformation.
c y = x(x – 2)(x + 2)
7 The figure shows a sketch of the curve with equation y = f(x). y
d y = (x + 3)(x + 1)(x – 1) 5
The curve passes through the points (0, 3) and (3, 0) and
4
touches the x-axis at the point (1, 0).
2 Sketch the graphs of these equations. 3 (0, 3)
On separate diagrams sketch the curve with equation
2
a y = (x – 3)(x2 + 3x – 4) a y = f(x + 2) b y = 2f(x) 1 (1, 0)
(3, 0)
( )
b y = (2x + 5)(x2 - 4x) O x
c y = f 1x d y = -f(x) 1 2 3 4 5
3
3 Sketch the graphs of these equations.
On each diagram show clearly the coordinates of all the points
a y= 8 where the curve meets the axes.
x
y=2- 4
C1
C1
b 8 The figure shows the sketch of the curve with equation y = f(x). y
x
The curve passes through the origin, O, and through the
point (6, 0). 5
4a Let f(x) = 2x2 + x - 15 (3, 4)
The maximum point on the curve is (3, 4). 4
Factorise the equation and solve for values of x when f(x) = 0. 3
On separate diagrams, sketch the curve with equation
Sketch the graph of y = f(x) and use it to sketch the graph 2
of y = f(x) + 5 on the same diagram. a y = 2f(x) b y = f(x + 3) 1
(6, 0)
c y = -f(x) d y = f(-x)
b Sketch the graph of the function f(x) = − 4 O 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
x−2
Show clearly the position of the asymptotes. On each diagram, show clearly the coordinates of the
On the same diagram, draw the line y = x + 3 maximum point and of each point at which the curve
At how many points do the curve and the line intersect? crosses the x-axis.
5 The graph of the function y = f(x) is shown in the diagram. y 9 The figure shows a sketch of the curve with equation y = f(x). y
It has a local maximum at P (1, -2) and a local minimum The curve crosses the coordinate axes at the points (0, 1) and
(1, 2)
at Q (-1, -4). –2 –1 O 1 2 3 x (3, 0). The maximum point on the curve is (1, 2). 2
–1 On separate diagrams sketch the curve with equation
On separate diagrams sketch the graphs of the functions: (1, –2) = P
–2 1 (0, 1)
a y = f(x) + 3 –3 a y = f(x + 1) b y = f(2x)
y = f(x)
–4 (3, 0)
b y = f(x + 3) Q = (–1, –4) c y = -f(x) d y = f(-x) O x
–5 1 2 3 4
and state the new coordinates of points P and Q in On each diagram, show clearly the coordinates of the
each case. maximum point, and of each point at which the curve crosses
the coordinate axes. [(c) Edexcel Limited 2003]
84 85
6 Sequences and series
EXAMPLE 3
6.1 General term of a sequence The general term of a sequence is un = (n + 1)(n + 4)
Which term in the sequence is equal to 70?
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} A sequence is a set of terms in which consecutive terms are Substitute un = 70: (n + 1)(n + 4) = 70
related by a common rule.
Expand the brackets: n2 + 5n + 4 = 70 First rearrange so that one side of
the quadratic equation = 0.
Rearrange: n2 + 5n - 66 = 0
Consider the sequence 1, 3, 5, 7, . . . The common difference is 2.
Factorise: (n - 6)(n + 11) = 0
To find the general term use 2n
where n = 1, 2, 3, . . . and then Hence n = 6 or n = -11
2´1-1 2´2-1 2´3-1 adjust to obtain the sequence.
n = -11 is not possible. You can not have a -11th term.
The general term is 2n - 1 where n is a positive integer.
Hence n = 6 and u6 = 70 Check your solution by substituting
n = 6 into the general term.
You may have come across the so the sixth term is 70.
} The general term of a sequence is usually denoted by un. general term as a position-to-term
rule at GCSE level.
EXAMPLE 4
Given un = (-1)n find u5 and u6.
EXAMPLE 1
The general term of a sequence is un = 3 - 2n What can you say about the behaviour of the terms in
Find u1, u2, u3 and u4. this sequence?
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un = 3 - 2n To find u1, substitute n = 1 into un = (-1)n

C1
C1
the general term. u5 = (-1)5 = -1
u1 = 3 - 2 ´ 1 = 3 - 2 = 1
u6 = (-1)6 = 1
u2 = 3 - 2 ´ 2 = 3 - 4 = -1
The terms of the sequence will oscillate between -1 and 1.
u3 = 3 - 2 ´ 3 = 3 - 6 = -3
Odd terms will have the value -1 and even terms will have
u4 = 3 - 2 ´ 4 = 3 - 8 = -5 the value 1.
Hence the sequence begins 1, -1, -3, -5, . . .
Terms of a sequence may be algebraic rather than numerical.
EXAMPLE 5
You can use the general term to find any term of a sequence. If un = n - n2 find u2k+1
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un = n - n2
EXAMPLE 2
Given un = (n + 1)2 find u2 and u19.

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Substitute 2k + 1 for n: u2k+1 = (2k + 1) - (2k + 1)2
un = (n + 1)2 Expand: u2k+1 = 2k + 1 - (4k2 + 4k + 1)
u2 = (2 + 1)2 = 32 = 9 Simplify: u2k+1 = 2k + 1 - 4k2 - 4k - 1
Hence u2k+1 = -4k2 - 2k
u19 = (19 + 1)2 = 202 = 400
Factorise: u2k+1 = -2k(2k + 1)
Hence u2 = 9 and u19 = 400
88 89
6 Sequences and series 6 Sequences and series
You can find the general term given information about specific 3 A sequence has the general term un = an + 3.
terms of the sequence. Find a given that u12 = 63.
EXAMPLE 6
A sequence has general term un = an + b 4 If un = an + b, u7 = 19 and u10 = 28, find a and b.

Find a and b given that u2 = 0 and u6 = -4.
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5 Given un = an2 + bn, u4 = 28 and u8 = 120, find the values
of a and b.
un = an + b
See Chapter 0 for revision on
Use the information to form two simultaneous equations: 6 a The first two terms of a sequence are -1 and -4.
simultaneous equations.
u2 = 0 Þ 2a + b = 0 (1) If un = a + bn, find the values of a and b.
u6 = -4 Þ 6a + b = -4 (2) b The first three terms of a sequence are 1, 3 and 7 where
Subtract (1) from (2): the general term is given by un = an2 + bn + c.
4a = -4 Find the values of the constants, a, b and c.
a = -1
7 Show, by completing the square or otherwise, that all the
Substitute a = -1 into (1):
terms in the sequence given by un = n2 - 8n + 19 are positive.
-2 + b = 0
b=2 8 What is the smallest term in the sequence generated by
Check your solution by substituting un = n2 - 6n + 13?
Hence un = -n + 2 n = 2 and n = 6 into the general term.
9 a If un = 2n - 3 show that the terms of the sequence given
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C1
by u2n+1 are odd numbers.
Exercise 6.1
1 Find the first four terms in each sequence given its general term. b Given that un = n2 - 2n - 5 show that u3n+1 generates a
sequence in which all the terms are multiples of three.
a un = 3n + 1 b un = (1 + n)2 Hence write down the first three terms in the sequence.
c un = 10 - 5n d un = 1
n+2
INVESTIGATIONS
e un = (2n - 3)2 f un = (-1)n
10 A sequence un takes three consecutive integers, n - 1,
n and n + 1, and multiplies them together.
g un = (n + 1)(n - 1) h un = (-2)nn
Use logic to explain why the sequence gives terms which
are always multiples of 3.
i un = n + 1 j un = (n + 1)n
n+2
11 Look at the following sequence:
2 Given the term un, find the value of k in each case. In part a the general term is
4n - 2. You are looking for the 2 , 3 , 4 , ...
a un = 4n - 2, uk = 18 b un = 7 - 3n, uk = -23 term in this sequence that is equal 3 4 5
to 18. See Example 3 for help.
d un = 1 − n , uk = − 11
a Find un.
c un = 7 - 3n, uk = -38
1+n 13
b Now find un if the sequence has alternate positive
e un = 3 − 2 , uk = 2.75 f un = (2n + 1)(2n - 1), uk = 195 and negative terms starting with + 2 , − 3 , 4 , ...
n 3 4 5
g un = n2 - 2, uk = 398 h un = 1 + 2n , uk = 25
1 + 3n 37
i un = (2n - 1)(3n + 1), uk = 286 j un = 4(-1)n, uk = -4

90 91
EXAMPLE 2
6.2 Recurrence formulae A sequence is described by the recurrence formula
un + 2 = 3un+1 - un
Consider the sequence 2, 6, 10, 14, . . . Find the next three terms in the sequence given that
You add 4 to get the next term: u1 = 2 and u2 = 3.
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u1 = 2 u2 = 6 u3 = 10 u4 = 14 un+2 = 3un+1 - un
+4 +4 +4 Use u1 = 2 and u2 = 3 to find u3:

u3 = 3u2 - u1 = 3 ´ 3 - 2 = 9 - 2 = 7
You can write un+1 = un + 4
Use u2 = 3 and u3 = 7 to find u4:
This is a recurrence formula for the sequence. u4 = 3u3 - u2 = 3 ´ 7 - 3 = 21 - 3 = 18
You may have come across Use u3 = 7 and u4 = 18 to find u5:
} A recurrence formula is a relationship that links terms the recurrence formula as a
of a sequence. u5 = 3u4 - u3 = 3 ´ 18 - 7 = 54 - 7 = 47
term-to-term rule at GCSE level.
Hence the next three terms are 7, 18 and 47.
EXAMPLE 1
Use the recurrence formula un+1 = 2un - 1 to find You can find a recurrence formula if you have information about
u2, u3 and u4, given that u1 = 2. the sequence.
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un+1 = 2un - 1
EXAMPLE 3
The sequence 2, -1, 5, -7, . . . is generated using the recurrence
C1
C1
Substitute n = 1 into the recurrence formula:
formula un+1 = a + bun
u2 = 2u1 - 1 Find the values of a and b.
Substitute u1 = 2: ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
u2 = 2 ´ 2 - 1 Substitute n = 1:
=4-1 u2 = a + bu1 u1 = 2 and u2 = -1.
=3 -1 = a + 2b
Now use u2 to find u3 Substitute n = 2:
Substitute n = 2 into the recurrence formula: u3 = a + bu2 u2 = -1 and u3 = 5.
u3 = 2u2 - 1 5=a-b
=2´3-1 Rewrite and label the equations:
=6-1 a + 2b = -1 (1) These are simultaneous equations.
=5 a-b=5 (2)
and use u3 to find u4 Subtract equation (2) from equation (1):

3b = -6 Take care when subtracting
u4 = 2u3 - 1 b = -2 negative terms.
=2´5-1
Substitute b = -2 into equation (2) to find a:
= 10 - 1 a+2=5
=9 a=3
Check your values for a and b by
Hence u2, u3 and u4 are 3, 5 and 9 respectively. Hence a = 3 and b = -2 substituting them back into the
original equations.
A recurrence formula can also link three terms. and the recurrence formula is un+1 = 3 - 2un Check your final solution by
To evaluate one of the terms the two other terms must be known. testing it with the given terms of
92 the sequence. 93
Sometimes you need to use trial-and-error to find 4 Find the next three terms in each sequence.
a recurrence formula.
a un+2 = un+1 + un; u1 = 1, u2 = 2
EXAMPLE 4
The sequence 1, 3, 5, 11, 21, . . . can be obtained using the b un+2 = 2un+1 - un; u1 = 1, u2 = 2
terms un, un+1 and un+2 c un+2 = un(un+1 - 1); u1 = 1, u2 = 3
Using these terms, find the recurrence formula.
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d un+2 = 3un - un+1; u1 = 3, u2 = 4
Look for a possible connection between the first three
e un+2 = 2(un + un+1); u1 = 0, u2 = 1
terms 1, 3 and 5.
f un+2 = 2 + un + un+1; u1 = 1, u2 = 3
Try to use the 1 and 3 to make 5: Test for the next block of three
terms 3, 5 and 11: g un+2 = (-1)n (un+1 - un); u1 = 1, u2 = 4
2´3-1=5 9 or 2´5-3=7 8 or
3+2´1=5 9 5 + 2 ´ 3 = 11 9 5 a The sequence 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, . . . can be produced using a
recurrence formula containing un, un+1 and un+2
The first possibility doesn’t work but the second one does.
Find the formula.
Write the formula in terms of Test your formula on the third
b Determine the recurrence formula which will generate
un, un+1 and un+2: batch of three terms 5, 11 and 21:
the sequence 1, 5, 9, 13, . . . in terms of un, un+1 and un+2
un+2 = un+1 + 2un 11 + 2 ´ 5 = 21 9
c Using the terms un, un+1 and un+2 find the recurrence
The recurrence formula is un+2 = un+1 + 2un
formula for the sequence 1, 2, 2, 4, 8, 32, . . .
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C1
d Determine the recurrence formula, using un, un+1 and
Exercise 6.2 un+2, for the sequence 8, 5, 3, 2, 1, . . .
1 Write a recurrence formula in terms of un and un+1 for
each sequence. 6 The sequence u1, u2, u3, . . . , is defined by the recurrence relation
un+1 = (-1)n un + d, u1 = 2, where d is a constant.
a 4, 6, 8, 10, . . . b 0, -1, -2, -3, . . .
a Show that u5 = 2.
c 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, . . . d 2, 3, 5, 9, 17, . . .
b Deduce an expression for u10, in terms of d.
e 1, 3, 1, 3, 1, 3, . . . f 2, 2, 2, 2, . . .
Given that u3 = 3u2
g -3, 3, -3, 3, -3, . . . h 2, 4, 10, 28, 82, . . .
c find the value of d. [(c) Edexcel Limited 2005]
2 Find the terms u2, u3 and u4 in each sequence.
a un+1 = un + 1; u1 = 3 b un+1 = 3un - 2; u1 = 1
c un+1 = 4 - un; u1 = 4 d un+1 = (un - 1)2; u1 = 2
e un+1 = un2; u1 = 2 f un+1 = un ÷ 2; u1 = 2
3 a If un+1 = kun + 1 determine the value of k for the sequence

2, 7, 22, 67, . . .
b The recurrence formula un+1 = aun + b produces the
sequence 2, 5, 17, 65, . . .
Find the value of the constants a and b.
94 95
You can calculate how many terms there are in a A finite series stops at a definite
6.3 Arithmetic series finite arithmetic series. point. An infinite series carries
on forever.
EXAMPLE 2
If you add together the terms of a sequence you get a series. Determine how many terms there are in the arithmetic series
An arithmetic series is a series in which there is a common 4 + 11 + 18 + 25 + . . . + 144
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difference between consecutive terms.

First term a = 4
Here are two arithmetic series: Common difference d = 7
+2 +2 +2 +2 Form an equation and solve it to find n:
3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + ... common difference is 2 Use the general formula un = a + (n - 1)d where un = 144:
-4 -4 -4 -4 4 + (n - 1) ´ 7 = 144
5 + 1 + -3 + -7 + . . . common difference is -4. (n - 1) ´ 7 = 140
n - 1 = 20
} An arithmetic series can be represented by the
recurrence formula un+1 = un + k where k is a constant. n = 21
Hence there are 21 terms in the series.
For the arithmetic series 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + . . . . .
the recurrence formula is un+1 = un + 2 You can find the first term of an arithmetic series from
given information.
If a is the first term and d is the common difference of an
arithmetic series, then For 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + . . .
EXAMPLE 3
C1
C1
u1 = a u1 = 3 The third term of an arithmetic series is 9 and the
u2 = a + d u2 = 3 + 2 = 5 seventh term is 33.
u3 = a + 2d u3 = 3 + 2 ´ 2 = 3 + 4 = 7 Find the first and second terms.
u4 = 3 + 3 ´ 2 = 3 + 6 = 9
u4 = a + 3d ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Substitute u3 = 9 into Substitute u7 = 33 into

un = a + (n - 1)d: un = a + (n - 1)d:
} The formula for the general term of an arithmetic series is un is the nth term.
un = a + (n - 1)d a + (3 - 1)d = 9 a + (7 - 1)d = 33 Create a pair of
where a is the first term and d is the common difference. A specific term, ur = a + (r - 1)d a + 2d = 9 (1) a + 6d = 33 (2) simultaneous equations.
Subtract equation (1) from equation (2):

You can find the nth term of an arithmetic series if you know the
6d - 2d = 33 - 9
first term, a, and the common difference, d.
4d = 24
EXAMPLE 1
Find the 10th and 15th terms of the arithmetic series which d=6
begins 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + . . . Substitute d = 6 into equation (1) to find a:
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a+2´6=9 You can check your

First term a = 3 and common difference d = 2. solutions by substituting
a + 12 = 9 back into the original
Use the general formula un = a + (n - 1)d: a = -3 equations.
10th term Hence the formula for the general term is
u10 = 3 + (10 - 1) ´ 2 = 3 + 9 ´ 2 = 21 Make sure you use the correct
order of operations; BIDMAS. un = -3 + 6(n - 1)
15th term u1 = a so u1 = -3
u15 = 3 + (15 - 1) ´ 2 = 3 + 14 ´ 2 = 31
u2 = a + 6 ´ (2 - 1) = -3 + 6 ´ 1 = 3
Hence the required terms are u10 = 21 and u15 = 31. Hence the first and second terms are -3 and 3.
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EXAMPLE 4 4 For each of these arithmetic series find the 10th, 20th and nth terms.
Determine the first three terms in the arithmetic series
12 + 19 + 26 + 33 + . . . a 2 + 5 + 8 + 11 + . . . b 1 + 1 + 13 + 2 1 + ...
4 4 2
which are greater than 1000.
c 1 + 4 + 7 + 2 + ... d -9 + -11 + -13 + -15 + . . .
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First term a = 12 e -0.5 + -0.9 + -1.3 + -1.7 + . . . f 3p + 9p + 15p + 21p + . . . . . .
Common difference d = 7
Let the number of terms be n. g 1 a + 1 a + 0 − 1 a − 1 a ... h x + (2x + 1) + (3x + 2) + (4x + 3)+ . . .
2 4 4 2
Substitute the known values into un = a + (n - 1)d:
un = 12 + (n - 1) ´ 7 5 How many terms are there in each of these finite arithmetic series?
Given un > 1000 set up an inequality: a 4 + 7 + 10 + 13 + . . . + 34 b 17 + 15 + 13 + 11 + . . . + -23
12 + (n - 1)7 > 1000
c 2 + 11 + 20 + 29 + . . . + 272 d -4 + -7 + -10 + -13 + . . . + -49
Solve for n:
12 + 7n - 7 > 1000
e 0.7 + 0.3 + -0.1 + -0.5 + . . . + -5.7 f 1 + 5 + 3 + 7 + ... + 5
7n + 5 > 1000 2 8 4 8
7n > 1000 - 5 You need to interpret the
decimal value. n is the first g −1 + −
1 + 0 + 1 + . . . + 30 h 2 + 5 + 1 + 7 + . . . +14 2
n > 995 2 2 3 6 6 3
7 integer greater than 142.14
n > 142.14 so it must be 143.
6 Find the common difference in these arithmetic series.
Hence the 143rd term is the first one greater than 1000.
a First term 4, fourth term 19. b First term -3, seventh term 15.
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Use the general term un = a + (n - 1)d:
c Second term 5, fifth term -1.
143rd term is u143 = 12 + (143 - 1) ´ 7
= 12 + 142 ´ 7 = 1006 7 a The seventh term in an arithmetic series is 15 and the
and the next two terms are u144 = 1006 + 7 = 1013 eighth term is 20. Find the first term.
u145 = 1013 + 7 = 1020 b The fourth and sixth terms of an arithmetic series are 7 1
2
Hence the three required terms are 1006, 1013 and 1020. 1
and 10 respectively. Work out the first and twelfth terms.
2
Exercise 6.3 8 a For the arithmetic series 3 + 9 + 15 + 21 + . . . which term Set up an inequality equation.
1 Which of the following are arithmetic series? in the series is the first one to be greater than 200?
a 4 - 4 + 4 - 4 + ... b -3 + 1 + 5 + 9 + . . . b An arithmetic series consists of five terms; the second term
is 7 and the last term is 22. Write out the full series.
c 1 + 21 + 4 1 + 61 + ... d 0.1 + 0.01 + 0.001 + 0.0001 + . . .
2 2 2 2 c The consecutive terms x, y and z form an arithmetic series.
e -2 + 3 - 4 + 5 - 6 + . . . f 10 + 5 + 2.5 + 1.25 + . . . Show that y is the mean of the x and z values.
d The first term of an arithmetic series is 5 and the common difference
2 Use the recurrence formula to generate the next three terms in is -3. Find the first term in the series which is less than -100.
the arithmetic series whose first term is given.
e For the three consecutive terms, x2, 5x, and 9, find the two
a un+1 = un + 3; u1 = 2 b un+1 = un - 4; u1 = 7
possible values of x which make these part of an arithmetic series.
c un +1 = un + 1 ; u1 = 1 d un+1 = un - 10; u1 = 4
2
INVESTIGATION
3 Determine the recurrence formula for these arithmetic series.
a 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 + ... b 12 + 15 + 18 + 21 + . . . 9 a Which three consecutive integers add to give 300?
98 c 5 - 1 - 7 - 13 + . . . d 1.5 + 0.8 + 0.1 - 0.6 + . . . b Which four consecutive integers add to give 406? 99
6.4
EXAMPLE 1
Sum of an arithmetic series Find the sum of the series
4 + 9 +14 + 19 + . . . to 20 terms
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Consider the challenge: Add up the whole numbers from 1 to 1000.

You can write this as the sum, S1000, of the first 1000 A natural number is a
First term a = 4 Write down the facts you know.
natural numbers. positive integer. Common difference d = 5
Number of terms n = 20
S1000 = 1 + 2 + 3 + . . . + 998 + 999 + 1000
Use the formula for the sum: Sn = n [2a + (n − 1)d] The formula for Sn is sometimes
2
Reverse the order of the terms in this series: Can you see why this is an written as
Substitute the values for a, d and n:
S1000 = 1000 + 999 + 998 + . . . + 3 + 2 + 1 arithmetic series? Sn = n [a + a + (n − 1)d ]
2
Add the two series together term by term: S20 = 20 [2 × 4 + (20 − 1) × 5] or Sn = n [a + l] where l is the sum
2 2
2S1000 = 1001 + 1001 + 1001 + . . . + 1001 + 1001 + 1001 of the first and last terms.
S20 = 10[8 + 19 ´ 5]
There are 1000 terms of value 1001
S20 = 1030
2S1000 = 1000 ´ 1001
Hence the sum of the series to 20 terms is 1030.
S1000 = 1000 × 1001
2
EXAMPLE 2
S1000 = 500 500
Find the sum of the series
The sum of the whole numbers from 1 to 1000 is 500 500. 2 + 6 + 10 + 14 + . . . + 158
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In general, Sn denotes the sum of the first n natural numbers.

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First you need to know how many terms there are in the series:
The nth term is un = a + (n - 1)d
You can apply this method to a general arithmetic series:
where un = 158, a = 2 and d = 4.
Sn = a + [a + d] + [a + 2d] + [a + 3d] + . . . + [a + (n - 2)d] Substitute the values for un, a and d:
+ [a + (n - 1)d] 2 + (n - 1) ´ 4 = 158
Reverse the order of the terms: Work out this proof for 4n - 4 = 156
Add the two series together: yourself. 4n = 160
Multiply the number of resulting terms by their value n = 40
Arrive at the result:
Use the formula to evaluate the sum to 40 terms:
Sn = n [2a + (n − 1)d] S = n [2a + (n − 1)d ]
2 2
S = 40 [2 × 2 + (40 − 1) × 4]
Learn this result and the proof. This is the sum of the first n 2
natural numbers, Sn. S = 20 ´ [4 + 39 ´ 4]
} The sum to n terms of an arithmetic series is a is the first term and d is the S = 20 ´ [4 + 156]
common difference.
Sn = n [2a + (n − 1)d] S = 3200
2
Hence the sum of the series is 3200.
You can apply this result to any arithmetic series. Sometimes arithmetic series are
called arithmetic progressions. You can use the sum of an arithmetic series to solve
real-life problems.
100 101
EXAMPLE 3 2 a Determine how many terms there are in the series,

Harry needs to save £1800 from his earnings to buy a car. 1 + 4 + 7 + 10 + . . . + 37, and find the sum of the series.
In the first month he saves £50, the second month £60,
and continues to add an extra £10 a month until it reaches b Find how many terms there are in the series,
the required sum. 5 + 9 + 13 + 17 + . . . + 81, and find its sum.
How long will it take Harry to save this amount? c Find the sum of the series, 2 + 5 + 8 + 11 + . . . + 62.
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Write the information as a sum: d Find the sum of the series, 10 + 7 + 4 + 1 + . . . + -26.
50 + 60 + 70 + . . . = 1800 e Find the sum of the first 50 odd numbers.
First term a = 50
3 a The series, 2 + 5 + 8 + 11 + . . . sums to 155.
Common difference d = 10
How many terms are there in the series?
Let the number of terms be n.
b Find the number of terms needed in the series,
Use the formula for the sum: S = n [2a + (n − 1)d ]
2 -20 + -18 + -16 + -14 + . . . , to make the sum zero.
Substitute the values for a and d:
c The series, 5 + 11 + 17 + 23 + . . . , = 456.
n [2 × 50 + (n − 1) × 10] = 1800
2 How many terms are needed to arrive at this sum?
n [100 + 10n − 10] = 1800
2 4 Ahmed plans to save £250 in the year 2001, £300 in
Simplify: n[90 + 10n] = 3600 2002, £350 in 2003, and so on until the year 2020.
Form a quadratic: 10n2 + 90n - 3600 = 0 His planned savings form an arithmetic series with
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common difference of £50.
Simplify: n2 + 9n - 360 = 0 a Find the amount he plans to save in the year 2011.
Factorise: (n - 15)(n + 24) = 0 b Calculate his total planned savings over the 20-year period
Either n = 15 or n = -24. from 2001 to 2020.
Ben also plans to save money over the same 20-year period.
n cannot be negative so n = 15.
He saves £A in the year 2001 and his planned yearly savings form
It will take Harry 15 months to save up enough to an arithmetic sequence with common difference of £60.
buy the car. Given that Ben’s total planned savings over the 20-year period
are equal to Ahmed’s total planned savings over the same period,
c calculate the value of A. [(c) Edexcel Limited 2003]
Exercise 6.4
1 Find the sum of each of these series.
INVESTIGATIONS
a 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + . . . (13 terms)
5 The sum of the first ten terms of an arithmetic series is 15.
b 4 + 8 + 12 + 16 + . . . (11 terms)
The sum of the first sixteen terms is -24.
c 3 + 7 + 11 + 15 + . . . (20 terms) a Write down 2 simultaneous equations to show this information.
d -3 + -6 + -9 + -12 + . . . (14 terms) b Hence find a and d.
e What is the sum of the first 100 natural numbers? 6 An alternative formula for the sum of the first n natural numbers is
Sn = n (a + l )
2
where a is the first term and l is the final term of the series.
Write a proof to show that this result is true.
102 103
The sum does not always start with the first term.
6.5 The sigma notation
EXAMPLE 3
∑ (7 − 4r )
r =11
Here is an arithmetic series with nine terms: Write down the terms of the arithmetic series
r =4
2 + 4 + 6 + 8 + . . . + 18 ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
You can express the sum of the series using the symbol S (sigma). S is the Greek letter S. Substitute the values 4, 5, 6, . . . , 11 for r:
r =9
In mathematics
it stands for ‘sum’. (7 − 44 ) + (7 − 45 ) + (7 − 64 ) + . . . + (7 − 114 )
∑ 2r = 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 + . . . + 18 Substituting the values The series is
r =1
r = 1, 2, 3, . . ., 9 into the sum.
6 + 53 + 51 + 51 + 5 + 4 3 + 41 + 4 1
4 2 4 4 2 4
r =n n
∑ means the sum of the first n terms. Sometimes this is written as ∑
r =1 1
EXAMPLE 4
Use the sigma notation to denote the sum of the series
You can evaluate a sum shown in sigma notation. 5 + 9 + 13 + 17 + . . . + 37
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EXAMPLE 1
r =4
First term a = 5
Evaluate ∑(6r − 1) Common difference d = 4
r =1
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Substitute r = 1, 2, 3, 4 into (6r - 1): The general term is given by un = a + (n - 1)d
r =4 Substitute for a, d and n: Don’t forget to swap
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∑(6r − 1) = 5 + 11 + 17 + 23 = 56 ur = 5 + (r - 1) ´ 4 = 4r + 1 the general n with the
r =1 specific r.
Find the number of terms in the series:
Last term 37 = a + (n - 1)d
EXAMPLE 2
10 10 = 5 + 4(n - 1)
Evaluate ∑(3r + 2) ∑(3r + 2) is equivalent to Rearrange: 36 = 4n
1 1
n=9
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r =10
Substitute the values r = 1, 2, 3, . . ., 10 to generate the sum: ∑ (3r + 2). You do not need to So there are nine terms in the series.
r =9
5 + 8 + 11 + 14 + . . . + 32
r =1
write ‘r =’ in the sigma sign. Hence the sum is shown by ∑(4r + 1)
r =1
Hence a = 5, d = 3 and n = 10.
The sum is given by S = n [2a + (n − 1) d]
2
Exercise 6.5
10
S = [2 × 5 + (10 − 1) × 3]
2 1 Write out the arithmetic series represented in each case.
r =3 r =5
S = 185
a ∑ 4r b ∑(2r − 1)
Hence the sum of the series is 185. r =1 r =1
r =5 r =15
c ∑(5 − 2r) d ∑ (3r + 2)
r =2 r =10
r =7 r =6
e ∑(−r) f ∑ 2r
r =1 r =4
6 15
g ∑ (r +4 3) h ∑ 3r
1 12
104 105
n
2 Find an expression for the general term and use sigma You do not need to
notation to denote the sum of each arithmetic series starting work out the sum.
4 Show that ∑(2r − 5) = n(n − 4)
r =1
with r = 1.
a 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 + . . . + 14 5 Express, in sigma notation, the arithmetic series
14 + 8 + 2 - 4 . . . to 12 terms.
b 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + . . . + 15
12
c 3 + 7 + 11 + 15 + . . . + 39
6 Evaluate ∑(4 − 3r)
d -5 + -8 + -11 + -14 + . . . + -35 5
e 2 1 + 4 1 + 6 1 + 8 1 + . . . + 30 1 n
2 2 2 2 2 7 If ∑(2r − 1) = 900, find n.
f 15 + 20 + 25 + 30 + . . . to 12 terms 1
g -3 + -9 + -15 + -21 + . . . to 21 terms r =n

8 Show that ∑(2r − 1) = n2
h − 1 + − 5 + −3 + − 13 + . . . to 10 terms r =1
3 3 3
i 3p + 8p + 13p + 18p + . . . to q terms; p is a constant
20
j (a + 1) + (2a + 3) + (3a + 5) + (4a + 7) + . . . to n terms; 9 Calculate ∑(3r + 1)
r =1
a is a constant
3 Work out the sum of each arithmetic series.

r =10
INVESTIGATIONS
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a ∑ 5r 10 Gauss was a famous mathematician who examined the series
r =1
n
r =10
∑k = 1 + 2 + 3 + . . . + n
b ∑ (2r + 1) k =1
r =1
20 a Use the formula for the sum of the first n numbers for
c ∑(3r − 1) an arithmetic progression to prove that
1
n
n(n + 1)
20 ∑k = 2
d ∑(1 − 5r) k =1
1
b Gauss used his formula to add up the numbers 1 to 100
40
e ∑(10 − r) very quickly. What is the answer?
1
40 11 Consider the arithmetic series

f ∑ (2r 3+ 3) 11 + 9 + 7 + . . .
1
Investigate for which values of n the sum of the series is
10
(2 − 3r)
g ∑ 2
equal to the nth term itself by using the following steps:
1
a Prove that if sn = un then n2 - 14n + 13 = 0
20
h ∑ (3r 2+ 5) b Hence give the term numbers and their values which
1
satisfy the sum being equal to the term itself.
20
i ∑(4r − 2)
3
20
106
j ∑(r − 5) 107
10
8 On Alice’s 11th birthday she started to receive an annual

Review 6 allowance. The first annual allowance was £500 and on each
following birthday the allowance was increased by £200.
1 Find the first four terms in each sequence. a Show that, immediately after her 12th birthday, the total
a un = (2n + 1)2 b un = n2 - 4 of the allowances that Alice had received was £1200.
b Find the amount of Alice’s annual allowance on her 18th birthday.
c un = n + 1 d un = (2n + 1)(3n + 1)
n
c Find the total of the allowances that Alice had received
2 Find the value of k given the general term and the kth term in up to and including her 18th birthday.
each sequence. When the total of the allowances that Alice had received
a un = 5 - 4n, uk = -43 b un = 1 + 2n , uk = − 31 reached £32 000 the allowance stopped.
1 − 2n 29
d Find how old Alice was when she received her last allowance. [(c) Edexcel Limited 2006]
c un = n(3n - 1), uk = 234 d un = (2n - 1)(n + 1), uk = 135
9 The rth term of an arithmetic series is (3r - 2).
3a The fourth and fifth terms of a sequence are 26 and 33.
If un = an + b, find the values of the constants a and b. a Write down the first three terms of this series.
b If the eighth term of the sequence generated by un = an2 + 3 b State the value of the common difference.
is 131, find the value of a. n
c Show that ∑(3r − 2) = 1 n (3n − 1)
2
c Given that un = an2 + bn + c and u3 = 6 , u7 = 38 and r =1
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u8 = 51, find the values of the constants a, b and c.
10 An arithmetic series has first term a and common difference d.
4 a Write a recurrence formula in terms of un and un + 1 for a Prove that the sum of the first n terms of the series is 1 n[2a + (n − 1)d]
the sequences 2
Sean repays a loan over a period of n months. His monthly
i 4, 7, 10, 13, . . . ii -1, 3, -5, 11, . . .
repayments form an arithmetic sequence.
b Find the terms u2, u3 and u4 for the sequences
He repays £149 in the first month, £147 in the second month, £145 in the third month,
i un+1 = un - 5 and u1 = 4 and so on. He makes his final repayment in the nth month, where n > 21.
ii un+1 = (un - 3)2 and u1 = 0
b Find the amount Sean repays in the 21st month.
5 The sequence of positive numbers u1, u2, u3, . . . is given by Over the n months, he repays a total of £5000.
un+1 = un(un + 1), u1 = 1.
c Form an equation in n, and show that your equation may be written as
i Find u2, u3 and u4.
ii Write down the value of u5. n2 - 150n + 5000 = 0
d Solve the equation in part c.
6a Determine the 13th and 17th terms in the arithmetic series
-9 + -5 + -1 + 3 + . . . e State, with a reason, which of the solutions to the equation
in part c is not a sensible solution to the repayment problem. [(c) Edexcel Limited 2005]
b How many terms are there in the series 11 + 5 - 1 - 7 + . . . - 61
n
c The fifth term of an arithmetic series is 13 1 and the twelfth term 11 The sum of an arithmetic series is ∑(80 − 3r)
2
r =1
is 34 1 . Find the first term and the common difference. a Write down the first two terms of the series.
2
7a Find the sum to 20 terms of the series -23 + -18 + -13 + -8 + . . . b Find the common difference of the series.
b The sum of the arithmetic series 4 + 13 + 22 + 31 + . . . is to be Given that n = 50,

108 109
greater than 1000. How many terms are needed to achieve this? c find the sum of the series. [(c) Edexcel Limited 2003]
7 Differentiation
You can use this result to deduce the gradient of the tangent at a point.
7.1 Gradient of the tangent to a curve
EXAMPLE 1
For the curve y = x2 find the gradient of the chords PQ1, PQ2,
y PQ3 and PQ4 by joining the point P = (1, 1) to the points
Consider the question: y = f(x)
How can you work out the exact value of the gradient at any a Q1 = (1.1, 1.21) b Q2 = (1.01, 1.0201) For Q4, y4 = x42 and
point on a curve, without plotting the graph and making an c Q3 = (1.001, 1.002001) d Q4 = (1.0001, 1.0002) 1.00012 = 1.00020001
= 1.0002 to 5 s.f.
estimate by drawing a tangent with a ruler? Hence deduce the gradient of the tangent at P.
P (x0, y0) ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Consider the curve with equation y = f(x) and a fixed point Let P be (x0, y0) = (1, 1) and let Qn be (xn, yn).
O x
P(x0, y0) which lies on the curve. Record the information in a table:
The diagram shows the tangent to the curve at P. y
Gradient of
Imagine that Q is a neighbouring point that can move Q1 (x1, y1) chord PQn
Chord yn − y0
along the curve. PQn xn yn xn - x0 yn - y0 x n − x0
(y1 – y0)
Initially Q has position Q1(x1, y1). PQ1 1.1 1.21 0.1 0.21 2.1
P (x0, y0)
The gradient of the chord PQ1 is given by y1 − y 0
PQ2 1.01 1.0201 0.01 0.0201 2.01
(x1 – x0)
x1 − x 0 PQ3 1.001 1.002001 0.001 0.002001 2.001
O x
Let Q move gradually closer towards the point P. PQ4 1.0001 1.0002 0.0001 0.0002 2
C1
C1
It first moves to Q2 (x2, y2) then it moves to Q3 (x3, y3) then it moves to Q4 (x4, y4). The gradients are a 2.1 b 2.01 Remember you cannot use a
y y y c 2.001 d 2 calculator in the C1 unit.
The gradient of the chord tends towards the value 2 as Q gets

Q2 (x2, y2) closer and closer to P. Hence you can deduce that the
Q3 (x3, y3) gradient of the tangent at P is 2.
Q4 (x4, y4)
P
(x0, y0) P (x0, y0) P (x0, y0) This method is often referred to as the method of small increments.
O x O x O x You can use it to deduce the gradient at a given point on any
y – y0 y – y0 y – y0 curve, without having to draw the curve.
Gradient of PQ2 = 2 Gradient of PQ3 = 3 Gradient of PQ4 = 4
x2 – x0 x3 – x0 x4 – x0
Exercise 7.1
As Q moves towards P the 1 For the curve, y = x3, determine the gradient of the chord
gradient of the chord PQ gets AB joining A, (1, 1), to B when B is at
Q
closer to becoming the gradient The graph is enlarged to show a (1.1, 1.331) b (1.01, 1.030301)
of the tangent at P. detail. In reality P and Q are very
close together. c (1.001, 1.003003) d (1.0001, 1.0003)
P
Hence deduce the gradient of the tangent at the point A(1, 1).
2 The point P, (2, 9), lies on the curve y = x2 + 2x + 1 and a second

point, Q, also lies on the curve. If the coordinates of Q are
This leads to a general rule: a (2.1, 9.61) b (2.01, 9.0601)
} In the limit, as Q ® P,
c (2.001, 9.006001) d (2.0001, 9.0006)
gradient of chord PQ = gradient of tangent at P.
Find the gradient of the chord PQ and use the results to deduce
112 the gradient of the tangent at P. 113
7 Differentiation
7.2 Differentiation from first principles }

dy
is called the derivative of y with respect to x.
dx
dy δy You can write:
You can generalise the technique described in Section 7.1. } is the value of in the limit as dx ® 0 δy
dx δx dy
= lim
y dx δx → 0 δx
Consider the equation of the curve y = x2 } We say that you differentiate y to obtain .
dy
dx
Let the point P(x, y) lie on this curve and let
Q(x + δx, y + δy)
Q be a neighbouring point, close to P.
y = x2 You can use differentiation from first principles to find the
The coordinates of Q are δy
gradient of the tangent at any point of any curve.
(x + a small change in x, y + a small change in y) P(x, y)
This is denoted by Q(x + dx, y + dy)
EXAMPLE 1
Looking at the diagram, Find, from first principles, the gradient of the tangent to the
O x
δy δx curve with equation y = x2 + x + 3 at the point x = 2.
gradient of chord PQ is
δx
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d is the Greek letter delta.

Let point P(x, y) and a neighbouring point Q(x + dx, y + dy)
dx means ‘a small increase in the
The aim is to find this ratio algebraically. x-value’. lie on the curve.
y
For point P(x, y) y = x2 (1)

Q(x + δx, y + δy)
For point Q(x + dx, y + dy) y + dy = (x + dx)2 (2)
C1
C1
Subtract (1) from (2): dy = (x + dx)2 - x2 δy
dy = x2 + 2x(dx) + (dx)2 - x2 The term dx cannot be split up to

give d on its own. P(x, y)
Simplify: dy = 2x(dx) + (dx)2 So (dx)2 ¹ d2x2 O x
δy δx
Divide by dx: = 2x + dx
δx
For point P y = x2 + x + 3 (1)
δy
As Q ® P, dx ® 0 and gets closer and closer to becoming dx and dy approach zero as Q gets For point Q y + dy = (x + dx)2 + (x + dx) + 3 (2)
δx
closer to P and the chord becomes
the gradient of the tangent to the curve at the point P. Subtract (1) from (2): dy = (x + dx)2 - x2 + (x + dx) - x + 3 - 3
a tangent to the curve.
δy dy dy = x2 + 2x(dx) + (dx)2 - x2 + x
In the limit, as dx ® 0, becomes
δx dx + dx - x + 3 - 3
dy
so for the curve, y = x2 = 2x The dx term approaches zero, and Simplify: dy = 2x(dx) + (dx)2 + dx
dx
is so small it can be ignored.
δy
Divide by dx: = 2x + dx + 1
δx
dy
The expression can be used to find the gradient of the tangent δy
dx As Q ® P, dx ® 0 so δlim ® 2x + 1
2
to the curve y = x for any value of x. x →0 δx
dy lim δy
e.g. When x = 3 Hence = = 2x + 1
dx δx →0 δx
dy
= 2x = 2 ´ 3 = 6 You can check by using the dy
dx When x = 2 =2´x+1=2´2+1=5
method of small increments. dx
So the gradient of the tangent to y = x2 t the point where x = 3 is 6.
Hence the gradient of the tangent at the point x = 2 is 5.
114 115
7 Differentiation 7 Differentiation
EXAMPLE 2 Exercise 7.2

dy
Find, from first principles, an expression for when y = x3 - x 1 In each of the following cases find expressions for
dx
Hence determine the gradient of the tangent to the curve at i dy ii δy iii dy
the point where x = 0. δx dx
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a y = 3x + 2
Let point P(x, y) and a neighbouring point Q(x + dx, y + dy)
lie on the curve. b y = 1 - x2
For point P y = x3 - x (1) c y = 2 - 3x

For point Q y + dy = (x + dx)3 - (x + dx) (2) d y = 2x2
Subtract (1) from (2): dy = (x + dx)3 - x3 - (x + dx) + x For this example it is useful to e y = x(x + 1)
2 2 3
know that
Simplify: dy = 3x (dx) + 3x(dx) + (dx) - dx f y = 2x(1 - x)
(x + a)³ = x³ + 3x²a + 3xa² + a³
δy
Divide by dx: = 3x2 + 3x(dx) + (dx)2 - 1
δx
2 Differentiate each equation from first principles.
δy
As Q ® P, dx ® 0 and δlim x →0 δx
= 3x2 - 1 a y = x2 + 1
dy b y = 4x
Hence = 3x2 - 1
dx
dy c y = x2 + 2x
When x = 0 = 3 × (0)2 - 1 = -1
dx
d y = 1 - x2
C1
C1
Hence the gradient of the tangent at the point where x = 0 is -1.
e y = x3
f y = x4
A sketch often helps to visualise the problem and to see whether
your results are realistic. dy
3 Find and hence find the gradient of the tangent
dx
y at the given point.
x3
y = - x is a cubic equation with positive coefficient. x3 y = x3 – x
You know the shape of this curve from Chapter 5. a y = x2 + 4 at the point (3, 13)
Solve for x:
b y = 3x3 at the point (0, 0)
y = x3 - x c y = (x + 2)(x + 3) at the point (1, 12)
x
= x(x2 - 1) –2 –1 O 1 2
d y = x3 + x at the point (2, 6)
x = 0, x = 1 or x = -1
so the curve crosses the x-axis at (0, 0), (1, 0) and (-1, 0).
You can see from the sketch that the function in Example 2 is
decreasing at x = 0, so the gradient will be negative as
expected.
116 117
7 Differentiation
7.3 Differentiation of x n
EXAMPLE 1
dy
Find for the following functions.
dx 1
a y = 5x2 b y= x x = x2
Consider the results obtained when differentiating ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
the functions y = x2, y = x3 and y = x4.

a y = 5x2
dy
y = x2 gives = 2x You can work out these derivatives Differentiate y with respect to x:
dx
from first principles; look back at
dy dy
y = x3 gives = 3x2 the results from Section 7.2. = 5 ´ 2 ´ x2-1
dx dx
dy dy
y = x4 gives = 4x3 = 10x
dx dx
A pattern in these derivatives suggests a general result. 1

b y = x = x2 Write roots in index form.
Differentiate y with respect to x:

dy
} For any real value of n, if y = xn then = nxn-1
dx 1 −1 −1 −1
dy 1 = 1
= 1
= × x2 = 1 x 2 x 2
1
dy dx 2 2 x
} More generally, if y = axn then = anxn-1 x2
dx dy
= 1
dx 2 x
C1
C1
Consider the straight line y = 3x Consider the straight line y = 5
You can use the general result for differentiating to find the
y y gradient at a particular point.
y=5
5 5
EXAMPLE 2
4 4
Find the gradient of the tangent to the curve,
3
2 y = 3x
3
2
y = 2x3, at the point A 1 , 1 . (2 4)
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1 1
y = 2x3
–2 –1 O 1 2 x O 1 2 3 4 5 x dy
Differentiate y with respect to x: = 2 ´ 3 ´ x3-1 The gradient of the tangent is
dx
given by dy .
dy dx
The gradient of this line is 3. The gradient of this line is 0. Simplify: = 6x2
dx
y = 3x = 3x1 y = 5 = 5x0 At the point A, x=1
2
Differentiate using the general result: Differentiate y with respect to x:
dy dy Substitute x = 1 into the expression for dy :
= 3 ´ 1x1-1 = 5 ´ 0x-1 2 dx
dx dx
()
2
dy
3x0 =6× 1
= =3 as expected. =0 as expected. Remember dy gives you the dx 2
dx
gradient.
= 6 = 3
You can use these rules to differentiate any power of x. 4 2
Hence the gradient of the tangent at the point A is 3 .
2
118 119
Exercise 7.3
1 Use the general rule for differentiating xn to differentiate these INVESTIGATIONS
equations with respect to x. 4 Match each function with its derivative.
a y = 4x2 b y = 7x FUNCTION DERIVATIVE
i 4 x a 12x²
c y = -5 d y = 3x3
ii (x - 3)(x + 4) 1
b
4x 2
e y = 1 x4 f y=6
4
x 2 + 9x
iii c 6x5
g y = -2x h y = 2x x
3
iv -1 d 1
4x
2 Rewrite these equations using index notation and then 2
v 4x³ e
differentiate y with respect to x. x
Give your final answers in simplified form. vi f 2x + 1
a y =2 x b y = −3 x Function vi has been left for you to find.

Can you explain why this function is not unique?
c y=x x d y = −x 2 x
5 a Sketch some quadratic and cubic curves.
Investigate the behaviour of the gradient function as x
e y=3x f y=1
C1
C1
x approaches infinity
i when x is large and negative
g y= −
1 h y= 1 ii when x is large and positive.
x2 x
Are there any similarities in behaviour?
i y= 2 j y= 4 b Use a graphics calculator or computer to investigate
x 3x x
quartics (graphs of the form ax4).
k y= −
2 l y = 3 x2
3
x
3 Find the gradient of each curve at the given point.
a y = 5x2; (1, 5) b y = 7; (15, 7)
c y = x ; (4, 2) d y = 6x; (-1, -6)
e y = 4x 3; ( 12 , 12 )
− − f y = 92 ; (3, 1)
x
4
g y = − ; (4, -2)
x
h y = 2 ; 1,4
x (2 )
i y = 2x x ; (9, 54) j y = 4x ; (-5, -4)
5
120 121
7 Differentiation
EXAMPLE 2
7.4 Differentiating polynomials Differentiate each expression with respect to the
given variable.
b f(t) = t −2 t
3
There is an alternative notation for differentiation. a y = (1 + x)(2 - x)
t
dy •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
When y = f(x), = f(x)

dx a y = (1 + x)(2 - x)
You can use the general result for y = axn to differentiate Expand the brackets: y = 2 + 2x - x - x2
expressions which have more than one term. = 2 + x - x2
Differentiate y with respect to x: Differentiate each term
} Generally if y = f(x) ± g(x) dy separately - note that the 2
= 1 - 2x disappears when you
dy dx
then = f(x) ± g(x) differentiate.
dx
f(t) = t −2 t
3
b
t
Rewrite as the difference of two fractions:
EXAMPLE 1
Differentiate each expression with respect to x. 3

t 3 = t3-2 = t1 = t
f(t) = t 2 − t2
a f(x) = 4x2 + 3x b y=5-x x t t t2
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Cancel the fractions: f(t) = t - t -1 t = t1-2 = t-1
2 t2
a f(x) = 4x + 3x Differentiate f(t) with respect to t :
f(t) = 1 - (-1) ´ t -1-1
C1
C1
Differentiate f(x) with respect to x:
Take care with negatives
f(x) = 4 ´ 2 ´ x2-1 + 3 ´ 1 ´ x1-1 Differentiate each term with Simplify: f(t) = 1 + t-2
respect to x and then add the
results together. Hence f(t) = 1 + 12 t −2 = 12
t t
Simplify: f(x) = 8x + 3 x1-1 = x0 = 1
b y=5-x x Exercise 7.4

3 1 1+ 1 3 1 Differentiate the following with respect to x.
Rewrite in index form: y = 5 - x2 x ´ x = x ´ x2 = x 2 = x2
a y = x2 + 3 b y = 2x - 1
1
dy 3 x2
Differentiate y with respect to x: =0− Differentiate each term with c y = 3x2 - x d y = 3x + x2
dx 2
respect to x and then subtract
dy 1 the results. e y = x3 - 2x2 f y = x2 - x + 1
Simplify: = − 3 x2
dx 2
2 Differentiate each expression with respect to x.
dy
Hence = −3 x
dx 2 a (x - 1)(x + 2) b x2(1 - x)
c (x2 + 1)(x + 3) d (x - 2)(x + 1)
You can differentiate some products and quotients by splitting
them into separate terms. 3 Differentiate the following with respect to x.
You will often be asked to differentiate expressions involving a a y=4- 1 b y = 12 + x

x x
variable other than x as in part b of Example 2.
c y=x- x d y=x x − 1
x
2
122 e x −x+1 f x (x − 2) 123
2 x
4 Differentiate each expression with respect to the given variable.

INVESTIGATIONS
a y = x(x + 1) b s = t2(1 - t)
7 a Match each function with its derivative.
c y = (r + 1)(r - 2) d s = 4(2t - 1)2
function derivative
e y = x(x - 1)(x + 1) f V = 2r(r - 4) + r(r + 4)
y = (2 + x)
dy
= 1 − 12
g A = t [t2 + 1] h y= 1 1 −x(
x x ) x dx x
dy − 2 − 16
y = (x +1 1) dx
= 2
x x3
i s = (1 - t)(1 - 2t)(1 - 3t) j y= (x3 - 1)(x - 1) x2 dy − 2
= 2
dx x
y = (x + 1)
2
5 Given y = f(x) find f (x) in each case. dy 1 − 12 1 − 23
x = x − x
dx 2 2
a f(x) = 1 + x b f(x) = x + x
2
y = 2(x +2 4)
x 2x dy 3
=2− 2
x dx x
c f(x) = 1 − x d f(x) = x − 22x + 4
2
x x b Identify the missing function.
f(x) = (
2 x − 1)
e f(x) = 2 − 3x
2
f 8 Given two functions
x x
f(x) = (x + 3) and g(x) = x2
g f(x) = (
x + 3)
2
C1
C1
h f(x) = (1 - x)(2 - x) a find f ¢(x) and g¢(x).
x
b Let h(x) = f(x) g(x)
f(x) = ax + 2bx
3
i f(x) = x + x x j a, b and c are constants Find h(x) and h¢(x).
2 cx Treat them like numbers.
c Is it true that h¢(x) = f ¢(x) g¢(x)?
6 Differentiate the following with respect to the given variable. d Let p(x) = f(x)
g(x)
a s = t2 t − 1 b L = 2r(3r - r2) i Find p(x) and p¢(x).
t
f ′(x)
ii Is it true that p¢(x) = ′ ?
g (x)
c r = 5x −2 4 d y = 7(t - 1)(2t - 3)
x
e A = ( x + 2)2 f y = (r3 - 1)(r2 + 1)
4a − bx
g P = t [t2 - t + 1] h y= a and b are constants.
3x 2
( r)
2
i s = 2(t2 - 1) - t2(2 - t) j V= 2−1
124 125
7 Differentiation
7.5
EXAMPLE 1
Rates of change The volume, V cm3, of a cube of side length x cm
is given by V = x3
When two or more variables are linked, you can study the Find the rate of change of V with respect to x when
relationship between them. They are called variables, since a x = 10 b V = 64.
their value varies. ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
In this section you will look at what happens to linked variables V = x3 Calculating the rate of change at a
dV point is like calculating the gradient
when one changes. Differentiate: = 3x2
dx of the tangent at that point.
So the rate of change of V with respect to x is 3x2.
If you change the radius, r cm, of a circle, you may like to
know how the area, a cm2, of the circle is changing in a When x = 10, dV = 300
dx
response.
So when the side length is 10 cm, the volume is increasing
when r = 0 cm a = 0 cm2 As r changes from 0 cm to 1 cm
at a rate of 300 cm3 per cm increase in the side length.
when r = 1 cm a = 3.14 cm2 the area increases by 3.14 cm2.
when r = 2 cm a = 12.56 cm2 As r changes from 2 cm to 3 cm b When V = 64, x = 3 64 = 4
when r = 3 cm a = 28.27 cm2 the area increases by 15.71 cm2.
So dV = 48
dx
It is clear from these results that
the greater the radius, the greater So when the volume is 64 cm3, the rate of increase of the
2 You do not have to increase the volume with respect to the side length is 48 cm3 per cm
the increase in the area amount by whole units. This is
as the radius increases by
1
known as a continuous relationship.
increase in the side length.
C1
C1
a constant amount.
EXAMPLE 2
So the rate of change of the area The rate of change of distance, s metres, with respect to time,
depends on the size of the radius. t seconds, is known as velocity, v metres per second (m/s).
Find the velocity when t = 16 if
The rate of change of the area as the radius changes is denoted
da . This is known as the rate of change of a with respect to r.
a s = 10 b s = 2t c s = 6 t.
dr
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If you know an algebraic relationship between the variables a a s = 10 If the distance is constant at 10 m
there must be zero velocity. The
and r, then you can usually find da . da can be found by differentiating
Differentiate:
ds
=0 object is stationary.
dr dr dt
pr 2 with respect to r.
In this case you know that for a circle, a = pr2 Therefore the velocity, v = ds = 0 m/s
dt
da
Differentiate with respect to r: = 2pr p is a constant.
dr b s = 2t
You can now use this to work out the rate of change of the area This is the instantaneous rate Differentiate: ds = 2 The velocity here is constant.
when r = 5. When the radius dt The object is travelling at a steady
for any value of the radius.
speed of 2 m/s.
is 5 cm, the rate of change of Therefore the velocity, v = ds = 2 m/s
e.g. When r = 5 cm, da = 2p ´ 5 = 10p = 31.4 the area is 31.4 cm2 per cm dt
dr
change in the radius.
When r = 20 cm, da = 2p ´ 20 = 40p = 125.7 c s=6 t
dr y
Differentiate: ds = 3 The velocity is inversely
dt t proportional to the square root of
In general, for two variables x and y, the rate of change of y d s the time, which means that
Therefore the velocity, v = = 3 = 3 m /s
velocity reduces as time increases.
with respect to x is given by dy . dt 16 4
dx
126 O x 127
EXAMPLE 3 4 The surface area of a sphere is given by A = 4pr2, where r is the

The tension, T newtons (N), in a spring depends on how far radius of the sphere.
the spring has been extended. Describe what happens to the surface area as the radius
This distance is called the extension, x metres, of the spring. increases.
The link between T and x is given as T = 2x.
Find dA , the rate of change of the surface area with
Find a the tension in the spring dr
b the rate of change of the tension in the spring with respect to the radius and evaluate this when
respect to the extension a r=5
when x = 1 m.
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b A = 16p
a T = 2x, so when x = 1, T = 2. leaving your answers in terms of p where appropriate.
This means that the tension is dependent on the extension
of the spring. 5 In a simplified mathematical model, the distance, x m, that a
b T = 2x skydiver travels as he descends from an aeroplane is given by
x = 4t2 where t is the time in seconds that has elapsed after
Differentiate T with respect to x: dT = 2
dx leaving the aeroplane.
Find the rate of change of the distance with respect to time
This means that the rate of change of the tension with
(speed) when t = 10.
respect to the extension of the spring is constant at
2 newtons per cm and is independent of the extension.
6 The variables x and y are linked by the equation y = 2x2 + x
Find the value of x when the rate of change of y with
C1
C1
respect to x is 9.
Exercise 7.5
1 For each relationship, find the rate of change of y with respect 7 The variables a and b are linked by the equation a = 2 3 b
to x and evaluate this when x = 1. Find the values of b when the rate of change of a with
a y = 3x b y= 2 respect to b is 1 .
x 6
c y=2 x d y = (x +3 1)
x INVESTIGATION
2 The relationship between p and q is given by p = 2q3 + q 8 The radius of a sphere increases at a constant rate of
Find the rate of change of p with respect to q when q = 4. 1 cm/s. Use a spreadsheet or a graph
Investigate what happens to the rate of increase plotter to calculate a table of
of the volume of the sphere. values for the radius and the
3 The rate of change of y with respect to x on a graph is called volume at increasing values of t
the gradient. Find the gradient of each of these relationships and then plot them on a graph.
at the point indicated. You should then be able to find
what the exact relationship is by
a y = x, x = 10 looking at the shape of the graph.
b y = x2, x = 5
c y = x2 + 3x - 1, x = 0
d y = x2 + 4, y = 4
128 129
7 Differentiation
The normal to a curve at any point is the straight line which is Perpendicular means the lines are
7.6 Tangents and normals perpendicular to the tangent at that point. at right-angles.
Let the gradient of the tangent at a point on a curve y = f(x) gradient of

For the equation, y = f(x), the gradient of the tangent to its curve tangent = m1
be m1 and the gradient of the normal at this point be m2.
at any point is given by
y = f(x)
dy } Then m1 ´ m2 = -1 as the gradient and the normal are
or f ¢(x).
dx perpendicular to each other. gradient of
You can find the equation of the tangent at any given point. normal = m2
e.g. When the gradient of the tangent is 2 the gradient of the normal will be - 1 .
2
EXAMPLE 1
Find the equation of the tangent drawn to the curve You can use this result to find the equation of the normal at a
y = 4x2 + 12x at the point (-2, -8). given point on a curve.
y
EXAMPLE 2
y = 4x2 + 12x For the curve with equation y = 3x2 - 8x find the equations
of the tangent and normal at the point (2, -4).
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O x
y = 3x2 - 8x Draw a rough sketch to help:
dy y
Differentiate: = 6x - 8
dx y = 3x2 – 8x
C1
C1
dy 4
At (2, -4): =6´2-8
(–2, –8) dx 2
=4 –6 –4 –2 O 2 4 x
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Hence the gradient of the tangent = 4 –2
(2, –4)
y = 4x2 + 12x –4
and the gradient of the normal = − 1 = − 1
dy m 4 –6
Differentiate: = 8x + 12
dx
Now use the equation of a straight line y - y1 = m(x - x1)
dy
At (-2, -8) = -16 + 12 Write down the equations of the tangent and normal at (2, -4):
dx
dy Tangent: Normal:
= -4
dx y + 4 = 4(x - 2) y + 4 = − 1 (x - 2)
4
Now use the equation of a straight line y - y1 = m(x - x1) Rearrange: y + 4 = 4x - 8 4y + 16 = -x + 2
with (x1, y1) = (-2, -8) and m = dy = -4 y = 4x - 12 4y = -x - 14
dx
At (-2, -8) y + 8 = -4(x + 2) Hence the equation of the tangent is y = 4x - 12

y + 8 = -4x - 8 and the equation of the normal is 4y = -x - 14
y = -4x - 16
Hence the equation of the tangent at the point (-2, -8) is
y = -4x - 16.
130 131
You can find the coordinates of a point if you are given 2 a Find the gradient of the tangent and normal to the curve
information about a curve at that point. y = 6x2 - 5x + 1 at the point where x = 1.
b Find the equation of the normal to the curve y = 1

EXAMPLE 3
The tangent drawn to the curve y = 5x2 + 4x - 2 at the point where x = 2.

x
at the point P(x, y) is parallel to the x-axis. Sketch the graph to help you
Determine the coordinates of P. visualise the question. c Determine the gradients of the tangent and normal at the
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y point P(1, 2) on the curve whose equation is y = 3x2 - 2x + 1
y = 5x2 + 4x - 2 4
3
d Find the equations of the tangent and normal to the curve y = 22
x
( )
dy y = 5x2 + 4x – 2
Differentiate: = 10x + 4
dx 2 at the point −2, 1 .
2
dy 1
The tangent is parallel to the x-axis, so = 0
dx
–2 –1 O 1 2 x 3 a The tangent drawn to the curve y = 2x2 + 3x
Solve 10x + 4 = 0: –1
–2
at the point P (x, y) is parallel to the x-axis.
x = − 4 = −2 Determine the coordinates of P.
10 5 –3
Substitute x = − 2 into the equation of the curve to find y: –4 b The line y = 2x - 4 is a tangent to the curve y = x2 - 2x
5
at the point P(x, y). What are the coordinates of P ?
( 5 ) + 4 ( 25 ) − 2
2
When x = − 2 , y = 5 − 2 −
5
4 The tangent and normal to the curve y = x3 + 2x2 - 4x + 5 y
= 20 − 8 − 2 = − 14 are drawn at the point (1, 4) as shown in the diagram. y = x3 + 2x2 – 4x + 5
25 5 5
( 25 , 145 ). a Find the equations of the tangent and normal at this point.
C1
C1
Hence P is the point − −
The tangent cuts the x-axis at A and the y-axis at B.
D
b Find the coordinates of A and B. (1, 4)
Exercise 7.6
1 a Find the gradient of the tangent to the curve y = 5x2 The normal cuts the x-axis at C and the y-axis at D. B
at the point where x = -2. A C x
c Find the coordinates of C and D.
b Determine the equation of the tangent at the point
P(1, -2) on the curve whose equation is y = 1 - 3x2
5 The tangent drawn to the curve with equation y = 3 Sketch the graph to visualise
x
( 2)
c A tangent is drawn at the point P(1, -1) on the curve the question.
at the point 2, 3 meets the x-axis at A and the y-axis at B.
y = − 12
x What is the area of the triangle AOB where O is the point (0, 0)?
What is the equation of this tangent?
d Find the gradient of the tangent to the curve y = x3 - 3x
INVESTIGATION
at the point where x = 2.
6 Sketch the graph of y = x2
e Find the equation of the tangent to the curve
y = x2 - 3x - 4 a What happens to the values of the gradient of the tangents to
at the point (2, -6). the graph as x moves from negative to positive values?
b What happens to the values of the gradient of the normals
to the graph as x moves from negative to positive values?
c Would this agree with m1 ´ m2 = -1?
132 133
7 Differentiation
7.7 Exercise 7.7

Second order derivatives 1 For each equation find
dy d2 y
i ii .
Let y = f(x) dx dx 2
dy
The derivative of y with respect to x is
dx
or f ¢(x). a y = 3x2 + 2x b y = 5x3 c y=1− x
f ¢(x) is the first derivative of f(x).
d y=x− 2 e y = (2x + 1)(3x + 1) f y = x2(x + 1)
Differentiating again gives x
d2 y
or f ²(x). 2 For each function find
dx 2
i f ¢(3) ii f ²(3).
2
d y 1+ t
d2 y
is the second derivative of y with respect to 2 is known as a 2nd order a f(t) = 3t2 - 4 b f(t) = 22 c f(t) =
} dx t t
dx 2 derivative. It measures the rate
f f(t) = t −3 1
2
of change of the gradient. d f(t) = 4 t e f(t) = 1
2 t t
EXAMPLE 1
dy d2 y 3 a A = pr2 is the formula for the area of a circle.

Find and when
dx dx 2 d2A
dA
Find and 2 . r
a y = 5x3 + 3x2 + 2 b y=x x dr dr
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dA d2A
a y = 5x3 + 3x2 + 2
1
1+ 1
3 Hence evaluate and 2 when r = 4.
b y=x x x x = x ´ x2 = x 2 = x2 dr dr
C1
C1
3
Differentiate: Leave your answers in terms of p.
Rewrite in index form: y = x2
dy
= 15x2 + 6x + 0
dx dy 3 23 −1 3 12 b V = 4 pr 3 is the formula for the volume of a sphere.
Differentiate: = x = x 3
dx 2 2
Differentiate again: 2
d y 1 3 2 1 −1 dV d 2V
d2 y Differentiate again: = × x Find and 2 .
= 30x + 6 dx 2 2 2 dr dr
dx 2
1 dV d 2V
−
= 3x 2 = 3 Hence evaluate and 2 when r = 3 .
4 dr dr 4
4 x
r
Leave your answers in terms of p.
You can find the second derivative for a given value of x. c What is the physical significance of your answers to a and b? Look back at section 7.5 on
rates of change.
EXAMPLE 2
Find f ¢(-2) and f ²(-2) for the function

f(x) = x(x + 1)(2x - 3) INVESTIGATION
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4 The following two boxes contain first and second derivatives.

Expand the brackets: f(x) = 2x3 - x2 - 3x
Differentiate: f ¢(x) = 6x2 - 2x - 3 First derivative Second derivative

This answer tells you that when x3 2x4
When x = -2 f ¢(-2) = 6 ´ (-2) - 2 ´ (-2) - 3 2 6x 6 8x3 6x
x = -2 the rate of change of f(x)
= 25 with respect to x is 25.
2x2 3x2 4x3 5x 3x 3
3x2
Differentiate again: f ²(x) = 12x - 2 a Put the derivatives in pairs.

This answer tells you that when
When x = -2 f ²(-2) = 12 ´ (-2) - 2 x = -2 the rate of change of b Which derivative (s) do not form a pair?
= -26 f ¢(x) with respect to x is -26. c Find the missing derivatives and put them in the correct pairs.
134 135
7 Differentiation
6 The curve C has equation y = 2x + x − 3 , x ¹ 0.

2
Review 7 x
The point P on C has x-coordinate 2.
1a Determine the gradient of the tangent and normal at dy
a Find an expression for .
dx
the point (1, 4) on the curve with equation y = 3x2 + 2x - 1
dy
b Find the value of at the point P.
b The curve y = 1 has a tangent whose gradient is -4 at two dx
x
points on the curve. Find the coordinates of these points. c Find the equation of the tangent to C at P.
c For the curve with equation y = x3 - 2x2 This tangent meets the x-axis at the point (k, 0).
find the points where the tangents are parallel to the x-axis. d Find the value of k.
d The tangent and normal to the curve y = x2 - 2x + 1
at the point where x = 2 meet the x-axis at points 7 The curve C has equation y = 2 x3 - x2 + 4x - 3.
3
A and B respectively. Find the length AB.
The point P has coordinates (3, 18).
2 Find the equation of the normal to the curve y = 42 a Show that P lies on C.
x
at the point (2, 1). b Find the equation of the tangent to C at P,
The normal cuts the x-axis at P and the y-axis at Q. giving your answer in the form y = mx + c,
Determine the length PQ in surd form. where m and c are constants.
Another point Q also lies on C. The tangent to
C1
C1
dy
3 Given that y = x2 - 63 , x ¹ 0 find . C at Q is parallel to the tangent to C at P.
x dx
c Find the coordinates of Q.
dy
4 The gradient of the curve C is given by = (x + 1)(x - 2).
dx 8 For the curve C with equation y = f(x),
The point P(1, 2) lies on C.
dy
Find the equation of the normal to C at P. = x3 + 2x - 7.
dx
2
5 The figure shows part of the curve, C, with equation y a Find d y2 .
dx
y = (x - 1)(x2 - 4) 6 2
The curve cuts the x-axis at the points P(1, 0) and Q, as 5 b Show that d y2 0 2 for all values of x.
dx
shown in the diagram. 4
3 Given that the point P(2, 4) lies on C,
a Write down the x-coordinates of P and Q.
2 c find y in terms of x,
b Show that dy = 3x2 - 2x - 4 1
d find an equation for the normal to C at P in the form
dx
P –1 O 1 Q x
ax + by + c = 0, where a, b and c are integers. [(c) Edexcel Limited 2002]
c Show that y = x + 7 is the equation of the tangent to
C at the point (-1, 6).
The tangent to C at the point R is parallel to the tangent at (-1, 6).
d Find the exact coordinates of R. [(c) Edexcel Limited 2006]
136 137
8 Integration
dy n +1
8.1 The integration process } If = xn then y = x + c (for any n ¹ -1) ‘Raise the power by 1 and divide
dx n +1
by the new power’.
Consider the equations y = x2 and y = x2 + 3 The general rule for integrating any expression axn is:
dy
} if = ax n
For y = x 2 ⎫⎪ dy dx
⎬ differentiating gives dx = 2x for both equations. then integrating gives
and y = x + 3 ⎪⎭
2
n+1
If n = -1, then n + 1 = 0 and
y = ax + c for any n ¹ -1
n +1 division by 0 is not defined.
Now try to reverse the process: Sketching the graphs of these
functions might help you to see
= 2x gives ⎧
dy y = x2 why this is true.
Reversing } The value c is called the constant of integration.
dx ⎪ y
⎪ y = x +1 2
y= x2 +1
⎨ y = x2 + 2
⎪ y = x +2 2
5 You can use this rule to find y, given
dy
.
⎪ y = x2
dx
⎩ etc. 4
3
EXAMPLE 1
dy Find y when
Starting with = 2x could give you an infinite number of 2
dx
1 dy dy
possibilities, all of the form y = x2 + c where c is a constant. a = 6x 2 b = 5x
dx dx
O x
Similarly, differentiating y = x3 and y = x3 - 7 both give the same ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
dy dy dy
result = 3x 2 The derivative of a constant is 0. a = 6x 2 b = 5x 5x = 5x1
dx dx
C1
C1
dx
2 +1 1+1
The inverse of differentiation is called integration. y=6 x +c y=5 x +c Remember to add the
} (2 + 1) (1 + 1)
constant of integration, c.
⎩
⎧ dy =
6x 3
+c y = 5 x2 + c
y differentiate
⎪
⎪ ⎪ 3 2
⎨ ⎪ dx
⎪ ⎨
⎪ integrate ⎪
⎪
so y = 2x3 + c
f(x) ⎧
⎩ f ¢(x)
Reversing the rule for differentiation produces a rule for integration. Sometimes the index is negative.
dy
EXAMPLE 2
Integrating = 3x 2 gives y = x3 + c, where c is a constant. The constant c shows that there are Find y when
dx
an infinite number of solutions.
dy dy dy 6
If you integrate = x 2 you get y = 1 x 3 + c a = x −3 b =
dx 3 dx dx x 2
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dy dy 6 1 = x −2
INVESTIGATION a = x −3 b =
dx dx x 2 x2
Here are some results you can verify for yourself. −2 −1
y = x +c y = 6× x +c
dy −2 −1
dy Differentiate y to find .
x x2 x3 x4 dx
dx y = − 12 + c y = −6 + c
1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 2x x
y x +c x +c x +c x +c
2 3 4 5
140 141
8 Integration 8 Integration
The general rule for integration applies to fractional indices as See Chapter 1 for a reminder 3 Simplify the right-hand side of each equation and then
well as integer powers. of the rules of indices.
integrate to find an equation for y.
()
You will often need to simplify an expression before integrating. dy dy dy dy 3
2
b dx = (2x)
3
a dx = (x )
2 2
c = (x −2)3 d =
dx dx x
EXAMPLE 3
dy
= 1 f
Find y if
() ( ) ( )
3 3 4
dy 2 dy 2x dy 1 dy
dx x x e = f = g = − h = (3 x )4
dx x dx 3 dx x dx
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3 1 3
dy 1 −
Rewrite: = 3 =x 2 x x = x1 ´ x 2 = x 2 4 Integrate each expression with respect to x.
dx
x2 1
3 a x b ( x )2 c 1
− +1
2 2 x
Integrate: y= x
( −
3
2
+ 1)
−
1 ⎛ 2 ⎞
3
d x x e f ⎜ ⎟
1 x2 x ⎝ x⎠
−
2
Simplify: =x +c
−1
2
−
1 INVESTIGATIONS
= −2x 2 +c
5 Consider the following graph of a quadratic function f(x):
Hence y =− 2 +c Give your answer in the same y
x form as the question.
C1
C1
Exercise 8.1
dy
1 These are all expressions for .
dx (1, 5)
Integrate to find an equation for y in each case.
a x4 b x7 c 3x2
d x10 e 5x4 f 1 x5 O x
2
g -2x5 h −
1 x7 i 4x
4 The gradient function is of the form f ¢(x) = ax + b
a Given that when x = 1 the gradient is 3 and when
2 These are all expressions for dy . x = -1 the gradient is -1, prove that a = 2 and find the
dx
value of b.
Integrate to find an equation for y in each case.
b Hence find the equation of f(x) using the point shown
a x−3 b 3x-4 c 1 on the graph.
x2
d 2 e -x−5 f − 3
5
6 dy 1 −
1 3
−
3
x3 x x2 x 2 x2 x 2
dx
g 2 x −3 h −
4 i 3 1 −
1 5
3 5x 5 y 2x 2 + c −2x 2 +c
2 2
x +c
5
dy
Match each expression for with one for y.
dx
142 Identify the missing expression for y. 143
8 Integration
You can integrate expressions involving fractional indices.

8.2 Using integral notation Simplify the expression first.
dy
EXAMPLE 3
If you know , you can find an expression for y in terms of x by Find these integrals.
dx
7
integrating. The standard notation for integration is the integral 5 dx
a x 2 dx b
4 x
sign , together with something to say what variable you are
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integrating with respect to. e.g. dx if you are integrating with 9

7 2
respect to x, dt if you are
a Integrate: x2 dx = x9 + c
integrating with respect to t etc.
To integrate a function f(x) with respect to x, 2
f(x) is the function to be
9
you write f(x) dx integrated, also known as = 2 x2 + c
9 Check your answer by
the integrand.
differentiating.
−
1
read this as the integral of f(x) with respect to x. 5 dx 5x 2 dx
b = 4
4 x
The general rule for integrating any expression axn
1
can now be written 2
= 5 × x1 + c
4 2
n +1
ax n dx = ax + c 1
n +1 = 5 x2 + c 2´5=5
2 4 2
C1
C1
EXAMPLE 1
dy When an expression is the sum or difference of more than one

Given that = 6x2, find an expression for y in terms of x. term, you can integrate each term separately.
dx
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dy Using the notation reduces the Generally, if f(x) and g(x) are functions of x then
= 6x2 amount of writing you need to do
dx
and is clear and unambiguous. f(x) + g(x) dx = f(x) dx + g(x) dx
Write as an integrand: y= 6x 2 dx
Integrate: y = 2x3 + c
EXAMPLE 4
Find (2x3 - 3x-2) dx
EXAMPLE 2
3t dt
Find ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
2 The brackets emphasise that the

•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• (2x3 - 3x-2) dx = 2x 3 dx − 3x-2 dx whole expression (2x3 - 3x -2) is
being integrated.
∫ 2 dt
3t The variable this time is t.
4 −1
Simplify: = 2 x + c 1 − 3 x + c2
2 4 −1
Both terms have constants, c1 and c2.
Integrate: = 34t + c 4 c1 + c2 is a constant so you write
= x + 3 +c it as one constant, c.
2 x
144 145
Remember to rewrite roots in index form before you integrate. Exercise 8.2
1 Evaluate the following integrals.
EXAMPLE 5
Find ⎛ 2 t − 1 ⎞ dt
⎜ ⎟
a 4x dx b p dp c 3s 5 ds
⎝ t⎠
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1 1 d 2 dw e 3x dx f − 5 3 dy
⎛ 2 t − 1 ⎞ dt = − w2 4 2y
⎜ ⎟ ( 2t 2 −t 2 ) dt
⎝ t⎠
a
3 1 g da h (4x)2 dx i 3z −4 dz
5
Integrate: =2 t2 − t2 +c
3 1
2 2
dx = 2
2 The solution to a problem starts with
3 1 da 3a2
= 4t 2 − 2t 2 +c
3 The last line of the solution starts with x=
= 4t t −2 t +c Give the answer in a similar

Write out the solution in full using the integral notation.
3 form to the question.
3 Evaluate these integrals.
You can integrate some products and quotients by expressing 3 1 5
a x 2 dx b 3x 2 dx c 4x 2 dx
them in the form of a sum or difference.
EXAMPLE 6
2 4 1
d x 3 dx e x 3 dx f x 5 dx
Find (x + 2)(x - 3) dx
C1
C1
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Expand the brackets: 4 Evaluate

−
1 5
− 1 dx
a x 2 dx b x 2 dx c
(x + 2)(x - 3) dx = (x2 - x - 6) dx 3
x2
Integrate term by term: −
3
2
3 2 4 dx −
x 4 dx
= x − x − 6x + c d 1 e f 6x 5 dx
3 2 4
x2

EXAMPLE 7
⎛1 + x ⎞ 3
Find ⎜ 2 ⎟ dx a (x2 - 4x3) dx b (3x2 + 2x-2) dx
⎝ x ⎠
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Rewrite as two fractions: c (4 − x1 ) dx 2

d (5x4 + 4x3 + 1) dx
⎛ 1 + x3 ⎞ ⎛ 1 x3 ⎞ x3
⎜ 2 ⎟ dx = ⎜ 2 + 2 ⎟ dx =x − =x =x
3 2 1
⎝ x ⎠ ⎝x x ⎠ x2 e ( 21x 2 )
− 1 3 dx
3x
f ( 4x5 + 45 ) dx
( x1 − x1 ) dx
(x −2 + x) dx
=
−2 +1 2
g ( 45 x 3
4 3)
− 3 x 2 + 2 x dx h 2 3
Integrate: = x + x +c
(−2 + 1) 2 ⎛ px 2 q ⎞
i (ax + bx2 + cx3) dx j ⎜ q − px 2 ⎟ dx
−1 2 ⎝ ⎠
Simplify: = x + x +c
−1 2
2
= −1 + x + c
146 x 2 147

INVESTIGATION
( )
1
a (3x 2 − 2) dx b t 2 + 12 dt
t 11 A student shows her working as:
−
1
5 5 −
3 2
c (v 2 −v
−
2) dv d ⎛ 4 + 5 ⎞ dr x 2 dx = x 1
⎜ 1 3⎟ −
⎝ r2 r2 ⎠ 2
−
1
= −2x 2
⎛ x + 1 ⎞ dx ⎛ 3 ⎞ dx
e ⎜ ⎟ f ⎜x x − ⎟ 1
⎝ x⎠ ⎝ x x⎠ = 2x 2
What is wrong with her answer?

g ( t 2 t − 2t 3 t ) d t h ⎛ 1 + 3 ⎞ dr
⎜ ⎟ What is the correct solution?
⎝4 r r r ⎠
12 ‘If you integrate a linear expression, you get a quadratic

7 Integrate each expression with respect to x.
expression.’
a x(x - 1) b (x + 2)2
a Is this always true?
c 2(x3 - 3) d (3x - 1)(2x - 3)
b What happens if you integrate a quadratic expression?
e x2(5x + 3) f x(2x + 3)2
c What happens if you integrate a reciprocal expression? Think of the different sorts
g (x - 1)3 h x3(x2 - 4) 1 , 1 , etc.
13 Consider the integral equation x x2
C1
C1
3(x + k)2 dx = x3 + 9x2 + 27x + 10
⎛ x + 1⎞
2 ⎛ t −2⎞
a ⎜ 2 ⎟ dx b ⎜ 2 ⎟ dt
⎝ x ⎠ ⎝ t ⎠ Find the value of k that makes this expression true.
c x
(1 − x )
2
dx d ( 3 t− t + 3) dt
3
e 1 − t 2 dt f 1+ r dr
t r r
9 Find ( x − x1 + x ) dx.
2
3
⎛ ⎞
10 Find ⎜ 3x dx ⎟ dx. Your answer will include
⎝ ⎠ two constants.
148 149
8 Integration
EXAMPLE 2
8.3 Finding the constant of integration
The gradient of the curve y = f(x) at any point (x, y) is 42 .
x
Find the equation of the curve if it passes through the
The constant of integration, c, generates a family of curves.
dy
point 1 , −1 . (2 )
Consider = x2
dx ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
3 3 dy 4
Its integral is y = x , or y = x + 1, or … Rewrite: = = 4x −2
3 3 dx x 2
y
y=x
3
Integrate with respect to x: y= 4x-2 dx
3
3
y=x +3 −2 +1
3
= 4x +c
3 (−2 + 1)
y=x +1
3
4
O x Simplify: y= −x +c
3
y=x +2
3
At 1 , −1 (2 ) −1 = − 41 + c
2
4 = −4 × 2 = −8
−1
2
1
Make c the subject: c = -1 + 8

You can find the value of the constant of integration, c, if you are =7
given a point on the curve.
Hence the equation of the curve is y = − 4 + 7
x
C1
C1
EXAMPLE 1
Given that f ¢(x) = x and (-1, -2) is a point on the curve

represented by f(x), find f(x).
EXAMPLE 3
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If f ¢(x) = 3x2 - 2x + 1, find the equation of the curve f(x),
given that (1, 2) lies on the curve.
Integrate to find f(x): f(x) = f ¢(x) dx Remember if you integrate f ¢(x) •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
you get f(x). f ¢(x) = 3x2 – 2x + 1

2
= x +c
2 f(x) = (3x2 - 2x + 1) dx
Substitute x = -1, y = -2: −2 =

( −1)2 + c f(x) = -2 at (-1, -2) 3 2
2 Integrate: = 3x − 2x + x + c
3 2
−2 = 1 +c
2 Simplify: = x3 - x2 + x + c
Rearrange: c = −5 Find c: At (1, 2) 2=1-1+1+c
2
c=1
2
Hence the equation of the curve is f(x) = x − 5 Hence the equation of the curve is f(x) = x3 - x2 + x + 1
2 2
You can use this method to find f(x) whenever you know f ¢(x)
and a point on the curve.
150 151
Exercise 8.3 3 The gradient of the curve y = f(x) is given by f ¢(x) = ax + b where
1 Given f ¢(x) and a point which lies on each curve find the a and b are constants. The curve passes through the points
equation of the curve. (1, 0), (2, 3) and (3, 7).
a f ¢(x) = 2x - 1, (2, 1) b f ¢(x) = 3x2 + 2x, (1, 2) Find the equation of the curve.
c f ¢(x) = x - 4, (0, 3) d f ¢(x) = 2x2 - x, (1, 2) 4

dy 1
=x+ 2
dx x
e f ¢(x) = 4x, 2 , 3(3 ) f f ¢(x) = x , (4, 4)
2 a Use integration to find y in terms of x.
g f ¢(x) = x + 12 , (2, −3) h f ¢(x) = 1 , (2 , 0 ) b Given that y = 1 when x = 2, find the value of y at x = 1.
2
x x
3
i f ¢(x) = x 2 , (1, -1) j f ¢(x) = 4x³ - 3x², (2, -3) 5 The curve with equation y = f(x) passes through the point (1, 4).
Given that
2 Find these integrals and find the equation of the curve given that
f ¢(x) = 1 + 3x +1 2 , x > 0,
it passes through the given point.
x2
a 2 dx ,
x2
( 12 , 1)
− find f(x) and simplify your answer.
x + 1 dx , ( 4 , − 2 )
b INVESTIGATION
x
6 The second derivative of a function is
C1
C1
c 1 − x dx,
x3
( 23 , 0) f ¢¢(x) = 6x - 2
a Given that the gradient of f(x) at the point (1, 4) is 7,
find f ¢(x).
d [x(x - 2) + 1] dx, (2, -1)
b Integrate a second time to find the function f(x).
e (x - 2)2 dx, (-1, 2)
f [x x − 2] dx, (4, 5)
1 dx , ( 2 , 2 )
g
x x
h (3x − 1)(x + 2) dx , ( −2 , 3 )
i x 2 ( x − 1) dx , (1, 0 )
j ( x − 1)2 dx, ( 14 , 14 )
152 153
8 Integration
8 a Given that y = 2x3 - 3x + 7

Review 8
dy
find i
dx
1 Integrate with respect to x. d2 y
ii
dx 2
a 2x2 b -5x4 c 0.8x3
b Find (2 + 2 x − 21x ) dx
( 2x )
3
2
⎛ 1 ⎞ 2
d (2x)2 e f ⎜ ⎟
⎝ x⎠
( 2x )
−3 4
g x h i x3 9 Find ( 4 x + 3 x ) dx
− 1
j 2x −0.5 k 3x 4 l −x
−1.5
10 The gradient of a curve is given by
4
f ¢(x) = x 2 + 12 , x ≠ 0
2 Integrate these expressions. x
and the curve passes through the point 3, 8 .( 9)
a ( 2
t )
3t − 12 dt b (1 − r )2 dr
Find the equation of the curve and determine the
y-coordinate when x = 1.
c ( 2 x− x ) dx
3 d v ( 6v − 1) dv
11 Find (2x + 3)2 dx
C1
C1
3 Integrate these expressions
(t + 1)(t − 1) 12 If y = f(x) and f ¢(x) = x +4 2 , find the equation of the
2
a (x 2 − 1)(x − 1) dx b dt
t2 x
curve if it passes through the point (1, -4).
x x −5
c r 2 ( r − 3 r) dr d dx
x2 13 a If x = t + 1 and y = t2 + 1 eliminate t to obtain
an equation in the form y = f(x) and show
that f ¢(x) = 2(x -1)
4 Given that y = 2x − 63 , x ≠ 0, find ò y dx
x
b Given y = 2(x -1) dx, find the equation in the
5 The curve with equation y = f(x) passes through the
point (1, 8). form y = f(x), given that the values x = 3
and y = -2 satisfy the equation.
Given that f ¢(x) = 3 + 7x 1+ 1 , x ≠ 0,
3
x2
find f(x) and simplify your answer.
6 Find ⎛ 3 x − 1 ⎞ dx
⎜ ⎟
⎝ x2 ⎠
7 Given that y = x − 42 , x ≠ 0, find y dx

x
154 155
9 Algebra and functions
EXAMPLE 3
9.1 Algebraic division Work out (x3 + 2x2 - 5x - 6) ¸ (x - 2) x3 + 2x2 - 5x - 6 is the numerator.
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You can simplify algebraic fractions by cancelling common Set out as a long division: You should write each polynomial
)
with the highest x-power on the
factors in the numerator and denominator. x − 2 x 3 + 2x 2 − 5x − 6 left and the lowest on the right.
In (x - 2) the lead term is x.

EXAMPLE 1
Simplify the algebraic fraction 12x −26x

2
What must you multiply the lead term, x, by to get the first term, x 3?
3x
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Answer, x2
Factorise the numerator: 12x − 6x 2 = 6x(2 − x) =

2 × 3x × (2 − x) Write this on the answer line of the division:
3x 2 3x 2 3x × x
x2 Write like terms in the same
Divide top and bottom by 3x: = 2(2 − x)
x
x − 2 x + 2x 2 − 5x − 6
3
) column to help you to organise
your working.
2(2 − x) Multiply the divisor, (x - 2), by x2:
The simplified fraction is
x
x2
x − 2 x 3 + 2x 2 − 5x − 6
3 2
)
You will often need to factorise the numerator and denominator Subtract: x - 2x x2(x - 2) = x3 - 2x2
before simplifying the fraction. +4x 2 2x2 - (-2x2) = 4x2
Bring down the next term, -5x:

C2
C2
EXAMPLE 2
2x 2 + 5x − 3 x2
Simplify the fraction
2x 2 + 7x + 3 )
x − 2 x + 2x 2 − 5x − 6 3
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x 3 - 2x 2
Factorise both the numerator and the denominator: +4x 2 - 5x
2x 2 + 5x − 3 (2x − 1)(x + 3) Check you have factorised You now multiply the lead term, x, by 4x to get the first term, 4x2.
=
2x 2 + 7x + 3 (2x + 1)(x + 3) correctly by expanding
Multiply the divisor (x - 2) by 4x:
your brackets.
Cancel by the common factor (x + 3): x 2 + 4x
The simplified fraction is 2x − 1

x − 2 x + 2x 2 − 5x − 6 ) 3
2x + 1 x 3 - 2x 2
+4x 2 - 5x
4x 2 - 8x 4x(x - 2) = 4x2 - 8x
You can think of an algebraic fraction as a division by Subtract: 3x - 6 Remember to bring down the
a polynomial. next term, -6.
You multiply the lead term, x, by +3 to get the first term, 3x.
x−2
e.g. º (x - 2) ¸ (x + 3) x 2 + 4x + 3
)
x+3
x − 2 x 3 + 2x 2 − 5x − 6
x 3 - 2x 2
You can use long division to divide a polynomial of degree m The degree of a polynomial is the
by a polynomial of degree n, where m 0 n. highest power it contains. +4x 2 - 5x
The degree of the resulting polynomial is m - n. e.g. x2 - x + 1 has degree 2. 4x 2 - 8x
3x - 6 3(x - 2) = 3x - 6
Subtract: 3x - 6
In this case the remainder is 0.
0 This means that x - 2 is a factor
of x3 + 2x2 - 5x - 6.
So (x3 + 2x2 - 5x - 6) ¸ (x - 2) = x2 + 4x + 3
160 161
9 Algebra and functions 9 Algebra and functions
Sometimes, as with numbers, you will get a remainder. 2 Use long division to perform each calculation.
a (x3 + x2 - 3x + 1) ¸ (x - 1) b (x3 + 4x2 + 2x - 1) ¸ (x + 1)
EXAMPLE 4
Work out (2x3 + 4x2 - 3x + 2) ¸ (x + 3)

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c (x3 + 3x2 + 4x + 4) ¸ (x + 2) d (x3 - x - 6) ¸ (x - 2)
2x 2 - 2x + 3 Use long division as in e (x3 + 6x2 + 8x - 3) ¸ (x + 3) f (x3 - 6x2 + 7x + 4) ¸ (x - 4)

3
)
x + 3 2x + 4x 2 − 3x + 2 Example 3.
g (2x3 - 5x2 + x + 2) ¸ (x - 2) h (x3 - 3x2 - 6x + 8) ¸ (x + 2)
2x 3 + 6x 2
i (6x3 + 25x2 + 3x - 4) ¸ (x + 4) j (8x3 - 30x2 + 31x - 15) ¸ (2x - 5)
-2x 2 - 3x
-2x 2 - 6x
3 Perform these long divisions.
3x + 2
3x + 9
a (x3 - x + 6) ¸ (x + 2) b (x3 - 5x + 12) ¸ (x + 3)
remainder The remainder is -7.
-7 This is like c (x3 - 13x - 12) ¸ (x - 4) d (x3 + x2 - 2) ¸ (x - 1)
So (2x3 + 4x2 - 3x + 2) ¸ (x + 3) = 2x2 - 2x + 3 -

7 9 ¸ 2 = 4 remainder 1 e (x3 + 4x2 - 8) ¸ (x + 2) f (x4 + 4x3 + 2x2 + 1) ¸ (x + 1)
x+3
or 4
1 remainder g (2x4 - 4x3 + 3x2 - 8x + 4) ¸ (x - 2) h (3x4 - 2x3 - x2 + 2x - 2) ¸ (x - 1)
2 divisor
divisor i (x3 - 2x2 - 4x + 3) ¸ (x - 3) j (x4 - 4x3 + 16x - 16) ¸ (x - 2)
Some cubics do not have an x2-term. Similarly you can insert a 0x to 4 Perform each long division.
You should insert a 0x2 to help you to organise your working. show that there is no x-term. a (x2 + 3x - 1) ¸ (x + 1) b (x2 - 2x + 4) ¸ (x - 2)
e.g. x3 + 3x + 2 = x3 + 0x2 + 3x + 2 c (2x2 - 3x + 5) ¸ (x - 1) d (x3 + 4x2 - x + 1) ¸ (x - 1)
C2
C2
e (2x3 + x - 1) ¸ (x + 3) f (x3 - 1) ¸ (x - 1)
EXAMPLE 5
Work out (x3 + 3x + 2) ¸ (x - 1) g (2x3 - 5) ¸ (x + 1) h (x4 - 1) ¸ (x - 1)

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Insert 0x2: x3 + 3x + 2 = x3 + 0x2 + 3x + 2 5 Divide each of the cubic expressions by the given quadratic expression.
x + xx + 4 2
a (x3 + 2x2 - 8x) ¸ (x2 - 2x)
)
x − 1 x 3 + 0x 2 + 3x + 2 b (x3 - x2 + 2) ¸ (x2 + x + 2)
x3 - x2 c (x3 - 1) ¸ (x2 - x + 3)
2
x + 3x
d (2x3 + 5x2 - 5) ¸ (x2 + x - 1)
x2 - x
4x + 2
4x - 4
INVESTIGATION
6
So (x3 + 3x + 2) ¸ (x - 1) = x2 + x + 4 + 6 6 a Use long division to simplify f(x) = x + 4

x −1 x +1
b Use your answer to find the limit of f(x) as x tends

to infinity.
Exercise 9.1
c Express x 2 + 5x − 6 in the form A +
2
1 By factorising each expression where appropriate, simplify these fractions. B
x + 4x − 5 Cx + D
a x + 3x + 2 b x − 2x + 1 c x −x−6
2 2 2
x+2 x −1 x+2
e x 2+ 3x + 2x
3 2
d x − 2x − 8
2
f 4x − 4x + 1
2
x−4 x + 3x + 2 2x − 1
h x 2 + 7x + 10
2
g 6x 2 − x − 1 2x 2 − 9x + 9
2
i
162 2x + x − 1 2x + 11x + 5 2x 2 − 11x + 12 163
You can use the Remainder Theorem to evaluate the remainder

9.2 The Remainder Theorem of an algebraic division.
EXAMPLE 2
} The Remainder Theorem states that when f(x) is Similarly, when f(x) is divided by
Use the remainder theorem to find the remainder when
divided by (ax - b), where a and b are real numbers, (ax + b) the remainder is given f(x) = 3x3 - x2 - 8x - 3 is divided by
the remainder is given by f b . (a) by f ( − ba ). a x-1
b 3x + 2
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a f(1) = 3(13) - (1)2 - 8(1) - 3 The divisor is (x - 1) so

Consider the polynomial f(x). =3-1-8-3 work out f(1).
Divide f(x) by (ax - b), where a and b are real numbers, to give a new
= -9 Remainder ≠ 0 so (x - 1)
function, Q(x), and a remainder, r : is not a factor.
The remainder is -9.
f(x) r
= Q(x) +
(ax − b) (ax − b)
( − 23 ) = 3( − 23 ) − ( − 23 ) − 8( − 23 ) − 3
3 2
Multiply both sides by (ax - b):

b f
The divisor is (3x + 2) so
= 3 ( − 27 ) − 9 + 3 − 3 ( )
f(x) = (ax - b)Q(x) + r 8 4 16 2
work out f − 3 .
Let x = b :
a =1
Remainder ≠ 0 so (3x + 2)
() (
b b
f a = aa −b Q b + r
a ) () The remainder is 1. is not a factor.
f (a) = r
b
⇒
C2
C2
You can also use the Remainder Theorem to find the value
of a missing constant in a given function or expression.
EXAMPLE 3
The function, x3 + ax2 - 2x - 5, has a remainder
EXAMPLE 1
Find the remainder when (x2 + 3x - 4) is divided by (x + 2).

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of 7 when divided by (x - 2).
Let f(x) = x2 + 3x - 4 Find the value of a.
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Substitute x = -2: f(-2) = (-2)2 + 3(-2) - 4 The divisor is (x + 2) so you

=4-6-4 evaluate f(-2). Let f(x) = x3 + ax2 - 2x - 5
= -6 Substitute x = 2: f(2) = (2)3 + a(2)2 - 2(2) - 5 The divisor is (x - 2) so you
2 = 8 + 4a - 4 - 5 evaluate f(2).
Hence (x + 3x - 4) ¸ (x + 2) gives remainder -6.
Check your answer using long division:
= 4a - 1 4a - 1 is the remainder of the
division.
x +1
)
Set up an equation and solve to find a: 4a - 1 = 7 You were told that the remainder
x + 2 x + 3x 2
−4 is equal to 7.
a=2
x 2 + 2x
x -4 Hence a = 2
x +2
-6
You can find a missing constant and the remainder of a division
Both methods give the same remainder. when given an expression and one of its factors.
164 165
EXAMPLE 4 3 a If (x - a) is a factor of 2x2 + 5x - 3 use the

The expression, x3
+ - 3x - 1, is divisible exactly by (x - 1). bx2 Remainder Theorem to find the possible values of a.
Find the value of b and the remainder when the expression
is divided by (x + 3). b When f(x) = x3 - ax2 + 1 is divided by (x + 2) the
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Let f(x) = x3 + bx2 - 3x - 1 Find the remainder when f(x) is divided by (x - 2).
f(1) = 0 This follows since (x - 1) is a c The expression, x3 - 4x2 + px + 3, is divisible by (x + 3) with

factor of f(x). no remainder.
Substitute x = 1: f(1) = (1)3 + b(1)2 - 3(1) - 1 Find
=b-3
i the value of p
Equate to 0 and solve for b: b-3=0 ii the remainder
b=3
when the expression is divided by (x + 1).
Substitute b = 3 into f(x): f(x) = x3 + 3x2 - 3x - 1
Substitute x = -3: f(-3) = (-3)3 + 3(-3)2 - 3(-3) - 1 The divisor is x + 3 so you 4 The functions 2x3 + 3x - 2 and x3 + kx2 + 2x - 4,
= -27 + 27 + 9 - 1 = 8 evaluate f(-3). have the same remainder when divided by (x - 2).
Hence the remainder is 8. What is the value of k?
5 The expression, 2x3 + ax2 + b, has a remainder of 3 when

Exercise 9.2 divided by (x - 1) and a remainder of 4 when divided
1 Find the remainder when each expression is divided by the by (x - 2).
C2
C2
given linear expression. Find the values of a and b.
a x2 + 3x - 1; x + 2 b x3 - 2x2 + 3; x - 2
6 Given that f(x) = x3 + ax2 + bx + 2, f(1) = -3 and f(2) = -4
c 2x3 - 4x2 + 3x ; x - 1 d 1 - 2x - 3x2 + x3; x - 3
a find the values of a and b
e x4 - 2x2 + 4; x + 2 f 8x2 - 2x - 3; 2x - 1
g 6x2 + 4x - 1; 2x + 1 h 4x2 - 6x + 5; 2x - 3 b use the Remainder Theorem to show that (x + 2) is a factor
and hence factorise the expression completely.
i 9x3 + 2x2 - x ; 3x + 4 j 8x3 - 8x2 + x - 2; 2x - 5
k 1 - x4 ; 3x - 2 l x(2 - x)(3 + x); 4x - 3 7 a Given that f(x) = px3 + 23x2 + qx - 8
m (2x + 1)(1 - 3x)2; 2x + 1 n (x + 1)(x + 2)(x + 3); 2x + 1 and f(-1) = 15 and f(-2) = 48
i find the values of p and q
2 a The function f(x) = x2 + ax - 2 has a remainder of 3 when
ii use the Remainder Theorem to factorise the expression
divided by (x + 2). Use this to find the value of a.
completely.
b The function f(x) = ax2 - 2x + 4 has a remainder of 2 when
b Show that (x2 - 9) is a factor of x4 - x3 - 15x2 + 9x + 54
divided by the linear expression (2x - 1). Find the value of a.
and factorise the expression completely.
c Find the value of a given that x3 + 2x2 - ax + 1
has a remainder of 5 when divided by (x - 2).
INVESTIGATION
d If (x3 - 2ax2 + 4x - 5) ¸ (x - 3) leaves a remainder of -2
find the value of a. 8 For the function f(x) = x3 - 4x2 - 6x + 3, find the
remainder when f(x) is divided by
e If (x3 + 2ax2 - ax + 3) ¸ (x + 2) leaves a remainder of -15
find the value of a. a 2x + 1 b 2x - 1 c 3x.
166 167
EXAMPLE 2
9.3 The Factor Theorem Show that (x - 2) is a factor of x3 - 4x2 + x + 6
Hence factorise the expression completely.
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If (ax - b) is a factor of the polynomial f(x), then (ax - b) divides

f(x) with no remainder and a special case of the Remainder Let f(x) = x3 - 4x2 + x + 6
Theorem follows. If (x - 2) is a factor then f(2) = 0
} The Factor Theorem states that for the function f(x) Substitute x = 2: f(2) = (2)3 - 4(2)2 + (2) + 6
= 8 - 16 + 2 + 6
} ( b b
if x − a is a factor then f a = 0 ) () =0
for all real numbers a and b. f(2) = 0
Hence (x - 2) is a factor of f(x).
Divide x3 - 4x2 + x + 6 by (x - 2): This will allow you to find the
2 other factors.
Suppose that (ax - b) is a factor of f(x). x - 2x - 3
Then (ax - b) divides f(x) exactly and the remainder is )
x − 2 x 3 − 4x 2 + x + 6
equal to zero. x 3 - 2x 2
Hence, by the Remainder Theorem, -2x 2 + x
b
()
f a =0 -2x 2 + 4x
-3x + 6
-3x + 6 There is no remainder
You can use the Factor Theorem to factorise cubic expressions, 0 so (x - 2) is a factor.
C2
C2
where this is possible, and to solve cubic equations.
\ f(x) = (x - 2)(x2 - 2x - 3) = (x - 2)(x + 1)(x - 3) x2 - 2x - 3 = (x + 1)(x - 3)
EXAMPLE 1
Determine whether or not (x - 3) is a factor of the

expression, x3 - 6x2 + 5x + 12 Factorising a cubic expression allows you to sketch its curve.
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Let f(x) = x3 - 6x2 + 5x + 12

The solutions of f(x) = 0 in Example 2
If (x - 3) is a factor then f(3) = 0
are x = 2, x = -1 and x = 3.
Substitute x = 3: f(3) = (3)3 - 6(3)2 + 5(3) + 12
These correspond to the x-axis crossings of the graph of f(x)
= 27 - 54 + 15 + 12
and can be used to sketch the curve.
=0
y
f(3) = 0 f(x) = x3 − 4x2 + x + 6
10
Hence (x - 3) is a factor of f(x). 8
6
You can use the Factor Theorem with algebraic long division in 4
order to factorise an expression. 2
−3 −2 −1 O 1 2 3 4 x
−2
−4
−6
−8
−10
168 169
Sometimes you will need to use trial and improvement to find e.g. First try a = 1 followed by a = -1 2 Show that in each case the given linear expression is a factor
a value of a which gives f(a) = 0. then try a = 2 and a = -2 of f(x). Hence factorise the function, f(x), completely.
Try to structure your approach. and so on.
a f(x) = x3 + 2x2 - x - 2; x - 1 b f(x) = x3 + 4x2 + x - 6; x + 2
c f(x) = x3 + 2x2 - 11x - 12; x - 3 d f(x) = 2x3 + 15x2 + 31x + 12; x + 3
EXAMPLE 3
Factorise the expression x3 - 3x2 - 10x + 24

Hence solve the equation x3 - 3x2 - 10x + 24 = 0 e f(x) = 3x3 - 13x2 + 4x; x - 4 f f(x) = x3 - 2x2 + 3; x + 1
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g f(x) = x3 + x2 + 2x + 8; x + 2 h f(x) = 3x3 + 13x2 - 16; x + 4

Let f(x) = x3 - 3x2 - 10x + 24
Use trial and improvement to find a which gives f(a) = 0: 3 Use the Factor Theorem to factorise each expression fully.
f(1) = 1 - 3 - 10 + 24 = 12 f(1) ¹ 0 so (x - 1) is not a factor of f(x). a x3 - 4x2 + x + 6 b x3 + 5x2 - 2x - 24 c x3 + 7x2 + 2x - 40
f(-1) = -1 - 3 + 10 + 24 = 30 f(-1) ¹ 0 so (x + 1) is not a factor of f(x). d x3 - 6x2 + 11x - 6 e x3 - 2x2 - 23x + 60 f 2x3 + 5x2 - x - 6
f(2) = 8 - 12 - 20 + 24 = 0 f(2) = 0 so (x - 2) is a factor of f(x). 4 By factorising find all the solutions to each equation.
Divide f(x) by (x - 2) to find the other factors: a 4x3 + 16x2 + 19x + 6 = 0 b 4x3 - 27x + 27 = 0
x 2 - x - 12 c 12x3 + 25x2 + x - 2 = 0 d 6x3 + 37x2 + 58x + 24 = 0
)
x − 2 x − 3x 2 − 10x + 24 3
x 3 - 2x 2 5 a If (x - 1) is a factor of x3 + 3x2 - 4a + 2, find the value of a.

-x 2 - 10x
b Given that (x + 2) is a factor of x3 + ax2 + 2x + 4, find the value of a.
-x 2 + 2x
C2
C2
-12x + 24 c If (x - 3) is a factor of 2x3 - 3x2 + ax - 6, find the value of a.
-12x + 24
d If (x + 1) and (x - 2) are both factors of x3 + bx2 + ax - 1,
0
find the values of a and b.
Hence f(x) = (x - 2)(x2 - x - 12) e Given that (x - 1) and (x + 2) are both factors of
= (x - 2)(x + 3)(x - 4) After factorising the quadratic x3 + ax2 + bx + 3, find the values of a and b.
Hence the solutions of f(x) = 0 are x = -3, x = 2 and x = 4. f Given that (x + 1), (x - 1) and (x - 2) are all factors of the
expression x4 + ax3 + bx2 + cx + 8, find, by solving simultaneous
equations, the values of the constants a, b and c.
EXAMPLE 4
If (x - 2) is a factor of f(x) = x3 - 3x2 + a, find the value of a. Take care with the signs. g Show, by using the factor theorem, that (a + b) is a factor
Remember:
of the expression 2a3 + 7a2b + 7ab2 + 2b3.
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(x - 2) is a factor so f(2) = 8 - 12 + a = 0 if (x + a) is a factor of f(x) then

x = -a is a solution of f(x) = 0; Write the expression as the product of three factors.
Hence a = 4 if (x - a) is a factor of f(x) then
x = a is a solution of f(x) = 0.
INVESTIGATION
Exercise 9.3 6 This is the graph of the function y
1 For each function, f(x), find whether or not the given linear f(x) = x3 - 3x2 + kx + 8. 8
expression is a factor. Use the graph to find the
value of k.
a f(x) = x2 - x - 6; x + 2 b f(x) = x3 + x2 - x - 1; x + 1
Hence find the values
c f(x) = x3 + 5x2 + 8x + 4; x + 2 d f(x) = x3 - 6x2 + 12x - 8; x - 2 of the other x-intercepts. −2 O x
e f(x) = x3 - 3x2 - 9x + 27; x - 3 f f(x) = 4x3 + 8x2 + 5x + 1; x + 2
g f(x) = x3 + 5x2 + 5x - 3; x + 3 h f(x) = 2x3 - x2 + 6x - 3; 2x - 1
170 171
8 The function f(x) = x3 - 2x2 + ax + b, where a and b are constants.

Review 9
(x - 3) is a factor of f(x).
When f(x) is divided by (x + 1), the remainder is 28.
1a Divide 2x3 + x2 - 7x - 6 by (x + 1)
a Find the value of a and the value of b
b Factorise the function, f(x) = 2x3 + x2 - 7x - 6, completely.
b Find the remainder when f(x) is divided by (x - 2).
c Hence solve f(x) = 0
9a Use the factor theorem to show that (x + 2) is a factor of
2 If (x + a) is a factor of x2 - 8x + 15,
find the possible values of a. x3 - x2 - 10x - 8
b Hence find all the solutions of the equation
3a Show that (x - 2) is a factor of
x3 - 10x2 + 31x - 30 x3 - x2 - 10x - 8 = 0
b Factorise completely the expression
10 Show that (x - y) is a factor of the function in x and y given by f(x, y) is a function of
x3 - 10x2 + 31x - 30 both variables x and y.
f(x, y) = x2(y - 2) + y2(2 - x) + 4(x - y)
c Hence sketch the graph of the cubic.
Hence, or otherwise, factorise f(x, y) completely.
4a Use the factor theorem to show that (x - 3) is a factor
of 2x3 + x2 - 25x + 12 11 a The function f(x) = 4x3 + ax2 + bx + c,
where a, b and c are constants.
C2
C2
b Factorise 2x3 + x2 - 25x + 12 completely.
If f(2) = 0, f(1) = 3 and f(-1) = -15, find the values of the
3 2 constants a, b and c.
5 The function f(x) = 2x + 3x - 29x + c,
where c is a constant.
b Factorise f(x).
Given that f(-3) = 0
a find the value of c 12 Factorise 4a4 - 5a2b2 + b4 completely.
b factorise f(x) completely
c find the remainder when f(x) is divided by (x + 2).
6 The function f(x) = x3 + 4x2 + x - 6

a Use the factor theorem to show that (x + 2) is
a factor of f(x).
b Factorise f(x) completely.
c Write down all the solutions to the
equation x3 + 4x2 + x - 6 = 0 [(c) Edexcel Limited 2007]
7 The function f(x) = 2x3 + 9x2 + 7x - 6

a Find the remainder when f(x) is divided by (x + 1).
b Use the factor theorem to show that (x + 3) is a factor of f(x).
c Factorise f(x) completely.
172 173
You can find the length of a chord of a circle.

10.1 Coordinate geometry of the circle
Let A(x1, y1) and B(x2, y2) be points on the circumference
of the circle.
Given the coordinates of the ends of a diameter of a circle
you can find the coordinates of its centre. Draw a right-angled triangle ABC as shown in the diagram:
Let the diameter, AB, have coordinates A(x1, y1) Length of AC = x2 - x1 y

and B(x2, y2) and the centre of the circle be B (x2, y2) and length of BC = y2 - y1 B (x2, y2)
at the point given by O(x, y).
O (x, y) Apply Pythagoras’ theorem: y2 – y1
The point O is midway between points A and B. A (x1, y1)
AB2 = AC2 + BC2 x2 – x1 C
Hence AB2 = (x2 - x1)2 + (y2 - y1)2
} The coordinates of the centre of the circle, O, are A
(x1, y1) x
x1 + x2 y +y Take square roots on both sides:
x= and y = 1 2
2 2
AB = [(x2 − x1) + (y 2 − y1) ]
2 2
This is the mean of the x and y values. See Chapter 0 on the CD-ROM
for revision on the length and
You can use this technique in any circle.
You can then use Pythagoras’ theorem to find the radius of midpoint of a line segment.
the circle.
EXAMPLE 2
Find the length of chord AB if A = (-2, 3) and B = (1, 5). y
EXAMPLE 1
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B (1, 5)
The points A(3, 4) and B(-1, 6) are the end points of
a diameter. A = (-2, 3) so x1 = -2 and y1 = 3
C2
C2
a Find the coordinates of the centre of the circle. B = (1, 5) so x2 = 1 and y2 = 5 A (−2, 3)
b Find the radius of the circle. Substitute the values into the formula:
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a Let the centre of the circle, O, have coordinates (x, y). AB = [(x2 − x1)2 + (y 2 − y1)2] x
x1 + x2 A = (3, 4) and B = (-1, 6)
x=
AB = [(1 − −2 ) + ( 5 − 3 ) ]
2 2
2 so x1 = 3 and x2 = -1. Take care with the signs when
3 + ( −1)
= = [9 + 4 ]
substituting.
2
= 2 =1
2 = 13
y1 + y 2
and y= y1 = 4 and y2 = 6. Hence length of the chord AB = 3.61 units correct to 3 s.f.
2
= 4+6
2 Consider a circle with centre at the point O.
= 5
Let AB be a chord of the circle and
Hence the centre of the circle has coordinates (1, 5). M be the midpoint of the chord AB.
O
B
b The radius of the circle is the line OA
which has end points O(1, 5) and A(3, 4). B (−1, 6) } The perpendicular bisector of the chord AB, which
M
intersects AB at the midpoint M, passes through
Use Pythagoras’ theorem to find OA: A
O (1, 5) the centre of the circle, O.
OA2 = (x1 - x)2 + (y1 - y)2 5–4
OA2 = (3 - 1)2 + (4 - 5)2 A (3, 4)

3–1 You can use this information to find the perpendicular distance
=4+1=5 of the chord AB from the centre O.
176 OA = 5 177
EXAMPLE 3 You will often need to recall and use the circle theorems See the bridging chapter for a
The points A(3, 4) and B(5, 10) are on the you met at GCSE. reminder of the basic circle
circumference of the circle with centre O(10, 5). You may find that a sketch helps theorems.
Find the perpendicular distance of the chord AB from you to visualise the problem.
} The angle at the centre of a circle is twice the angle at the
the centre of the circle O. y circumference from the same arc.
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B (5, 10)
Let M(x3, y3) be the midpoint of the chord AB.
Use the formula for the midpoint of a line to find the values of x3 and y3: M (4, 7) Draw the radius CO and extend it to D: C
O (10, 5) AO = OC
x1 + x2 3 + 5 (they are both radii) x y
x3 = = =4 ÐOAC = ÐOCA = x (isosceles triangle)
2 2 A (3, 4)
y +y
y3 = 1 2 = 4 + 10 = 7 ÐCOA = 180° - 2x (angles in a triangle) O
2 2 ÐAOD = 2x (angles on a straight line) x
Hence M = (4, 7) O x
You can use a similar method to show that ÐDOB = 2y A D
B
Use the distance formula to calculate the distance OM: Hence ÐACB = x + y
A = (3, 4) so x1 = 3 and y1 = 4
B = (5, 10) so x2 = 5 and y2 = 10 and ÐAOB = 2x + 2y as required.
OM = [( 4 − 10 ) + (7 − 5 ) ]
2 2
M = (4, 7) so x3 = 4 and y3 = 7
O = (10, 5) so x = 10 and y = 5
= [36 + 4] You can use this circle theorem to prove other results.
= 40 C
EXAMPLE 5
Prove that the angle in a semicircle is a right angle.
C2
C2
= 6.32 ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
A
Hence the perpendicular distance from the centre of the Angle AOB at the centre = 180° O
circle to the chord is 6.32 units correct to 3 s.f. 180°
Angle at centre = 2 ´ angle at circumference B
You can solve problems involving chords of circles. So angle ACB at circumference = 90°
EXAMPLE 4
The points A(p, -2) and B(3, q) are the ends of } The angle between a tangent } The perpendicular line
the diameter of a circle with centre O(2, -4). and the radius at the point from the centre of a
Find the values of p and q. of contact (where the circle to a chord
Try to show these results for
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tangent touches the circle) bisects the chord. yourself.
Use the midpoint formula: A (p, −2) is a right angle.
A = (p, -2)
B = (3, q)
O (2, −4)
and O = (2, -4)
O O
O is the midpoint of AB.
T
A
Substitute the known values into the midpoint formula: B (3, q)
A M
p+3 −2 +q x +x y +y
2= -4 = using x = 1 2 and y = 1 2 B
2 2 2 2
4=p+3 -8 = -2 + q A is the point of contact between OM is perpendicular to
p=1 q = -6 the tangent and the circle. the chord AB.
Angle OAT = 90° AM = MB
Hence the values are p = 1 and q = -6.
178 179
Exercise 10.1 7 The lines, y = 3x + 2 and y = -2x + 3, are chords of the circle
1 The coordinates of the end points of the diameter, AB, of a which intersect at the point P.
circle are given. Find the coordinates of the centre of each circle. Find the distance of P from the centre of the circle O(1, 2).
a A (0, 3); B (4, 3) b A (1, 7); B (2, 5)
8 The points A(2, 3), B(-4, 3), and C(1, 5) lie on the
2 ( ) ( )
c A 3, 4 ; B 7, 5
2
d A (-1, 3); B (4, 5) circumference of a circle.
a Find the equations of the perpendicular bisectors of
A ( 2 , 3 ); B ( 2 , 3 ) ( ) ( )
−
7 4− −
5 5 5 ; B −7, 3
e f A 2, − chords AB and BC.
4 4
b Hence find the coordinates of the centre of the circle.
g A (0.4, 3); B (-1.5, -2.6) h A ( 2 2, − 3 ); B ( 4 2, −2 3 )
9 The points A(4, 2), B(5, 6), and C(0, 3) lie on the
2 Find the length of the chord joining the points A and B on the circumference of a circle. Show that the angle BAC is a right
circumference of each circle. Give your answers correct to three angle and hence determine the coordinates of the centre of
significant figures. the circle and the radius of the circle.
a A (3, 1); B (5, 7) b A (5, 3); B (2, 1) c A (-2, -3); B (4, 2) Write the radius correct to two decimal places.
d A (2, -3); B(-5, 0) e A (-2, 5); B (-2, 7) (2 2) (2 2)

f A 1 , 1 1 ; B 7 , −2 1 10 A circle passes through the points (0, 0), (0, 5) and (3, 0).
a Use this information to find the coordinates of the centre
3 Find the distance of the chord, AB, from the centre, O, of each circle. of the circle.
a centre (1, 3); chord A (0, 1), B (4, 3) b Determine the radius of the circle.
C2
C2
b centre (4, 7); chord A (1, 3), B (2, 5) 11 The line y + 2x = 3 crosses the x-axis at the point A and
the y-axis at the point B.
c centre (-1, 2); chord A (-3, 2), B (4, -4)
a If AB is a diameter of a circle find the coordinates of
d centre (-3, -2); chord A (1, 5), B (3, 9) the centre.
e centre (2, -4); chord A (1, -3), B (4, 6) b Show that the circle passes through the point (0, 0) and
give reasons for your conclusion.
f ( 2 2) ( ) (2 )
centre 1 1 , −2 1 ; chord A 3, −1 1 , B 1 1 , 3
2
12 Two circles intersect at (5, 8).
The centres of the circles have coordinates (2, 4) and (7, a),
4 The diameter of each circle is AB and the centre is at O.
where a is a constant.
Find the coordinates of point B.
The radii drawn from the centres of the circles to this point
a A (1, 3); O (3, 5) b A (2, 5), O (-2, 4) c A (4, 5); O (-3, -4) of intersection are perpendicular to each other.
d A (-2, 0); O (4, -5) (2 2)
e A 1 , 2 1 ; O (3, 1) f A (0, -3); O (-2, 3) a Determine the value of the constant a.
b Using this value of a find the equation of the straight line
5 a Find the equation of the perpendicular bisector of the joining the centres of the two circles.
chord, AB, where A is (2, 5) and B is (3, 8).
b The points A(a, 3) and B(4, b) are the ends of INVESTIGATION
a diameter of a circle with centre (1, 5).
13 A circle has a chord with end points A(1, 2) and B(5, 6).
Find the values of the constants a and b.
6 The ends of a diameter, AB, have coordinates A(1, 5) and

(2 )
The centre of the circle is C 1 , 4 .
Is AB a diameter of the circle?
180
B(4, 6) and the point C(2, 7) lies on the circumference of the 181
same circle. Show that triangle ABC is a right-angled triangle.
You can find the equation of a circle given its centre

10.2 Equation of a circle and radius.
EXAMPLE 2
Sketching a graph may help you
} The equation of a circle with radius r and centre C (a, b) is Write down the equation of the circle with centre (-3, 2) and to visualise the problem:
(x - a)2 + (y - b)2 = r2 radius 4 cm. y
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A circle with centre (a, b) and radius r has an equation

of the form (−3, 2) 4
Consider a circle of radius, r, with centre C (a, b). y
(x - a)2 + (y - b)2 = r 2
Let point P (x, y) be any point P (x, y) x
on the circumference of the circle. Substitute a = -3, b = 2 and r = 4:
r y–b
Triangle PBC is right-angled, and C (a, b) B The equation of the circle is
x–a
CB = x - a (x + 3)2 + (y - 2)2 = 16 Take care with signs.
BP = y - b
Apply Pythagoras’ theorem to triangle PBC: O x Sometimes you will need to rearrange the equation of a circle
into the standard form before you can find its centre and radius.
CB2 + BP2 = CP2
CP is the radius of the circle.
EXAMPLE 3
(x - a)2 + (y - b)2 = r 2
The equation of a circle is given by x2 + y2 - 4y - 5 = 0
C2
C2
Find the centre of the circle and its radius.
The general equation of a circle centred at O (0, 0) is
Try to show this for yourself. ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
x2 + y2 = r2 x2 + y2 - 4y - 5 = 0 You need to rewrite the

Rewrite: x2 + y2 - 4y = 5 equation in the form
(x ± a)2 + (y ± b)2 = r²
You can find the radius and centre point of a circle given There is only one term in x.
its equation. This comes from the x-bracket, (x + 0)2
The y-terms must come from a perfect square of the
EXAMPLE 1
The equation of a circle is (x + 2) + (y - 4) = 9 2 2 form (y ± b)2

Find the centre and the radius of the circle. Complete the square for the y-terms: Coefficient of y: -4
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halve it: -2
The equation of the circle is (x + 2)2 + (y - 4)2 = 9 y2 - 4y = y2 - 4y + 4 - 4 square it: 4
= (y - 2)2 - 4 add/subtract it.
Compare this with the general equation (x - a)2 + (y - b)2 = r 2
which has centre (a, b) and radius r. Rewrite the equation with the brackets:
Hence the centre of the circle is (-2, 4) and the radius is 3. (x + 0)2 + (y - 2)2 - 4 = 5
Rearrange: (x + 0)2 + (y - 2)2 = 9
Compare this equation with (x - a)2 + (y - b)2 = r2.
The centre is at (a, b) and
Hence the centre of the circle is (0, 2) and the radius is 3. the radius is r.
182 183
You can solve problems involving circles and lines. You can show if a given line touches or intersects a given circle.
There are three possibilities.
EXAMPLE 5
Show that the y-axis is a tangent to the circle (x - 2)2 + (y + 5)2 = 4 The point where a tangent
The line is a tangent to The line intersects the The line doesn’t intersect and find the point of contact. touches a circle is called
the circle (the line touches circle at two points. or touch the circle at any Show also that the circle does not intersect the x-axis. the point of contact.
the circle at a point). point. ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
The circle (x - 2)2 + (y + 5)2 = 4 meets the y-axis where x = 0. y

O
Substitute x = 0 into the equation: (0 - 2)2 + (y + 5)2 = 4 x
A Simplify and solve for y: 4 + (y + 5)2 = 4
A (y + 5)2 = 0
B
Hence y = -5 and, as this is the only solution, the line x = 0
One solution. Two solutions. No solutions. (2, −5)
must be a tangent to the circle at the point (0, -5).
You can find the points of intersection by solving the equations The circle intersects with the x-axis where y = 0.
of the circle and line simultaneously.
Substitute y = 0 into the equation of the circle:
EXAMPLE 4
The line y = x - 1 intersects the circle (x + 4)2 + (y - 1)2 = 68 y (x - 2)2 + (0 + 5)2 = 4

at points A and B. y=x−1 Expand: x2 - 4x + 4 + 25 = 4
Find A x2 - 4x + 25 = 0
a the coordinates of A and B (−4, 1)
C2
C2
b the length of AB. x Investigate the discriminant, b2 - 4ac: a = 1, b = -4, c = 25
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b2 - 4ac = (-4)2 - 4(1)(25) Take care with the signs.

a Substitute y = x - 1 into the circle equation: = 16 - 100 = -84
B
(x + 4)2 + (x - 2)2 = 68 x-1-1=x-2 b2 < 4ac and so the quadratic has no solutions. Alternatively, you could have
Expand the brackets and solve for x: inferred this since the circle
Hence the circle does not intersect the x-axis. has centre (2, -5) and radius 2.
x2 + 8x + 16 + x2 - 4x + 4 = 68
Simplify: 2x2 + 4x - 48 = 0
2(x2 + 2x - 24) = 0 Exercise 10.2
x2 + 2x - 24 = 0 2(x2 + 2x - 24) = 0 1 In the following examples write down
and since 2 ¹ 0
Factorise: (x + 6)(x - 4) = 0 x2 + 2x - 24 = 0 i the coordinates of the centre
The solutions are x = 4 and x = -6. ii the radius of the circle.
a (x + 1)2 + y2 = 9 b (x + 2)2 + (y - 1)2 = 9
Substitute the x-values into y = x - 1 to find the y-values: Make sure that you pair the x-
when x = 4; y = 4 - 1 = 3, and y-values together correctly. c (x - 3)2 + (y - 2)2 = 16 d (x - 2 )2 + (y + 3 )2 = 4
and when x = -6; y = -6 - 1 = -7.
e (x - 2 3 )2 + (y + 3 )2 = 3 f (x2 - 2x + 1) + (y2 + 4y + 4) = 4
Hence the points of intersection are A(4, 3) and B(-6, -7).
b Find the length of AB: 2 Given the coordinates of the centre of the circle and its radius
write down the equation of each circle.
AB = [(x2 − x1)2 + (y 2 − y1)2] = [( −6 − 4 )2 + ( −7 − 3 )2] A = (4, 3)
B = (-6, -7) a C (1, 2); r = 2 b C (-1, 0); r = 1
= [102 + 102] = 200 Take care with the signs. c C (-2, 2); r = 3 d C (3, -4); r = 2
184
Hence the length of the chord AB is 200 or 10 2 units.
e C (- 2 , - 3 ); r = 7 f C 1, −1 ; r = 1 (2 2) 4 185
3 a The equation of a circle is given by x2 - 4x + y2 + 3 = 0 9 The line, y = x + 3, intersects the circle with equation
Find the coordinates of the centre of the circle and the radius. (x - 2)2 + (y - 5)2 = 18 at the points A and B.
Find the coordinates of A and B. Show that the line
b Show that the centre of the circle with equation
AB is a diameter.
x2 + y2 + 4x - 2y + 1 = 0 is at (-2, 1).
Hence determine the radius of the circle.
10 The line, y = x + a, where a is a constant, is a tangent to
the circle (x - 4)2 + (y - 1)2 = 16
4 a Show that the point (3, -4) lies on the circle with equation
Find the two possible values of a, writing your values
(x - 2)2 + (y + 3)2 = 2
correct to two decimal places.
b Determine whether the point (2, 7) lies on the circumference
of the circle with equation (x + 3)2 + (y - 2)2 = 50 11 a The circle (x + 3)2 + (y - 4)2 = 17 intersects the x-axis
at the points A and B. Find the length of AB.
c The point (2, 3) lies on the circumference of the circle
with equation (x + 1)2 + (y - 2)2 = a2, where a is a constant. b Find the coordinates of the points where the circle
Find the value of a. x2 + y2 - 10x - 9y = 0 intersects the x-and y-axes.
Determine the coordinates of the centre of the circle.
5 a Find the equation of the circle with centre (3, 2) which
c The circle (x + 4)2 + (y + 4)2 = 20 crosses the x-axis at the
passes through the point (5, 4).
points A and B and the y-axis at points C and D.
b The diameter of a circle has end points at (1, 3) and (7, -5). Find the area of the quadrilateral ABCD.
Find the equation of the circle.
d The circle (x - 1)2 + (y + 4)2 = 10 intersects with the
c Determine whether the point (-2, 3) lies inside or outside y-axis at points A and B. Given that point O is the centre
C2
C2
the circle whose equation is (x + 3)2 + (y - 1)2 = 4 of the circle show that lines OA and OB are equally
inclined to the x-axis.
6 The equation of a circle is given by x2 + y2 + 6x - 4y + 4 = 0
e The line y = 0 is a tangent to the circle (x + 3)2 + (y - 3)2 = 9
Prove that the line with equation y = x + 5 passes through
at the point P.
the centre of this circle.
Show that x = 0 is also a tangent to the circle at
a point Q.
7 a Show that the line 2y + x = 18 is a tangent to the circle
If O is the centre of the circle determine the area of the
(x - 2)2 + (y - 3)2 = 20
triangle OPQ.
Determine the coordinates of the point of contact.
b Show that the line 2y + x = 11 is a tangent to the circle with
equation (x + 2)2 + (y - 4)2 = 5 and find the coordinates of INVESTIGATION
the point of contact. 12 Box A shows equations of different circles.
Box B gives their corresponding centres.
8 a The line y = 2x + 1 intersects the circle (x - 2)2 + (y - 1)2 = 16
a Match each equation with its centre.
at the points A and B. Find the coordinates of A and B.
b Give an example of a circle to match the extra centre.
b The line y = x - 3 touches the circle (x + 3)2 + (y + 2)2 = 8
at point A. Find the coordinates of A. A B
x2 - 6x + y2 - 4y - 10 = 0 (3, -2)
c Show that the line y + x = 1 intersects the circle (2, 3)
(x - 4)2 + (y + 3)2 = 2 at the points A and B and hence determine x2 - 6x + y2 + 4y - 24 = 0
(2, -4)
the coordinates of these two points. x2 - 4x + y2 + 8y - 4 = 0 (3, 2)
d The line y = x + 2 and the circle (x - 1)2 + (y + 4)2 = 25 intersect at x2 + 4x + y2 - 8y + 3 = 0 (-2, 4)
the points P and Q. Find the coordinates of P and Q.
186 187
8 The line y = 3x - 4 is a tangent to the circle, C, y y = 3x − 4

Review 10 touching C at the point P, (2, 2),
as shown in the figure. P (2, 2) C
1 GCSE exam question The point Q is the centre of C. Q
P, Q, R and S are points on a circumference of a circle, centre O. P a Find the equation of the straight line x
O
PR is a diameter of the circle. through P and Q.
Angle PSQ = 56°.
S 56° Given that Q lies on the line, y = 1
a Find the size of angle PQR. O b show that the x-coordinate of Q is 5
Give a reason for your answer.
c find an equation for C. [(c) Edexcel Limited 2006]
b Find the size of angle PRQ. Q
Give a reason for your answer. R 9 In the figure, A(3, 0), and B(1, 6), y
c Find the size of angle POQ. are the end points of B

C
Give a reason for your answer. [(c) Edexcel Limited 2003]
a diameter of the circle C.
Find
2 The points A (3, 0) and B (8, 5) lie on the circumference of a circle. a the exact length of AB P
Find the equation of the perpendicular bisector of the chord AB.
b the coordinates of the
3 A circle has centre at O (3, -2) midpoint, P, of AB
Point A (-2, 5) lies on the circumference of the circle. O A
c an equation for the circle C.
Determine the radius of the circle and find the coordinates
C2
C2
of B, the other end of the diameter AOB.
10 The circle, C, has centre (4, 5) and passes through
4 Write down the equation of the circle which has centre the point (2, -1).
(-2, 5) and radius 5. Find an equation for C.
Show that the circle crosses the y-axis at two points and
that the x-axis is a tangent to the circle. 11 The points A and B have coordinates (3, -2) and
(9, 6) respectively.
5 The line y = x - 2 intersects the circle (x + 1)2 + (y + 3)2 = 8 at the
points A and B. Find the coordinates of A and B. Draw a diagram. a Find the coordinates of the midpoint of AB.
6 A circle has centre (a, b) and radius 4. b > 0 Given that AB is a diameter of the circle C
The circle crosses the x-axis at the points (-2, 0) and (2, 0). b find an equation for C.
Find the equation of the circle.
Find the coordinates of the points where the circle crosses 12 The circle x2 + y2 + 8x - 6y + 16 = 0 has centre at the point (p, q).
the y-axis, giving your answers in a simplified surd form. Find the value of p and the value of q.
Show that the line y = 2x + 11 is a diameter of the circle.
7 The circle, C, with centre A, has equation x2 + y2 - 8y + 12 = 0 Find the radius of the circle.
Find Determine the x-coordinates of the ends of the diameter,
a the coordinates of A giving your answer correct to two decimal places.
b the radius of C. 13 The equation of a circle is x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0

c Show that C does not intersect or touch the x-axis. where g, f and c are constants.
Show that the centre of the circle is at the point (-g, -f ) and
d Find the coordinates of the points at which the circle crosses find an expression for the radius in terms of g, f and c.
the y-axis. Hence, or otherwise, find the coordinates of the centre of
Given that the line, L, with gradient 1 passes through A the circle, and the exact radius, of the circle with equation
2 2x2 + 2y2 + 6x - 3y - 2 = 0
188 e find the equation of the line L. 189
11 Exponentials and logarithms
Exercise 11.1
11.1 Exponential graphs 1 If the equation of the curve is y = ax, sketch the curve of the y y = ax
equation y = a-x
The general equation of an exponential function is e.g. y = 2x 2 a Plot the graph of the equation y = (1.5)x taking values of
y = ax, where a is a positive constant (a > 0) x from -3 to +3. (0, 1)
f(x) = e x is a special exponential
You can investigate the graph of y = ax function. This is covered in C3. b Plot the graph of y = 4x and, on the same axes, the graph O x
( 4 ) taking values of x from -2 to +2.

x
of y = 1
EXAMPLE 1
Sketch the graph of a y = 2x b y = 2-x for -5 / x / 5

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c Plot the graph of y = (0.5)x for -4 / x / 4.
Make a table of values: The x-axis is an asymptote
to both curves. 3 Plot the graphs of y = 5x and y = (0.2)x on the same axes for the
x -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 interval -2 / x / 2.
2x 0.03 0.06 0.13 0.25 0.5 1 2 4 8 16 32 Since 20 = 1 the curves cross
2-x 32 16 8 4 2 1 0.5 0.25 0.13 0.06 0.03
the y-axis at (0, 1). 4 Plot the graph of the equation y = 3-x for -3 / x / 3.
y For large positive values of x 5 a Plot the graphs of y = 2x and the straight line y = 6
a y
y = 2x b y = 2−x the graph of y = 2x rises very
5 5 from x = 0 to x = 3.
steeply.
Write down an estimate of the coordinates of the point
For large negative values of x the where the line and the curve intersect.
graph of y = 2x approaches the Hence, deduce an approximate solution to the equation 2x = 6.
C2
C2
x-axis but never meets or crosses it.
1 1 b Plot the graphs of y = 2-x and the straight line y = 10
from x = -4 to x = 0.
O x O x The graph of y = 2-x is a reflection
of y = 2x in the y-axis.
Hence find, from the graph, an approximate solution to the
equation 2-x = 10.
} The graph of the function y = a-x is a reflection in the 6 Plot the graphs of y = 3x and the straight line y = x + 3
y-axis of the graph of the function y = ax. from x = 0 to x = 2.
From your graph find an approximate solution to the equation
3x = x + 3 in the given range.
Consider the graphs y For larger positive values of x each
y = 3x
of the functions y = 2x, y = 3x 16
y= 4x
curve rises very steeply. 7 a Plot the graphs of y = 2x and y = x2 in the interval 0 / x / 3.
y = 2x
and y = 4x drawn on the 14 Hence show that there is a solution to the equation x2 = 2x
same diagram: 12 in the given interval.
10
8 b By extending the interval of values of x show that there are two solutions
6 to the equation x2 = 2x and use your graph to estimate the other solution.
Each curve crosses the y-axis
4 at (0, 1).
2 INVESTIGATIONS
(0, 1) The x-axis is an asymptote to each
−3 −2 −1 O 1 2 3 4 x curve. 8 a Compare the values of 22x and 4x for -2 / x / 5.
What do you notice?
b Deduce the relationship between the graphs of 27x and 33x
Graphs of the type y = a with a > 0 x x 0 1 2 3
} are of a similar shape with the x-axis as an asymptote 9 Look at this table of values for an exponential function. 1
f(x) 2 1 2 4
} pass through the point (0, 1). Since a0 = 1 for all a > 0. Can you deduce the equation of the function?
192 193
11.2 Logarithms } Generally loga a = 1 Since a1 = a for all a > 0.

loga 1 = 0 Since a0 = 1 for all a > 0.
for all a > 0.
Consider the exponential equation x = a y
You say that y is the logarithm of x to the base a.
EXAMPLE 3
You write this as y = loga x Find the value of
a log7 7 b log7 1
} x = ay Û y = loga x Û means ‘if and only if ’. ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
a 71 = 7 b 70 = 1
The logarithm of x to base a is the power to which a must be so log7 7 = 1 so log7 1 = 0
raised to give x.
You can write expressions involving indices as logarithms. Your calculator can work with logarithms to the base 10. Your calculator can also work with
You should be able to do calculations involving logarithms using logarithms to the base e, known
EXAMPLE 1
Write in logarithmic form your calculator. as natural logarithms (ln). These

are covered in C3.
a 27 = 128 b 34 = 81 c 105 = 100 000
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EXAMPLE 4
a 27 = 128 Work out the values of the following on your calculator,
so log2 128 = 7 giving the answers correct to three significant figures.
a log10 5 b log10 0.05 c log10 p Use the log key.
C2
C2
b 34 = 81 ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
so log3 81 = 4
a log10 5 = 0.699 100.699... = 5
5
c 10 = 100 000
b log10 0.05 = -1.30
so log10 100000 = 5
c log10 p = 0.497
You can reverse the process.
You can take logarithms to find missing powers when working in
EXAMPLE 2
Find the value of each logarithm. base 10 using your calculator.

a i log10 100 ii log10 1000
b i log4 64 ii log2 64
EXAMPLE 5
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Find the value of x such that 10x = 2900
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a i log10 100
Write in logarithmic form: log10 2900 = x
102 = 100 so log10 100 = 2
ii log10 1000 Use your calculator: x = 3.46 to 3 s.f.
103 = 1000 so log10 1000 = 3
b i log4 64
43 = 64 so log4 64 = 3
Exercise 11.2
1 Write each of the following expressions in logarithmic form.
ii log2 64
a 29 = 512 b 37 = 2187
26 = 64 so log2 64 = 6
c 105 = 100 000 d (0.5)4 = 0.0625
e (5)-2 = 0.04 f 201 = 20
194 195
11 Exponentials and logarithms 11 Exponentials and logarithms
2 Work out the value of each logarithm.

INVESTIGATIONS
a log10 1000 b log2 64
6 a Choose a number from the box for the base of
c log3 81 d log5 () 1
5
each of these logarithms.
log… 16 = 2
log ( 1 )
4 0
e log6 216 f 4 log… 64 = 3
64 5 6
log… 25 = 2
3 Use your calculator to find these values. 1 8
Write your answers to three significant figures. log… 1 = 0
3 9
a log10 8 b log10 27 log… 1 = -2
9 10 16
log… 100 = 2
2
c log10 515 d log10 3756 log… 1 = -1
2
e log10 1 (2) f log10 5

b For each number not used in part a write a new
logarithmic expression which uses this number
as the base.
g log10 ( 3) h log10 0.0001
2
7 Calculations are simple if log equations have integer
1 9
i log10 j log10 11 solutions.
( 2)
For example, if you are given log 1 then choose log 5 1 = − 2
C2
C2
25 25
4 Rewrite each of the following in index form, ax = n, and the base 5 to give the integer solution -2.
then find the value of n. Choose bases for the following logarithms so that
Give your answers correct to three significant figures their solutions have integer values.
where appropriate.
a log2 n = 8 b log2 n = 4 a log 1
16
c log3 n = 3 d log3 n = 1 b log 125
e log10 n = -1 f log10 n = -2 c log 1
81
g log4 n = 0.5 h log5 n = -3 d log 64
i log7 n = 0.25 j log2 n = -9
8 a Use the mathematical symbols +, -, ´, ¸ and = to
5 Find the base a of each of the given logarithms. make each logarithmic equation true.
a loga 4 = 2 b loga 27 = 3 i log10 10 log10 100 log10 1000
c loga 1000 = 3 d loga 64 = 6 ii log10 5 log10 3 log10 15
iii log10 1000 log10 100 log10 10
e loga 64 = 2 f loga 243 = 5
iv log10 8 log10 2 log10 4
g loga 81 = 4 h loga 10 = 1
Hence deduce the value, without using a calculator, of
b log10 20 + log10 5
c log10 20 - log10 2
196 197
EXAMPLE 2
11.3 The laws of logarithms Write each logarithm as the difference between
two logarithms.
If p = loga x and q = loga y p = loga x q = loga y a log5 7 (2) b log3 4 (3)

then ap = x and aq = y ap = x aq = y ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
From the laws of indices it follows that Use the law for subtracting logarithms in reverse in each case:
xy = ap × aq
= a(p+q) (2)
a log5 7 = log5 7 - log5 2
and so loga (xy) = p + q
b log ( 4 ) = log 4 - log 3
3 3 3
3
Hence the general rule = log3 4 - 1 loga a = 1 for all a > 0.
} loga (xy) = loga x + loga y

Now consider p = loga x
so that ap = x
You can use this rule to write the sum of two logarithms
of the same base as a single logarithm. The laws of indices imply that
xn = apn
and so loga (xn) = pn
EXAMPLE 1
C2
C2
Write log2 4 + log2 3 as a single logarithm.
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Use the law for addition of logarithms: Hence the general rule
log2 4 + log2 3 = log2 (4 ´ 3)
= log2 12 } loga (xn) = n loga x
Again let p = loga x and q = loga y A special case of this rule is loga 1 ( p)
so that ap = x and aq = y
Since 1 = p-1
p
()
From the laws of indices it follows that
x = ap it follows that loga 1p = loga p-1
y aq
Apply the rule loga (xn) = n loga x:
( p)
= a(p-q)
loga 1 = -1 ´ loga p
and so loga () x
y
=p-q
Hence the general rule } loga 1 = -loga x (x)

}
(y)
loga x = loga x - loga y
You can use the rules of logarithms to simplify expressions.
198 You can use this rule to rewrite logarithms in a required form. 199
EXAMPLE 5
EXAMPLE 3
Simplify a log3 34 b log2 32 Express each of the following in terms of log a, log b and log c. The base of the logarithm does
(c) (b c )
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2 not always need to be defined. In
a Apply the rule loga (xn) = n loga x: a log (ab3c2) b log 2ab c 2 log a 3 this case it is assumed that all of
the logs are to the same base.
log3 34 = 4 log3 3 ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Hence log3 34 =4 Since log3 3 = 1 a log ab3c2 = log a + log b3 + log c2 Separate the logarithms and
then simplify each logarithm
b Rewrite 32 as a power of 2: = log a + 3 log b + 2 log c
individually.
log2 32 = log2 25
= 5 log2 2
32 = 25
b log 2ab
2
(c) = log 2ab2 - log c
= log 2 + log a + log b2 - log c
=5 = log 2 + log a + 2 log b - log c
(b c ) (b c )
2
You can combine the rules of logarithms to simplify more c 2 log a 3 = log a 3 Writing down each step of your
working will help you to keep
complicated expressions.
= log ( 3a )
2 track of multi-step calculations.
2
bc
EXAMPLE 4
Simplify a 4 log2 3 + 2 log2 5 = log 3a2 - log b2c

b log3 45 - log3 5 = log 3 + log a2 - (log b2 + log c)
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= log 3 + 2 log a - 2 log b - log c
a Use the rule loga (xn) = n loga x:
C2
C2
4 log2 3 + 2 log2 5 = log2 34 + log2 52
= log2 (34 × 52) loga x + loga y = loga xy Exercise 11.3
1 Simplify these expressions.
= log2 (81 ´ 25)
= log2 2025 a log2 8 b log5 125
( yx ) = log x - log y:
c log4 16 d log3 81
b Use the rule loga a a
e log2 512 f log6 216
log3 45 - log3 5 = log3 ( ) 45
5
g log4 256 h log10 1000000
= log3 9
2 Write each expression as a simplified single logarithm or an integer.
= log3 32
= 2 log3 3 loga (xn) = n loga x a log2 5 + log2 7 b log3 4 - log3 1 (2)
=2 Since log3 3 = 1 c log3 10 - log3 5 + log3 2 d 2 log2 4 - log2 8
You can also rewrite a single logarithm as a sum or difference of

e 3 log5 4 +2 log5 3 f 2 log20 5 - 2 log20 1 (4)
several logarithms. g log2 5 + log2 4 - log2 5 (2) (3) (3) h 1
2
log ( 4 ) - 2 log ( 9 )
9 3
4 3
i 2 log5 1 + log5 2 j
3 ( 27 ) 2 ( 9 )
1 log 8 + 1 log 4
4 4
200 201
3 Simplify and write the final answer as a single logarithm. 5 Given that log 2 = 0.301 and log 3 = 0.477, and without
You may assume that the logarithms are of the same base. using a calculator, find the value of each of the following.
a 2 log 5 + 2 log 3 a log 12 b log 18
c log 36 d log 1.5
b 3 log 3 - 2 log 3
c 2 log 4 + log 3 - log 12 INVESTIGATIONS
d 3 log 2 - 2 log 3 + log 18 6 Assuming the following logarithms are of the same base,
which simplify to give log 24?
e 4 log 3 + 2 log 2 - 2 log 6 3 log 2 + log 3
24 log 1
f 2 log 5 - log 15 + 2 log 3 log 2 + log 6 + log 2
log 2 + log 12
g log 20 - 2 log 2 - 3 log 2 log 125 – log 5 – log 1
log 8 – log 3
h log 2 3 + 2 log 2 - 3 log 3 log 32 – log 8
4 log 2 + log 3 – log 2
i 3 log 5 - log 3 - 2 log 5
1 1 7 y
j log 9 + 2 log 9 - 2 log 81
C2
C2
2 2 y = loga x
k 2 log 27 - 1 log 81 1
3 4
4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 x
l 3
log 16 + 1 log 27 - 1 log 144 Use the information in the graph to deduce the value of a.
4 3 2
4 Write in terms of log a, log b and log c. 8 a Copy and complete the table.
You may assume that the logarithms are written to the same base. 1
1
()
x 1 10 100
a log a b2
b log a 100 10
b
log10 x
c 2 log a c d 1 log ab2

2
b Hence sketch the graph of y = log10 x
e 2 log c (a) f log a b c Sketch the graph of y = 10x on the same axes.
log ( a b )
3 2
g h log abc
c
i log ( 3 a ) j ( c)
2 log a b
b
202 203
Solving exponential equations

11.4 Change of base and solving exponential equations
You can use logarithms to solve equations of the form ax = n
EXAMPLE 2
Change of base Find the value of x when 2x = 3
You can express a logarithm of x to the base a as a logarithm Give your answer correct to three significant figures.
to a different base, b. ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Take logarithms to base 10 on both sides of the equation:

Let y = loga x log10 2x = log10 3 Using base 10 allows you
so that x = ay to input the values into
Rewrite using log an = n log a:
Take logb on both sides: logb x = logb ay your calculator.
logb x = y logb a x log10 2 = log10 3
log10 3 log10 3 and log10 2 are
log x Rearrange: x= constants so you can
y= b log10 2
log b a divide one by the other.
x = 0.47712…
0.30103
giving the general result
x = 1.58 correct to 3 s.f.
log x
} loga x = logb a You can use logarithms to solve more complicated problems.
b
EXAMPLE 3
C2
C2
Solve the equation 3x+1 = 2x-1
log b b Give the value of x correct to three significant figures.
Now substitute x = b: loga b =
log b a ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
3x+1 = 2x-1
which gives the special case of this rule Take logarithms of both sides to base 10:
log10 3x+1 = log10 2x-1
Rewrite using log an = n log a:
} loga b = 1 Since logb b = 1. (x + 1) log10 3 = (x - 1) log10 2
log b a
Evaluate the logarithms: (x + 1)0.47712 … = (x - 1)0.30103 … Do not round during your working.
You can use these rules to convert an expression to a logarithm with base 10. Write down enough decimal
Expand and rearrange: 0.47712x + 0.47712 = 0.30103x - 0.30103 places so that you can round
This will then allow you to evaluate the expression using your calculator.
to 3 s.f in your final answer.
Simplify: 0.17609x = -0.77815
x = - 0.77815
EXAMPLE 1
Find the values of a log2 5 b log3 4 0.17609

Give your answers to three significant figures. Hence x = -4.42 (to 3 s.f.)
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Use the change of base rule to express each logarithm in base 10:
a log2 5 b log3 4
log10 5 log10 4
log2 5 = log3 4 =
log10 2 log10 3
= 0.69897 = 0.60206
0.30103 0.47712
= 2.3219 = 1.2618
204 Hence log2 5 = 2.32 and log3 4 = 1.26 to 3 s.f. 205
You can use the fact that a2x = (ax)2 to solve equations You can use the change of base rule to solve an equation involving
involving a2x. more than one logarithmic base.
EXAMPLE 4
EXAMPLE 5
Find the values of x which satisfy each equation. Solve the equation log3 x + 8 logx 3 = 6
a 22x + 4(2x) -5=0
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log3 x + 8 logx 3 = 6
b 32x - 5(3x) + 6 = 0
Rewrite using loga b = 1 : log3 x + 8 =6 logx 3 = 1
Give your answers to three significant figures. log b a log 3 x log 3 x
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Let y = log3 x:
a 22x + 4(2x) - 5 = 0
y+ 8 =6
Rewrite the equation: (2x)2 + 4(2x) - 5 = 0 This is a quadratic in 2x. y
Substitute y = 2x: y2 + 4y - 5 = 0 y2
+ 8 = 6y
y2 - 6y + 8 = 0
Factorise: (y - 1)(y + 5) = 0
Factorise:
Either y - 1 = 0 or y+5=0 (y - 4)(y - 2) = 0
hence y=1 or y = -5 Hence y=4 or y=2
and so 2x = 1 or 2x = -5 so log3 x = 4 or log3 x = 2
x = 34 or x = 32
Since a0 = 1 for all values This gives no solution since x = 81 or x=9
C2
C2
of a the only possible no value of x could give a
solution is x = 0. negative answer.
EXAMPLE 6
Hence the solution is x = 0
Solve for x the equation log4 x2 + 6 logx 4 = 8
b 32x - 5(3x) +6=0 ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Rewrite the equation: (3x)2 - 5(3x) + 6 = 0 32x = (3x)2 log4 x2 +6 logx 4 = 8

Rewrite: 2 log4 x + 6 logx 4 = 8
Substitute y = 3x: y2 - 5y + 6 = 0
Factorise: (y - 2)(y - 3) = 0 Let y = log4 x:
Either y-2=0 or y-3=0 2y + 6 = 8 logx 4 = 1

y log 4 x
hence y=2 or y=3 2y2 + 6 = 8y
so 3x = 2 (1) or 3x = 3 (2) 2y2 - 8y + 6 = 0
Take logarithms to base 10 in both cases: Factorise:

(2y - 2)(y - 3) = 0
(1) gives log10 3x = log10 2 (2) gives log10 3x = log10 3
x log10 3 = log10 2 x log10 3 = log10 3 Hence y=1 or y=3
log10 3 so log4 x = 1 or log4 x = 3
x = log10 2 x= You could have inferred this x = 41 or x = 43
log10 3
log10 3 directly from the general result
x=4 or x = 64
x=1 a1 = a for all a.
x = 0.30103
0.47712
x = 0.6309
Hence the solutions are x = 0.631 or x = 1 (correct to 3 s.f.)
206 207
Exercise 11.4 6 Find the value of x.

Write all your answers correct to three significant figures where appropriate. a log10 x = 0.321 b log10 x = 2.175
1 Use the change of base rule to evaluate these expressions. c log2 x = 1.5 d log3 x = 2.78
a log2 7 b log3 2
e log5 x = 1.72 f log7 x = 2.83
c log5 4 d log2 20 g log4 x2 = 0.923 h log5 x3 = 3.47
i log2 (x + 2) = 1.76 j log3 (x - 1) = 3.24
e log4 712 f log2 0.3
g log5 0.01 h log12 (1009 ) 7 Solve for x.

a log2 x + log3 x = 1 b log5 x + log2 x = 1.2
i log0.5 0.2 j log100 2 c 2 log5 x - log7 x = 2.34 d log8 x - log9 x = 1
2 Find the value of x by taking log10. e log2 x2 + log4 x = 1.5 f log5 (x + 1) + log4 (x + 1) = 3
a 3x = 4 b 2x = 9 c 5x = 2 d 4x = 1 g (log7 x)2 = 17
e 9x = 38 f 22x = 7 g 32x = 14 h 23x = 79
8 a If log4 a = b show that 2b loga 2 = 1
i 74x = 512 j 12x = 1
5 b Find the possible value of x if 2 logx 3 = log3 x
3 Find the value of x by taking log10.

C2
C2
9 a Solve the simultaneous equations, where the logarithms are
a 2x+1 = 5 b 2x-1 = 19 written in base 10.
log x + log y = 3
c 3x+2 = 53 d 32x-1 = 107
log x - log y = 2
e 42x+3 = 715 f 2x+1 = 32x
1
b Show that = loga 2
g 3 2x-1
=2x
h 7 =42x x+4 log 2 a2
i 53x-1 = 2x+3 j 35x+4 = 42x-3 c Find the possible values of ax which satisfy the equation
ax + 1 = 2a-x
4 Find the value of x which satisfies each equation. and deduce that the only value of x which is possible is x = 0.
a 2x(2x - 1) = 0 b 32x - 9(3x) = 0
c 22x - 2(2x) + 1 = 0 d 32x - 4(3x) + 4 = 0 INVESTIGATION
e 22x - 6(2x) + 9 = 0 f 52x - 8(5x) + 16 = 0 10 You want to solve the equation below.
x
g 2(7 ) - 7 = 1 2x 2x
h 4(3 ) - 4(3 ) + 1 = 0 x The beginning of two methods are shown:
4x+1 = 23x
5 Find the values of x which satisfies each equation.
a 22x - 2x+1 + 1 = 0 b 32x - 3x = 0 Method 1 Method 2
c 22x - 5(2x) + 6 = 0 d 2(32x) - 9(3x) + 4 = 0 22(x + 1) = 23x (x + 1) log 4 = (3x) log 2

e 6(52x) - 11(5x) - 10 = 0 f 22x+1 - 13(2x) + 20 = 0 a i Use both methods to find x.
2x+2 x+2 2x+2 x ii Which method do you prefer? Justify your answer.
g 3 - 4(3 ) + 35 = 0 h 5(2 ) - 23(2 ) + 6 = 0
i 22x+1 = 13(2x) - 20 j 32x+1 + 4(3x) = 4 b Which method would you use to solve
32x+4 = 23x and why?
208 209
7 Find the value of x which satisfies each equation.

Review 11
a 7(4x) = 3(5x) b 3(2x) = 4(3x)
Give your answers correct to three significant figures where appropriate. c 2(52x) = 3(42x) d 22x+1 = 3x
1 Use your calculator to evaluate the following. e 3x-1 = 5x f 52x = 32x+1
a 57 b (-2)5 c 8-3 8 Solve
() 3x = 5, giving your answer to three significant figures

−4
d (0.2)5 e 4 f (3)0.4 a
3
b log3 (x + 1) - log3 x = log3 5
g (5.2)1.6 h 7-4 i (0.3)0.3
9 Find, giving your answer to three significant figures where
2 Sketch the graphs of these equations. appropriate, the value of x for which
a y = 4x, taking values of x in the range -2 to +2 a 2x = 5
(3) log3 (2x - 1) - log3 x = 2

x b
b y = 1 , for values of x from -3 to +3
10 Find the values of x which satisfy each equation.
c y = 5-x, for values of x in the range -2 to +2
a 52x - 11(5x) + 15 = 0
d y = (0.7)-x, in the interval -5 / x / 5
b 3(72x) - 7(7x) + 2 = 0
C2
C2
3 Without using your calculator, evaluate the following. Show your working. c 4(22x) + 3(2x) - 1 = 0
a log2 128 b log3 27 c log4 64 d 3x - 5 + 4(3-x) = 0
d log2 1(4) e log3 9 (1) f log5 625 11 a Write in terms of log a, log b and log c.
You may assume that the logarithms are to the same base
4 Find the base a of each logarithm. i log (b c )
( ab )
a loga 8 = 3 b loga 81 = 4
ii log 1
c loga 64 = 6 (4)
d loga 1 = -2
iii 2 log ( a )
b
5 Rewrite in index form and find the value of n.
b Write as a single logarithm of the form log N.
a log3 n = 2 b log5 n = 3
i log a + log b - log c
c log2 n = 8 d log7 n = 3
ii 2 log a - 1 log c
2
6 Use logarithms to find the value of x. iii log a - 3 log b + 2 log c
a 2x = 7 b 3x = 15 12 Given that log 5 = 0.69897 and log 2 = 0.30103 find,

c x
5 = 100 x
d 12 = 7 without using your calculator, the value of
e 24x = 1.5 f 53x = 0.2 a log 20 b log 2.5 c log 62.5
g 6x+1 = 3 h 102x = 5
210 211
12 Trigonometry
EXAMPLE 2
12.1 The sine rule In 䉭ABC, a = 11 cm, c = 8 cm and angle A = 63°
Find angles C and B.
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You can use the sine rule to find angles and sides in triangles sin C = sin A :
which are not right-angled. Use the sine rule B
c a
sin C = sin 63°
B 8 11 8 cm 11 cm
Let the vertical height of triangle ABC be h
sin C = 8 × sin 63
°
in 䉭ABD sin A = h in 䉭BCD sin C = h c h a
Rearrange:
11 63°
c a A C
h = c sin A h = a sin C angle C = 40.39°
Use the inverse sine function
Equate: a sin C = c sin A A D C Hence angle C = 40.4° (3 s.f.) on your calculator.
Rearrange:
a = c Use the angle sum of a triangle to find B: C = sin-1 (8 × sin 63°)
sin A sin C 11
B = 180° - (63° + 40.4°) = 76.6°
Hence C = 40.4° and B = 76.6°
} The sine rule states that for triangle ABC
a = b = c or sin A = sin B = sin C
sin A sin B sin C a b c
There are sometimes two answers when you find
This follows since generally
an angle using the sine rule.
You can use the sine rule to find the length of a side of when two } sin (180° - x) = sin x
This is known as the ambiguous case.
of the angles and one of the opposite sides are known.
C2
C2
When the angle you are looking for is bigger than You will study the graph of sin x in
EXAMPLE 1
In 䉭ABC, angle A = 35°, angle B = 76° and side b = 9 cm. the given angle there are two possible solutions. more detail later in this chapter.
Drawing a diagram will help you
Find the length of side a. This is because the information you are given can lead sin x
to visualise the problem.
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to two different triangles, as in the following example.
C 1
a
Use the sine rule: = b
sin A sin B
9 cm a
a = 9 180°
EXAMPLE 3
sin 35° sin 76° x 180°−x 360° x
In 䉭ABC, angle A = 38°, AB = 9 cm, and BC = 7 cm
9 × sin 35° 35° 76°
Rearrange: a = sin 76° A B Find angle C.
−1
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a = 9 × 0.5736 Since 7 cm < 9 cm this length could be either BC1 or BC2

0.9703
as shown in the diagram.
a = 5.320 Remember not to round during the
Hence there are two possible triangles, ABC1 or ABC2.
working. You can write down
rounded numbers, but always use sin C = sin A
Hence a = 5.32 cm (correct to 3 s.f.) Use the sine rule in 䉭ABC :
exact figures in your calculations. c a B
sin C = sin 38°
You can also use the sine rule to find a missing angle when two of 9 7
9 cm
the sides and one of the opposite angles are known. 7 cm
sin C = 9 × sin 38
° 7 cm
Rearrange: 38°
7
C = 52.3° A C2 C1
Alternatively C = 180° - 52.3° = 127.7°

Hence the possible solutions are C = 52.3° or C = 127.7°
214 215
12 Trigonometry 12 Trigonometry
Sometimes you will be asked to find more than one missing angle Exercise 12.1
and side in a given triangle. Give angles correct to the nearest 0.1° and sides correct to 3 s.f.
1 Find the requested missing side or angle in each triangle. B

EXAMPLE 4
In 䉭ABC, angle A = 54°, AB = 15 cm and BC = 13 cm.

Find the missing angles and side of the triangle. a If a = 5 cm, b = 4 cm and A = 49° find B.
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B b If a = 6 cm, A = 39° and B = 53° find b. c 5 cm

Use the sine rule sin C = sin A :
c a c Find a when A = 76°, B = 38° and b = 5.5 cm.
49°
sin C = sin 54° d Find C when A = 63°, c = 14 cm and a = 15 cm. A 4 cm C
15 13
15 cm e Given that b = 9.5 cm and c = 7.8 cm and that B = 54° This is the triangle for 1a.
sin C = 15 × 13
sin 54° 13 cm
Rearrange: You should draw diagrams for the
13 cm find the size of C. other questions.
C = 68.98°
f Given that C = 37°, B = 103° and b = 21 cm find c.
54°
Hence C1 = 69.0° C2 = 180° - 69.0° = 111° to 3 s.f. A C2 C1
2 In each triangle find all the missing sides and angles.
B In 䉭ABC1 the angles
BC < AB means that there will
are 54° and 69.0° a In triangle ABC, A = 58°, B = 47° and AB = 14 cm.
be two possible solutions.
Use angle sum of a triangle
b Triangle RST has angles R = 105° and S = 27° and side
to find the third angle:
ST = 9.3 cm.
15 cm B = 180° - (54° + 69°)
13 cm
c In triangle XYZ, angle Y = 53° and exterior angle Z = 112°
= 57°
C2
C2
The side YZ measures 24 cm.
54° 69°
A b C1 3 Find the two missing angles and the third side of each triangle PQR
giving the two possible sets of solutions.
B In 䉭ABC2 the angles
are 54° and 111° a P = 31°, r = 18 cm, p = 13 cm b P = 70°, r = 36 cm, p = 34 cm
Use angle sum of a triangle c P = 25°, r = 18 cm, p = 15 cm d P = 65°, r = 8 cm, p = 7.5 cm
to find the third angle:
15 cm B = 180° - (54° + 111°) 4 In the diagram, AB = 4 cm, BC = 5 cm, B
y
13 cm = 15° angle BAD = 31° and angle BDC = 81° 4 cm 5 cm
Find the angles x and y.
54° 111° 31° 81° x
A b C2 A D C
Look at the two triangles independently:

INVESTIGATIONS
50° 30°
Use the sine rule b
= a : Use the sine rule b = a : 5 The diagram shows a triangle bounded by two
sin B1 sin A sin B2 sin A
b parallel lines.
= 13 b = 13
sin 57° sin 54° sin 15° sin 54° Find the lengths of the two unlabelled sides. 8 cm
13 × sin 15°
b = 13 × sin 57
°
Rearrange: b= 6 The points A and B represent two lighthouses A
sin 54° sin 54°
on the coast.
b = 13.48 b = 4.159
A ship is at the point S. The ship is
S
For 䉭ABC1; angles are For 䉭ABC2; angles are Use your diagrams to check on a bearing of 130° from A and 020° from B.
54°, 69° and 57° and 54°, 111° and 15° and your final answers. Given that the distance from S to A is 5 km,
base is 13.5 cm base is 4.16 cm Do they make sense? calculate the distance between the two lighthouses.
216 B 217
12 Trigonometry
You can use the cosine rule to find the length of a side when
12.2 The cosine rule the two other sides and the included angle are known.
You can also use the cosine rule to find missing
EXAMPLE 1
In triangle ABC, AB = 5 cm, AC = 7 cm and angle A = 63°
angles and sides in non-right-angled triangles.
Find BC.
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Write down the three sides a, b and c: B

a = BC, b = AC = 7 cm and c = AB = 5 cm
c h a
Use the cosine rule a2 = b2 + c2 - 2bc cos A: a
5 cm
D a2 = 72 + 52 - 2(7)(5)(cos 63°)
A C
x (b − x) = 49 + 25 - (70cos 63°) 63°
b
= 49 + 25 - (70 ´ 0.4539) A 7 cm C
= 49 + 25 - 31.779. . .
Let the vertical height of triangle ABC be BD = h = 42.22. . . Do not round during
your working.
Let the base AC = b and AD = x then length DC = b - x Take square roots: a = 6.4977. . .
Apply Pythagoras’ theorem:
Hence BC = 6.50 cm (to 3 s.f.)
In 䉭ABD 2
c =h +x 2 2
Rearrange: c2 - x2 = h2 The cosine of an acute angle is positive while the cosine of an

obtuse angle is negative.
C2
You will study the graphs of the
C2
In 䉭BCD a2 = h2 + (b - x)2 e.g. cos 60° = 0.5 cosine and sine functions in more
2 2 2 cos (180° - 60°) = cos 120° = -0.5 detail later in this chapter.
Rearrange: a - (b - x) = h
\ c2 - x2 = a2 - (b - x)2 Substituting h2 = c2 - x2 cos x
} cos (180° - A) = -cos A
Expand bracket: c2 - x2 = a2 - (b2 - 2bx + x2) 1
The x2 cancels out.
Simplify: c2 = a2 - b2 + 2bx You can also use the cosine rule to find a missing angle when
you know all three sides of a triangle. 90° 180°
Rearrange: a2 = c2 + b2 - 2bx (1) x
x 180°−x
adjacent
Use 䉭ABD and the cosine ratio: cos A = x cos =
hypotenuse
c
Similarly you can show that −1
so x = c cos A
b2 = a2 + c2 - 2ac cos B and
Substitute x = c cos A in equation (1): c2 = a2 + b2 - 2ab cos C
EXAMPLE 2
Do this yourself. The sides of the 䉭ABC are a = 4 cm, b = 5 cm and c = 7 cm The largest angle is opposite
a2 = b2 + c2 - 2bc cos A Find the size of the largest angle in the triangle. the longest side so you are
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cos C = a + b − c :
2 2 2
Use the cosine rule B
} The cosine rule states that for triangle ABC 2ab
or cos A = b + c − a
2 2 2
cos C = 4 + 5 − 7
2 2 2
a2 = b2 + c2 - 2bc cos A
2bc 2×4×5 4 cm
7 cm
cos B = a + c − b
2 2 2
and b2 = a2 + c2 - 2ac cos B or
2ac = 16 + 25 − 49
40
− C
and c2 = a2 + b2 - 2ab cos C or cos C = a + b − c
2 2 2 41 49
= = − 8 = −0.2
2ab 40 40 5 cm
so C = 101.5° A
Hence angle C = 102° (to 3 s.f.) The negative sign tells you that the
218 219
angle is obtuse.
You can use trigonometry to solve real-life problems. Exercise 12.2

Throughout the exercise give your final answers correct to 3 s.f.
EXAMPLE 3
From an observation point, C, the bearings of a radar beacon, Draw a clear diagram: 1 a In triangle ABC, angle A = 60°, AB = 5 cm and AC = 8 cm. B
B, and a watch-tower, A, are 310° and 022° respectively. A
Find BC.
The distance of the observation point from the radar beacon b For 䉭ABC, angle C = 53°, AC = 7.8 cm and BC = 9.2 cm. 5 cm
is 3 km and from the watch-tower, 4 km. What is the length of side AB?
Find the distance from the radar beacon to the watch-tower. 60º
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B 4 km
c In triangle ABC, angle A = 7°, AB = 23 cm and AC = 37 cm. A 8 cm C
Find the length of side BC.
Use the cosine rule c2 = a2 + b2 - 2ab cos C: This is the triangle for 1a. You
a = 3, b = 4, C = 72°: c2 = 32 + 42 - (2 ´ 3 ´ 4 ´ cos 72°) 3 km d In 䉭ABC, AB = 5 cm, BC = 6 cm and AC = 6 cm. should draw diagrams for the
50° 22°
Find the size of angle A. other questions.
= 9 + 16 - (24 ´ cos 72°) C 310° e For triangle ABC, a = 12 cm, b = 9 cm and c = 13 cm.
= 9 + 16 - 7.416 = 17.58 Find angle B.
c = 17.58 = 4.193 C = 22° + (360° - 310°)
f In 䉭ABC, a = 24 cm, b = 19 cm and c = 21 cm. B
Distance from radar beacon to watch-tower = 4.19 km (to 3 s.f.) What size is the smallest angle in the triangle?
2 In the following triangles use the sine rule, cosine rule or 7 cm 5 cm

Sometimes you will need to use both the sine rule and the If the triangle is right-angled you
can use Pythagoras which is a combination of both to solve the triangles fully.
cosine rule to solve a problem.
simpler. Always check this first. a a = 5 cm, b = 6 cm and c = 7 cm
EXAMPLE 4
Solve the triangle in which AB = 8.5 cm, ‘Solve the triangle’ means find all b a = 9.4 cm, c = 8.2 cm and angle B = 54° A 6 cm C
C2
C2
BC = 9.3 cm and AC = 7.5 cm of the missing sides and angles. c AB = 12 cm, angle A = 49° and angle B = 76° This is the triangle for 2a. Draw
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d AB = 23 cm, AC = 25 cm and angle A = 102° diagrams for the other questions.

You know that a = BC = 9.3, b = AC = 7.5 and c = AB = 8.5
3 a A trapezium, as shown in the diagram, has sides AB = 9 cm, 9 cm
Find angle A using the cosine rule cos A = b + c − a :
2 2 2
A B
2bc A is the largest angle(it is BC = 6 cm, CD = 13 cm and AD = 5 cm. The angle ADC = 82°.
opposite the longest side).
cos A = 7.5 + 8.5 − 9.3
2 2 2 5 cm 6 cm
Finding the largest angle Find i the length of the diagonal AC
2 × 7.5 × 8.5 first is a good approach. 82°
ii the size of the angle ABC.
= 56.25 + 72.25 − 86.49 = 42.01
D 13 cm C
127.5 127.5 b A field is in the shape of a parallelogram and has sides of
lengths 350 m and 180 m. The longest diagonal across the field
so A = 70.76°
measures 470 m. Find the angles between the sides of the field.
sin B
Find a second angle using the sine rule = sin A : The sine rule is simpler to use
b a c The edges of a triangular plot of land are of lengths 23 m, 37 m and 45 m.
than the cosine rule.
sin B sin 70.76° Find the angles at the corners of the plot.
= A
7.5 9.3
4 From an observation point, A, a marker buoy is on a bearing of 058°
Re-arrange: sin B = 7.5 sin 70.76° at a distance of 450 m and from an observation point, B, the marker
9.3
8.5 cm 7.5 cm
7.081 buoy is on a bearing of 023° and at a distance of 320 m. A is due west of B.
= = 0.7614
9.3 What is the distance between A and B?
so B = 49.59°
B 9.3 cm C 5 A lighthouse and a coastguard station are 15 km apart with
Use angle sum of triangle to find C:
the lighthouse due west of the coastguard station. A freighter is
C = 180° - (70.76° + 49.59°) = 59.65° sighted by the lighthouse keeper on a bearing of 050°; the coastguard
Hence the angles of the triangle are records the position of the freighter as being 12 km from the station.
A = 70.8°, B = 49.6° and C = 59.7° Draw a diagram to show the two possible positions of the
220 freighter and find the distance between these positions. 221
12 Trigonometry
Exercise 12.3
12.3 Area of a triangle 1 Find the area of each triangle ABC.
} The area of a triangle is given by The ‘height’ is the vertical height a c = 8.2 cm, b = 14 cm, A = 102°
of the triangle.
area = 1 base ´ height b A = 36°, B = 78°, a = 11.42 cm, b = 19 cm
2
c A = 54°, a = 37 cm, b = 43 cm
B
For the triangle ABC, area = 1 b ´ h (1) 2 a In 䉭ABC, a = 7 cm, b = 10 cm and the area of the
2 c a
h triangle is 28 cm2 Find angle C.
Use the sine ratio in 䉭ABD: sin A = h
c D
A
b
C b Triangle ABC has an area of 53 cm2 a = 7.5 cm and B = 38°
Rearrange: h = c sin A Find the length of side c.
Substitute h = c sin A in equation (1): Now show similar results for
included angles B and C by taking c In triangle ABC, b = 4 cm, a = 9 cm and the area of the
area of triangle = 1 bc sin A the other two vertical heights. triangle is 14 cm2. Find the size of angle A.
2
d In an isosceles triangle two sides are of length 7 cm
and the area is 20 cm2
} The area of a triangle ABC is given by Find the size of the included angle.
area = 1 bc sin A = 1 ab sin C = 1 ac sin B
2 2 2
3 a In triangle ABC, AB = 2 cm and BC = 3 cm
The angle between these two sides is 60°
C2
C2
B
EXAMPLE 1
Find the area of triangle ABC if a = 8 cm, b = 5 cm and C = 38°

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Given that cos 60° = 0.5, show that the area of the
triangle is 3 2 cm2
Use the formula area = 1 ab sin C: 8 cm 4
2
b The sides of triangle ABC are a = 3x, b = (x + 2) and cos 60° = 0.5 and sin 60° = 3
area = 1 ´ 8 ´ 5 ´ sin 38° = 12.313. . . 2
2 c = (2x + 1) and angle A is 60°
Hence the area of the triangle is 12.3 cm2 (to 3 s.f.) 38° Use the cosine rule to find the value of x and show that
A 5 cm C the triangle is equilateral.
Sometimes you will need to find the included angle before you Show, also, that the area of the triangle is given by 9 3
4
can calculate the area.
c In triangle ABC, a = (x + 1), c = (2x + 1) and B = 30° cos 30° = 3 and sin 30° = 0.5
2
EXAMPLE 2
If the area of the triangle is 0.75 m2 what is the value of x?

Find the area of triangle ABC if a = 9.8 cm, b = 6.7 cm and A = 52° Angle C is the required included
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angle. First find angle B using the
sin B sin 52° sine rule and then find angle C
Use the sine rule: = using the angle sum of a triangle. INVESTIGATION
6.7 9.8
6.7 × sin 52° 4 Put these four triangles in order of size of area, from smallest to largest.
Rearrange: sin B =
9.8 Show your working.
B
sin B = 6.7 × 0.7880 = 5.2796 = 0.5387
9.8 9.8 6
120° 6
Hence B = 32.6° (to 3 s.f.) 30° 45° 5
90°
5 5
Use angle sum of a triangle: C = 180° - (52° + 32.6°) = 95.4° 9.8 cm
6
6 5
Now find the area: area = 1 ab sin C
2
1
= ´ 9.8 ´ 6.7 ´ sin 95.4° 52°
2 A 6.7 cm C
2
222 Hence the area of the triangle is 32.7 cm (to 3 s.f.) 223
12 Trigonometry
Arc length
12.4 Radian measure Consider a circle of radius r with an angle of q (“theta”) radians s
which is subtended by an arc of length s. r
Until now you have measured angles in degrees. i
There is, however, another angle measure known as radians. r
Consider the length of s as a proportion of the circumference:

For a circle of radius r, the angle at the centre, r arc length, s = angle in sector
× circumference
which subtends a part of the circumference of total angle at centre of circle A sector is part of a circle
length r, is equal to one radian. r 1 radian bounded by two radii and an arc.
Substitute the values: s =
r Angle at centre
As the circumference of the circle is 2p ´ r
360° = 2p radians
then the total angle at the centre is 2p radians Cancel: s = qr
which is also 360°(a complete circle). q is in radians.
The length, s, of an arc which subtends an angle q radians

at the centre of a circle, radius r, is given by
Hence Learn this relationship.
s = rq
} 2p radians = 360° or p radians = 180°
EXAMPLE 2
From this you can deduce that A sector of a circle of radius 3.5 cm contains an angle of 60°. Remember that
q must be in radians.
1 degree = p radians
Find the length of the arc to three significant figures.
1 radian = 180 degrees
C2
C2
} and
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Convert 60° to radians: 60° =

p = 1.047 radians
You can use this information to convert between degrees 3
3.5 cm
and radians. Use the formula arc length s = r q:
60° s
s = 3.5 ´ 1.047
EXAMPLE 1
a Change 50° to radians.

= 3.665 cm
b Convert 1.5 radians to degrees.
Hence length of arc = 3.67 cm (to 3 s.f.)
c Change 315° to radians leaving your answer in term of p.
You can apply this formula to real-life problems.
d Convert 4p radians to degrees.
5
EXAMPLE 3
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D
A logo consists of a circle of radius 12 cm with a sector
a Use 1° = p radians: b Use 1 radian = 180 :
p removed. The angle of the sector is 45°. Find the
180 The reflex angle is
perimeter of the logo correct to three significant figures.
50° = p × 50
360° - 45° = 315°
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180 p
Use 1° = p radians to convert 315° to radians:
so 50° = 0.873 radians so 1.5 radians = 85.9° 180
315° = p ´ 315
c Use 1° = p radians: d Use 1 radian = 180 degrees: 180 12 cm
180 p
45°
315° = p × 315 4p radians = 180 × 4p = 5.498 radians
180 5 p 5
Use the formula for arc length:s = rq = 12 ´ 5.498
so 315° = 7p radians so 4p radians = 144° = 65.976 cm
4 5
Hence the perimeter of the logo = 12 + 12 + 65.976
Perimeter of logo
224
The perimeter is 90.0 cm (to 3 s.f.) 225
= arc length + two radii lengths
Area of a sector Exercise 12.4

You can derive a formula for the area of a sector. 1 Convert each angle from degrees to radians.
Give your answers correct to 3 s.f.
Consider the area of the sector as a proportion of the area of the circle: a 20° b 108° c 525°
r
angle in sector
area of sector, A = × area of circle 2π θ
total angle at centre of circle 2 Convert each angle from radians to degrees.
Give your answers correct to 3 s.f.
Substitute the values: A =
a 4.75 radians b 5 radians c 3.2 radians
A = qr
2
Total angle at centre of circle
Cancel:
2 is 360° = 2p radians 3 Change each angle to radians.
Give your answer as a multiple of p .
} The area of a sector with angle q radians in a circle radius r a 40° b 270° c 25°
is given by A = 1 r2q d 450° e 225° f 600°
2
4 Change each angle from radians to degrees.

EXAMPLE 4
a p
Find the area of the minor sector of a circle of radius 12.5 cm
b 7p c 7p
when the angle contained in the sector is 40° 5 8
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Convert 40° to radians: 40° = p × 40 radians 5 Find these ratios.

C2
C2
180 p
p
Use the formula for area of a sector : a cos 3 b sin 2 c tan p Your calculator must be in
4 radian mode.
A = 1 ´ 12.52 ´ p × 40 = 54.54 cm2 40° 12.5 cm
d cos p e sin p f tan p
2 180 6 3
Area of sector = 54.5 cm2 correct to 3 s.f.
6 Find the arc length of sectors with radii and angles as follows.
You can also find the area of a segment. A segment is part of a circle Give your answers correct to 3 s.f.
bounded by an arc and a chord.
a r = 16 cm, q = 1.98 radians b r = 4.3 m, q = 35°
EXAMPLE 5
The chord AB of a circle of radius 7 cm subtends an angle

of 54° at the centre. Find the area of the shaded segment. c r = 5.23 m, q = 300° d r = 0.03 m, q = 3p radians
8
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You can see from the diagram that 7 Find the areas of the sectors with the following radii and
area of segment = area of sector - area of triangle subtended angles, correct to 3 s.f.
Change 54° to radians: 54° = 54 ´ p radians
180 a r = 4 cm, q = 2 radians b r = 3.2 cm, q = p radians
2
Find area of sector using A = 1 r 2q: 54°
2 7 cm
c r = 0.5 m, q = 1.5 radians d r = 4.8 cm, q = 72°
Area of sector = 1 (7)2 ´ 54 ´ p = 23.091 cm2 A B
2 180
1 e r = 17 cm, q = 124° f r = 0.03 m, q = 14°
Find area of triangle using A = ab sin C:
2
Area of triangle = 1 ´ 7 ´ 7 ´ sin 54° = 19.821 cm2 Area = 1 ab sin C

2 2
Hence the area of the segment
= area of sector - area of triangle
226
= 23.091 - 19.821 = 3.27 cm2 (to 3 s.f.) 227
8 a The arc length of a sector of a circle of 3 cm 10 A sector of a circle has centre C and an arc AB. A
x cm
radius 8.5 cm is 3 cm. The arc PQ of a smaller circle, centre C, cuts off the P
8.5 cm i
Find the angle at the centre of the sector, shaded area in the sector, as shown in the diagram. 4 cm
in degrees, correct to 3 s.f. p
If PC = CQ = 4 cm, AP = BQ = x cm and angle q = 3 ,
θ C
show that the area of shape ABQP is given by
b Two points, A and B, are on the circumference
of a circle of radius 4.8 cm. p x (x + 8) cm2
6 Q
The angle AOB is 1.3 radians, where O is the
B
centre of the circle. Remember to use radians.
Find the length of the major arc of the circle,
11 A sector of a circle has centre C and arc AB. 3 cm
A
correct to 3 s.f.
There is a point, P, on the radius AC, where AP = 3 cm P
c A chord, AB, of a circle of radius 5 cm subtends and PC = 5 cm. There is a point, Q, on radius BC such 5 cm
an angle at the centre of 60° that BQ = 3 cm and QC = 5 cm. Angle ACB = 40°. C 40°
as shown in the diagram. Find the area of APQB. 5 cm
Q
Find the perimeter of the segment, bound by
60° B
the minor arc AB, correct to 3 s.f. 5 cm
A
12 A circle, centre C, is divided into two sectors by the radii CA
B and CB. The ratio of the area of the minor sector to that of
the major sector is 1: p and the angle contained in the
9 Give your answers correct to 3 s.f. Draw diagrams and remember to minor sector is q radians.
Show that q = 2p
C2
C2
work in radians.
a The area of a sector of a circle is 24 cm2 and the angle p +1
contained in the sector is 60°. Find the radius of the sector.
b A sector contains an angle of p radians and the area 13 At each of the vertices of a triangle a sector of
5 radius 2 cm is cut out. If the sides of the
of the sector is 30 cm2.
triangle are 7 cm, 8 cm and 9 cm, 7 cm 8 cm
What is the radius of the circle?
what area is left after the
c A sector of area 12 cm2 has a radius of 4.2 cm. sectors have been removed?
Find the size of the angle at the centre in degrees.
9 cm
d The area of a sector of a circle is 45 cm2 and its radius is
13.4 cm. Find the perimeter of the sector.
14 The points A and B lie on the circumference A
e The arc length of a sector is 8.7 cm and its radius is 9.2 cm.
of a circle, centre C.
Find the area of the sector. 8 cm
A Tangents are drawn to the circle at A and B
f A circle of radius 5 cm has a chord AB subtending an and intersect at the point P.
C 135° P
angle of 72° at the centre as shown in the diagram. The radius of the circle is 8 cm and the angle
72° B
Find the area of the minor segment AB. 5 cm
at the centre subtended by AB is 135°.
Find the area of the shaded shape ABP.
g The area of a segment is 20 cm2 and the angle subtended
by the chord forming the segment is 1.3 radians. B
What is the radius of the circle?
228 229
12 Trigonometry
12.5 Trigonometric functions Consider the ratios: OP = 1 unit

y y
sin q = = = y P
OP 1
You can find the sine, cosine and tangent of an angle
y
in the range 0 / q / 90° using your calculator.
cos q = x = x = x i
OP 1 O x
} The trigonometric ratios are sin q y
and tan q = cos q = x
opposite adjacent
tan q = opposite
See Chapter 0 for a reminder
sin q = cos q = hypotenuse
hypotenuse adjacent of basic trigonometry.
} In the second quadrant x < 0 and y > 0 } In the first quadrant x > 0 and y > 0
Notice that sin q = sin q ÷ cos q so sin q > 0 and cos q and tan q so sin q, cos q and tan q
cos q Hypotenuse are negative. are positive.
Opposite
=O¸ A i +ve
H H +ve
Adjacent P (x, y) P (x, y)
=O×H
H A
y y
= O = tan q i i
A
−ve x O O x +ve
C2
C2
You can use this relationship
sin q
} tan q º between sin q, cos q and tan q } In the third quadrant x < 0 and y < 0 } In the fourth quadrant x > 0 and y < 0
cos q
to solve trigonometric problems. so sin q < 0, cos q < 0 and tan q > 0. so sin q < 0, cos q > 0 and tan q < 0.
You can find the trigonometric ratios of angles II I
greater than 90° by considering a circle with P (x, y) −ve x i x +ve
positive
centre O and radius, OP, of 1 unit. i
angle
y y y
The circle is divided into four quadrants.
i initial line
Let P have coordinates (x, y). O x P (x, y) P (x, y)
As OP moves round the circle it forms an −ve −ve
angle, q, which increases from 0 to 360° negative
angle
Positive angles are measured in an anticlockwise direction. III IV Learn in which quadrant each ratio is positive or negative. y
Negative angles are measured in a clockwise direction. Sin All
} 1st quadrant All ratios are positive +
In the first quadrant, 0 < q < 90°
} 2nd quadrant Sin q is positive
In the second quadrant, 90° < q < 180° cos q and tan q are negative
} 3rd quadrant Tan q is positive − i +
In the third quadrant, 180° < q < 270° A x
sin q and cos q are negative
In the fourth quadrant, 270° < q < 360° } 4th quadrant Cos q is positive
sin q and tan q are negative
−
Tan Cos
The hypotenuse is always positive.
You may find a memory aid or phrase useful. e.g. "CAST"
230 231
EXAMPLE 1 You can use these results to simplify expressions.

Draw a diagram to show the position of each angle in
a quadrant and state whether the trigonometric ratio
EXAMPLE 3
is positive or negative. Simplify a 2 sin (180° - q) + sin (180°+ q)
a sin 153° b 3 tan (p + q) - tan (2p - q)
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b cos (-125°)
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a Use the general results: sin (180° - q) = sin q
a 153° is in the second quadrant. and sin (180° + q) = -sin q
sine is positive in second quadrant. 2 sin (180° - q) + sin (180° + q) = 2 sin q + (-sin q)
153° = sin q
Hence sin 153° is positive.
125°
b -125° is in the third quadrant. b Use the general results: tan (p + q) = tan q
cosine is negative in third quadrant. and tan (2p - q) = -tan q
Hence cos (-125°) is negative. 3 tan (p + q) - tan (2p - q) = 3 tan q - (-tan q)
= 4 tan q
EXAMPLE 2
Write down the sign of the trigonometric ratios for You can rewrite trigonometric ratios to express them in terms of acute angles.
each of these angles.
EXAMPLE 4
a tan 124° Write these trigonometric ratios in terms of acute angles
b sin (-35°)
c cos 305°
a cos 200° b tan 518° c sin ( 43p )
−
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C2
C2
a 124° is in the second quadrant. a Use the result cos (180° + q) = -cos q: Draw a diagram to find which
Hence tan 124° is negative. cos 200° = cos (180° + 20°) quadrant the angle is in.
= -cos 20° 200°
b -35° is in the fourth quadrant. Hence cos 200° = -cos 20° O
Hence sin (-35°) is negative.
You can check the sign of your answer by
c 305° is in the fourth quadrant. considering the quadrants. 200° is in the
Hence cos 305° is positive. third quadrant so cos 200° is negative.
b tan 518° = tan (360° + 158°) You can consider angles outside
You can derive the following results by again considering and is in the second quadrant. the range -360° / q / 360° by
In the second quadrant tan is negative. considering the remainder when
the sign of each ratio in each of the four quadrants.
the angle is divided by 360°
Use the general result: 518°
tan (158°) = tan (180° - 22°)

} sin (180° - q) = sin q y = -tan 22°
sin (180° + q) = -sin q Hence tan 518° = -tan 22°
Sin All
sin (360° - q) = -sin q
( 43p ) radians is located in the
360° − i The same results hold for c − 4p radians is a negative angle
} cos (180° - q) = -cos q 180° + i
angles measured in radians −
3
cos (180° + q) = -cos q 180° − i with 180° replaced by p so is measured in a clockwise
i and 360° replaced by 2p. second quadrant. direction.
cos (360° - q) = cos q O x
e.g sin (p - q) = sin q In the second quadrant sine is positive. 4π
} tan (180° - q) = -tan q −
3
tan (180° + q) = tan q
tan (360° - q) = -tan q Tan Cos
sin ( 43p ) = sin ( p − p3 )
− −
Hence sin ( 4p ) = sin ( p )−

232 3 3 233
Exercise 12.5
1 Draw diagrams to show the quadrant in which each of the INVESTIGATIONS
following angles is located. 6 Each of the following expressions simplify to
a 250° b -120° c 580° sin x, cos x, -sin x or -cos x.
Write down each expression and its simplified result.
d -780° e 5p f -p sin (360° + x) sin (180° + x)
3 5
cos (360° + x) cos (180° + x)
g 3p h − 5p i 9p
5 3 4 sin (180° - x) cos (360° - x)
cos (180° - x)
2 For each of the following angles write down the quadrant in which
it is located and the equivalent acute angle made with the x-axis. 7 Decide, without using a calculator, if the
a 305° b -210° c -300° following trigonometric expressions give positive
or negative values.
d 500° e 3p f 7p sin 460° tan -190°
4 3
tan -325° cos 730°
g − 5p h − 6p i 13p sin 570° sin -580°
6 5 3
cos 510° sin 1000°
3 Draw a diagram to show the position of each angle in one of
8 a sin(360° + x) has the same value as sin x.
the four quadrants.
C2
C2
By looking at the other quadrants, which other
Hence deduce the sign of the trigonometric ratio.
angle has the same value as sin x?
a sin 210° b cos 108° c sin (-80°)
b Similarly, which other angles have the same values
d sin 410° e tan (-380°) f cos 315° as cos x and tan x?
c Use this information to give other angles in the
g tan (-315°) h sin 8p (3) i cos 7p(6) interval 0° < x < 360° that give
i sin 30° = 1
2
4 Simplify the following where q is an acute angle.
ii cos 60° = 1
a sin (180° + q) b cos (180° - q) c tan (180° + q) 2
d cos (2p - q) e sin (2p + q) f tan (2p + q) iii tan 45° = 1
g cos (3p - q) h cos (4p + q) i tan (3p + q)

j sin (4p - q)
5 Simplify the following expressions where q is an acute angle.

a sin (180° + q) - 2 sin (180° - q) b 3 tan (180° - q) + 1
c 4 cos (360° + q) + 2 cos (360° - q) d sin (180° + q)sin (180° - q)
e tan (180° - q) + 3 tan (180° + q) f 2 sin q + 3 sin (360° + q)
g tan (p + q) - 4 tan (p - q) h cos (2p + q) cos (2p - q)
i cos (p - q)sin (p - q) j [tan (3p + q)]2
234 235
12 Trigonometry
12.6 Standard trigonometric results } The trigonometric ratios for 45° are
sin 45° = 1 = 2 cos 45° = 1 = 2 tan 45° = 1 = 1

You need to learn the values of some specific trigonometric ratios. 2 2 2 2 1
} For the sine and cosine ratios: You can check these values on You can use a similar approach to obtain the values of the
sin 0° = 0 sin x your calculator. trigonometric ratios for the angles 30° and 60°.
sin 90° = 1 1 You will study these graphs in C
sin 180° = 0 more detail in section 12.7. Consider an equilateral triangle ABC.
sin 270° = -1
O 90° 180° 270° 360° x
sin 360° = 0 Let all the sides be of unit length and let CD be a 30°
–1 perpendicular from C to the side AB. 1 1
Then AD = DB = 1
2
cos 0° = 1 cos x
60°
cos 90° = 0 1
Use Pythagoras’ theorem: CD2 = AC2 - AD2
A 1 D 1 B
()
2 2 2
cos 180° = -1 Substitute values: = 12 - 1 =1-1 = 3
cos 270° = 0 2 4 4
O 90° 180° 270° 360° x
cos 360° = 1
Take square roots: CD = 3
–1 2
Angle CAD = 60° and angle ACD = 30°
C2
C2
} You can calculate some values for the tangent ratio: The graph of tan q has From the diagram, evaluate the trigonometric ratios:
tan 0° = 0 tan x asymptotes at q = 90°
and q = 270° sin CAD = CD cos CAD = AD tan CAD = CD
tan 180° = 0 AC AC AD
tan 360° = 0 What happens when you try to
input tan 90° and tan 270° into ( 3) 1 3
O x your calculator? Do any other 2 3 2 1 2
90° 180° 270° sin 60° = = cos 60° = = tan 60° = 1 = 3
values give this result? 1 2 1 2
2
Consider angle ACD to show these results for 30°:
Now look at the values of these ratios for the angle 45°. sin 30° = 1
2
Consider an isosceles right-angled triangle ABC. C cos 30° = 3

2
Let sides AB and BC be of unit length. 45°
Use Pythagoras’ theorem: AC 2 = AB2 + BC 2 = 12 + 12 = 2 tan 30° = 1 = 3
3 3
1
Take square roots: AC = 2
From the diagram, evaluate the trigonometric ratios:
sin A = BC cos A = AB tan A = BC 45°

1
} The trigonometric ratios for 30° and 60° are
AC AC AB A B
3
1 = 2 The angles in the triangle sin 30° = 1 cos 30° = 3 tan 30° =
Hence sin 45° = 2 2 3
2 2 are 45°, 45° and 90°.
cos 45° =
1 = 2 and sin 60° = 3 cos 60° = 1 tan 60° = 3
2 2 2
2
tan 45° = 1 = 1 Learn the trigonometric ratios for 0°, 30°, 45°, 60° and 90° and
236 1 237
how to prove the results for 30°, 45° and 60°.
You may find it useful to record these values in a table. You can see these results by You can solve problems involving Pythagoras and trigonometric ratios.
comparing the graphs of cos q
and sin q for 0° / q / 90°.
EXAMPLE 2
Using the right-angled triangle ABC, where AB = 5, BC = 12
0ⴗ 30ⴗ 45ⴗ 60ⴗ 90ⴗ and angle B = 90°, work out the exact value of
1 2 3
sin ␪ 0 1 1 a cos A, where A is an obtuse angle
2 2 2
√2
cos ␪
3 2 1 2 b tan C, for 3p < C < 2p C is a reflex angle.
1
2 2
0 2
2 1
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2
3 C
tan ␪ 0 1 3 ±∞ Use Pythagoras’ theorem to find the value of AC: reflex
3
angle C
O i
AC2 = AB2 + BC2
30° 45° 60° 90°
= 52 + 122
= 25 + 144 = 169 12
You can use these results to evaluate trigonometric ratios The values for tan q can be
by first expressing them in terms of acute angles and then deduced from the identity Take square roots: AC = 13
sin q obtuse angle A
writing them in surd form. tan q =
cos q AB 5
a cos A = AB = 5 b tan C = BC = 12
AC 13 A 5 B
EXAMPLE 1
Write the following in surd form Angle A is obtuse, so A is in the Angle C is reflex, so C is in the
(3)
2nd quadrant: cos A is negative. 3rd quadrant: tan C is positive.
a cos 330° b sin 2p You learned about surds in C1.
Hence cos A = − 5 Hence tan C = 5
13 12
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C2
C2
a cos 330° b sin 2p (3) You may find it helpful to
draw diagrams.
You will often be asked to give your answer as an exact value. For an exact value leave your
answer in surd form.
The corresponding The corresponding
acute angle is p in
EXAMPLE 3
acute angle is 30° in Given that tan x = − 2 find the exact values of
3
the fourth quadrant. the second quadrant. 3
cos x and sin x when the angle x is obtuse.
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Use the information to draw a diagram of the right-angled triangle ABC:
π 2π
330° 3 3 opp BC 2
30° tan x = = =
adj AB 3
2
Apply Pythagoras’ theorem: AC2 = AB2 + BC2
= ( 3 ) + 22
2
Cosine is positive in the fourth Sine is positive in the second =3+4 x

quadrant. quadrant. √3
=7 A B
Use cos (360° - q) = cos q: Use sin (p - q) = sin (q): Take square roots: AC = 7
tan x = sin x = +ve = -ve
(3)
Angle x is obtuse, so x is in the second quadrant cos x −ve
cos 330° = cos 30° sin 2p = sin p so sin x is positive and cos x is negative as required.
3
hence sin x = BC cos x = − AB
Use the result for cos 30°: Use the result for sin p : (3) AC
and
AC
Check: tan x =
2
sin x = 7 = − 2
sin x = 2 cos x = − 3 cos x 3 3
cos 30° = 3
2
sin p = 3 (3) 2
p radians = 60°
3
7 7 −7
(3)
Sometimes you will be asked to solve an equation involving a
Hence cos 330° = 3 Hence sin 2p = 3 trigonometric ratio to find q. You should be aware that there
2 2
238 239
may be more than one possible answer.
EXAMPLE 4 5 Use Pythagoras’ theorem and your knowledge of the quadrants

Find all the values of the angle q in the given range. and associated acute angles to answer these questions.
sin q = 3, [0° < q < 720°] 1
2 a Given that sin A = 3 and A is acute, find the exact values of cos A and tan A.
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You know that one solution is q = 60° since sin 60° = 3

This is the acute angle in the b If sin A = − 2 and 180° < A < 270° find the exact values of cos A and tan A.
2 first quadrant. 3
and p < x < 3p find the exact values of sin x and cos x.
Use sin (180° - q) = sin q to find a solution in the 2nd quadrant: 1
Sine is also positive in the c When tan x =
180° - 60° = 120°, so q = 120° is also a solution. 2 2
second quadrant.
Consider the next cycle, 360° < q < 720°: d Given that cos B = − 1 and B is an obtuse angle find the exact values of sin B and tan B.
2
The equivalent values are
e When tan x = − 2 and x is an obtuse angle find the exact values of sin x and cos x.
q = 360° + 60° = 420° and q = 540° - 60° = 480° 360° + 180° = 540°
Hence the solutions are q = 60°, 120°, 420° and 480°. f If tan q = 5 and q is a reflex angle find the exact values of sin q and cos q.
12
6 Find all the values of the angle q in the given range.

Exercise 12.6
1 Rewrite each of the following in terms of an acute angle. a sin q = 1 , [0° < q < 180°] b cos q = 3 , [0° < q < 180°]
2 2
a sin 150° b cos 210° c tan 135° d sin 240°
c tan q = 1, [0° < q < 180°] d cos q = 1 , [90° < q < 270°]
C2
C2
e cos (-135°) f sin (-240°) g cos 390° h sin (-480°) 2
2 Write the answers to the following, in surd form where appropriate. e sin q = − 2 , [180° < q < 360°] f cos q = -1, [0° < q < 360°]
2
a sin 60° b cos 90° c tan 120° d tan 300°
g sin q = − 1 , [180° < q < 360°] h tan q = − 3 , [0° < q < 180°]
2 3
e sin 210° f cos (-30°) g sin (-150°) h tan (-60°)
7 Find all the values of the angle x, in radian measure, in the given range.
3 Write the answers to the following in surd form where appropriate.
a sin x = 1 , [0 < x < p] b cos x = 0, [0 < x < 2p]
a sin p b cos 3p c tan p d tan 2p These angles are in radians. 2
2 2 4 3
c sin x = 3 , [p < x < 2p] d tan x = 3, [0 < x < 2p]
e cos − p
6 ( ) f tan − p
2 ( ) g sin 7p
6
h sin 5p
3
2
e cos x = − 1 , [p < x < 2p] f tan x = − 3 , [p < x < 2p]

2 3
4 Use the right-angled triangle ABC, where AB = 4 units, C
BC = 3 units and AC = 5 units, to work out the value of each g sin x = 1.5, [0 < x < 2p] h cos x = 1 , [0 < x < 4p]
2
ratio, given the information about the angle.
5
3
a sin A, A is acute b cos C, C is acute INVESTIGATION
c sin A, A is reflex d tan C, C is reflex 8 a Find the unknown length in this triangle.
B 4 A 2
b Find sin 30° as an exact fraction and find 1
e cos C, C is reflex f sin A, 270° < A < 360°
similar expressions for cos 30° and tan 30°.
g tan A, 3π < A < 2p
30°
2
h cos A, A is obtuse c Hence prove (sin 30°)2 + (cos 30°)2 = 1
d Prove sin A cos A tan A + sin B cos B tan B = 1
i sin A, 360° < A < 450° j cos (-C), C is acute
240 where A = 30° and B = 60°. 241
12 Trigonometry
You can also draw a graph of y = tan q.

12.7 Trigonometric graphs
y You can extend this graph in
y = tan i both the positive and negative
You can use your knowledge of the sine function to draw You can draw trigonometric graphs 4
directions to show the value
the graph of y = sin q. by hand or use graphing software
of tan x for any x.
on a graphic calculator or a
y computer.
1 The lines, q = -90°, 90°, 270°. . .,
1 y = sin θ
are asymptotes to the curve.
You can extend this graph in −180° −90° 0 90° 180° 270° 360° 450° i y = tan q approaches but never
0.5 −1
both the positive and negative meets them.
directions to show the value of
−180°−90° O 90° 180° 270° 360° 450° 540° θ sin q for any q.
−0.5 −4
−1
As you can see the graph of y = tan q behaves quite differently from the
graphs of y = sin q and y = cos q. However, y = tan q is also periodic.
} The sine curve is a periodic function. Periodic functions repeat
It has a period of 360° or 2p radians. themselves after a given interval.
This interval is called the period } The tangent function is periodic.
sin (q + 360°) = sin q and sin (q - 360°) = sin q of the function. It has a period of 180° or p radians.
tan (q + 180°) = tan q and tan (q - 180°) = tan q
} The graph of y = sin q has symmetry about the line q = 90°. Similarly y = sin q has symmetry
e.g. There is an asymptote at
C2
C2
about the line q = 450° and so on. } The tangent curve has asymptotes at (2n + 1)90°
sin (90° + q) = sin (90° - q) q = (2 ´ 2 + 1) ´ 90°
where n is an integer. = 5 ´ 90° = 450°
Similarly you can draw the graph of y = cos q.
You can see from the graph that the curve approaches the asymptotes
y y = cos θ You can extend this graph in but never reaches them.
both the positive and negative You can show this by writing tan q ® ±¥ for these values.
1
directions to show the value
0.5 of cos q for any q.
Exercise 12.7
1 a Sketch the graph of y = cos x, where x is in radian measure,
−180°−90° O 90° 180° 270° 360° 450° 540° 630° θ for values of x from -p to +p
−0.5
b Sketch the graph of y = sin q, where q is in radian measure,
−1 for values of q from -2p to +2p.
c Sketch the graph of y = tan x, where x is measured in radians,
The cosine curve is the same as the sine curve after a translation of -90°. for values of x from -p to +p.
d i On the same axes sketch the graphs of y = sin x and y = cos x,
} The cosine function is periodic. where x is measured in radians, for values of x from 0 to 2p.
It has a period of 360° or 2p radians. ii Show that these two curves intersect at two points only
cos (q + 360°) = cos q and cos (q - 360°) = cos q and find the values of sin x and cos x where this occurs.
iii Find the solutions to the equation sin x - cos x = 0
} The graph of y = cos q has symmetry about the line q = 0°.

cos (-q) = cos q INVESTIGATION
2 Use the graphs of sin x and cos x to explain why there
are no solutions to the equations
a sin x = 3 b cos x = -2
242 243
12 Trigonometry
You can also sketch the graphs for equations of the type y = n + sin x
12.8 Transformations of trigonometric graphs
y
EXAMPLE 3
Sketch the graph of y = 2 + sin x for -2p / x / 2p. 3
You can transform graphs of trigonometric functions in the You studied transformations of ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
same way that you transform graphs of general curves. general curves in Chapter 4.
Use a plot the graph of y = sin x to sketch y = 2 + sin x
2
You can sketch the graphs of y = n sin x, y = n cos x and You can use graphing software to the graph of y = 2 + sin x:
y = n tan x where n is a constant. plot trigonometric graphs.
Add 2 to every y = sin x value. 1
EXAMPLE 1
The sine curve has been translated by

Sketch the graph of y = 2 sin x for 0° / x / 360°. y
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2
Use a plot of the graph of y = sin x to sketch
EXAMPLE 4
the graph of y = 2 sin x: 1 Sketch the graph of the equation y = -1 + cos x
y = 2 sin x = 2 ´ sin x, so in this case the y-values will be y = sin x for -2p / x / 2p.
double the values given by y = sin x. 0 •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• y
90° 180° 270° 360° x
Use a plot of the graph of y = cos x to sketch
e.g. sin 0° = 0 Þ 2 sin 0° = 0 −1 −2π −π 0 π 2π x
the graph of y = -1 + cos x:
sin 90° = 1 Þ 2 sin 90° = 2
−1
−2 Subtract 1 from every y = cos x value.
The graph of y = 2 sin x is the same as the graph of y = sin x The cosine curve has been translated by −2
after a stretch parallel to the y-axis by scale factor 2. y = −1 + cos x
-1 unit parallel to the y-axis.
C2
C2
} Generally, the graph y = n sin x is the graph of You can test this by substituting
y = sin x after being stretched parallel to the different values of n and } Generally the graph of y = ±k + sin x is a translation of
y-axis by a scale factor of n. sketching the resulting graphs. the graph of y = sin x by ±k parallel to the y-axis.
Similar results are true for the graphs of Investigate the functions Similar results follow for the graphs of y = cos x and y = tan x.
y = n cos x and y = n tan x y = n cos x and y = n tan x and Now look at the effect of adding a constant to the angle in the ratio.
their graphs for yourself.
Now consider the function y = n sin x when n = -1
EXAMPLE 5
y Sketch the graph of y = sin (x + 90°) for 0° / x / 360°. y
EXAMPLE 2
Sketch the graph of y = -sin x for 0°/ x / 360°.

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y = −sin x y = sin (x + 90°)

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1 Use a plot of the graph of y = sin x to sketch 1
Use a plot of the graph of y = sin x to sketch the graph of y = sin (x + 90°):
0 0
the graph of y = -sin x: 90° 180° 270° 360° x The graph of y = sin (x + 90°) looks like the graph of y = cos x. 90° 180° 270° x
y = - sin x = -1 ´ sin x −1 The sine curve has been translated by −1
e.g. sin 0° = 0 Þ -sin 0° = 0 -90° parallel to the x-axis.

sin 90° = 1 Þ -sin 90° = -1
EXAMPLE 6 y y = tan (x − 45°)
Sketch the curve y = tan (x - 45°) for 0 / x / 360°.
The sine curve has been reflected in the x-axis. ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
6
4
Similar results are true for Use a plot of the graph of y = tan x to sketch
} Generally, the graph of y = -sin x is the graph of 2
y = -cos x and y = -tan x. the graph of y = tan (x - 45°):
y = sin x after a reflection in the x-axis. 0 x
Draw these graphs yourself. 90° 180° 270° 360°
The tangent curve has been translated by −2
+45° parallel to the x-axis. −4
244 −6 245
Generally 4 Sketch these graphs on separate diagrams for 0° / x / 360°.

} y = sin (x + q) is a translation of y = sin x by
Give the coordinates of the x-axis crossings.
-q parallel to the x-axis a y = sin (-x) b y = cos 2x c y = tan x (2)
The graphs of y = cos (x + q) and y = tan (x + q)
behave in a similar way. 5 Use transformations of the graphs of sin x and cos x to show that
the following equations are true.
The curves given by y = sin (kx), y = cos (kx) and y = tan (kx) are also
related to the curves of y = sin x, y = cos x and y = tan x respectively. a sin (x + 180°) = -sin x b sin (90° - x) = cos x
c cos (90° - x) = sin x d cos (180° - x) = -cos x
EXAMPLE 7
Sketch the graph of the curve y = sin 2x for 0 / x / 2p. y

y = sin 2x 6 Use transformations of the graphs of sin x and cos x to show that
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1
Use a plot of the graph of y = sin x to sketch the following equations are true.
the graph of y = sin (2x): a sin x = -sin (-x) b cos x = cos (-x) c tan x = -tan (-x)
Compare this with the graph of y = sin x
0 7 Sketch each function and write down its period.
y = sin x has period 2p. y = sin 2x has period p. π π 3π 2π x
(2)
2 2
The sine curve has been stretched parallel to the a y = sin q b y = cos (p + q)
x-axis by a scale factor of 1 .
2 −1 c y = tan 4q d y = cos (-q)
C2
C2
Generally
INVESTIGATION
} The graph of y = sin (kx) is the graph of y = sin x after 8 Find the equation of each graph.
a stretch parallel to the x-axis by a scale factor of 1 . a y b y
k
2 y=2
2
Similar results are true for the graphs of y = cos (kx) and 1
1 y=1
y = tan (kx).
−360° −270° −180° −90° O 90° 180° 270° 360° x
−1
Exercise 12.8 −180° −90° O 90° 180° 270° 360° x
1 Sketch each pair of graphs on the same diagram for 0° / x / 360°. −2 y = −2
Label the axes to show the key features of each curve.

c y d y
a y = sin x and y = 3 sin x b y = cos x and y = -2 cos x c y = tan x and y = -tan x 1 1
2 Sketch these graphs on separate diagrams for -2p / x / 2p.

Include labels to show the key features of each curve. −180° −135° −90° −45° O 45° 90° 135° 180° 225° x −120° −60° O 60° 120° x
a y = -1 + sin x b y = 3 + cos x c y = -2 + tan x
−1 −1
3 Sketch these graphs on separate diagrams for 0° / x / 360°.
Give the coordinates of the x-axis crossings.
a y = sin (x + 45°) b y = cos (x - 90°) c y = tan (x - 45°)
246 247
12 Trigonometry
EXAMPLE 2
12.9 Trigonometric identities Prove that (sin x + cos x)2 º 1 + 2 sin x cos x
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The sine, cosine and tangent ratios are related to each other by the Work with the left-hand side (LHS) of the equation: You need to transform one
trigonometric identities. side of the equation so that
LHS º (sin x + cos x)2 it is the same as the other
side.Work with either the
Expand: º sin2 x + 2 sin x cos x + cos2 x
Apply Pythagoras in triangle ABC: c2 + a2 = b2 LHS or the RHS.
C º 1 + 2 sin x cos x Using sin2 x + cos2 x º 1
c 2 + a2 = b2
Divide each term by b2:
b2 b2 b2
LHS º RHS as required.
() ()
2 2
c + a =1 (1) b
b b a
Exercise 12.9 Choose either the LHS or
For angle A: cos A = c and sin A = a 1 Simplify the following expressions. the RHS to work with.
b b
A c B a cos2 2x + sin2 2x b cos2 3x - 1 c (1 − sin2 4q )
Substitute these values into (1): cos2 A + sin2 A º 1
d 1 − cos2 2q e (cos A - sin A)2 f tan x

1 − sin 2 2q sin x
} Generally, for all q, cos2 q+ sin2 qº1 º means “is equivalent to”.
g sin2 x(1 - cos2 x) h cos2 x + (1 - sin x)2 i (1 − sin2 q )
sin q
Consider angle A in the right-angled triangle ABC:
C2
C2
2 Prove the following results.
opposite a
tan A = =
adjacent c
a 1+ 1 ≡ 1 b tan2 q + 1 º 1
c 2 sin x + 3 cos x º 2 tan x + 3
Divide both the top and bottom by b: tan A = a ÷ b Dividing both top and bottom by tan 2 A sin 2 A cos2 q cos x
c ÷b the same quantity has no effect
e 1 − cos
2 cos x
2 sin x cos x
a c
Substitute sin A = and cos A = : tan A = sin A on the value of the fraction. d º 2 tan x A º tan2 A f sin x - 1 º -
b b cos A 1 − sin 2 x 2
cos A sin x tan x
º 12 − 2 cos q2
2
1
g (cos x - sin x)2 + 2 sin x cos x º 1 h tan2 q -
tan q
2
cos q (1 − cos q )
} Generally, for all q, tan q º sin q
cosq 1 º 1
i 2 + tan2 q +
tan 2 q sin 2 q cos2 q
You can use these identities to simplify expressions.
3 If x = r cos q and y = r sin q, where r is a constant, show that x2 + y2 = r2
EXAMPLE 1
Simplify the expression (1 - cos2 A) + 2 sin2 A

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Use cos2 A + sin2 A º 1: 4 If x = 2 cos q and y = 3 sin q, find an equation in terms of x and y only.
2 2 Without sketching the graph deduce the maximum and minimum
Rearrange: sin A º 1 - cos A
values of x and y.
Substitute sin2 A for (1 - cos2 A) in the expression:
(1 - cos2 A) + 2 sin2 A º sin2 A + 2 sin2 A

º 3 sin2 A INVESTIGATION
5 An alternate proof of sin2 x + cos2 x º 1 begins as follows.
You can also use the identities to prove relationships. a = c cos x c b
b=…
x
Complete the proof. a
248 249
12 Trigonometry
You can use a similar approach to solve equations involving the

12.10 Solving trigonometric equations cosine function and equations when the given value of the
trigonometric ratio is negative.
You can use your knowledge of trigonometric ratios to solve A trigonometric equation
trigonometric equations. involves a trigonometric ratio You can find solutions to equations involving multiple angles.
You first find an associated acute angle to give you the first solution. and an unknown
e.g. tan x = 1
To solve an equation of the form f(nq) = k
You can then find further solutions by considering the relevant let x = nq and solve for x,
trigonometric graph. then find the corresponding values of q.
1
e.g. To solve sin 3q =
EXAMPLE 1
2
Solve the equation sin x = 2 for -360° / x / 360°.
2 First let x = 3q and solve sin x = 1
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2
x
Then use q = to find q.
Find an associated acute angle: 3
sin x = 2 You should recognise this ratio
EXAMPLE 2
2 as a standard result. Find the values of q which satisfy the equation tan 2q = 1
x = 45° for 0° / q / 180°.
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Consider the graph of y = sin x to find the other solutions in

the given interval. Let x = 2q
2 Find an associated acute angle:
Sketch the graph of y = sin x and the line y = on the same axes:
2
tan x = 1 You should recognise this ratio
C2
C2
y x = 45° as a standard result.
1 √2 y y = tan x
y= Consider the graph of y = tan x to find the other solutions.
2
x = 2q so use 0° / x / 360° for your sketch. 4
Sketch the graph of y = tan x and the line y = 1 on the same axes: 2 45° 45°
y=1
The curve and the line intersect twice in the given range,
−360° −270° −180° −90° O 90° 180° 270° 360° x so there are two solutions.
90° 180° 270° 360° x
Use your knowledge of the tangent curve to find the value of the −2
y = sin x other solution:
y = tan x is periodic with period 180° −4

−1
so x = 180° + 45° = 225° is a solution.
y = tan x has period 180°,
The curve and the line intersect four times in the Hence the solutions are x = 45° and x = 225°. tan (x) = tan (x ± 180°)
given interval so there are four solutions.
In terms of q, the solutions are q = 22.5° and q = 112.5°. q= x
2
Use the graph of the sine curve to find the other solutions:
The graph of y = sin x is symmetric about the line x = 90°. Symmetry about 90°: Similarly you can solve trigonometric equations in which the 2
sin (90° - x) = sin (90° + x) e.g. cos (q + 90°) =
so x = 90° + 45° = 135° is a solution. angle is a sum or difference. 2
First let x = q + 90° and
y = sin x is periodic with period 360° y = sin x has period 360°: To solve equations of this kind:
so x = 45° - 360° = -315° is a solution. sin (x) = sin (x ± 360°) solve cos x = 2
first let x = q ± B and solve for x 2
The graph of y = sin x is symmetric about the line x = -270° then find the corresponding values for q. Then use q = x - 90° to find q.
so x = 45° - 270° = -225° is a solution. Compare your solutions to
your sketch graph to decide if
Hence the solutions are x = -315°, -225°, 45° and 135°. they are feasible.
250 251
EXAMPLE 3 You can use a similar method to solve equations in which

Find the solutions to the equation sin (A - 30°) = -0.4 the sine, cosine or tangent is raised to a power.
for 0° / A / 360°.
EXAMPLE 4
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Let x = A - 30° and solve sin x = -0.4 for -30° / x / 330°. 0° / A / 360° so Solve the equation 4 sin2 q = 1 for -p / q / p radians.
-30° / A - 30° / 330° •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Use your calculator to find an associated acute angle: Hence -30° / x / 330° 4 sin2 q = 1 sin² q º (sin q)² so the square
root of the LHS is sin q.
sin x = -0.4 Rearrange: sin2 q = 1 1 1
x = -23.58° (to 4 s.f.) 4 = ± 2 . Remember to include
4
Consider the graph of y = sin x to find the Take square roots: sin q = ± 1 both of these solutions.
2
other solutions for -30° / x / 330°. Use the standard results to find the associated acute angles: Use the radian mode on
sin q = 1 gives the first value, q = p
Sketch the graph of y = sin x and the line y = -0.4 on the same axes: your calculator to check
2 6 these results.
and sin q = - 1 gives the first value q = − p
y
y = sin x This solution 2 6
1
is outside Consider the graph of y = sin q to find the other solutions
the given in the interval -p / q / p.
interval.
Sketch the graph of y = sin q and the lines
1
y = 1 and y = - on the same axes:
0
90° 180° 270° 360° x 2 2
y = –0.4 y
y = sin i
C2
C2
1
−1
1
y=
The curve and the line intersect twice in the 2
given interval so there are two solutions. −π π O π π i
−
2 2
Use your knowledge of the sine curve to find the value of the other solution:
1
sin (180° - x) = sin x, y=−
2
You can check your solutions by −1
so x = 180° - (-23.58°)
} comparing your results with
= 203.58° is a solution.
your graph
The curve intersects the line y = 1 twice in the given interval.
Hence the solutions are x = -23.58° and x = 203.58°. } using your calculator. 2
A = x + 30° The curve intersects the line y = - 1 twice in the given interval,
2
In terms of A the solutions are so there are four solutions in total.
A = -23.58° + 30° = 6.42° and Use your knowledge of the sine curve to find the values
A = 203.58° + 30° = 233.58° of the other solutions:
= 234° (to 3 s.f.) p
The solutions are q = 6 , p - p and q = - p , -p + p
6 6 6
Hence the solutions are q = - 5p , q = - p , q = p and q = 5p
6 6 6 6
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Sometimes you need to rearrange a trigonometric equation You can apply the rules of algebra Exercise 12.10
before you can solve it. to trigonometric equations. 1 Solve these equations giving all solutions between 0° and 360°.
Give your answers to three significant figures where appropriate.
EXAMPLE 5
Solve the equation 2 sin2 q = 5 sin q - 2 a sin x = 0.5 b cos x = 0.5

for 0 / q / p radians.
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c tan x = 1 d sin A = -0.7
2 sin2 q = 5 sin q - 2
Rewrite the equation: e cos A = -0.2 f tan A = -3
2 sin2 q - 5 sin q + 2 = 0
Factorise the quadratic: g sin q = 0.75 h cos q = -0.75
(2 sin q - 1)(sin q - 2) = 0
i tan q = 0.05 j tan q = - 4
9
There are two possible solutions sin q = 2 has no solutions.
either 2 sin q - 1 = 0, so sin q = 1 You can see this by considering k sin x = 0.6 l cos x = 2
2
or sin q - 2 = 0, so sin q = 2 the graph of y = sin q.
2 Solve these equations giving all solutions between 0° and 180°.
You can now solve these simple trigonometric equations in the usual way by Write your answers to three significant figures where appropriate.
} finding the associated acute angles and then
} using the properties of the sine function and its graph to evaluate the
a sin 2x = 0.5 b sin 3x = 1
(2)
other solutions in the given interval.
c cos 2x = 0.5 d cos x = 0.5
The associated acute angle is q = p
C2
C2
6
e tan 2x = 1 f cos 2q = -0.6
This gives a further solution in the given interval of q = p - p
6
hence the solutions are q = p and q = 5p
6 6
g tan 2q = -0.5 (2)
h tan θ = 3
i sin 4x = 2 j tan ( q ) = 0.3

2 3
EXAMPLE 6
1
Solve the equation 2 tan 2x - 1 =
tan 2x 3 Solve these equations giving solutions between 0° and 180°.
for -180° / x / 180°. Write your answers correct to three significant figures where appropriate.
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1 a 2 sin x - 1 = 0 b 2 sin 2x + 1 = 0
2 tan 2x - 1 =
tan 2x
Multiply through by tan 2x to eliminate the fraction: c 2 sin x = cos x d 2 cos 2x - 0.5 = 0
2 tan2 2x - tan 2x = tan 2x e 3 sin 2x - cos 2x = 0 f 4 tan 2x = 5

tan 2x
(2) (2)
2
2 tan 2x - tan 2x = 1 You may need to use the formula
if the quadratic does not factorise. g 1 sin x - 1 = 0 h cos 3x + 0.5 = 0
Rearrange: 2 tan 2x - tan 2x - 1 = 0 2 2 4
Use your calculator to find the
Factorise: (tan 2x - 1)(2 tan 2x + 1) = 0 i sin x (1 + sin 2x) = 0 j cos 2x = cos 2x(0.5 + sin x)
associated acute angle and then
so either tan 2x = 1 or tan 2x = - 1 use the properties and graph of
2 the tangent function to find the
2x = 45°, 225°, -135°, -315° or -26.57°, -206.6°, 153.4°, 333.4° further solutions in the given
interval.
First let q = 2x and solve for q.
Then find the corresponding values for x. To find the values of x between
-180° and 180° you must
The solutions are x = -158°, -103°, -67.5°, -13.3°, 22.5°, consider values of 2x between
76.7°, 113° and 167° to 3 s.f. -360° and 360°.
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4 Solve these equations giving your solutions between 0° and 360°. 8 Write the solutions to these equations in radians for 0 / q / p
a sin (x + 30°) = 0.5 b cos (x - 30°) = 0.5 and correct to 3 s.f. when appropriate.
a sin2 2q = 0.25
c tan (x + 20°) = 1 d sin (30° + x) = -0.5
b 2 sin2 2q - 3 sin 2q + 1 = 0
e tan (45° - x) = -1 f cos (x + 90°) = - 3 c 4 cos2 2q = 3
2
d tan2 2q + 4 tan 2q + 3 = 0
g tan (x - 75°) = 3 h sin (30° - x) = -1
e 2 cos2 3q - 3 sin 3q + 1 = 0
5 Solve the following equations, where q is in radians, giving your
answers for -p / q / p 9 If a cos q = k(b sin q + c cos q), where a, b, c and k are constants
(
a sin q − p = 1
2 ) b sin 2q = 0.5 a show that tan q = a − kc
bk
b Hence, or otherwise, find the values of q, for 0 / q / 2p,

( 3)
c cos q + p = 3 d tan 2q = 1
2 which satisfy the equation
e cos 2q =
2
2
(
f tan q + p = 3
3 ) a cos q = k(b sin q + c cos q)
when a = 2, b = 3, c = -1 and k = 2.
(
g sin q + p = 0
2 ) (
h sin q − p = − 1
6 ) 2 10 a Given that tan 2q may be written as
C2
C2
i cos (q + 0.2) = − 3
2
j (2)
tan q = − 1
3
tan 2q =
2 tan q
1 − tan 2 q
by using a right-angled triangle, or otherwise, obtain

6 Solve the following equations giving your answers for 0° / x / 360° expressions for sin 2q and cos 2q in terms of tan q.
and correct to 3 s.f. where appropriate.
b Hence, by using these results, or otherwise, show that the
a sin2 x = 1 b 4 cos2 x = 1 equation
c 3 tan2 x = 1 d 2 sin2 x - sin x = 0 sin 2q + cos 2q = 2
e sin x cos x - cos x = 0 f 2 sin2 x = 3 sin x cos x has no real solutions.
2
g 4 cos x = 5 sin x h 3 cos x - sin x cos x = 0
i 2 tan x + 5 tan2 x = 0 j 5 sin x + 3 cos x = 0 INVESTIGATION
11 The following appeared in an exam script.
7 Solve these equations in the interval -180° / x / 180°
giving your answers correct to 3 s.f. where appropriate. To solve sin x = sin x tan x
a sin2 x + 2 sin x + 1 = 0 2
b 2 cos x + cos x - 1 = 0 2
c tan x - tan x - 2 = 0 1 = tan x
so x = 45 °
d 3 cos2 x - 2 sin x - 2 = 0 e 6 sin2 x + 7 cos x = 8 f sin2 x + sin x = 1
Explain why the candidate has missed out some
2
g 2 cos x = cos x + 2 2
h 2 sin x + 3 cos x - 1 = 0 i tan x - 2 + 2 = 0 solutions and find these missing solutions.
tan x
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12 Trigonometry
7a Simplify sin (180° - q)

Review 12
b Given that q is an acute angle simplify the expression
2 cos (90° - q) - 3 sin (180° + q)
Give answers correct to three significant figures where appropriate.
1a Find the vertical height of an equilateral triangle where the 8 Solve the equation sin x = 2 , writing down all the solutions in
sides are of length 7.5 cm. 2
the interval -360° / x / 360°.
b The diagonals of a rhombus are of lengths 12 cm and 10 cm.
Find the size of the angles at the vertices of the rhombus.
9 If sin x = 1 and x is acute state the exact values of cos x and tan x.
3
2 In a triangle, ABC, AB = 11 cm, BC = 14 cm and AC = 12 cm.
Use the cosine rule to find the size of angle ACB. 10 a Write the values of these ratios, in surd form where appropriate
Hence find the area of the triangle. sin 300°, cos 300° and tan 300°.
3 In the triangle ABC, AB = 9 cm, BC = 5 cm and b For -2p / x / 2p radians, find the values of x,
angle BAC = 8p radians.
in radians, when tan x = − 3
45
a Use the sine rule to find the value of sin x, giving your 11 Sketch the graph of y = cos x, where x is measured in radians,
answer to 3 d.p. where angle ACB = x radians. taking values of x from 0 to 2p.
Given that there are two possible values of x 12 On separate diagrams sketch the graphs of the equations
b find these values of x, giving your answers to 2 d.p.
C2
C2
a y = 3 + sin x b y = 3 sin x
taking values of x in the interval 0° to 180°.
4 A triangle, ABC, is constructed inside a circle, centre O, with A
points A, B and C on the circumference. 15
13 On separate diagrams sketch the graphs of the equations
The chord AB is of length 15 cm and subtends an angle
( )
B
of 108° at the centre of the circle. 108° a y = cos x + p b y = tan 2x
2
a What is the radius of the circle? where x is measured in radians and for the interval 0 / x / 2p
The chord AB cuts off a minor segment of the circle. C
b Find the area of this segment. 14 a Use a graphical method, or otherwise, to show that
A B sin x = -cos (90° + x)

5 The logo of a performing company is made up of part of a
circle and a triangle as shown in the diagram. O b Simplify the expression
Angle ACB is 63° and the radius AO, where O is the centre sin 40° - 2 cos 130°
of the circle, is of length 9 cm. 63°
Find the total perimeter of the logo. C 15 Solve, for 0 / x / 180°, the equation
6 In the diagram OAB is a sector of a circle radius 5 m. a sin (x + 30°) = 1

2
The chord AB is 6 m long. A B
6m b cos 2x = -0.5
a Show that cos AOB = 7
25 c tan2 x = 0.25, giving your answer to 1 d.p.
5m
b Hence find the angle AOB in radians, giving your
answer to three decimal places.
O
c Calculate the area of the sector OAB.
d Hence calculate the shaded area. [(c) Edexcel Limited 2006]
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The terms of a geometric sequence can be algebraic.

13.1 General term of a geometric sequence
EXAMPLE 3
The first three terms of a geometric sequence are (x + 1), (x + 2) and (x + 5).
A geometric sequence is defined by its first term, a, and a common ratio, r. Find the value of each term and the common ratio.
e.g. Consider the sequence 1, 3, 9, 27, . . . ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
The first term is 1

r = 2nd term = 3rd term The ratio between consecutive
2nd term 3rd term 4 th term (n + 1)th term 1st term
2nd term terms is constant in a
The common ratio is = = =
1st term 2nd term 3rd term nth term Substitute the terms: x+2 = x+5 geometric sequence.
Hence the common ratio = 3 x +1 x +2
Now look at each term: 1st term = 1 × (3)0 2nd term = 1 × (3)1 Rearrange: (x + 2)(x + 2) = (x + 5)(x + 1)
3rd term = 1 × (3)2 4th term = 1 × (3)3 and so on Expand: x2 + 4x + 4 = x2 + 6x + 5
Rearrange and solve for x: -2x = 1, so x = − 1
Is the sequence which begins 2
} The general term of a geometric sequence with first term 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, . . . geometric?
a and common ratio r is given by nth term = arn-1 Explain your answer. Substitute x = - 1 to find the values of the terms:
2
1st term = x + 1 = 1 2nd term = x + 2 = 1 1 3rd term = x + 5 = 4 1

2 2 1
2
EXAMPLE 1
4
a Find the general term of the geometric sequence 3, 6, 12, 24, … 1
The common ratio is r =1 ÷1 =3 Check: 3rd term = 2 = 3
b Hence find the 10th and 20th terms of the sequence. 2 2 2nd term 1
1
2
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a First term = 3
2nd term 6 4th term You can use geometric sequences to solve real-life problems.
Find the common ratio: = =2 Check: = 24 = 2
C2
C2
1st term 3 3rd term 12
Hence nth term = 3 × 2n-1
EXAMPLE 4
If £100 is invested in a growth fund which increases by 8% Some questions will involve
b Use the general term to find the 10th and 20th terms.
each year find how many completed years have passed a decreasing value.
Substitute n = 10: 10th term = 3 ´ 210–2 = 768 You can leave your
before the initial investment has doubled in value.
Substitute n = 20: 20th term = 3 ´ 220–2 = 3 ´ 218 answers in index form.
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At the end of year one value = 100 + (8% of 100)

Some geometric sequences have a negative common ratio. e.g If r = -2 in Example 1 then = 100 + 100 ´ 0.08
This gives an alternating sequence (a sequence whose terms the resulting sequence is
3, -6, 12, -24, . . .
= 100(1 + 0.08) Take out common factor 100.
alternate between positive and negative values). = 100 ´ (1.08)
You can find the term at which a sequence reaches a given value. At the end of year two value = [100 ´ (1.08)] ´ (1.08) The sum increases by a factor
= 100 ´ (1.08)2 of 1.08 each year.
value = [100 ´ (1.08)2] ´ (1.08)
EXAMPLE 2
At the end of year three

Find the first term in the geometric sequence 1, 3, 9, 27, … to exceed the value of 10 000.
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= 100 ´ (1.08)3
Hence at end of the nth year value = 100 ´ (1.08)n
First term, a = 1, common ratio, r = 3
general term = 1 × (3)n-1 = 3n-1 The terms form a geometric sequence
Set up an inequality: 3n-1 > 10 000 You are looking for the first value
of n for which nth term > 10 000.
100 ´ [(1.08), (1.08)2, (1.08)3, …, (1.08)n, …]
Take logarithms to base 10: (n - 1) log10 3 > log10 10 000
(n - 1) 0.47712 > 4 You need the value of n such that (1.08)n 0 2 So that £100 is doubled.
n −1 > 4 Take logarithms to base 10: n log10 1.08 0 log10 2

0.47712
n - 1 > 8.3836 log10 2
Rearrange: n
n > 9.3836 log10 1.08
Hence n = 10 is the first term in the series to exceed the value of 10 000. n must be an integer. n 0 9.0065…
n must be an integer.
You can check your solution by substituting values into the general term: Therefore n = 10; Check solution by finding
9th term = 38 = 6561 < 10 000 and 10th term = 39 = 19 683 > 10 000 investment has more than doubled after 10 years. the 9th and 10th terms.
264 265
Exercise 13.1 8 a Find the first term of the geometric sequence

1 Identify which of the following are geometric sequences. 1, 2, 4, 8 … to exceed the value of 5000.
For those that are, give the common ratio.
b Find the first term of the sequence
a 1, 2, 3, 4, … b 1, 2, 4, 8, … c -1, -3, -5, -7, … 4, 6, 9, 13.5, … to exceed the value 15 000.
d 9, 3, 1, 1 , … e 1 , 1 , 1, 2, … f 4, -8, 16, -32, … c Find the first term of the geometric sequence
3 4 2
1, 1, 1, 1 ,
g 25, 5, 2 1 , 1 1 , . … h 1, 1 , 1 , 1 , … 2 4 8 16 … to be less than 0.0001
2 4 5 10 15 20
9 a Mary puts £200 into a building society which pays
2 Write down the first four terms of each geometric sequence. a fixed rate of compound interest of 5% per annum.
a first term 3; common ratio 2 b first term 5; common ratio 3 Show that the amount in the account at the end of each
year forms a geometric sequence.
c first term 1 1 ; common ratio 2 d first term 2; common ratio 1 1 Find how many years have elapsed before the initial investment
2 2
is doubled assuming that there are no further deposits or
e first term -3; common ratio 1 f first term 5; common ratio -2 withdrawals from the account during the time period.
2
1 1
g first term ; common ratio - h first term 1; common ratio 1 b Chris bought a used Toyota car for £5500 and reckons
4 2 4
that it depreciates in value by 15% each year.
3 Find the general term of these geometric sequences. Show that the yearly value is represented by a geometric sequence.
a 1, 2, 4, 8, … b 1, 1, 1, 1 , … c 4, 8, 16, 32, … Calculate how many whole years will elapse before
2 4 8 16
the car is worth half of its original value.
d 3 , 3 , 3, 6, … e 2 , 1, 2 1 , 6 1 , …
C2
C2
f 6, 30, 150, 750, …
4 2 5 2 4 c A ‘high-power’ ball is dropped from a height on to a hard
g 4, 24, 144, 864, … h 5, −2 1 , 1 1 , − 5 , … i 3, − 3 , − 3 , … surface and bounces up to two-thirds of the original height.
−3, −
2 4 8 4 16 64 If it is originally dropped from a height of 10 metres
show that the heights to which it bounces form a
4 Find the sixth and tenth terms of each geometric sequence. geometric sequence and hence find how many bounces the
a 4, 2, 1, 1 , … b 3, 3 , 3 , 3 , … c 6, 2, 2 , 2 , … d 1, − 3 , 9 , − 27 , … ball makes before the height reached is 1 metre or less.
2 2 4 8 3 9 4 16 64
d i If the second term of a geometric sequence is 12 and
5 The general terms of four geometric sequences are given. the fifth term is 40.5, find the first five terms.
Find the third and seventh terms of each sequence. ii If the sequence a, ar, ar², ar³, … is geometric
show that the sequence made up from the square
( 1)
n −1
a 3(2)n-1 b 5 −2 c 1 (3)n-1 d (0.1)(-2)n-1 roots of the terms is also geometric.
4
6 Find the value of a if

INVESTIGATION
a the first three terms of a geometric sequence are 4, a and 36
10 Box A shows five different A B 8
b the first three terms of a geometric sequence are a, (a + 2) and (a + 6) 1, 8, 27 27
sequences. 3
c the first three terms of a geometric sequence are 9, a and 2.25. a Identify which are -1, 3, -9 16
-81
geometric sequences. 3
1, 1, 2
7 a Find the value of x if the first three terms of a geometric sequence are 2 2 -32
b Find the next two terms
(x + 1), (x + 3), (x + 8) 1, 5, 9 4 -1
for each of the
Hence find the common ratio. geometric sequences, 1, 2, 4 16 -4
choosing from 3 3 3 8 81
b Find the value of a if the first three terms of a geometric sequence are
6a², 3a, (a + 1) the terms in box B.
266 Hence find the common ratio. 267
You can find the term at which the sum of a series exceeds a given value.
13.2 Sum of a geometric series
EXAMPLE 2
The sum of the geometric series, 2 + 6 + 18 + 54 + … , exceeds 5000
} The sum of the terms of a geometric sequence is called You learned about arithmetic Find the number of terms.
a geometric series. sequences and series in C1. ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
n
Use the formula Sn = a(r − 1) where a = 2 and r = 3: You need the value of
A geometric sequence has the form a, ar, ar 2, ar 3, . . . , ar n-1, ar n, ar n+1, . . . r −1
n such that Sn > 5000.
A geometric series has the form a + ar + ar 2+ ar 3 + . . . + ar n-1 + ar n + ar n+1 + . . . Set up an inequality: a(r n − 1) > 5000
r −1
You can find the sum to n terms, Sn, of a geometric series. 2(3n − 1) > 5000
3−1
Simplify: 3n - 1 > 5000
Sn = a + ar + ar 2 + ar 3 + … + ar n–2 + ar n–1 (1)
3n > 5001
Multiply each term by the common ratio r:
Take logarithms to base 10: n log10 3 > log10 5001 Divide both sides by log10 3.
rSn = ar + ar 2 + ar 3 + ar 4 + … + ar n–1 + ar n (2)
n > 7.753
(1) - (2): Sn - rSn = (a + ar + ar2 + ar3 + … + arn–2 + arn–1)
- (ar + ar2 + ar3 + ar4 … + arn–1 + arn) Hence the number of terms required is 8. n must be an integer.
\ Sn - rSn = a – arn Subtracting (1) from (2) gives
the alternative form You can solve real-life problems which involve the sum of a sequence.
Factorise: Sn(1 – r) = a(1 – rn)
Sn = a(r − 1)
n
Sn = a(1 − r )
n
r −1
EXAMPLE 3
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1−r Show this for yourself. Simon invests £500 in a savings scheme at a fixed rate of interest of
4.5% per annum. He invests a further £500 on each yearly anniversary
of the first deposit. Assuming that no withdrawals are made, calculate
} The sum to n terms, Sn, of a geometric series is Learn this result and how to the accumulated sum in the scheme at the end of the eighth year.
derive it. ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Sn = a(r − 1)
n
Sn = a(1 − r )
n
or Start of first year amount = £500
1−r r −1
End of first year amount = £500 ´ 1.045 Original amount + interest
EXAMPLE 1
Find the sum of the first eight terms of the geometric Start of second year amount = £500 + (£500 ´ 1.045)
series 3 + 6 + 12 + 24 + … End of second year amount = [£500 + (£500 ´ 1.045)] ´ 1.045
= £500 ´ 1.045 + £500 ´ (1.045)2
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First term a=3

Start of third year amount = £500 + [£500 ´ 1.045 + £500 ´ (1.045)2]
Common ratio r=2
Number of terms to be summed n=8 End of third year amount = {£500 + [£500 ´ 1.045 + £500 ´ (1.045)2]} ´ 1.045
a (r n − 1) = £500 ´ (1.045) + £500 ´ (1.045)2 + £500 ´ (1.045)3
Use the formula for Sn: Sn = Use this form when r > 1
r −1 And so on until the end of the eighth year.
to avoid negative terms.
3(2 − 1) 8 This leads to a geometric series (based on the amount at the end of each year)
Substitute the values: Sn = £500 ´ (1.045) + £500 ´ (1.045)2 + £500 ´ (1.045)3 + . . . + £500 ´ (1.045)8
2 −1
3(256 − 1) First term a = £500 ´ 1.045 = £522.50
Simplify: Sn =
1
Common ratio r = 1.045 Number of terms n=8
Sn = 3 ´ 255 n
Use the formula for the sum of the series Sn = a(r − 1):
Sn = 765 r −1
S8 = £522.50[(1.045) − 1] = £4901.06 to nearest penny

8
Hence the sum of the first eight terms of the series is 765. 1.045 − 1
268
Hence the total sum in the savings scheme after eight years is £4901.06. 269
Exercise 13.2 8 a The first term of a geometric series is x and the second term is y.
1 Find the sum of each geometric series. What is the fourth term of the series?
Give your answers to a suitable degree of accuracy. Deduce the nth term and hence write down the nineteenth term.
a 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + . . . to 9 terms b 2 + -4 + 8 + -16 + . . . to 8 terms b The sum of the first three terms of the geometric series,
1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + . . . to 12 terms a + at2 + at4 + …, is equal to seven times the first term.
c d 3 + 4.5 + 6.75 + 10.125 + . . . to 8 terms Show that the equation, t4 + t2 - 6 = 0, satisfies
2 4 8 16
this condition and find the possible values of t.
e 0.1 + 0.2 + 0.4 + 0.8 + . . . to 10 terms f 7 + 7 + 7 + 7 + . . . to 12 terms
3 9 27
9 a William invests £100 in a Building Society at a compound
2 Evaluate the sum of each geometric series. interest rate of 5% per annum. He invests a further
Give your answers in index form. £100 on each anniversary of his first deposit.
6 8 5
Assuming that no withdrawals are made how much money will
a ∑ 3r b ∑(0.5)r c ∑ 3(2)r have accumulated in the account at the end of the tenth year?
1 1 1
b Harriet is saving up to buy a car. She deposits £250
∑ 2 ( 13 ) ∑1.5( − 12 )
8 10 r 9 r
each year, on her birthday, into a savings account
d ∑ 0.5(−2)r e f
paying compound interest at 4% per annum.
1 1 1
If she continues to make this investment over a period of eight
3 Find the number of terms needed for the sum of each geometric years how much will be in the account at the end of the period?
series to exceed the given limit. c Mark is taking a walking holiday in the Lake District
and aims to walk 10 km on the first day. He decides
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a geometric series 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + …, limit 4000.
to increase the distance he walks each day by 3%.
b geometric series 5 + 7.5 + 11.25 + 16.875 + …, limit 10 000. How far will he walk on the 14th day?
What total distance will he have walked during the 14-day holiday?
n
4 a Find the least value of n such that ∑ 2(3)r > 105 d Lorraine is taking part in a trial to lose weight.
1
On the first day the total intake of food and
n drink is limited to 3000 calories.
b Find the least value of n such that ∑ 0.5(1.1)r > 10 This is then reduced by 7.5% each day over a period of
1
14 days, which is the duration of the trial.
5 a The first term of a geometric series is 6 and the fourth term is 0.75. The guideline daily amount is 2000 calories.
Write down the first five terms and find their sum. Find the mean daily calorie intake during the 14-day trial
and state whether this falls above or below the
b If the second term of a geometric series is 7.5 and the guideline daily amount and by how much it differs.
fourth term is 16.875, find the first and third terms
of the series and the sum of the first four terms.
INVESTIGATION
6 The sum of the geometric series, 6 + 12 + 24 + 48 + …, is 6138.
10 A geometric sequence is such that its common ratio is 1
Find how many terms are needed to obtain this sum. 2
and the sum of its first three terms is an integer.
7 If the second term of a geometric series is 24 and the third term is a Find the possible values of the first term.
3(x + 1) find, in terms of x, the first term.
b Give three sequences that fit this criteria.
The sum of the first three terms of the series is 84.
Find the possible values of x.
270 271
13.3
EXAMPLE 1
Divergent and convergent geometric series
Find the sum to infinity of the series 1, 1 , 1 , 1 , . . . 1 < 1, so the series is convergent.
3 9 27 3
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A geometric series can be either convergent or divergent.

First term, a = 1 Common ratio, r = 1
3
e.g. Consider the sum of the series 1 + 3 + 9 + 27 + . . .
} The sum of a divergent series has no limit. Number of terms n®¥
S2 = 1 + 3 =4 1 =3
S∞ = a
S3 = 1 + 3 + 9 = 13 Using the formula S∞ =
1− 1 2 1−r
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S4 = 1 + 3 + 9 + 27 = 40 3
…
0 130
S5 = 1 + 3 + 9 + 27 + 81 = 121 and so on
The terms are increasing in value. This is a divergent
series and its sum tends towards infinity.
You can represent a geometric series using sigma notation.
S is the Greek letter sigma,
EXAMPLE 2
∑( )
} The sum of a convergent series tends e.g. Consider the sum of the series 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + . . . n
1
r
meaning sum.
3 9 27 A series is given by
towards a specific value as the number 1 4
S2 = 1 + = 1.33. . . 1 n
of terms increases towards infinity. The 3
1 1 Find the sum when a n=5 b n®¥ ∑(r) is the sum of r
limit of the sum of a convergent series S3 = 1 + + = 1.44. . . 1 from r = 1 to r = n
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is known as the sum to infinity.

S4 = 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 = 1.48148. . . First term, a = 1 Common ratio, r = 1
∑( ) () () () ()
n r 2 3 n
1
3 9 27 4 4 = 1 + 1 + 1 +!+ 1
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S2 = 1 + + + 1 + 1
1 1 = 1.4938. . . and so on 1
4 4 4 4 4
3 9 27 81 a Number of terms n = 5
1 1.5 The sum of this series tends towards the value 1.5.
1 ⎡1 − 1 ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
() ()
5 5
1.5 is called the sum to infinity of the series.
1− 1 ⎥
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This is a convergent series. 4⎣⎢ 4 ⎦ ⎥ ⎢
⎣ 4 ⎦
n
a(1 − r )
S5 = = = 0.333 to 3 s.f. Using Sn =
1−r
1− 1 3
4
} A geometric series converges if and only |r | < 1 means the absolute value a
if |r| < 1 where r is the common ratio of of r is less than 1. -1 < r < 1 is
1 1 Using S∞ = 1 − r
another way of writing it. b S∞ = = 4 =1 4
the series. 1− 1 3 3
4 4 Compare the answers to
parts a and b.
You can find the sum to infinity of a convergent geometric series.
Exercise 13.3
Consider the sum to n terms of a convergent geometric series 1 Find the sum to infinity of each geometric series.
with first term a and common ratio r:
a(1 − r n) a 2 + 1 + 1 + 1 + ... b 7 + 3.5 + 1.75 + 0.875 + . . .
Sn = Use this form when |r | < 1 2 4
1−r
For a convergent series, | r | < 1, so r n ® 0 as n ® ¥ Try some values on your c 12 − 2 + 1 − 1 + . . . d 5.4 + 1.8 + 0.6 + 0.2 + . . .
calculator. 3 18
Therefore S∞ = a (1 − 0 ) = a
1−r 1−r e -8 - 2 - 0.5 - 0.125 - . . . f 0.5 + 0.1 + 0.02 + 0.004 + . . .
S∞ stands for ‘sum to infinity’.
∑ ( 45 ) ()
∞ r ∞ r
g h ∑ 2 43
} The sum to infinity of a convergent geometric series is S∞ is a limit. It is never
1 1
S∞ = a
()
where | r | < 1 actually reached. ∞ r
1−r i a + a² + a³ + a4 + . . ., where -1 < a < 1 j ∑ 2 a3 , where -3 < a < 3
1
2 a The third term of a geometric series is 4 and the fifth term is 1.

Find the sum to infinity of the series.
b The first term of a geometric series is p and the common ratio
272 is 2p. If the sum to infinity is 4 find the value of p. 273
You can use Pascal’s triangle to expand brackets

13.4 Pascal’s triangle containing other terms.
EXAMPLE 2
Consider the following expressions Look at the coefficients
Find the expansion of (1 + 3x)4
(x + y)1 =x+y 1 1 ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Use the coefficients 1, 4, 6, 4, 1: Use row 5.

(x + y)2 = (x + y)(x + y)
= x2 + 2xy + y2 1 2 1 (1 + 3x)4 = 14 + 4(3x) + 6(3x)2 + 4(3x)3 + (3x)4 Treat 3x as the variable.
= 1 + 12x + 54x2 + 108x3 + 81x4
(x + y)3 = (x + y)(x2 + 2xy + y2)
= x3 + 3x2y + 3xy2 + y3 1 3 3 1
EXAMPLE 3
(x + y)4 = (x + y)(x3 + 3x2y + 3xy2 + y3) Find the expansion of (1 - 2x)6
= x4 + 4x3y + 6x2y2 + 4xy3 + y4 1 4 6 4 1 ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Use the coefficients 1, 6, 15, 20, 15, 6, 1:

You can display the coefficients together in a triangular pattern
(1 - 2x)6 = 16 + 6(-2x) + 15(-2x)2 + 20(-2x)3 Treat -2x as the variable.
1 1
+ 15(-2x)4 + 6(-2x)5 + (-2x)6 Take care with the
1 + 2 1 = 1 - 12x + 60x2 - 160x3 + 240x4 - 192x5 + 64x6 negative signs.
1 3 3 + 1 3=1+2
To expand expressions such as (a + x)n, where a ¹ 1,
1 4 6 4 1 4=3+1 you can take the factor a out of the bracket first.
C2
C2
EXAMPLE 4
The rows begin and end with the number 1.
The coefficients are generated by adding the terms either side on the row above.
Expand (3 + x)4
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You can continue this pattern to give Pascal’s triangle. Take out the factor 3: The sum of the powers of
each term are equal to 4.
( ( )) ( 3)
4 4
} The first eight rows of Pascal’s triangle are (3 + x)4 = 3 1 + x = 34 1 + x e.g. in 6(3)2x2; 2 + 2 = 4
3 As the powers of 3 decrease
1 the powers of x increase.
(x + y)0 = 1 Expand using the coefficients 1, 4, 6, 4, 1:
1 1
( ) ( 3 ) ( 3 ) ( 3 ) ( 3 ) ⎞⎟⎠
4 ⎛ 2 3 4
34 1 + x = 81⎜1 + 4 x + 6 x + 4 x + x
1 2 1 3 ⎝
1 3 3 1 = 81 + 108x + 54x2 + 12x3 + x4
1 4 6 4 1 Hence (3 + x)4 = 81 + 108x + 54x2 + 12x3 + x4
1 5 10 10 5 1
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
You can use Pascal’s triangle to expand expressions involving
1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1
two or more brackets.
EXAMPLE 5
You can use Pascal’s triangle to expand (1 + x)2, (1 + x)3, (1 + x)4, etc
Multiply out completely (1 + x)(2 - x)3
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Use the coefficients, 1, 3, 3, 1, for the second bracket:

EXAMPLE 1
Expand (1 + x)6
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(1 + x)(2 - x)3 = (1 + x)[(2)3 + 3(2)2(-x) + 3(2)(-x)2 + (-x)3]
From Pascal’s triangle you know the coefficients are For (1 + x)6 use row 7. = (1 + x) [8 - 12x + 6x2 - x3]
1, 6, 15, 20, 15, 6, 1 Expand: = 8 - 12x + 6x2 - x3 + 8x - 12x2 + 6x3 - x4
Expand using these coefficients: Simplify: = 8 - 4x - 6x2 + 5x3 - x4
(1 + x)6 = 1 + 6x + 15x2 + 20x3 + 15x4 + 6x5 + x6 16 = 1
274 275
You can use Pascal’s triangle to find missing constants. 5 a Find the coefficient of x3 in the expansion of x2(1 - x)3
b Find the coefficient of x in the expansion of (1 + x)3(1 - x)4
EXAMPLE 6
In the expansion of (a + x)(1 + x)³ the coefficient of x is 13.

c Find the term in x3 in the expansion of (1 - x)3(1 + 2x)4
Find the value of the constant a.
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d Find the term in x3 in the expansion of (1 + x)(1 - 3x)5
Expand the second bracket using Pascal’s triangle:
6 a In the expansion of (1 + ax)(1 - x)5 the term in x3 has
(a + x)(1 + x)3 = (a + x)(1 + 3x + 3x2 + x3)
a coefficient of 20.
= a + 3ax + 3ax2 + ax3 + x + 3x2 + 3x3 + x4
Find the value of the constant a.
Collect like terms: = a + (3a + 1)x + (3a + 3) x2 + (a + 3) x3 + x4
b In the expansion of (a + bx)(1 + x)4 the coefficient of x
The coefficient of x is 13
is 7 and the coefficient of x2 is 8.
so 3a + 1 = 13 Find the value of a and the value of b.
a = 12 = 4 Hence determine the coefficient of x3.
3
( x + 21x )
4
Hence the value is a is 4. 7 Find the term independent of x in the expansion of A term independent of x
is a term without an x.
Exercise 13.4 8 a In the expansion of (a + b)5 the ratio of the second term to
1 Use Pascal’s triangle to expand these brackets. the third term is 3 : 4.
Use this information to find the ratio of a : b.
a (1 + x)5 b (1 - x)4 c (1 + 2x)3
C2
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b For the expansion of (1 + a)3(1 + b)4 find the value of the
(1 + 2x )
3
d (1 - 3x)4 e f (1 - 2x)5 constant k in the term ka2b2.
c In the expansion of (1 + a)2(1 - x)5 the coefficient of x2 is
g (1 + 4x)3 h (1 + 2x)7
equal to 40.
Find the two possible values of a which satisfy this condition.
2 Use Pascal’s triangle to expand these brackets.
a (2 + x)4 b (3 - x)4 c (2 + 3x)3
INVESTIGATION
d (3 - 2x)5 e (3x - 4)3 f (2x - 1)6
9 Consider expanding an expression of the form
( 2x − 1) ( x + 1x )
4 n
g h (x2 + y2)3
a Give the expansion when

3 Expand each expression completely and simplify the result.
i n=3
a (1 + x)(1 - x)4 b (2 - x)(1 + x)4 ii n = 4.
c (1 - x)(1 + 2x)3 d (x + 3)2(x - 1)3 b Hence give conditions on n such that the expansion
gives a term independent of x.
4 Expand these brackets and simplify the result.
a (1 + x + x2)3 b [1 + (x - 1)2]3
c (x2 + x - 2)3 d (a + b + c)3
276 277
If you only choose some of the n items there will be fewer

13.5 The binomial theorem permutations.
EXAMPLE 3
Factorials Four books are chosen from six different titles.
How many different permutations are there?
} The factorial of a number is the product of all the positive e.g. Factorial 5 = 5 ´ 4 ´ 3 ´ 2 ´ 1 ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
integers up to and including that number. Any of the 6 books can be chosen first
} Factorial n is denoted n! e.g. 10! = 10 ´ 9 ´ 8 ´ 7 ´ 6 ® 6 choices
} n! = n × (n - 1) × (n - 2) × . . . × 3 × 2 × 1 ´5´4´3´2´1
Any of the 5 remaining books can be chosen second, and
each choice can be combined with any of the first choices.
} By definition 0! = 1 ® 6 × 5 permutations
Any of the 4 remaining books can be chosen third.
You can simplify fractions containing factorials by cancelling
® 6 × 5 × 4 permutations
common factors.
Any of the 3 remaining books can be chosen for the last choice.
EXAMPLE 1
® 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 permutations
a Evaluate 7 ! b Simplify (n − 1)!
4! (n − 3)!
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In Example 3 the number of permutations = 6 × 5 × 4 × 3

7 ! = 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 7 × 6 × 5 = 210
a
4! 4 × 3× 2 ×1 = 6 × 5× 4 × 3× 2×1
2×1
C2
C2
b (n − 1)! = (n − 1)(n − 2)(n − 3)!
6!
(n − 1)! =
(n − 3)! (n − 3)! (6 − 4)!
= (n − 1)(n − 2)(n − 3)(n − 4)
= (n - 1)(n - 2) = n² - 3n + 2 ´ ... ´ 3 ´ 2 ´ 1
= (n − 1)(n − 2)(n − 3)! } The number of permutations of r items chosen from a
n!
Permutations total of n items is
(n − r)!
} A permutation is an arrangement of n items. If the order of the items is not important then there are A combination is a permutation
fewer combinations. in which order does not matter.
EXAMPLE 2
How many different ways can you arrange the letters Investigate with four or more
EXAMPLE 4
A, B and C? letters. How many ways can four books be chosen from six books
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The number of possible outcomes is

From Example 3 you know that the number of permutations of
3! = 3 × 2 × 1 = 6 The outcomes are 6!
ABC, ACB 4 books chosen from 6 is
(6 − 4)!
BAC, BCA,
You can choose any of You have a choice of There is only one CAB, CBA The number of permutations of each possible set
You can choose any of You have a choice of There is only one
the three letters to put
the three letters to put
two letters to put in
two letters to put in
letter left to fill the
letter left to fill the of 4 books is 4!
in the first position. the second position. final position. However, the order of the books within each set
in the first position. the second position. final position.
is not important.
\ number of combinations = 6!
} The number of permutations of n items is n! 4 !(6 − 4)!
= 6×5
2!
= 15
278 279
EXAMPLE 7
} The number of possible combinations of r items chosen Find the first four terms in the expansion of (1 - 3x)5
from n items when order does not matter is ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
n
Cr = n! ‘n choose r ’ means that you Use the binomial theorem
(n − r)!r ! n(n − 1)(x)2 n(n − 1)(n − 2)(x)3
choose r items from a total (1 + x)n = 1 + nx + + + ...:
()
2! 3!
n
Cr can also be written nr and stands for ‘n choose r’. of n items.
n=5
(1 − 3x)5 = 1 + (5)(−3x) + (5)(4) (−3x)2 + (5)(4)(3) (−3x)3 + . . . Replace x with -3x
(2)(1) (3)(2)(1)
Simplify:
() ( )
EXAMPLE 5
5 10
Evaluate a 3 b 7 (1 - 3x)5 = 1 - 15x + (10)(9x2) - (10)(27x3) + . . .
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= 1 - 15x + 90x2 - 270x3 + . . .
a Use (nr) = (n −nr!)!r !: Examples 6 and 7 involved expressions of the form (a + bx)n
(53) = (5 −53!)!3! = 25! 3! ! = 5 2×!4× ×3!3! = 52 ×× 41 = 10 where a, b and n are constants.
b Use () n = n!
(n − r)!r !
:
} The binomial expansion of (a + bx)n is
() () () () ()
r
n
(a + bx)n = n0 an + n1 bxan-1 + n2 (bx)2an-2 + n3 (bx)3an-3 + . . . + n (bx)n
( ) 10 =
7
10! = 10! =
(10 − 7)!7 ! 3! 7 !
10 × 9 × 8 × 7!
3! × 7!
= 10 × 9 × 8 = 720 = 120
EXAMPLE 8
3× 2 ×1 (2 + 3x)5
C2
C2
6 Find the first three terms in the expansion of
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Use the binomial theorem
() () () () ()
You can use combinations to expand an expression of
the form (a + x)n (a + bx)n = 0n an + 1n bxan −1 + 2n (bx)2an − 2 + 3n (bx)3an − 3 + ... + nn (bx)n : a=2
b=3
} The binomial expansion of (a + x)n is This is the binomial expansion

(2 + 3x)5 = 25 + 15 (2)4(3x) + 25 (2)3 (3x)2 + . . . () () n=5
= 32 + 240x + 720x2 + . . .
() () () () ()
of (a + x)n.
(a + x) = n an + n xan −1 + n x 2an −2 + n x 3an −3 + . . . + n x n
n
0 1 2 3 n
When x is very small, higher powers of x will become e.g. 0.055 = 0.000 000 3
increasingly smaller and so can be neglected after a point.
EXAMPLE 6
Find the first four terms in the expansion of (1 + 2x)7
EXAMPLE 9
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Use the binomial theorem find the approximate expansion of (1 - x)(1 - 2x)5
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(1 + x)n = 1 + nx + n(n − 1)(x) + n(n − 1)(n − 2)(x) + . . . :

2 3
2! 3! Use the binomial theorem to expand the second bracket:

n=7
(1 - x)(1 - 2x)5 = (1 - x)[1 + (5)(-2x) + (5)(4) (-2x)2 + . . .]
2 3
(1 + 2x)7 = 1 + (7)(2x) + (7)(6)(2x) + (7)(6)(5)(2x) + . . . Replace x with 2x. (2)(1) n = 5, b = -2, a = 1
(2)(1) (3)(2)(1)
Simplify: = (1 - x)[1 - 10x + 40x2 + . . .] An approximation means that
7 2 3 you only give an appropriate
(1 + 2x) = 1 + 14x + 84x + 280x + . . . Expand: number of terms.
(1 - x)(1 - 2x)5 = 1 - 10x + 40x2 + . . . - x + 10x2 + . . .
= 1 - 11x + 50x² + . . .
Hence the first three terms are 1 - 11x + 50x2 Expansions are written with the
Hence (1 - x)(1 - 2x)5 » 1 - 11x + 50x2 powers of x in ascending order.
280 281
EXAMPLE 10 The third term will be independent 4 Use the binomial theorem to obtain the first three terms in each expansion.
( )
6
Find the term independent of x in the expansion of x + 2
(2 + 2x )
of x because it will contain a product 10
( ) and the x on the top a (2 + x)7 b (3 - x)8 c

3
x of x3 and 2 3
x
( 12 − x )
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8
and bottom will cancel out. d e (2 + 3x)6 f (x - 4)7
= x3 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 23
3
Third term n = 6, a = x, bx = 2
3×2 x x
= 20 × 8 5 a In the expansion of (1 + ax)(2 - 3x)5
= 160 the coefficient of x2 is 240.
What is the value of the constant a?
EXAMPLE 11
b If (1 + 2x)5 + (1 - 2x)5 » a + bx + cx2,

a Write down the first four terms of (1 - x2)n
find the values of the constants a, b and c.
b Use part a to find an approximation of 0.9610
Show your working clearly. c What is the coefficient of x3 in the expansion
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of (1 - 2x)(1 + 2x)7?
n(n − 1) 2 2
a (1 − x 2)n = 1 + 1 × n(− x 2) + 1 × (-x ) + 1 ´ n(n − 1)(n − 2)(-x2)3 + . . . d In the expansion of (1 + x)(1 - x)n the first three terms
2 3×2
in ascending order of powers of x are 1, -3x and 2x2
= 1 − nx 2 + n(n − 1)x − n(n − 1)(n − 2)x + . . .
4 6
(1) Find the value of n.
2 6
b Substitute x = 0.2 and n = 10 in (1): e Find the term independent of x in the expansion
( x + 1x )
8
0.9610 = (1 - 0.04)10 of
C2
C2
= (1 - 0.22)10
6 a If x is so small that terms in x3 and higher powers
= 1 - 10 × 0.22 + 10 × 9 × 0.24 - 10 × 9 × 8 × 0.26 x2 = (0.2)2 = 0.04 may be neglected show that
2 6
= 1 - 0.4 + 0.072 - 0.00768 (1 + x)(1 - 2x)4 » 1 - 7x + 16x2
= 0.66432 This is quite close to the b If x is small such that terms in x2 and greater powers of x
calculator answer of 0.66483 can be disregarded, show that
Hence 0.9610 » 0.66432
(2 + 3x)(1 - 2x)6 » 2 - 21x
Exercise 13.5 7 a Write down the sixth term in the expansion of

1 Find the value of the following factorial expressions. (x + 2y)10 in ascending powers of x.
a 5! b 7! c 9! d 3!
6! 5! b Find the first four terms in the expansion of Write as [(1 + x) + x2]7.
(1 + x + x2)7 in ascending powers of x.
e 3! ´ 4! f 2! ´ 4! ´ 6! g 4 ! 5! h 2! + 3! + 4!
3! c Given that (1 - x)n = 1 + ax + bx2 + cx3 + . . . ,
where a, b and c are constants,
2 Find the value of each expression. find the possible values of n such that 2b = c + a
a (42) b (25) c (63) d (65) d Write down the first four terms in the expansion of (1 - x)n
Use the expansion to four terms to determine the value of (0.9)10 Let x = 0.1
e (74) f (86) g (94) h (92)

showing your working clearly.
Estimate the percentage error caused by taking only the
first four terms in the expansion.
3 Use the binomial theorem to find the first four terms in each expansion. Write the terms in
ascending order of
a (1 + x)9 b (1 + 2x)8 c (1 - x)10 powers of x.
(1 + 2x )
8
282 d (1 + 3x)6 e (1 - 3x)7 f 283
13 Sequences and Series
5 A geometric series has first term a and common ratio r.

Review 13 The second term of the series is 4 and the sum to infinity
of the series is 25.
1 The second term of a geometric series is 4, the third term is a Show that 25r² - 25r + 4 = 0
x and the fourth term is 36. Find
b Find the two possible values of r.
a the common ratio
c Find the corresponding two possible values of a.
b the first term of the series
Given that r takes the larger of its two possible values,
c the value of x.
d show that the sum, Sn, of the first n terms of the series
2 The second and fourth terms of a geometric series are 7.2 and is given by
5.832 respectively. Sn = 25(1 - rn)
The common ratio of the series is positive. e find the smallest value of n for which Sn exceeds 24. [(c) Edexcel Limited 2006]
For this series, find
a the common ratio 6 In the binomial expansion of (1 + ax)8 the ratio of the
coefficients of the fourth term to the third term is 4.
b the first term Find the value of the constant a.
c the sum of the first 50 terms, giving your answer to Hence write down the first four terms in the expansion.
three decimal places
7 Find the first three terms, in ascending powers of x, of the
C2
C2
d the difference between the sum to infinity and the sum of binomial expansion of (3 - x)6, giving each term in
the first 50 terms, giving your answer to three decimal places. [(c) Edexcel Limited 2005] its simplest form.
3 The first term of a geometric series is 2. The sum to infinity 8a Find the first three terms, in ascending powers of x, of the
of the series is 4. binomial expansion of (1 + ax)8, where a is a constant.
a Show that the common ratio, r, is 1 . The first three terms are 1, -16x and bx2, where b is a constant.
2
b Find the value of a and the value of b.
b Find, to two decimal places, the difference between the
sixth and seventh terms.
9 If x is small such that x3 and higher powers may be ignored and
c Calculate the sum of the first ten terms correct to
(1 + 2x)(1 - x)5 » a + bx + cx2
three decimal places.
find the values of the constants a, b and c.
4 A geometric series is a + ar + ar² + . . .
10 a Find the first three terms, in ascending powers of x, of the
a Prove that the sum of the first n terms of this series is given by
( )
7
binomial expansion of 1 − x . Give each term in its
Sn = a(1 − r )
n
2
1−r simplest form.
10 b If x is small, so that x3 and higher powers can be ignored,
b Find ∑ 25 (2k) show that
k=1
( 2)
7
(1 - x) 1 − x » 1 − 9 x + 35 x 2
c Find the sum to infinity of the geometric series with 2 4
general term 25(0.2k).
11 The first three terms in the expansion of (a + 3x)n are
16b, 144bx and 540bx2
284 Find the values of the constants a, b and n. 285

14 Differentiation
Consider the curve given by the equation

14.1 Increasing and decreasing functions y
f(x) = x(x + 1)(x - 2) f(x) = x(x + 1)(x − 2)
y The curve crosses the x-axis
} A function f(x) is described as an increasing function if 8 y = x2
at the points where f(x) = 0 This is a local maximum
f(x2) > f(x1) when x2 > x1 for all values of x. 6 i.e. at x = 0, x = -1 and x = 2.
4 −1 O 2 x
A function f(x) is increasing in the interval a / x / b if 2 The curve crosses the y-axis at
This is a local minimum
f(x2) > f(x1) when x2 > x1 for all a / x / b the points where x = 0 i.e. at (0, 0).
−3 −2 −1 O 1 2 3 x
There are two points on the graph
y = x2 is an increasing
function for x > 0. where the curve changes direction.
It follows that These are called stationary points or turning points.
f(x) is an increasing function if and
f(x) is an increasing function if and only if f (x) > 0 for all only if its gradient is positive for all } A maximum point is where the gradient of the curve The function changes from
values of x in the given interval. values of x in the given interval. changes from positive to negative. increasing to decreasing.
At a maximum point the gradient, f (x) = 0
y
} A function f(x) is described as a decreasing function if y = x2 8
f(x2) < f(x1) when x2 > x1 for all values of x } A minimum point is where the gradient of the curve The function changes from
6
changes from negative to positive. decreasing to increasing.
4
At a minimum point the gradient, f (x) = 0
A function f(x) is decreasing in the interval a / x / b if 2
C2
C2
f(x2) < f(x1) when x2 > x1 for all a / x / b
−3 −2 −1 O 1 2 3 x Now consider the curve given by the equation y y = (x − 1)3
x2
y = is a decreasing
function for x < 0.
f(x) = (x - 1)3
It follows that
The curve crosses the x-axis
f(x) is a decreasing function if and where f(x) = 0, i.e. at x = 1.
f(x) is a decreasing function if and only if f (x) < 0 for all only if its gradient is negative for
The curve crosses the y-axis O 1 x
values of x in the given interval. all values of x in the given interval. −1
where x = 0, i.e. at (0, -1). This is a point of inflexion
EXAMPLE 1
Is the function f(x) = 3x² - 2x increasing or decreasing when

a x = -2 b x=4? Sketching the graph will give } At a point of inflexion the gradient, f (x) = 0 If the function is increasing before
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is increasing or decreasing. increasing after that point.
Differentiate f(x) wrt x: f (x) = 6x - 2 of the point.
If the function is decreasing before
y a point of inflexion then it is also
a Evaluate f(x) when x = -2: y = 3x2 − 2x
f (-2) = 6(-2) - 2 = -14 These results are summarised in the following table: decreasing after that point.
Hence f (-2) < 0 Type of point f ′(x) behaviour
\ f(x) is decreasing when x = -2. maximum 0 increasing to decreasing
inflexion 0 no change in direction
b Evaluate f(x) when x = 4:
minimum 0 decreasing to increasing
f (4) = 6(4) - 2 = +22
Hence f (4) > 0
\ f(x) is an increasing function when x = 4. O x
288 289
EXAMPLE 3
} A stationary point can either be a maximum point, Find the turning points on the curve y = x4 - 2x3 + 2
a minimum point or a point of inflexion. and identify their type.
At a stationary point the gradient is zero. ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
y = x4 - 2x3 + 2 y y = x4 − 2x3 + 2
You can identify the type of dy
} To find the coordinates of a stationary point you solve stationary point by considering Differentiate y wrt x: = 4x3 - 6x2 12
dx
the equation f (x) = 0 the sign of the gradient before 10
and after that point. Evaluate the points where dy = 0: 8
dx
You can investigate the stationary points of a function and the 6
4x3 - 6x2 = 0 4
intervals in which a function is increasing or decreasing and
Factorise: 2x2(2x - 3) = 0 2
hence sketch its curve. (1.5, 0.3125)
Either x = 0 or x=3
2 −1 O 1 2 3 x
EXAMPLE 2
Investigate the values of x for which the function,

Investigate the three intervals x < 0, 0 < x < 3 and x > 3 Use the equation for dy in
f(x) = x2(x - 4), is an increasing function or 2 2 dx
a decreasing function. using the equation in the form f(x) = 2x²(2x - 3): its fully factorised form.
f (x) = (+)(-) = (-) so f (x) < 0
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for x < 0
f(x) = x2(x - 4)
Expand: f(x) = x3 - 4x2 for 0 < x < 3 f (x) = (+)(-) = (-) so f (x) < 0
2
Differentiate wrt x: f (x) = 3x2 - 8x for x > 3 f (x) = (+)(+) = (+) so f (x) > 0
Factorise: f (x) = x(3x - 8) 2 f(x) has same sign either
Hence there is a point of inflexion when x = 0 side of x = 0.
C2
C2
Stationary points are located where f(x) = 0.
Solve the equation f(x) = 0 to find the x-values of the stationary points:
and there is a minimum point when x = 3 f(x) changes from negative
2
3
x(3x - 8) = 0 to positive at x = .
2
when x = 0 or 3x - 8 = 0 Find the coordinates of the turning points by substituting x = 0 and x = 3
2
Hence the stationary points are at x = 0 and x = 8 into the original equation y = x4 - 2x³ + 2:
3
At a maximum point the gradient changes from being positive to negative. At x = 0, y = (0)4 - 2(0)3 + 2 = 2
At a minimum point the gradient changes from being negative to positive. At x = 1.5, y = (1.5)4 - 2(1.5)3 + 2 = 0.3125
To decide the nature of the stationary points, investigate the three intervals
Hence there is a point of inflexion at (0, 2) and
8
x<0 0<x< 8 and x> See Chapter 4 for a reminder a minimum point at (1.5, 0.3125).
3 3
about inequalities.
using the equation in the form f(x) = x(3x - 8):
when x < 0 f (x) = (-)(-) = (+) so f (x) > 0 y Exercise 14.1

so f(x) is increasing when x < 0 y = x2(x − 4) 1 Find the gradient of each function at the point where x = 2.
4
Hence decide if each function is increasing, decreasing or
when 0 < x < 8 f (x) = (+)(-) = (-) so f (x) < 0
3 −1 O 1 2 3 4 x stationary at this point.
so f(x) is decreasing in the range 0 < x < 8
3 −4 a y = 3x2 - 1 b y = (x + 1)(x - 3) c y = (2x - 1)2
so there is a maximum point at x = 0 −8
d y = 1 - x - x2 e y= 1 f y= x
when x > 8 f (x) = (+)(+) = (+) so f (x) > 0 x
3
g y = 3x h y = 0.53 i f(x) = 4x2 - 12x
so f(x) is increasing when x > 8
3
j f(x) = 1 - 4x2 k f(x) = x2 - 6x + 1 l f(x) = (3x - 1)(x - 4)
so there is a minimum point at x = 8
3
m f(x) = 3 - 1 n f(x) = 7 + (2x) o f(x) = (x - 1)3
Hence f(x) is an increasing function when x < 0 and x > 8 x
3
and a decreasing function when 0 < x < 8 p f(x) = 5x2 - 2x3
290 3 291
2 Find the values of x for which each function is increasing 7 Find the stationary points on these curves and state their type.
or decreasing. 3
a y = x - 9x b y = x2 + 54
3 x
a f(x) = x2 - 6x b f(x) = (x + 3)(2x - 5)
c y = 2x3 + 3x2 - 36x d y = 12x - 3x2 - 2x3
2 2
c f(x) = x (x - 6) d f(x) = 5x - 15x
e y = -4x3 + 21x2 - 18x f y = x4 - 9 x2 + 3
2
e f(x) = 2x2(1 - x) f f(x) = 4x3 - 6x2 - 72x + 96
g f(x) = 7 - 2x h f(x) = 1 x3 - 4x 8 Find the minimum value of s if s = (1 - 3t)2

3 Show how you know this is the minimum value.
i f(x) = (2 - x)(7 - 2x) j f(x) = 6x2 - 4x + 7
9 Find the coordinates of the stationary points on the curve with
k f(x) = x3 - 12x2 + 45x - 9 l f(x) = 4x2(2 - x) the equation y = (x - 2)(x + 1)2
Identify the type of each point.
3 The function f(x) = 4x + 1 is defined for x > 0
x
a Find the value of f(0.5) INVESTIGATIONS
b Find f (x) and hence determine the values of x 10 You want to draw a graph of y = x + 1
x
for which f(x) is increasing.
a Differentiate the expression to find the
4 Find the values of x for which the function coordinates of the turning points.
C2
C2
b Consider very large positive values of x, and very
f(x) = x + 1 , where x > 0, is a decreasing function.
4 x large negative values of x to find out how the
curve behaves as it approaches infinity.
5 For each of the following equations find the value(s) of x for
c Hence sketch the graph.
which the graph of the function is a stationary point.
d What are the equations of the asymptotes?
a y = x2 + 2x b y = 2x3 - 6x
c y = x(x + 4) d y = (x - 3)(x - 5) 11
e y = 8x - 1 x4 f y = 5x3 - 3
4
g y = (2 - x)2 h y = 8x2 - 4x3
6 Find the coordinates of the stationary points on each curve,

stating whether they are maximum or minimum points or
points of inflexion.
a y = 2x2 - 4x b y = 4x - 3x2
The picture shows a wire suspending a bridge from two
c y = 2x3 d y = (x + 1)(x + 3) points. Assume that the origin is taken as the left fixed
point. The bridge is four metres in length.
e y = (3 - x)2 f y = (3 - x)(4 + x)
a Explain why the curve y = x(x - 4) may be
g y = x2(1 - x) h y = x2 - 16 a suitable model for the suspension wire.
b Use this model to find the coordinates of the
middle point of the bridge (where the wire is at its
292 lowest point). 293
14 Differentiation
EXAMPLE 1
14.2 The second derivative and curve sketching A curve has equation y = x² - 3x + 7. Find the value of x at
the stationary point and determine its nature.
You can use the second derivative to determine the nature of
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See Chapter 8 for revision

a stationary point. of differentiation. y = x² - 3x + 7
dy
Consider the graph of the function, f(x), Differentiate y wrt x: = 2x - 3
dx
and the gradient function, f (x). Solve
dy
= 0: 2x - 3 = 0, so x = 3 d2 y
is the derivative of dy wrt x.
dx 2 dx 2 dx
Suppose the graph of f(x) has two y
d y 2
A Differentiate again wrt x: =2
turning points; a maximum point 10 dx 2
at A and a minimum point at B. 8
d2 y
6 Hence >0
The gradient changes from dx 2
4
positive to negative at A.
2 B Hence the curve has a minimum point at x = 3
The gradient changes from 2
negative to positive at B. O 1 2 3 4 5 x
−2
EXAMPLE 2
Compare the graph of f(x) to the Find the coordinates of the stationary points on the
dy
graph of f (x). dx curve y = 24x - 2x³ and identify their nature.
6 Hence sketch the curve.
On the graph of f (x): ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
4
y = 24x - 2x3
C2
C2
at A the gradient, or rate of change 2
A B dy
of f ¢(x), is negative, f ²(x) < 0 f ²(x) is the derivative of f(x). Differentiate y wrt x: = 24 - 6x2
O 1 2 3 4 5 x dx
−2
at B the gradient, or rate of change
−4 Solve dy = 0: 24 - 6x2 = 0
of f ¢(x), is positive, f ²(x) > 0 dx
6x2 = 24
} A function, f(x), has a stationary point when f (x) = 0 x2 = 4,
} A stationary point is a maximum point if f ²(x) < 0 so x = -2 or x = 2 Remember to include both
} A stationary point is a minimum point if f ²(x) > 0 You can determine the nature of values of x.
} If f ²(x) = 0, the stationary point can be a maximum, the point by looking at the sign Differentiate again wrt x:
a minimum, or a point of inflexion. change of the gradient. d2 y
= -12x
dx 2
Substitute x = -2 and x = 2:
} If f (x) = 0 and f ²(x) = 0 but f (x) ¹ 0 then the point is f (x) is the derivative of f ²(x). d2 y y (2, 32)
a point of inflexion. When x = -2 = -12(-2) = 24 > 0
dx 2
Hence there is a minimum point at x = -2.
d2 y
When x = 2 = -12(2) = -24 < 0
dx 2
Hence there is a maximum point at x = 2. O x
Find the coordinates of the stationary points by substituting
x = -2 and x = 2 into the original equation y = 24x - 2x3: y = 24x − 2x3
When x = -2, y = 24(-2) - 2(-2)3 = -32
When x = 2, y = 24(2) - 2(2)3 = 32
Hence there is a minimum point at (-2, -32)
and a maximum point at (2, 32). (−2, −32)
294 295
Identifying the stationary points and their nature helps you
EXAMPLE 4
to sketch a curve. Sketch the curve given by the equation
y = x(5 - x)2
Other features which help in the sketching of a curve include ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
} finding where the curve intersects the x- and y-axes The curve intersects the x-axis when y = 0
} determining if the curve has asymptotes and where they are When x(5 - x)2 = 0, x = 0 or x = 5
} recognising if the curve is a transformation of \ Curve crosses x-axis at (0, 0) and (5, 0).
a familiar curve.
The curve intersects the y-axis when x = 0
When x = 0, y = 0
EXAMPLE 3
Sketch the curve given by the equation \ Curve passes through the origin.
y = 2x² - x - 15
Multiply out the brackets: y = x(5 - x)2
y = 2x2 − x − 15
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y
The curve intersects the x-axis when y = 0 = x(5 - x)(5 - x)
when 2x2 - x - 15 = 0 = x(25 - 10x + x2)
Factorise: (2x + 5)(x - 3) = 0 = 25x - 10x2 + x3
Either 2x + 5 = 0 or x - 3 = 0 5 3 x
− Investigate the turning points on the curve:
2
dy
Hence the points of intersection on the x-axis are Differente y wrt x: = 25 - 20x + 3x2
dx
at ( 25 , 0 ) and (3, 0).
−
Let
dy
dx
= 0:
The curve intersects the y-axis when x = 0
When x = 0, y = -15 When 25 - 20x + 3x2 = 0
C2
C2
Hence the curve intersects the y-axis at (0, -15). −15 Factorise: (5 - x)(5 - 3x) = 0 You may have to solve using the
Find the turning points of the curve by differentiating: Either 5 - x = 0 or 5 - 3x = 0 formula.
y = 2x² - x - 15 so x = 5 or 5 You need to investigate the

3 nature of the turning points.
dy
= 4x - 1 d2 y
dx Differente again wrt x: = -20 + 6x
dx 2
dy d2 y d2 y
Let = 0: When x = 5, = -20 + 6(5) = 10 so >0
dx dx 2 dx 2
when 4x - 1 = 0 There is a minimum turning point at x = 5.
18
y ( 5 500
,
3 27 )
()
2
x=1 d2 y d y
4
When x = 5, = -20 + 6 5 = -10, so <0
3 dx 2 3 dx 2
Substitute this value into the original equation:
There is a maximum turning point at x = 5 .
3
y = 2(0.25)2 - (0.25) - 15 = -15.125
For x = 5, y = x(5 - x)2 =0
3( 3)
Evaluate the second derivative wrt x: 2
2 For x = 5 , y = x(5 - x)2 = 5 5 − 5 = 500 = 1814

d y 3 27 27
=4 which is positive
dx 2 O x
There is a minimum point at (5, 0) 5
When x = 1 ,
d2 y
4 dx 2
>0 and a maximum point at 5 , 500 . ( 3 27 )
The y-values are also needed.
Hence (0.25, -15.125) is a minimum point.
296 297
Exercise 14.2 5 Write the coordinates of the turning points correct to two
2 decimal places, where appropriate.
dy d y
1 Find the values of and 2 when x = 2 for each curve.
dx dx a Sketch the curve given by the equation, y = x(2 - x)2.
a y = 3x3 b y = x2 + 2x Find the coordinates of the turning points.
c y= 1 d y= x b Sketch the graph of the equation given by y = x2(x + 3)

x and find the coordinates of the turning points.
e y = (x + 3)2 f y=2− 1 c Sketch the curve given by the equation y = x3 - 9x
x
and find the coordinates of the turning points.
g y = x2(x + 2)(x - 3) h y = x2 - 1 d Sketch the graph of the equation y = x(2x2 - 3x - 12),
x
distinguishing between the maximum and minimum
2 For each function find the value of x for which f (x) = 0 turning points.
and use f (x) to determine whether this is a maximum State the coordinates of the turning points.
or minimum point for the curve. e Find the coordinates of the turning points on the curve
a f(x) = x2 + 2x b f(x) = 4 - x2 y = (x - 1)(x + 2)(x - 3)
c f(x) = x(4 - x) d f(x) = (x + 2)(3x - 2) and also the coordinates of the points where the curve
e f(x) = (2x - 3)(3x - 2) f f(x) = 5x - 5x2 intersects the axes.
Hence sketch the curve.
g f(x) = x (1 - x) h f(x) = 3(2x - 5)(2x - 1)
C2
C2
4
INVESTIGATIONS
3 Determine the stationary points, if any, for each equation.
Identify the type of stationary point and sketch the curve. 6 a Find the turning point of the graph given by
a y = 2x3 - 24x b y = x(27 - x2) i y = x2 + 6x + 9

ii y = -x2 - 6x - 9
c y = x2 - 5x d y = 1 + 9x + 2 b By considering transformations, explain why the
x
turning points are in the same position.
2
e y = x2(1 - x) f y = 2 x3 + x - 6x
3 2
7 a Plot the graph of y = x3 - 6x2 + 9x + 1 You could use graphing software
to investigate these curves.
g y = 2x3 + 3x2 - 120x h y = (x - 1)3 + 3x2 b Plot graphs of the first and second derivatives
4 a Sketch the curve given by the equation y = (4 - x)(x - 2),
giving the coordinates of its turning points. c Use your graphs to explain why the cubic function
has stationary points and what type they are.
b Show that the curve with equation y = (2x - 1)(x + 4)
has a minimum turning point and find its coordinates.
Hence sketch the curve.
c Sketch the graph of the equation y = 6 - x - x2 giving the
coordinates of the turning point and stating its nature.
d Sketch the curve with equation y = (4 - x)(3 + x) - 10
stating the nature and coordinates of the turning point.
298 299
14 Differentiation
EXAMPLE 3
14.3 Practical applications A closed box in the shape of a cuboid has a rectangular
base with dimensions x cm by 2x cm.
You can use the analysis of stationary points to solve real-life problems.
y
EXAMPLE 1
The motion of a body in a straight line is given by the equation

s = 70t - 10t2 2x
where s is the displacement from the original position after x
t seconds.
Find the maximum value of s and the time taken to travel The total surface area of the box is 300 cm2.
this displacement. Show that the volume, V, of the box is given by
3
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V = 100x - 4x
3
s = 70t - 10t2 Find the dimensions of the box which make the volume
ds a maximum and hence find the maximum volume of the box.
Differentiate s wrt t: = 70 - 20t
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ds
Determine the maximum value by considering = 0: Let the height of the box be y cm.
dt
when 70 - 20t = 0 Total surface area of the box, A = 2(2x2 + xy + 2xy)
Simplify: A = 4x2 + 6xy
t=7
2 Use the fact that A = 300 cm²: 300 = 4x2 + 6xy (1)
Substitute the value t = 3.5 into s = 70t - 10t2: Write a formula for volume: V=l´b´h (2)
C2
C2
= 2x2y
s = 70(3.5) - 10(3.5)2 You can check that this is a Make y the subject in equation (1):
= 245 - 122.5 = 122.5 m maximum value by showing that
y = 300 − 4x
2
d2s
< 0 when s = 122.5. 6x
Hence the maximum displacement is 122.5 m in 3.5 seconds. dt 2
Substitute this value of y into equation (2):
V = 2x2 300 − 4x
2
( )
EXAMPLE 2
The surface area, A, of a container is given by the equation 6x

A = 50x - 4x2 3
where x cm is the length of the container. Simplify: = 100x - 4x as required
3
Find the value of x which makes the surface area a To find the maximum volume, differentiate V wrt x and equate to 0:
maximum and hence find this maximum area.
dV = 100 - 4x2
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dx
A = 50x - 4x2
Find the values of x which give dV = 0:
dA dx
Differentiate A wrt x: = 50 - 8x
dx when 4x2 = 100
dA
Determine the maximum value by considering = 0: x2 = 25
dx
when 50 - 8x = 0 x = -5 or +5
x cannot be negative. x is the width of the box.
x = 25 = 6.25
4 Check that this is a
Substitute x = +5 to find the dimensions:
The dimensions are x = 5, 2x = 10, y = 300 − 4x = 6.66…
2 maximum value by looking at
Substitute the value x = 6.25 into A = 50x - 4x2:
6x the second derivative.
A = 50(6.25) - 4(6.25)2 = 156.25 2
that is, 5 cm by 10 cm by 6.667 cm d y
= − 8x, negative when x
2
Hence the maximum surface area is 156.25 cm2 when and the maximum volume of the box = 5 ´ 10 ´ 6.667 dx
x = 6.25 cm. = 333 cm3 (to 3 s.f.) is positive.
300 301
Exercise 14.3 7 a An open cylindrical container has base radius r,

1 a A stone is projected into the air and its distance, s, above surface area A and volume V.
the ground is given by the equation s = 50t - 5t 2 where t is Show that the volume of the container is given by
the time from the starting point. V = r (A - pr2)
Find the time taken to reach the maximum height and the 2
maximum height of the stone above the ground. b When the volume of the container is a maximum
show that the surface area of the container is given
b A particle is moving such that its acceleration, a, is given by by A = 3pr 2
the equation a = 4t(t - 1) m s-2 c Hence, or otherwise find the maximum volume of the
Find the time, t seconds, when the acceleration is a container in terms of p, if the surface area of the
minimum. Hence find this minimum acceleration. container is 125p.
2 a The area, A, of a triangle is given by the formula 8 a An open container has a square base and a fixed
A = 40x - 2x2 volume, V. If the sides of the base are of length x cm
and the total surface area of the container is A show that
Find the length, x cm, which makes the area a maximum
and find this maximum area. A = x2 + 4V
x
b A cardboard box in the shape of a cuboid has sides of 5 cm, b If the container is to have a minimum surface area show
(4 - x) cm and (3 + x) cm. that the value of x is given by x = 3 2V
Find an equation in terms of x for the volume of the box. c If the volume of the container is 256 cm3, find the
Determine the value of x which makes the volume a dimensions and total surface area of the container.
C2
C2
maximum and hence find this maximum.
9 A symmetrical cone is inside a sphere of radius r cm, with
3 A positive number, x, and its reciprocal, 1 , are added together. the vertex of the cone and the rim of the circular base in
x
contact with the surface of the sphere. The centre of the
Find the value of x which makes the sum a minimum.
base of the cone is x cm below the centre of the sphere.
4 a A rectangular plot of land has a wall along one side. Show that the volume, V, of the cone is V = π (r - x)(r + x)2 r
3
The remaining three sides have a total length 150 metres. For the volume of the cylinder to be a maximum show x
If the plot measures x metres by y metres find an expression, that the value of x is r .
in terms of x only, for the area of the plot. 3
b Use this expression to find the value of x which makes the Hence, or otherwise, find the maximum volume of the
area a maximum and find this maximum. cone in terms of p and r.
x
5 A tray is made from a rectangular sheet of plastic.
x INVESTIGATION
From each corner of the sheet a square of side x is cut and
the sides are then folded to form the tray. 1m 10 A population of birds on an island, P, is a function
The sheet measures 1 metre by 1.5 metres. of the number of predators, x.
Find the value of x which maximises the volume of the tray The population follows the equation
and find this maximum volume. 1.5 m P = x3 - 12x2 - 60x + 850 where x > 0
a Explain the need for the restriction x > 0.
6 The volume of a closed cylindrical container is 400 cm3 and
the radius of the base is r cm. b Find the minimum size of the population and
Show that the total surface area, A, of the cylinder is given the number of predators when this occurs.
by the formula A = 2pr 2 + 800 c Sketch the graph of this function and discuss the
r
Find the value of r when A is a maximum and hence find shape of the curve and its behaviour as x ® ¥
302 the maximum surface area of the cylinder. How can you explain this? 303
14 Differentiation
8 The curve, C, has equation y = (x - 1)(x - 4)2

Review 14
a Find dy
dx
1 For the function f(x) = 3x2 - 12x b Using the result from part a, find the coordinates of the
a find f ¢(x) turning points of C.
2
b determine whether the function is increasing or c Find d 2 y
decreasing when x = -1 dx
d Hence, or otherwise, determine the nature of the turning
c find the value of x when f (x) = 0
points of C.
2 If f(x) = 4x3 - 3 x2 find the values of x for which
2 9 The diagram shows the plan of a stage in the shape of a rectangle
f(x) is an increasing function. joined to a semicircle. The length of the rectangular part is 2x metres
and the width is y metres. The perimeter of the stage is 80 metres. 2x
3 Find the coordinates of the stationary point on the curve a Show that the area, A m2, of the stage is given by
( 2)
with equation y = x3 - 2x2 y
A = 80x - 2 + π x 2
4 A projectile is fired vertically upwards from the ground and b Use calculus to find the value of x at which A has a
the distance, s metres, above the ground is given by stationary value.
s = 196t - 4.9t2, where t seconds is the time measured from
the time of projection. Find the time taken to reach the maximum c Prove that the value you found in part b gives a maximum
C2
C2
height and the maximum height attained by the projectile. value of A.
d Calculate, to the nearest m2, the maximum area of the stage. [(c) Edexcel Limited 2005]
5 For the curve given by the equation y = 5x3 - 10x2 find the
coordinates of the stationary points and determine their nature. 10 The curve of f(x) = ax2 + bx + c passes through the point (2, 24)
and the gradient of the curve at this point is 22
6 The diameter of a circle is AB and the ends of the diameter The value of f (x) is 6
are connected to a variable point, P, which moves on the A
Find the coordinates of the points where the curve crosses the x-
circumference of the circle. and y-axes and of the minimum stationary point.
The area of the triangle APB is to be a maximum. P
Find the maximum area of the triangle if the sum of the O 11 a Solve the equation x2 + x - 15 = 0 giving your answers
lengths AP and PB is 20 cm. correct to two decimal places.
B
7 A diesel lorry is driven from Birmingham to Bury at a b Find the coordinates of the stationary point of the curve
steady speed of v kilometres per hour. The total cost of the y = x2 + x - 15 and state its nature.
journey, £C, is given by C = 1400 + 2v c Use the information from parts a and b to sketch the curve.
v 7
d Find the points of intersection of the curve y = x2 + x - 15
a Find the value of v for which C is a minimum.
and the line y = 2x + 5
2
b Find d C2 and hence verify that C is a minimum for e Find the gradient of the tangents to the curve at the points
dv
this value of v. found in part d.
c Calculate the minimum total cost of the journey. [(c) Edexcel Limited 2007]
f These tangents intersect with each other at point A;
find the coordinates of A.
304 305
15 Integration
Exercise 15.1
15.1 Definite integrals 1 Evaluate each definite integral.
1 2
In Chapter 8 you met integrals such as a x2 dx b (4x + 3) dx
0 1
n+1
(2x + 3) dx = x2 + 3x + c xn dx = x +c for n ¹ -1
n+1 3 2
c (6x - 1) dx d (3x2 - 2x) dx
where c is the constant of integration. 2 1
Integrals of this form have no specified limits and 3 3
are called indefinite integrals. e (x - 1)2 dx f 4x3 dx

2 2
A definite integral includes limits and looks like this: This is the integral of 2 Evaluate each integral.
b f(x) between the limits
4 2
f(x) dx where a and b are given values of x. x = a and x = b.
a a x dx b (x + 1)(x - 3) dx
1 1
You use the limits, a and b, to evaluate the integral exactly. 1 0

c (4 + x) dx d 3(x + 1) dx
-1 -2
2
EXAMPLE 1
Evaluate (2x + 3) dx The limits of the integral are

( )
-1 1
1 x = 1 and x = 2. e 2x − 3x 2 dx f x(x - 2) dx
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-2 x -1
Put the result of the integration in
C2
C2
2
square brackets. The upper and
Integrate the function wrt x : (2x + 3) dx = [x 2 + 3x]12 lower limits go outside the
2 3
1 g x2(1 + x ) dx h (2 - x)2 dx
Separate into two brackets, one for each limit value x = 2 and x = 1: brackets as shown. 1 -1
2 2
= (2 + 3 × 2) - (1 + 3 × 1) Use round brackets to show the 1.5
terms inside the brackets have i (3x2 - 2x) dx
Simplify the brackets: = (4 + 6) - (1 + 3) = 6 been evaluated at the given limits. 0.5
2
Hence (2x + 3) dx = 6 Take care with the signs.
1
INVESTIGATIONS
EXAMPLE 2
4 3 Find the value of n such that

Evaluate (x - 3) dx 1
2 nx2 dx = 1
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Follow the steps: 0

4 4
¯
Integrate (x - 3) with respect to x: (x - 3) dx = ⎡ 1 x 2 − 3x ⎤ 1
⎣⎢ 2 ⎦⎥ 2 integrate
3
¯ 4 a Evaluate (x2 + 4) dx
Separate into two brackets, one for each limit value x = 4 and x = 2: -1
square brackets
( ) ( )
¯ b How could you obtain your answer using
1 1
= 2 ×4 − 3×4 − 2 ×2 − 3×2
2 2
evaluate with round brackets different limits?
¯
Simplify the brackets: = (8 - 12) - (2 - 6) = 0 simplify.
4
Hence (x - 3) dx = 0
2
b
} f ¢(x) dx = f(b) - f(a) given that f ¢(x) exists throughout
308 a
the interval a / x / b. 309
15 Integration
y
15.2 Area under a curve } The area enclosed between the curve y = f(x), the y = f(x)
x-axis and the lines x = a and x = b is given by
You can use definite integration to find the area under a given curve. b
Area = y dx
a
Consider the curve of a function f(x). y

y = f(x)
Let A be the area enclosed by the curve f(x),

O a b x
the x-axis and the lines x = a and x = b.
EXAMPLE 1
Find the area enclosed between the curve y = x2,
The area A can be approximated by splitting the x-axis and the lines x = 1 and x = 3.
the region into rectangles as shown and ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
summing their areas. b

Use the formula for area A= y dx: You may find a sketch useful.
a You have to find the shaded area.
O a M N b x
x δx 3
A= x2 dx a = 1 and b = 3
Consider the area of one of these rectangles f(x) 1
y = x2
R y
with width dx and let dA be the shaded area. Q
⎡x 3 ⎤3
The area of rectangle MPSN is y dx δy Integrate wrt x: A = ⎢⎣ 3 ⎥⎦1 8
P S
( ) ()
The area of rectangle MRQN is (y + dy)(dx)
C2
C2
6
27 1
Evaluate using the limits: A = 3 - 3
Set up an inequality for the areas: 4
y
area MPSN < area MPQN < area MRQN = 26
3 2
Substitute the values: y(dx) < dA < (y + dy)(dx)
δx
δA M N O 1 3 x
Divide by dx: y< < y + dy dx >0
δx
Hence the enclosed area is 26 square units. Areas are measured in square units.
Consider what happens as Q gets closer to P: 3
As Q ® P, dx ® 0, dy ® 0 and δA ® dx
dA
δx
Sometimes you will need to find where the curve intersects
Hence as dx ® 0, δA ® y the x-axis before you can find the area under the curve.
δx
dA
and so dx = y
Separate dA and dx by integrating wrt x: dA = y dx dA º 1 dA
A= y dx
y dx gives the area measured from an origin to the point x
and gives a function of x.
Hence A = (Area up to ordinate x = b) - (Area up to ordinate x = a) Put the right-hand limit at the
b b top and the left-hand limit at
You write this as A = y dx or A = f(x)dx the bottom.
a a
310 311
EXAMPLE 2
EXAMPLE 3
Find the area enclosed by the x-axis and the curve Find the total area enclosed between the curve
given by the equation y = (x - 1)(4 - x) y = (x + 1)(x - 2), the x-axis and the lines x = 0 and x = 3.
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Solve the equation y = 0 to find the x-axis crossings: y y = (x – 1)(4 – x) Solve the equation y = 0 to find the x-axis crossings:
When (x - 1)(4 - x) = 0 2 (x + 1)(x - 2) = 0
x = 1 or x = 4
This gives the value of the limits, 1.5 Þ x = -1 or x = 2
a = 1 and b = 4 y
Sketch the graph to see which parts of the graph are above the y = (x + 1)(x – 2)
1 x-axis and which parts are below for 0 / x / 3: 5
4
0.5 The section between x = 0 and x = 2 is below the x-axis. 3
The section between x = 2 and x = 3 is above the x-axis. 2
b
1 A2
Use the formula for area A = y dx: O 1 2 3 4 x Evaluate the definite integral for each section separately.
a
Let A1 be the area under the graph between x = 0 and x = 2 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 x
4 –1
A= (x - 1)(4 - x) dx and A2 be the area under the graph between x = 2 and x = 3. A1
Expand and simplify the b –2
1
expression before you integrate. Use the formula A = y dx for each section:
4 a
= (5x - x2 - 4) dx 2
1 A1 = (x2 - x - 2) dx
4 0
5x x ⎡ 2 3 ⎤ 2
A = ⎢ 2 − 3 − 4x ⎥
C2
C2
⎡ 3 2 ⎤
Integrate wrt x:
⎣ ⎦1 = ⎢ x − x − 2x ⎥
⎣ 3 2 ⎦0
Evaluate by substituting the limit values:
(8
= 3 −2−4 -0 )
2 3 (
A = 5 × 16 − 64 − 16 − 5 − 1 − 4
2 3 ) ( ) Including round brackets at this
step helps you to subtract correctly. = − 10
3
= 8 + 11 = 9 Take care with the signs.
3 6 2
The negative value for A1 confirms that the area is below
Therefore the area enclosed between the curve and Give your answer as a fraction. the x-axis.
the x-axis is 9 square units. The actual area for the region A1 is given by ½A1½= 10
2 3 |A |
1 is the absolute value of A1.
3 This is the positive value of A1
A2 = (x2 - x - 2) dx regardless of the actual sign of A1.
2
If the area enclosed between the curve y 3
⎡ 3 2 ⎤
y = f(x) and the x-axis lies above the x-axis, f(x) dx is +ve
= ⎢ x − x − 2x ⎥
⎣ 3 2 ⎦2
then the definite integral f(x) dx
has a positive value.
y = f(x)
( 9
) (
8
= 9− 2 −6 - 3 −2−4 )
= ( 2) - ( 3 )
If the area enclosed between the curve y = f(x) 3 10− −
O x
and the x-axis lies below the x-axis, then
= 11
the definite integral f(x) dx has a negative value. 6
Add the two areas to give the overall area:

To find the area enclosed between a curve and f(x) dx is –ve
the x-axis when part of the curve is below
The required area, A = 10 + 11 = 31 square units
the axis and part is above the axis you need to 3 6 6
312 consider both sections separately. 313
To find the area enclosed between a curve and a Exercise 15.2

straight line you first need to find the points of intersection 1 Find the area bounded by the x-axis, the given curve and
of the curve and the line. the lines x = 1 and x = 3 in each case.
a y = 4x3 b y=4-x Sketch a diagram.
EXAMPLE 4
Find the area enclosed between the curve y = x(4 - x)

and the straight line y = x c y = 3x2 - 1 d y = x (x - 1)
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The curve y = x(4 - x) crosses the x-axis at x = 0 and x = 4. Sketch the graph. e y = x2(8x - 9) f y = (1 - x)(1 + x)
The line y = x passes through the origin, (0, 0). You have to find the shaded area.
h y = x +2 3
2
y g y = (2x + 1)(x - 4)
Set up an equation to find where the curve and line intersect: Whole shaded area = A x
x(4 - x) = x 4
y=x 2 Find the area bounded by each curve and the x-axis.
2 3
Rearrange: 3x - x = 0 A1
Factorise: x(3 - x) = 0 a y = x(2 - x) b y = x(x - 3)
2
The points of intersection are at (0, 0) and (3, 3). A2 y = x(4 − x) c y = x2 - 1 d y = (x - 2)(x - 1)
1
The required region, A1, is found by subtracting the area of e y = 3x(2x - 1) f y = (x + 2)(x - 1)
O x
the triangle, A2, from the area bound by the curve and the 1 2 3 4 5
g y = (x + 1)(x + 3) h y = x2 - 9
lines x = 0 and x = 3. A2 = right-angled triangle
b 3 Find the total area of the regions enclosed between each curve
Use integration: A= y dx
C2
C2
a
and the x-axis.
3 Sketch the given curve in each case.
= (4x - x2) dx
0 a y = x(x - 1)(x + 1) b y = x(x - 3)(x + 3)
⎡ 3 ⎤3
= ⎢2x 2 − x ⎥ c y = x(x - 1)(x - 2) d y = x(x + 1)(x - 2)
⎣3 ⎦0
e y = x(x - 3)(x - 4)
= (18 - 9) - 0
=9 4 Find the area enclosed between each curve, the x-axis and the
given lines.
Use the formula for area of a right-angled triangle to find area A2:
Sketch the curve in each case.
A2 = 1 base ´ height a y = (x + 2)(x - 1), lines x = 0, x = 3
2
=1 ´3´3 b y = x(x + 2), lines x = -1, x = 1

2
9 c y = x2(2 - x), lines x = 0, x = 3
=
2
d y = x(x2 - 4), lines x = -2, x = 2
Required area A1 = area under the curve - area of the triangle
e y = x(x + 1)(x - 2), lines x = -1, x = 2
= A - A2
f y = x(x + 1)2, lines x = -1, x = 1
Therefore the required area A1 = 9 - 9 = 9 square units
2 2 g y = x3 - 4x, lines x = 0, x = 3
h y = (x + 1)(x - 1)(x - 2), lines x = 0, x = 2
314 315
5 Find the areas of these regions.

Sketch your own graphs for parts c, d, e and f. INVESTIGATIONS
a The area enclosed between the curve y = x (3 - x) 7

and the line y = x
y
3 y=x
2
The cross-section of the tunnel above can be
1 y = x(3 – x) modelled by the graph
O 1 2 3 4 x y = -x(x - 3)
assuming the origin is taken as the bottom left-hand
b The area enclosed between the curve y = x2 +2 corner of the tunnel.
and the line y = 6 a Use integration to find the area of the tunnel’s
y cross-section.
y = x2 + 2
7
b If the tunnel is 500 m long, find its volume in
6 cubic metres.
y=6
C2
C2
5
8 y
4 y = x(x + 1)(x − 3)
3
O x
2
x
–3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3
6 Find the area enclosed by

a the curve y = 4 - x2 and the line y = 3
b the curve y = x(2 - x) and the line y = x Lorna wishes to find the total area between the curve
and the x-axis. 3
c the curve y = 12 + 4x and the line joining the points on She attempts the integral x(x + 1)(x - 3) dx
x -1
the curve where x = 1 and x = 2 a Why will this not give her the answer she wants?
2
b What integrals should she work out to give the
d the curve y = x2 + 12 and the line joining the points true area?
x
on the curve where x = 1 and x = 3.
316 317
15 Integration
15.3 The trapezium rule } The area under a curve y = f(x) between x = a and x = b
can be approximated using the trapezium rule
In some cases you may want to find the area under a curve f(x) dx » 1 h[y0 + 2(y1 + y2 + … + yn-1) + yn]
2
but not be able to integrate its equation.
where h = b − a and yi = f(xi) = f(a + ih)
You can use the trapezium rule to find an approximation n
to the area.
Another way of writing this is
h
Consider the graph of the curve y ò f(x) dx » 2 [first ordinate + last ordinate + 2 ´ other ordinates]
y = f(x)
given by the equation y = f(x).
The trapezium rule gives y y
You have to find the area between an approximation to the
the curve y = f(x), the x-axis and area under a curve.
the lines x = a and x = b. n equal sections The more strips into which
Divide the area into n strips of the area is divided, the
equal width. better the approximation.
Let the width of each strip be h. O x O x
Then h = b − a
n O a b x
h
INVESTIGATION
C2
C2
To calculate the y-values at the y How will the approximation
y = f(x) given by the trapezium rule
boundary of each strip you There are n + 1 x values
need to find the y-values when and n + 1 y values. for a concave curve
x0 = a, x1 = a + h, x2 = a + 2h, … differ from that given
and so on to xn = b for a convex curve?
n trapeziums concave curve convex curve
Label these values y0, y1, y2, …, yn A1
Join point (x0, y0) to (x1, y1) and y0 y1 y2 y3

6
EXAMPLE 1
point (x1, y1) to (x2, y2) and so on. Use the trapezium rule to obtain an estimate for the value of x 2 dx
This forms n trapeziums. 2 (x − 1)
using eight strips.
The sum of the areas of these O a b x ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
trapeziums gives an approximation h

to the area under the curve. a = 2 and b = 6, so h = b − a = 6 − 2 = 0.5
n 8
The area of the first trapezium is A1 = 1 (y0 + y1)h Record the values of x and y in a table:
2
Add the areas of the trapeziums: b x 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6
1 a x 2
f(x) dx » 1 (y0 + y1)h + 2 (y1 + y2)h + 1 (y2 + y3)h + … + 1 (yn-1 + yn)h y= 4 4.167 4.5 4.9 5.333 5.786 6.25 6.722 7.2
2 2 2 (x − 1)
Factorise: 1
h Substitute into the trapezium rule formula A » 2 h[y0 + 2(y1 + y2 + … + yn-1) + yn]:
f(x) dx » 1 h[y0 + y1 + y1 + y2 + y2 + … + yn-1 + yn-1 + yn]
2 You may have studied the A » 0.5 [4 + 2(4.167 + 4.5 + 4.9 + 5.333 + 5.786 + 6.25 + 6.722) + 7.2]
area of a trapezium at GCSE. 2
f(x) dx » 1 h[y0 + 2(y1 + y2 + … + yn-1) + yn] A = 1 (a + b)h
2 2 » 1 [4 + 75.316 + 7.2] = 21.6 square units to 3 s.f.
4
318 319
EXAMPLE 2 Exercise 15.3

a Sketch the graph of the equation y = x(6 – x) 1 Copy and complete the table and use the trapezium rule to Sketch a diagram of each curve.
b Use the trapezium rule with six strips to find an estimate estimate the area under the curve given by each equation.
for the area between the curve and the x-axis.
c Use integration to find the area in b. a y = (x + 1), taking three strips
d Compare the results obtained by the two methods for
this area. x 1 2 3 4
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• y 1.414 2
a Find the x-axis crossings:
When y = 0, x = 0 or x = 6 y b y = 10, taking three strips
x
10 y = 6x – x2
Expand the bracket: y = 6x - x2
8 x 2 3 4 5
dy
Differentiate wrt x: = 6 - 2x 6 y 5 2
dx
dy 4
At the turning points =0 2
dx c y = (x 2 − 2), taking four strips
Hence there is a turning point at (3, 9) O 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
d2 y x 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
and this is a maximum turning point since <0
dx 2 y 1.414
b y = x(6 – x)
Make a table of values: d y= x , taking five strips
1+ x
C2
C2
x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
x 1 2 3 4 5 6
y 0 5 8 9 8 5 0
y 0.5 0.75
1
Use the trapezium rule: A = [0 + 2 × (5 + 8 + 9 + 8 + 5)] h=1
2 e y = (1.5)x, taking six strips
= 1 [70] = 35 x 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
2
y 2.25
c Use an integration method:
f y = x + 1, taking eight strips
6 6 3
⎡ 3⎤
A= (6x - x2) dx = ⎢3x 2 − x ⎥ x
0
⎣ 3 ⎦0
(
= 3 × 36 − 216 - (0)
3 ) x
y
1
2
1.5 2
4.5
2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
= 108 - 72 = 36
d Integration gives an exact result of 36 while the 2 Use the trapezium rule to estimate the value of each integral.
()
5 4
trapezium rule gives 35. 4 10 dx, with six strips
a x dx, with four strips b
(1 + x)
The trapezium rule gives an underestimate since 1 1
the curve is convex. 11 3

c x 2 dx, with five strips d (x 2 + 3) dx, with eight strips
1
(x + 1) 1
14 3.5
e x(x + 1)(x + 2) dx, with six strips f x(x + 1) dx, with five strips
2 1 (x 2 + 1)
320 321
3 Sketch the curve with equation y = 2x

Find the area between the curve, the x-axis and the lines x = 2 INVESTIGATIONS
and x = 4 using the trapezium rule with 8 By considering trapezia under each graph,
a four strips determine if the trapezium rule would give
an overestimate or underestimate of the
b eight strips. shaded area or the exact answer in each case.
4 Sketch the curve with equation y = 8 a y b y c y

x y = 2x + 3
Find the area between the curve, the x-axis and the lines x = 1 y = −x2 + 4
and x = 3 using the trapezium rule with
1
a two strips y=
x
O x
b eight strips. O x x
O
5 a Use the trapezium rule to find an estimate for the area under
the curve given by the equation y = x (x - 2), the x-axis and
the lines x = 2 and x = 5, taking six strips.
9 This question concerns the area bounded by the x-axis
b Use integration to find an exact answer for the and the lines x = 0 and x = 1 for the curve y = 2x
area in part a.
y
C2
C2
6 The sketch shows the graph of the equation y
y = 2x
y = 2 2x 8
Use the trapezium rule with eight strips to 7
5 y = 2√2x
6
estimate the value of y dx O x
1
5
With reference to the sketch graph state, with reason, 4 The button is next to log
3 on your calculator.
whether this is an overestimate or underestimate of 1
The exact answer can be calculated as on your calculator. The % error formula is
the shaded area under the curve. 2 In 2
(estimate − actual)
Find the area using integration. 1
Copy and complete the table to show how the accuracy of the × 100
actual
Give your answers correct to two decimal places. O x answer depends on the number of strips.
1 2 3 4 5
No. of strips Estimate % error

7 a Sketch the graph of the equation y = tan x, where x is in 1
radian measure, taking values of x from 0 to π . 2
2
4
b Find an estimate for the area between the curve y = tan x,
the x-axis and the lines x = π and x = π .
6 3
c With reference to the sketch of the curve, deduce, giving a

reason, whether this is an underestimate or overestimate.
of the area under the curve.
322 323
15 Integration
5 A river, running between parallel banks, is 20 m wide.

Review 15 The depth, y metres, of the river at a point x metres from one
bank is given by the formula
1 Evaluate these integrals. y = 1 x (20 − x) , 0 / x / 20
4 4 3 10
1 5 dx
a (x + 2)2 dx b dx c
0 1 ( x) 1 x2 a Copy and complete the table below, giving values of y to three decimal places.
( x + x1 ) dx
4 3
x 0 4 8 12 16 20
d x(3x - 2) dx e 2 y 0 2.771 0
2 1
2 The speed, v m s-1, of a train at time t seconds is given by b Use the trapezium rule with all the values in the table to
estimate the cross-sectional area of the river.
v = (1.4t − 1), where 0 / t / 30
The following table shows the speed of the train at Given that the cross-sectional area is constant and that the
5-second intervals. river is flowing uniformly at 2 m s-1
c estimate, in m3, the volume of water flowing per minute,
t 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 giving your answer to three significant figures. [(c) Edexcel Limited 2005]
v 0 2.09 5.28 28.91
6 The figure shows a sketch of part of the y
a Copy and complete the table, giving the values of v to two decimal places. curve, C, with equation
2
The distance, s metres, travelled by the train in 30 seconds y = x(x - 1)(x - 5)
30
Use calculus to find the total area of the −1 O 1 2 3 4 5 x
(1.4t − 1) dt
C2
C2
is given by s = −2
0 finite region, shown shaded in the figure,
−4
that is between x = 0 and x = 2 and is
b Use the trapezium rule, with all the values from your table, −6
bounded by C, the x-axis and the line x = 2
to estimate the value of s. −8
C
−10
3 The figure shows the shaded region R which is bounded y
−12
by the curve y = -2x2 + 5x and the line y = 2 [(c) Edexcel Limited 2007]
A R B
The points A and B are the points of intersection of 2
the line and the curve. 7 A curve is given by the equation y = x(x2 - 1)
Find
O x a Sketch the curve for values of x from x = -2 to x = 2 giving the
a the x-coordinates of the points A and B coordinates of the points where the curve crosses the x-axis.
b the exact area of R. b Use calculus to find the total area enclosed between
the curve and the x-axis.
4 The figure shows part of the curve, C, with equation
c Use the trapezium rule to find the area between x = 0 and x = 1 taking
y = 2x + 82 - 5, x > 0 four strips and hence deduce the total area enclosed between the curve
x y
y = 2x +
8
−5
x2 and the x-axis. Give your answer correct to three significant figures.
The points P and Q lie on C and have x-coordinates
1 and 4 respectively. P
8 A curve is given by the equation y = sin x where x is measured in radians.
Q
The region R, shaded in the figure, is bounded by C and Sketch the graph of y = sin x taking values of x from
R
the straight line joining P and Q.
x x = 0 to x = p radians.
a Find the exact area of R O 2
On the same sketch draw the line y = 0.5
b Use calculus to show that y is increasing for x > 2 [(c) Edexcel Limited 2005] Find, using the trapezium rule, the area between the curve, the
line y = 0.5 and the line x = p radians. Take four strips and give
324 2 325
your answer correct to two decimal places.
Answers Answers
4 a 3 b 4 c 1 d 125 3 a -5 b 3y = -2x 5 B(3, 6), y = -x + 9 c 2, 5

5 3 9 8 3 6 6y = 19x - 43
5 y
e 343 f 100 000 g 1 h 0.01 c y = 2x + 3 d 2 , 2y = 5x - 19 7 a y - 2x + 15 = 0 b (6, -3)
128 12
4 a a=3 c 18.5 square units y = x2 – 7x + 10
2 1
5 a 3a2 b 1 t c d 2 b k = 3 and P and Q are the same point. 8 a p = 15, q = -3, b 7x - 5y - 46 = 0, 10
2 3t y 81
5 a y = -2x + 6 b 2y + 6x = 1 c x= 8
e 32t5 f 625p8q4 7
( )
1 6
6 a 10 2 b 8 2 c 10 2 c a= d y = 2x - 3 9 12 21
a P , b A(0, 3) c AP = 6 5
2
7 5 5 5 4
7 a 2 2 b 2 c 5 d 14 e (0, − 12 ) , ( 13 , 0) , 23 f y = 4x - 5 2
6 y = x + 1, y = x - 1, y = -x + 2, y = -x + 4, Before you start Answers
8 a 15 2 b 1 c 6+2 5 d 23 3 –1
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 x
24 Area = 2
Chapter 3 –2
3(5 + 3)
9 a 2– 3 b c 4+3 2 Exercise 2.2 1 a 3 10 b 2 15 c 5 6
22 2 1 a x-y-3=0 b x-4=0 d 2 2 e 3 6
2( 5 + 2) c x - 3y - 3 = 0 d x - 5y = 0 d -5, 6
d 2 a y = 5; y = 0 b y = 2; y = 27 y
3 e y-7=0 f 2x + 3y - 6 = 0 c y = -4; y = -4 d y = 3; y = 243
10 a 7 - 4 3 b a = 3, b = 1 g 3x - 4y = 0 h 3x + 2y + 1 = 0 e y = 0; y = 40 f y = 24; y = -36 10
4 4
i 3x - y + 4 = 0 j 2x + 5y - 19 = 0 3 a x2 + 7x + 10 b 4x2 - 8x + 3
c 26 - 11 7 d 11 2 –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6 x
11 a 10 + 6 3 cm b 12 + 8 3 cm2
2 a ( )( )
1
3
, 0 , 0, 1
2
b 2x + 4y - 3 = 0 c
e
1 - 4x + 3x2
-25 + 20x - 4x2
d 1 - 4x2 –10
–20
c a = 8, b = -4; 2x - y = 1 –30
y = x2 – x – 30
( )
12 a 2 3 b 3 ( 3) c ab2 c 3 8 1 Exercise 3.1
d i P ,− ii lines are perpendicular
13 13 1 a 2, 3 b 0, -1 c 0, 3
13 a 3 5 b 9-4 5 e 4, 7
3 a ae = bd b ce = bf c a=b d -4, 5 e -7 f 2, 3
14 a 4 5 b 14 + 6 5 y
Exercise 2.3 g 4 h -1, 5 i 0, 3 28
15 a 6 b 12 - 4 3 2 2
C1
C1
1 a parallel b neither 5 25
16 a 9 b 27 c 1 c perpendicular d neither j 0, 1 k 3, 5 l
27 3 2 2 3 20
e perpendicular f neither y = x2 – 11x + 28
1 1
m- , n -2, -5 o 3 15
Before you start Answers g parallel h parallel 2 2 5 2 2
x 10
1
Chapter 2 2 a 2y = 3x + 9 b y= 2 +2 2 a 1, -2 b - , -3 c 7, 1
4 2 3 5
1 a, c and d c y=- x+4
4
d 3y + 4x = 1; perpendicular
3 d 0.5, 4 0
2 y 3 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x
y = 2x + 1 e y = 2x - 8 f 2y + 4x = 17
10 g 2y = -x + 5 h 2y = x - 3 3 a -1, -2
y = 2x + 3 y
8 f -6, 4
3 a m = -2 b a=3 y
6 y = 2x – 1 2 6
4 y=x+1 c m = -2, c = 5; d y = - 1 x + 5 ; gradient 2 4 10

2 2 y = x2 + 3x + 2
2 5
2 y = -2x + 5
1
e x+y+2=0 f y=- x+3 –6 –4 –2
0
2 4 x
3 0 x –5
–0.5 O 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 x
g y = - x + 5; h a=1
–4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3
2 –10
Lines a, b and c are parallel, a and d have the same b -3, 2 –15
m = -1 , c = 5 y –20
y-intercept 2
y = x2 + 2x – 24 –24
3 a gradient 3; intercept 2 4 x - 3y - 2 = 0 6 –25
b gradient 2; intercept 1 Review 2
4
c gradient -1; intercept 1 1 a y = -x + 3 b y = - 2x + 2 2
3
g -4, 9
d gradient 2 ; intercept 1 y
3 c y = -2x + 1 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 x
4
–2 0
Exercise 2.1 2 a -2x + 3y - 5 = 0 b -x + 2y + 2 = 0 –4 –2 2 4 6 8 x
–4 –10
1 a y = -x + 6 b y = 3x - 6 c 2x + 3y - 8 = 0 2
y=x +x–6 –20
c y = -2x + 1 d 2y = x + 5 3 a a = -4, c = 2 b c=4 –6 y = x2 – 5x – 36
–30
e 3y = -2x + 13 f y = -x + 2 –36
2 a 3y = 4x + 6 b y = -x + 1 c 2, 5 d b = -2 –8 –40
2
c y = -x - 2 d 7y = 3x + 26 4 a yes b y = -2x - 3
e 8y = -5x + 9 f 5y = -3x - 36 c Q(0, 3), P(6, 0), y = 2x + 3 d a = 3, b = -14
330 331
Answers Answers
( 25 )
y
h 3, 10
3 a -2 ± 3 b 2± 6 c -2 ±
8 e x = 0, y = 1; x = 4 , y = - 3
5 5
y 25
f x = 6, y = -4; x = 2, y = 0
30 d 1±
1
2
e 1 (3 ± 19)
2
f 1± ( 72 ) 20 g
h
x = 8, y = 6; x = 4, y = 2
x = 6, y = 5; x = 2, y = 1
20 15
y = x2 – 13x + 30 4 a y = (x + 3)2 - 4 b -3 c -4 4 a x = 2, y = 3
10 10
d Axis intercepts are (-1, 0), (-5, 0) and (0, 5) b x = 2, y = 3; x = -1, y = 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 x Minimum point is (-3, -4) 5 3
–10 5 1 is (-1, -3) 2 is (-2, -5) 3 is (2, 1) c x = - 1 , y = - ; x = 1, y = 0
2 2
6 y = x2 - 2x - 2; y = -x2 - 4x + 1 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 x
1
i -24, -1 y = x2 + 4x + 9 d x = 1, y = 1; x = - , y = - 5
3 3
y 9 a a = ±4 3 b k = ±2 c k = 1 or k = 4 5 a (±3, 0), (0, ±3) b (0, 3) and (-3, 0)
24 Exercise 3.3 3 c i 2 solutions ii 2 solutions
20 10 a x = 0 or -3 b c=9x=-
2
1 a -5, -2 b -3, 1 c 4, 3 6 a a = ±2, b = ±3 b 9x2 + 4y2 = 36
–4 0
( 65 , 125 ) or ( )
x
–24 –20 –16 –12 –8
–20 d -2, 4 e -3, -1 f -1 , 2 Before you start Answers c − ,−
6 12
2 5 5
–40
g -3 , 1 h -1, -1 i 1 3
, Chapter 4
–60 2 3 2 2 4
y = x2 + 25x + 24
–80 1 a y = 1 − 4x b y=2-x c y=x-3 Exercise 4.2
3 3
2 a −3 ± 5 b 3 ± 17 c 5 ± 13
2 1 a x > -3 b x/ c x/-
–100 2 4
2 2 2 5−x
d y= e y = 7x - 1
–120 −3 ± 7 −3 ± 41 2 d x < -1 e x/1 f x > -6
–140 d e f no solution 2 a (x -2)(x + 4) b (x -6)(x + 1)
2 4 g x > 12 h x 0 12
−1 ± 5 c (x - 3)2 d (x - 2)(x + 9) 5
g -5 ± 21 h -2 ± 6 i
4 a ±3 b ±1 c ±4 d ±2 2 e (2x + 1)(x + 2) 2 a t < -5 b y < -2 c y03
2 3 3 a -4; no roots b 49; two roots 1 2
3 a x=5 b t= 1 c y=-
e ±2 f ±1 g ±10 h ± 2 c 0; one root d 8; two roots 2 3 2 d a>3 e p / -5 f x < -1
3 5 e 49; two roots f 13; two roots 1 4 2
d a=4 e p=- 3 a x < -3, x > 2 b 1<x<4
i ±2 3 g -7; no roots h 1; two roots 3 3
C1
C1
4 a i k>1 ii k = 1 iii k < 1 4 a x = 1, y = 2 b x = -1, y = 6 c x = 1, y = 2 c x > -1, x < -5 d -2 < x < 1
5 a - 1, 1 b 1, 2 c -1 d -1, -1 8 8 8 2
2 3 2 3 2 b i k < -4 ii k = -4 iii k > -4 4 a x < -2, x > 1 b t < -4, t > -3
Exercise 4.1
1 3
e - ,- f 1, 6 g 3, 4 h - 5, 5 c i k>0 ii k = 0 iii k < 0 1 a x = -2, y = -4; x = 1, y = -1 c -1 < p < 4 d q < -5, q > 2
3 4 5 4 3 2 3
3 4
5 -3.54, - 2.54 or 3.54, 2.54 b x = 3, y = -9; x = -1, y = -1 5 a -1 < x < 5 b -4 < t < 2
i ,- 2 3
2 5 6 2± 3 c x = 2, y = -4
c p < -3, p > 3 d x < - 5, x > 5
6 a -2 b 0, 1 c -2, 5 d 3, 5
7 4.85, 2.70, 5.55 to two decimal places d x = 1, y = -2; x = 1 , y = - 1 2 2
2 3 4 10 a x(x - 1) = 1 2 2 6 a 1<x<3 b 1<x<3
e 1, 1 f -5, -3 g ±
6
h -1, 4 1± 5 1+ 5 e x = - 1 , y = - 1 ; x = 2, y = -8 c x / -2
2 5 3 b x= , x must be positive so x = 2 2
2 2
f x = 3, y = 9; x = 4, y = 16
I -4, -5 j 2 7
, 11 a k = ±4 b k = ±6 c k = ±8
Review 4
5 6 7 3 g x = 3, y = 9 1 a x = 3, y = 0; x = -5, y = -8
k = ±2n
7 a − 1 , -1 b -2, -1 c 1, 2 12 -8, -7, -6, -5, 5, 6, 7, 8 h x = 1 , y = 1 ; x = 1, y = 4 b x = -1, y = -3; x = 7, y = 13
2 3 4 4
8 1 x = -1, x = -2 2 x = 1, x = 2 1 c x = - 3 , y = 11 ; x = 4, y = 11
2 a x = , y = 0; x = -1, y = -3 2 2
3 x = 3 , x = -1 4 x=2
Review 3 2 d x = 2, y = 9; x = -1, y = 6
2 1 a -7, 3 b -4, 0 c 3 d 1, 3
9 a (2x + 3)(x - 4) b (2x + 1)(x - 2) 3 2 b x = - 2 , y = 5 ; x = 1, y = 0 2 a x = 2, y = 3
3 3 17
c (2x - 1)(2x + 3) 1
2 a ,3 b ±5 c -7, 1
3
d - , -1 c x = -4, y = -3, x = 1, y = 2 x = - 6, y = -
2 2 2 5 5
Exercise 3.2 3 3 3 1
7 1 e ± f 3 4
- , g 0, 5 h 1,- d x = -1, y = 3; x = - , y = 4
2
b x=- ,y=0
2
1 a 8, -2 b -7, 3 c -1, 0 d ,- 2 2 5 4 2 2
2 2
1 e x = 2, y = 4; x = - 7 , y = - 31 x=- ,y=1
1
e -3, -2 f 9, -3 g 0, 14 h -14, 6 3 a -2 ± 2 b (-3 ± 11) 5 5 3 3
4 4 5 2
f x = -4, y = 11; x = 2, y = -1 3 P = (1, -1) Q = (2, 0)
d 13 ± 41 ( )
1
i -4 ± 3 j (1 ± 5 ) c -1 ± 5 9 1 1
− , −2
2 8 g x = 4 , y = 17 ; x = - , y = -6 4 A=
2 2
2 2 3 3 2
2 a (x + 2) - 4 b (x - 2) - 4 B = (4, 29)
4 a 3 ± 21 b 2± 2 h x = 6, y = 3; x = 2 , y = -
7
( x + 25 ) - 254 ( x − 23 ) - 94
2 2
c d 2 2 3 3 5 a x>-3 b y<7 c t 0 - 11
2 5 2
d 5 ± 10 3 a x = 0, y = 1; x = -1, y = 0
5
e (x - 1)2 - 1 f 2(x + 1)2 - 2 c - , -1
3 3 6 a y=x+2 b y > 0, y / 2
b x = 3, y = 1
( 10 ) 20
2
g 3(x - 1)2 - 3 h 5x− 3 - 9 5 x(x - 4)(x - 3) 2 2 y = -2x + 5 y / -2x + 5, y / x + 2
6 a=4 1 11 27 16
4(
x − 4) -
1 3 4 2 c x = , y = ; x = -1, y = -1 7 x = 5, y = 2 x = − ,y=−
332 i (x + 4)2 - 8 j 9 9 5 5 333
2 3
7 a a = -2, b = -13 b p = 2, q = 1
3 d x = 1, y = 1 8 a x<4 b -1 < x < 5 c -1 < x < 4
Answers Answers
9 a x = 0, y = -1, x = 8, y = 3 10 a (x - 3)2 + 9 d y c y y = x(x − 3)(x + 2)

3 b y
10 a x = 2 , y = 2; x = -7, y = 19 8 8
y = x(x − 4)
18 P 6 6
b x > 3 , x < -7
2 16 4 4
y = x2 – 6x + 18
11 a 2x + 20 < 150 b x(x + 20) > 4800 14
2 2
c 60 < x < 65 12
10 0
x
Revision 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x
8 Q –2 –2
1 a 1 b 3 5 6
5 –4 –4
2 a a4b2c b 10 + 2 4
e y –6
2
3 9
3 a k=9 b a= ,b=- +l 8 –8
4 2 4 0 1 2 3 4 5 x y = x2 − 9
4
−3 ± 13 − 4m
c x= P(0, 18) Q(3, 9) c 3±4 2
2
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x d y
4 a y –4 y = x2(x − 3)
8
8
Before you start Answers –8
y=x+5 6
Chapter 5 –16 4
6 1 a y = x(x + 2)(x + 3)
f y 2
b y = 2x(x + 1)(x - 1)
4 c y = x(x - 5)(x + 4) 0 x
–4 –2 2 4 x
d y = 3x(x - 6)(x - 2) –20 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
y = x2 – 1 –2
2 e y = 5x(x + 4)(x - 4)
–40 –4
f y = x2(4x - 5)
–60 –6
2 a y
–2 0 x
–3 –1 1 2 3 y = x2 – x – 2 –80 –8
− 100
C1
C1
6 y= 4x2
–100
b x = -2, 3 4
5 a x = -4, y = -10; x = 2, y = -4 b 3, 4, 5 2
Exercise 5.1 3 a y
6 a -3 b 4y + 3x - 17 = 0 x 1 a i -2, 0, 5 ii 0 b i -2, -1, 3 ii -6
4 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 8
( )( ) c i -4, 1 , 1
–2 ii -4 d i -2, 1 ii -4
c 17
, 0 , 0, 17 d 289 units2 2 6
3 4 24
5 1
b y e i - ,0 ii 0 f i 0, ii 0 4
7 a 2y = -x - 16 b 11 units 2 2
(0, 25 ) , y = 94 x − 25
8 g i -2, 0, 2 ii 0 h i 2 ii -8 2
−
c 3
6
y = x2 + x – 12 i i - ii 27 j i -1, 0, 4 ii 0 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 x
3 2
8 a k=± c n = 3 , m = 3 or 4
2 a y y = x(x − 2)(x + 3)
–2
2 4
2 –4
n = 3, m = 3 8
4 –6
9 a a = 2, b = -6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 x 6
–2 –8
b y 4
–4 y = (x + 3)(x + 2)(x − 1)
2
10
–6
8 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x
y = x2 + 4x – 2 –8
–2 b y = (1 − x)(x + 3)(x − 1) y
6
–10 8
–4
4
–12 6
2 b y
4
c y 8
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 x 8 6
2
–2 y = x2 – 6x + 8
–4 6 4 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 x
–2
–6 4 2
–4
2
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x
–6
c discriminant 24; 2 solutions 0
x –2
d k>4 1 2 3 4 5 6 –8
–4
334 y = x(x + 2)(x − 2) –10
335
Answers Answers
c y y = (2x − 3)(x − 3)(x + 1) d y b y c y

15 15
8 4
10 10
6 y = (1 − x)(2 + x)2 y = (2x − 1)(2x + 3)(2 − x) 2
5 5
4
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 x –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x
2 –5 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x –2
–5 y=x+1
x –10 –4
–2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 –10
–2 –15 –6
–15
–4 –8
5 a y y = x3 + 2x2 − 3x y = x2(x – 4)
–6 c y y = x(3 − 2x)2 –10
15
–8 15
10
10
1 point of intersection
5
y 5 d y
d –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 x
5 –5
–10 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x
–5
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x –15
15
–5 –10 10
–10 b –15
y y= x3 + 4x2 + 4x 5
y=x–3
–15 15
d y –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x
–20 10 4 –5
y = (2x + 5)(x − 2)(1 − x) 5
y = x(x – 2)(x + 4)
2 y = 3x − 2x − x
2 3
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 x 3 points of intersection
–5 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 x
C1
C1
4 a y –2
–10 8 y
4
–15 –4 6
2 y = x3
–6 4
c y
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 x 15
–8 2
–2 y=x+1
10 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x
–4 y = (x + 2)2(x − 1) y = 6x − x2 − x3 7 a y
5 –2
–6
x 8 –4
–8 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
–5 6
–10 y = x3
4 1 solution
–15 y=x+4
b y y = (x + 1)(2x − 5)2 2 9 a y = (x + 1)(x - 1)(x - 3)
25 b y = (x + 2)(x - 4)2
d y y = 2x3 − 12x2 + 16x –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x
20 10 a 0, 1 or 2 b 1, 2 or 3
15 –2
15 10
1 point of intersection Exercise 5.2
10 5
1 a y
5 b y 6
–2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
–5 4 4
–1 0 1 2 3 4 x –10 4 y=
x
y=x+1 2
–15 2
c y 0 1 2 3 4 x –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x
6 a –4 –3 –2 –1 –2
y y= x2(x + 2) –2
15 y = (x + 1)(x – 1)
15 –4 1
10 y=
10 –6 x
5 2 points of intersection
5
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 x –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 x
–5 –5
–10 –10
336 y = (2x − 3)(x + 2)2 –15 337
–15
Answers Answers
y 4 a x = -1 b (0, 0) c y®1 4 y 9 y
b
6 d y
y = x(x – 2)(x + 2) + 4
4 8 4
3 y = x(x + 2)2
2 2 6 2
y=– 2
x
4
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x 1 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x
–2 2 –2
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x –4
–4 8
y=– –1 –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 4 x
–6 x x –2
–2 y=
x+1
–4 y
y –3 y = x(x – 2)(x + 2)
c
y = (x + 2)(x + 4)2
6 y 4
5 y = x(x + 2)2 + 2
4 2 Exercise 5.3 2
y= 8
2 x 1 a 2x + 4 b 3x + 2 c x3 - 7 y = x3
6
d -x2 + x - 3 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x
0 1 x 4 –2
–3 –2 –1 2 3 4 2 a 3(x - 1) b 2(x + 1)2 c (x - 3)3
–2 2 –4
4
d e (x - 2)2x f (x - 3)2 + 3
–4 1 x+2
y=
–6 2x –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x
Translation of 2 units parallel to y-axis
3 a i y –2 3
y = (x – 2) Translation of -2 units parallel to x-axis
–4
d y y = x(x – 2) + 2 10 y
5
6 4
Translation of 2 units parallel to x-axis
4 1
4 1 y y=
y=− 3 6
C1
C1
4x 2 x
2 2 8
0 x 1 6 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x
–3 –2 –1 2 3 4 –2
–2 4
–4 1 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 x –4
y=− –1 2
x y = x(x – 2) y = (x – 3)(x – 5)
–6
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x y
y –2
ii y = (x + 3)x y = x(x – 3)
2 y –4
4
3 y=3
4 2
1 2 y = x3
y= 2 7 y
x2 y = x3 + 2
1 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 4 5 x
1 –2
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x
4
y=
x–1 1
y= +3
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x –2 –4 x–2
–1 y = (x – 3)3 2
–4
–2 1 x=2
y=
x –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x
–3 –2 11 y = (x - 1)2 + 2
y 1
iii y=
3 x –4 y = -(x - 1)2 + 2
3 y y= +2
x
4 Exercise 5.4
3
4 8 y 1 a 4x2 + 1
y= 2 2
x2 b 2x2 + 2
1 y = x2
–3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 4 x 4
c 2
–2 3 3 9x2
0 1 x y= y= 2)2 2
–3 –2 –1 2 3 4 –4 x x−3 y = (x + d 2x - x2
–1
2 –2 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x e x2 + 2x
y= –2
x
–3 b y = f(x) +2 is y = f(x) shifted 2 units up. f 18x2
–4
y = f(x - 3) is y = f(x) shifted 3 units to the right.
g − 1
1+ x
338 Translation of -2 units parallel to x-axis h 4x2(1 - 2x) 339
Answers Answers
2 y y 13 a ii b i f y
7
8 y = 2f(x) c iv d iii
y = f(2x) 4
7 y = f(x)
Exercise 5.5 3
6 y = f(–x)
O x 1 a y 2
–1 1
5
1
4 y = f(x) + 3
3 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 x
f(x) = x2 + 1 x = -1, 0 and 1 –1
2 4
–2
1 8 y
y = f(x)
–3
–2.5 –2 –1.5 –1 –0.5O 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 x –1 O 3 x
y
2 2 a
3 y y
b y = f(x) + 2
4
y= y = f(x + 2)
3 x
O x 4 2
1 y = f(–2x)
2 y=
x
O 1 x
1
Pt. of intersection (0, 2) –3 O 1 x
–3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 4 x
–1 9 1
–2
y
y = f(x)
y = 2f
( )
2
x
y y
c b
–3
y = f(2x) y = f(x – 1)
4
C1
C1
y
O 1 2 x
4 1
x = 0, 1 and 2 O x
3 –1 O 3 x 2
y = x3
2
10 y
1 y = f(x)
2 y
–3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 x y = f(–x) d
c y
–1 y = 3f(x)
–2
y = –x3 –2 –1 0 1 2 x
1
–3 8
( )
y = f 2x
–2 y = –f(x)
y 4
5 Turning points are 0 x
2
y = –x(x – 4)
f(x) (-0.5, -2.25)
4 f(-x) (0.5, -2.25)
-f(x) (-0.5, 2.25) –1 O 3 x
2
11 y
–2 –1 O 1 2 3 4 5 x e y
–2 y = –f(x) y
y = f(x) 3 d
–4 y = x(x – 4)
2 1
y= f(x)
y 1 2
6 O x
–2 2
10
y = f(2x) y = (x − 3)(x + 5) –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 x
5 y = –f(–x) –1 0 1 x
Minimum is (1, -1) –2
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x
–5 Maximum is (-1, 1) –3
–10 –4
–15 12 a parallel to y-axis and a translation
b parallel to y-axis
340 x = 0 and x = -0.75 c parallel to either x- or y-axis 341
Answers Answers
e y d y c y b y
y = –f(x)
6
4
2 2
–3 0 2 x
–2
0 x –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x
1
–2
y = –f(x) –2 1 0 x
– –4
y = f(–2x) 2
–8 –6
y = x2(x – 2)
–8
y d y –10
f e y
8
y = f(2x) c y
6
0 1 x
4 6
–2
2 4
–4
–1 0 x
2
y = f(–x) −2 −1 0 1 2 x y = –2f(x)
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x
–2
5 a y –4
f y
y 1 –6
3 a y= f(x)
4 2 y = f(x) –8 y = x(x – 2)(x + 2)
y = f(x) – 2 4
6 3 –10
C1
C1
2
1 0 x y
–3 1 d
0 x 6
–3 2 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 x
–4
4
2
y 4 a y b Important features –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x
b
x-intercepts at (-3, 0) and (-1, 0) –2
y = f(x – 3) –3
8 Minimum at (-1, -4) –4
6 a (1, 5)
y = f(x) – 3 –6
b (2, 2)
c (1, 6) and (0, 3) –8
2 0 1 x –10
–1 Review 5 y = (x +3)(x + 1)(x – 1)
0 3 5 x 1 a y
2 a y
6
y = (x – 1)(x + 5)
y y 4 30
c b
y = f(–x) 2 25
8
20
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 x
–2 15
2 12
–4 10
2 –5
–1 0 x –6 5
–2 0 3 x y = f(x + 2) –8
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x
–10 –5
y = (x – 3)(x2 + 3x – 4)
342 343
Answers Answers
b y 5 a P(1, 1) Q(-1, -1) b y y

d
y
10
6
y = f(x) + 3 6
0 1 x 5 (–3, 4) 5
–4 –3 –2 –1 2 3 4
–10 4
4
–20 2 P 3 y = 2f(x)
–30 –6 O x
–2 Q 0 2 x 2
y = (2x +5)(x2 – 4x)
–2
1
3 a y –4
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
6 –6
-1
9 a y
4
b P(-2, -2) Q(-4, -4)
2 y c y (0, 2)
0 1 x 3
–4 –3 –2 –1
–2
2
8
3 4 y = f(x + 3)
4
2
y=f ( )
1
3
x
O
(2, 0)
x
y=
–4 x
–6 –4 –2 0 x b y
–2 O
P 3 9 x
b y Q –4
–6 d y ( )
1
2,2
(0, 1)
6
4
–8
y = –f(x)
( )
3
2,0
O x
2 6 a y
4 0 x c y
C1
C1
0 1 x 1 2 3 4
–4 –3 –2 –1 2 3 4 –1
–2
4 –2
y=2– 2
–4 x
–3
–6
(3, 0)
0
–4.5 –4 –3.5 –3 –2.5 –2 –1.5 –1 –0.5 0.5 x 0 x
4 a x = 2 1 or -3 8 a y (0, –1)
2 y
–2 (3, 8)
y = f(x) + 5 8
(1, –2)
15
y = f(x) P
10 –4 d y
5
b y O x
6
4
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x P (–1, 2)
–5 b y
(0, 1)
–10 2
4 (–3, 0)
–15 0 x
0
y –2.5 –2 –1.5 –1 –0.5 0.5 1 1.5 x
b
–3 O 3 x
6 –2 Getting Started Answers
y=x+3 c
5 y
Chapter 6
12
4 –4 1 a x=2 b x = 13 c x=
2 5
3
7 a y d x=5 e x = -2
2 3
O 6 x 2 a x = -4, x = 9 b x = 8, x = -12
3
1 (6, 0) c x = -9, x = 10 d x = 13, x = -15
y = f(x + 2)
(3, −4)
e x = 18, x = -20
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x –5
–1
4 0 x
y=– −1 1
–2 x–2
344 Intersect twice
345
Answers Answers
3 a n+3 b 2n + 2 c 3n + 1 Exercise 6.4 10 b £109 d 50 or 100 3 a 1

b - 23 + 1
d 6 - 2n e 8 - 4n 1 a 169 b 264 c 820 d -315 e n = 100 not sensible (would be making x2 x
e 5050 negative repayments) 1 3 1
Exercise 6.1 c 1- d x +
2 a 13, 247 b 20, 860 c 672 d -104 11 a 77, 74 b -3 c 175 2 x 2 2x x
1 a 4, 7, 10, 13 b 4, 9, 16, 25 c 5, 0, -5, -10
e 2500 3 1
d 1, 1 , 1, 1 e 1, 1, 9, 25 f -1, 1, -1, 1 e x - 1 - 12 f x −
3 4 5 6 3 a 10 b 21 c 12 Before you start Answers x 2 x
g 0, 3, 8, 15 h -2, 8, -24, 64 4 a £750 b £14 500 c A = 155 4 a 2x + 1 b 2t - 3t2
2 3 4 5 5 a 2a + 9d = 3, 2a + 15d = -3 Chapter 7
i , , , j 2, 9, 64, 625 1 a 3.03 b 4.141 c 40.4 d 60.06 c 2r - 1 d 32t - 16
3 4 5 6 b a = 6 d = -1
2 a 5 b 10 c 15 d 12 2 a x2 - 2 b x-3 c 2x + 3 d -2x2 + 1 e 3x2 - 1 f 6r - 4
2
e 8 f 7 g 20 h 12 Exercise 6.5 3 1 −3 g 5t t + 1 h -
i 7 j any positive odd number 3 a x2 b x2 c x 2 d x-3 2 2 t x3
1 a 4 + 8 + 12 b 1+3+5+7+9
3 a=5 4 2
a -12x + 5x + 2 b 3x2 - 2 i -18t2 + 22t - 6 j 4x3 - 3x2 - 1
c 1 - 1 - 3 - 5 d 32 + 35 + 38 + 41 + 44 + 47 5 3
4 a = 3, b = -2 −1
e -1 - 2 - 3 - 4 - 5 - 6 - 7 c -12x3 + 17x2 - 6x d 4x 2 - 5x 2 5 a b 1
5 a = 2, b = -1 x2 2
6 a a = 2, b = -3 b a = 1, b = -1, c = 1 f 2 + 21 + 3 Exercise 7.1
2 −1 2 8
8 4 3 1 1 3.31, 3.0301, 3.003, 3, 3 c + 1 d -
g 1 + 11 + 11 + 1 + 2 + 2 x 2 2x x x2 x3
9 a u2n+1 = 4n - 1 which is odd 4 2 4 4 2 6.1, 6.01, 6.001, 6 and 6
−6 1 1 1
b 3, 30, 75 1
h 4+4 +4 +5
2 e + 2 f +
n +1 Exercise 7.2 x4 x x x x
b un = (−1)n +1 n + 1
3 3
11 a un = 1 a i 3(dx) ii 3 iii 3
n+2 n+2 7 8 10 9
2 a ∑ 2r b ∑ (2r − 1) c ∑ (4r − 1) g 1- h 2x - 3
b i -2x(dx) - (dx)2 ii -2x - (dx) iii -2x x2
Exercise 6.2 1 1 1
c i -3(dx) ii -3 iii -3
( 2)
−a
1 a un+1 = un + 2 b un+1 = un - 1 11
d ∑ − (3r + 2)
15
e ∑ 2r + 1
12
f ∑ (5r + 10) d i 4x(dx) + 2(dx)2 ii 4x + 2(dx) iii 4x i 1
+3 x j +b
4 x 4 cx 2 c
c un+1 = 2un d un+1 = 2un - 1 1 1 1 e i 2x(dx) + (dx)2 + (dx)
e un+1 = 4 - un f un+1 = un 21 q 5
t t + 12
h ∑ (3 − 4r ) ii 2x + (dx) + 1 iii 2x + 1 b 12r - 6r 2
10 6 a
g un+1 = -un h un+1 = 3un - 2 g ∑ (3 − 6r ) i ∑ p(5r − 2) 2 t
1 1 3 1 f i 2(dx) - 4x(dx) - 2(dx)2
2 a 4, 5, 6 b 1, 1, 1 c 0, 4, 0 d 1, 0, 1 −5 8
n ii 2 - 4x - 2(dx) iii 2 - 4x c + 3 d 28t - 35
C1
C1
e 4, 16, 256 f 1, 1 , 1
j ∑[r (a + 2) − 1] 2 a 2x b 4 c 2x + 2 x2 x
2 4 1
3 a k=3 b a = 4, b = -3 d -2x e 3x2 f 4x3 e 1+
2
f 5r 4 + 3r 2 - 2r
3 a 275 b 120 c 610 d -1030 3 a 2x, 6 b 9x2, 0 c 2x + 5, 7 x
4 a 3, 5, 8 b 3, 4, 5 c 2, 3, 4 d 5, 7, 8 1760
e -420 f g -72.5 h 365 d 3x2 + 1, 13 −8a
e 2, 6, 16 f 6, 11, 19 g -3, -7, 4 3 g 5t t - 1 + 1 h + b2
5 a un+2 = un + un+1 b un+2 = 2un+1 - un 792 110 2 2 t 3x3 3x
i j Exercise 7.3
c un+2 = un ´ un+1 d un+2 = un - un+1 12 a 8x b 7 c 0 d 9x2 4 2
5 a ∑ (20 − 6r )
1 i 3t2 j - 3
6 b -2 + d c 4 r2 r
1 e x3 f 0 g -2 h 2
6 -172 3 2+x 2
Exercise 6.3 7 x
®− 2
1 −3 −5 x
1 arithmetic series b, c 7 30 2 a b c 3 x d x x 1 3
1 x 2 2 x +1
c 1 , 2, 2 1 2 x − −
2 a 5, 8, 11 b 3, -1, -5
2
9 650 ® 1x 2 − 1x 2
2 10 b 5050 −1
1 2 2
d -6, -16, -26 1 −1 2 x2
e f g h
3 a un+1 = un + 2 b un+1 = un + 3 11 b n = 1, u1 = 11 33 x2 x2 x3 2x x
( x + 1)2
c un+1 = un - 6 d un+1 = un - 0.7 n = 13, u13 = -13 −1 −2 2 2 ® 1 − 12
i j k l x x
x x x2 x 3x 3 x 33 x 2( x + 4)
4 a 29, 59, 3n - 1 b 7, 14 1 , 3 n - 1 Review 6 ® − 2 − 163
2
2 4 2 1 x2 x x
28 58 3n − 2 1 a 9, 25, 49, 81 b -3, 0, 5, 12 3 a 10 b -8 c d 6
c , , d -27, -47, -2n - 7 4 8 a f ¢(x) = 1 g¢(x) = 2x
5 5 5 c 2, 3 , 4 , 5 d 12, 35, 70, 117 1
e -4.1, -8.1, -0.4n - 0.1 2 3 4 e 3 f -2 g h 0 b h(x) = x3 + 3x2, h¢(x) = 3x2 + 6x c No
3 4
f 57p, 117p, 6np - 3p 2 a 12 b 15 c 9 d 8 4 d i p¢(x) = − 12 − 63
i 9 j x x
g − 7 a , − 17 a , − 1 na + 3
a 3 a a = 7, b = -2 b a=2 5
ii No
4 4 4 4 c a = 1, b = -2, c = 3 4 i«e
h 10x + 9, 20x + 19, nx + n - 1 4 a i un+1 = un + 3 ii un+1 = 1 - 2un ii « f Exercise 7.5
1
5 a 11 b 21 c 31 d 16 b i u2 = -1, u3 = -6, u4 = -11 iii « d 1 a 3, 3 b - 22 , -2 c ,1
e 17 f 37 g 63 h 85 x x
ii u2 = 1, u3 = 0, u4 = 1 iv « b
6 a 5 b 3 c -2 2 3
5 u2 = 2, u3 = 6, u4 = 42 and u5 = 1806 v«a d − − , -5
1 x3 x4
7 a -15 b 3, 19 1 vi « c
2 6 a 39, 55 b 13 c 1 ,3 2 97
2
8 a 34th b 2, 7, 12, 17, 22 c y= x+z 7 a 490 b 40 Exercise 7.4 3 a 1 b 10 c 3 d 0
2
d -103 e x = 1 or 9 8 b £1900 c £9600 d 26 1 a 2x b 2 c 6x - 1 4 The surface area increases
d 3 + 2x e 3x2 - 4x f 2x - 1 dA
9 a 99, 100, 101 b 100, 101, 102, 103 9 a 1, 4, 7 b 3
2 a 2x + 1 b 2x - 3x2
= 8p r
dr
346 c 3x2 + 6x + 1 d 2x - 1 a 40p b 16p 347
Answers Answers
5
6
80 m/s
x=2
7 b y = 16x - 30 c ( 2, 613 )
− − 2 dx = 2 2
da 3a
Exercise 8.3
1 a y = x2 - x - 1 b y = x3 + x2
7
8
±8
The rate of change of the volume is
8 a 3x2 + 2 c y= x4
4
+ x2 - 7x +10 ( dx
= 2a
da 3
−2
) c y=
x2
2
- 4x + 3 d y=
2x3
3 2
2
- x + 11
6
4pr2 cm3/sec. d 5y + x - 22 = 0 2
x = ∫ 2 da e y = 2x2 + 19 f 2
y = (x x − 2)
3a 9 3
Exercise 7.6 Before you start Answers 2 1 9 x2
x=- +c g y= - - h y=2 x -2 2
1 a -20 b y = -6x + 4 3a 2 x 2
Chapter 8 5
c y = 2x - 3 d 9 5 3 7
1 a
7
b 47 c 36 d - 41 3 a 2 x2 + c b 2x 2 + c c 8 x2 + c i
2x 2 7
-
y= j y = x4 - x3 -11
e y=x-8 45 12 35 12 5 7 5 5
6
15 2 a x3 + 3x2 - x b 2x2 - 5x - 12 5 7 −2 2 34
2 a 7, - 1 b y = 4x - c x3 + 4x2 - x - 4 d x3 - 6x2 + 3x + 10 d 3 x3 + c e 3 x3 + c f 5x 5
+c 2 a y= +3
x
b y= x x +2 x -
3 3
7 2 5 7 6
e x3 - 9x2 + 27x - 27 −1
c 4, - 1
1 1 3
c y= 2 + 1 - 3 d y = x - x2 + x - 5
3 −
d 2y = x + 3, 2y = -4x - 7 −2 −
4 4 a 2x 2 +c b x 2 +c c −2 x 2 +c x 8 3
( )
−
1
−3 3 2x 3
3 a point − 3 , − 9 b (2, 0) 3 a x 2
b 1x 2 c x 2 d x 2 3
2 1 1 3 x3
4 8
d 8x 2 + c e x4 + c f 10 x 5 + c e y= - 2x2 + 4x + 25
4 a tangent y = 3x + 1, normal 3y = -x + 13 3 3
3
Exercise 8.1 5 a x − x4 + c
2
c 4x + 1 + c
( )
−
( )
2 2 1
b x3 − + c f y = x x - 2x + g y= 2 +2 2
b 1
− , 0 , (0, 1) c (13, 0), 0, 13 All exercise must include the addition of ‘c’ the 3 x x 5 5 x
3 3
−1
constant of integration. d x5 + x4 + x + c e + 1 2 + c f 0.4x2 + 0.8x + c 2
h y = x + 5 x - 2x + 3 - 6
3
5 6 units2 2x 6x 2
x5 8
1 a b x c x3 4 3 2 −1 1
g x - x + x +c
7
5 8 h + +c x3 1
y = 2x - +
2
Exercise 7.7 5 4 3 x 2x2 i
−1 11
x6 7 3 21
1 a 6x + 2, 6 b 15x2, 30x c 1
, d x e x5 f ax 2 bx 3 cx 4 px 3 q
11 12 i + + +c j + +c x2 13
2 x 4x x
2 3 4 3q px j y= 2 -4 x x +x+
− − x6 − x8 3 96
d 1 + 22 , 43 e 12x + 5, 12 g
3
h
32
i 2x2 3
t3 1
x x 6 a 2 x - 2x + c 2 b - +c x2 3
3 t 3 y= + x-2
f 3x2 + 2x, 6x + 2 −1 −1 −1 2 2
2 a b c 7
−
3
1 1 x2 1
2x2 x3 x
a y= 2 − x +c 3
C1
C1
−
c 2v + 2v
2 2
1 4 b y= −
b -4, 4 c - , 2 +c d 8r 2 - 10r +c
2
2 a 18, 6 −1 1 5 7 3 2
27 27 9 27 d 2 e f 3 3 1
x 4x4 2x2 5
2x 2 1 −
1 5 f(x) = x + 2 x 2 + 4 x 2 − 3
f 2x + 6x 2 + c
2
2 1 3 2 + 2x 2 + c
d , e - 1 , f - , 2 −
g 12 h
1
i 3x
e
3 5
( 3 ) (3 3 ) (12 3 ) 72 27 81 3x 5x4 7
6 a f ¢(x) = 3x2 - 2x + 6 b f(x) = x3 - x2 + 6x - 2
9 1
1
9p 5 −1 2t 2 4t 2
h r - 6r 2 −
3 a 8p, 2p b , 6p 3 a x b 2x4 c g
7
-
9
+c
2
2 +c
Review 8
4 5 5x5
4 a x ® 3x3 2 2 3
b 2x , 4x ; 8x , 5x 3 −9 −4 2x4
7 a
x3 x2
- +c b x3
+ 2x2 + 4x + c
The constant of integration needs to be included
d e f 3
6x ® 6 x x2 27 2 3 where appropriate.
−
2x4 ® 8x3 g 13 h 27x3 x4 11x 2 3 3
3x
c
2
- 6x + c d 2x3 - + 3x + c 1 a 2x b -x5 c 0.2x4 d 4x
3x2 ® 6x 2 3 3
c 2x2 ® 4x 2 3 5 1
5x4 2 −4 −2 5
−4
4 a x2 b 4 x4 c x 2 e + x3 + c f x4 + 4x3 + 9x + c e f g 4 x4 h
4x3 ® 12x2 3 5 4 2 x x 5 x2
4 2 6
2x4 ® 8x3 5
2 −
3 1 x
- x3 +
3x
h x - x4 + c 7 1 3
−1
d 2
− g -x+c 3
5 2 x2 e x 2 f -16 x 2
4 2 6 i x 3 j 4x 2 k x 4 l 2x 2
x ® 5x 5 3 7
2 3 5
5 a b=1 b y = x2 + x + 3 −2 x2 x2 r3 −1 v2
8 a x- 1 +c b + 2 +c c - +c 2 a t3 + t
1
b r - r2 + c +
1
d 2v3 -
1 3 x t t 3 5 3 x2 x 2
Review 7 x ®2
( 12 , 2), ( ) ( )+c
6 2 x2
a 8, - 1 1 −3 2
− , −2 3
+ 1 + 3t + c e 2 t 1− t x4 x3 x2
1
8
b
2 d 3 a - - +x b t+1
−
1 1 2t 2 t 5 4 3 2 t
(3 ) x ® 2x
5 2 2
c (0, 0), 4 , − 32 d f
−2
+2 r +c
7
c 2 r 2 - 3 r4 d 2 x +
5
27 2 3 5
x2 ® 2 x2 r 7 4 x
2 2 5 2x3
+ 32
2 5
−
3 −
1 9 x + 1 + 2x 2 4
3
3 2x + 184 x 2 ® −2 x 2 2 x 5 x
1
x 7
x3 5 y = 3x + 2 x 2 + 2 x 2 + 1
Exercise 8.2 10 + cx + k
4 2y = x + 3 2
6 2x x + 1
( )
p2 6
c s +c
2 1
x
d R 5 , − 22 1 a 2x + c b +c −
5 a P: x = -2; Q: x = 2 2 2 11 −2 x 2
3 27 x2 4
−2 2 12 a Yes b Cubic 7 +
6 a 2 + 32 b 11 d +c e 3x + c f 52 + c 2 x
w 8 1
x 4 4y
c : not possible 12 : −1 8 a i 6x - 3 ii 6 b 2x + 4 x x +
1
+c
3 x x x 3 2x
c 4y = 11x - 36 d 36 g 0.1a2 + c h 16 x + c i - 13 + c 13 3 9 2x + 2x x 2
11 3 z
348 349
Answers Answers
3 70
10 y = x - 1 - 9 , y =
3 x
−76
9
5 a x+4 b x - 2, remainder 6
c x + 1, remainder -2x - 4
Review 9
1 a 2x2 - x - 6 b (2x + 3)(x - 2)(x + 1)
(2 2)
9 centre 5 , 9 , radius 2.92 units
centre ( 3 , 5 )
d 2x + 3, remainder -x - 2 c x = 2, x = -1, x = - 3
11 4 x3 + 6x2 + 9x 2
10 a
2 2
b radius 2.92 units
3
6 a 1+ 3 b 1 c 1+ 1
centre ( 3 , 3 )
− 7 x +1 x+5 2 a = -3, a = -5
12 y = 1 - 2 3 - 3 b (x - 2)(x - 3)(x - 5) 11 a b right-angle in a semi-circle
x 3x 3 4 2
13 a y = x - 2x + 2 2 2
b y = x - 2x - 5 Exercise 9.2 c y 13
1 a -3 b 3 c 1 d -5 12 a a = b 2y = x + 6
5 2
Revision 2 1 y = x3 − 10x2 + 31x – 30 13 No
e 12 f -2 g -1 h 5 4
1 a 5, 9, 13, 17, 21 b 21 2
2 a -8, -5, -2, 1 b n = 48 c 71st i - 148 j 151
k 65 l
225 3 Exercise 10.2
3 -8, 59 9 2 81 64
2 1 a (-1, 0), r = 3 b (-2, 1), r = 3
4 £750, £5250 m0 n 15
8
1 c (3, 2), r = 4 d ( 2, - 3), r = 2
5 a 2x - 3 b -5, 5
e (2 3, - 3), r = 3 f (1, -2), r = 2
6 a 33 b 4y = 15x - 12 2 a a = -1 b a = -4 c a=6 d a=2 O 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
x
4 2 −1 2 a (x - 1)2 + (y - 2)2 = 4
7 b 9, - 1 c y = 9x - 19, 9y = -x + 75 e a = -1 −2
b (x + 1)2 + y2 = 1
9 c (x + 2)2 + (y - 2)2 = 9
3 3 a a = -3, a = 1 b remainder 29 −3
2 d (x - 3)2 + (y + 4)2 = 2
2x 2 c i p = -20 ii remainder 18
8 +2 x +c
3 e (x + 2)2 + (y + 3)2 = 7
4 b (x + 4)(x - 3)(2x - 1)
( x − 12 ) + ( y + 12 ) = 161
9 b a = 2, c = -3 4 k=3 2 2
5
16 5 a c = -60 b (x + 3)(2x + 5)(x - 4) c -6 f
a = - 13 , b =
3
3 4x2 5
10 a 3 x + b + 2x + c 2
3 3 6 b (x + 2)(x + 3)(x - 1) c x = -2, -3, 1
2 x 5 3 a centre (2, 0); r = 1 b r = 2
6 a a = -1, b = -5 b (x + 2)(x2 - 3x + 1) a -6 c (2x - 1)(x + 2)(x + 3)
11 a 2y = 8x - 9 b y = x - 2x2 + 4 x3 7 4 b point lies on the circumference c a = 10
3 7 a i p = 6, q = -6 ii (x + 4)(2x + 1)(3x - 2) 8 a a = -10, b = 21 b -24 5 a (x - 3)2 + (y - 2)2 = 8
c 8y = -2x + 15
b (x2 - 9)(x + 2)(x - 3) or 9 b -1, -2, 4 b (x - 4)2 + (y + 1)2 = 25
12 b y = -2x + 4 c ( 23 , 104
27 )
(x - 3)2 (x + 3)(x + 2) 10 (x - y)(x - 2)(y - 2) c outside the circle
C2
C2
8 a 39 b -7 c 3 11 a a = -12, b = 5, c = 6 b (x - 2)(2x - 3)(2x + 1) 7 a (4, 7) b (-1, 6)
Before you start Answers
8 8 12 (a + b)(a - b)(2a + b)(2a - b)
(
8 a (2, 5), − 6 , − 7
5 )
b (-1, -4)
5
Exercise 9.3 Before you start Answers c (3, -2), (5, -4) d P(-2, 0), Q(-3, -1)
Chapter 9 1 all ‘yes’ except part f
1 a 52 b 68 c 74 d 45 remainder 2 9 A(5, 8), B(-1, 2)
2 a (x + 1)(x - 1)(x + 2) Chapter 10 10 a = -8.66 or a = 2.66
e 56 remainder 8 f 49 remainder 12 b (x - 1)(x + 2)(x + 3) 1 a y = 2x + 3 b 7y + 4x = 13
2 a 4a b -4a c -5a d 3a 11 a AB = 2
c (x - 3)(x + 1)(x + 4) c 3y = 10x + 21 d 3y = 2x - 14 b (0, 0), (0, 9); (0, 0), (10, 0); centre (5, 4.5)
e -2a d (2x + 1)(x + 3)(x + 4) e 5y + 8x + 4 = 0 c area 16 units2
3 a -1 b 1 c 0 d -32
( x + 25 ) - 254
2
e x(3x - 1)(x - 4) 2 a (x + 2)2 - 4 b e P(-3, 0), Q(0, 3); area 4.5 units2
e 24 f 0 f (x + 1)(x2 - 3x + 3) 12 a centres in order are (3, 2), (3, -2), (2, -4), (-2, 4)
g (x + 2)(x2 - x + 4)
( ) ( x − 12 ) - 14
2 2
Exercise 9.1 c x−3 -
9
d b any equation of the form
1 a x+1 b x-1 c x-3 d x+2 h (x + 4)(3x + 4)(x - 1) 2 4 (x - 2)2 + (y - 3)2 = r2
a (x + 1)(x - 2)(x - 3) 2
g 3x + 1
3
h x+2
e 2(x - 1) - 2
e x f 2x - 1
x +1 2x + 1 b (x - 2)(x + 3)(x + 4) 3 a two solutions b two solutions Review 10
x −3
i c (x - 2)(x + 4)(x + 5) c one solution d no solution 1 a PQR = 90°; angle in a semi-circle
x−4
d (x - 1)(x - 2)(x - 3) e two solutions b PRQ = 56°; angles on same chord/segment
2 a x2 + 2x - 1 b x2 + 3x - 1 c x2 + x + 2
2 2 e (x - 3)(x - 4)(x + 5) c POQ = 112°; POQ angle at centre = twice angle on
d x + 2x + 3 e x + 3x - 1 f x2 - 2x - 1 Exercise 10.1
g
j
2
2x - x - 1
4x2 - 5x + 3
2
h x - 5x + 4 i 6x2 + x - 1
4
f (x - 1)(2x + 3)(x + 2)
1 3
a x = -2, - , - b x = -3, 3
1 a (2, 3) b ( 23 , 6) c (5, 9)
2 2
circumference
2 y+x=8
( 23 , 4) ( 3, 6 ) f ( 5, 1)
2 2 2 1 3 r = 8.60, B(8, -9)
3 a x2 - 2x + 3 b x2 - 3x + 4 c x2 + 4x + 3 d e − − −
2 2 1 1 3 2 2 2 4 (x + 2)2 + (y - 5)2 = 25
d x + 2x + 2 e x + 2x - 4 c x = -2, - , d x = -4, - , -
(3 2 , 2 3 )
3 4 2 3
f x3 + 3x2 - x + 1 g 2x3 + 3x - 2 g (-0.55, 0.2) h 3 − 5 (1, -1), (-3, -5)
h 3x3 + x2 + 2 i x2 + x - 1 5 a a=3 b a=2 c a = -7 6 x2 + (y - 2 3)2 = 16, (0, 4 + 2 3), (0, -4 + 2 3)
2
j x3 - 2x2 - 4x + 8 2 a 6.32 b 3.61 c 7.81 d 7.62 7 a A(4, 0) b radius 2 d (0, 6), (0, 2)
4 a x + 2, R = -3 b x, R = 4 d a = -5, b = - 1 e 2 f 5
2 2 e 2y = x + 8
c 2x - 1, R = 4 d x2 + 5x + 4, R = 5 3 a 1.41 b 3.91 c 3.35 d 10.3 8 a 3y + x = 8 c (x - 5)2 + (y - 1)2 = 10
1
e a = - , b = -7 f a = 2, b = -9, c = -2 e 5.52 f 3.34
e 2x2 - 6x + 19, R = -58 2 2
4 a (5, 7) b (-6, 3) c (-10, -13) 9 a 2 10 b (2, 3)
f x2 + x + 1, R = 0 g 2x2 - 2x + 2, R = -7 g (a + b)(a + 2b)(2a + b)
( )
3 2 c (x - 2)2 + (y - 3)2 = 10
h x + x + x + 1, R = 0 6 k = -6, (1, 0), (4, 0) d (10, -10) e 51 , −1 f (-4, 9) 10 (x - 4)2 + (y - 5)2 = 40
2 2
5 a 3y + x = 22 b a = -2, b = 7 11 a (6, 2) b (x - 6)2 + (y - 2)2 = 25
7 1 12 p = -4, q = 3, radius 3; x = -5.34, -2.66
350
8 a x = -1, 4y + 10x = 1 b centre ( 1, 114 )
− 13 r = ( g 2 + f 2 − c ), centre ( −
3 3
)
, , radius
2 4
1
4
61
351
Answers Answers
Before you start Answers 2 a y 5 a x = 2.6, y = 6 b y

y
Chapter 11 5 6
1 y = x2
1 a x = 0, x = 1 b x=2 c x=- ,x=3 8 5
2 2
4 y = (1.5)x 4
d x = 1, x = - 2 e x = - 2, x = 3 f x = 0, x = 3 y=6 3
3 5 2 2 6
3 2
7 2
2 a 192a4 b a c a3 1
2 y = 2x
8a 2 2 4
d e 4a3 f –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 x
9 3 y = 2x
1 Other solution is x = -0.8
y 2
3 a
2 8 a They are the same
y= 4
x –2 –1 0 1 2 3 x b They are the same
2 y=2 0 x
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 1
9 ´ 2x or 2x-1
0 x b y Solution is x = 2.6 2
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3
–2
14 b y
–4 y= 1 ( ) x Exercise 11.2
4 12 1 a log2512 = 9 b log32187 = 7
y= 4x 12
b y 10 c log10100000 = 5 d log0.50.0625 = 4
y = 10 e log50.04 = -2 f log2020 = 1
1 8 10
y=2+ 4 2 a 3 b 6 c 4 d -1
x 6 8
2 e 3 f -3
y = 2–x
0 4 6 3 a 0.903 b 1.43 c 2.71 d 3.57
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3 x
–2 2 4 e -0.301 f 0.349 g -0.0625 h -4
–4 i -0.151 j -0.0872
2
–1.5 –1 –0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 x 4 a n = 256 b n = 16 c n = 27 d n=3
e n = 0.1 f n = 0.01 g n = 2
C2
C2
c y c y –4 –3.5 –3 –2.5 –2 –1.5 –1 –0.5 0 x
h n = 0.008 i n = 1.63 j n = 0.00195
4 14 Solution is x = -3.3
1 5 a a=2 b a=3 c a = 10 d a=2
y= 2 12 6 y
2x e a=8 f a=3 g a=3 h a = 10
10
0 x y = 3x 6 a The bases in order are 4, 4, 5, any number,
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3 8
–2 5 3, 10, 2
–4 6 7 a 2, 4 or 16 b 5 c 3 or 9 d 2, 4 or 8
y = (0.5)x
4 y=x+3 8 a i +, = ii +, = iii -, = iv -, =
2 4 b 2 c 1
d y
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 x
4 1
y=– 3 Exercise 11.3
2 x
3 y 1 a 3 b 3 c 2 d 4
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 x y = (0.2)x e 9 f 3 g 4 h 6
–2 20 2
y = 5x 2 a log235 b log38 c log34 d 1
–4 15
e log5 576 f 2 g 1
10 1
Exercise 11.1 5 h log3 ( 243

32
) i log52 j log4 4 (9)
1 y
–1.5 –1 –0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 x 0 x 3 a log 225 b log 3 c log 4
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
6 d log 16 e log 9 f log 15
4 y
5
y = a–x
25 Solution is x = 1.3
g log ( 85 ) h log ( 83 ) i log 25 (3)
y = 3–x 7 a y j log 27 k log 3 l log 2
4 20 4 a 2 log a + log b b log a - log b
6
5 c 2 log a + log c d 1 log a + log b
3 15 2
4
e 2 log c - 2 log a f log a + 1 log b
2 10 2
3
y = 2x y = x2 g 3 log a + 2 log b - 1 log c
2 2
1 5 1 1 1
1 h log a + log b + log c
2 2 2
1
0 x –2 –1 0 1 2 x 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 x i log 3 + log a - log b
352 2 353
Solution is x = 2 j 2 log a + log b - log c
Answers Answers
5 a 1.07918 b 1.25527 c 1.5563 d 0.17609 c y 2 bearings 3 a x = 2b − a b x = 5a

6 3 log 2 + log 3 a a−b 8
25 N
log 2 + log 6 + log 2 y= 5–x c x=a-b d x= 5
20 a−b
log 2 + log 12 75º
4 log 2 + log 3 - log 2 15 Exercise 12.1
B
7 y = log16 x 10 A 1 a B = 37.1° b b = 7.61 cm c a = 8.67 cm
8 a -2, -1, 0, 1, 2 d C = 56.3° e C = 41.6° f c = 13.0 cm
5
2 a C = 75°, a = 12.3 cm, b = 10.6 cm
Exercise 11.4
b T = 48°, s = 4.37 cm, t = 7.16 cm
1 a 2.81 b 0.631 c 0.861 d 4.32 –2 –1.5 –1 –0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 x
c Z = 68°, X = 59°, y = 22.4 cm, z = 26.0 cm
e 4.74 f -1.74 g -2.86 h -0.969
3 a 45.5°, 103.5°, 24.5 cm; 134.5°, 14.5°, 6.32 cm
i 2.32 j 0.151 b N
b 84.3°, 25.7°, 15.7 cm; 95.7°, 14.3°, 8.94 cm
2 a 1.26 b 3.17 c 0.431 d 0 y
d B c 30.5°, 124.5°, 29.3 cm; 149.5°, 5.5°, 3.40 cm
e 1.66 f 1.40 g 1.20 h 2.10
d 75.2°, 39.8°, 5.30 cm; 104.8°, 10.2°, 1.47 cm
i 0.801 j -0.648 7
4 x = 24.3°, y = 74.7°
3 a 1.32 b 5.25 c 1.61 d 2.63 6 5 4.06 cm, 6.22 cm
e 0.870 f 0.461 g 0.730 h 2.21
5 A 6 13.7 km
i 0.892 j -3.14 y = (0.7)–x 300º
4 a 0 b 2 c 0 d 0.631 4 Exercise 12.2
e 1.58 f 0.861 g 0 h -0.631 3 1 a BC = 7 cm b AB = 7.69 cm
5 a 0 b 0 c 1, 1.58 c c BC = 14.4 cm d A = 65.4°
2 N
d -0.631, 1.26 e 0.569 f 2, 1.32 e B = 42.0° f B = 49.4°
g 0.465, 0.771 h -1.32, -0.415 i 2, 1.32 1 2 a A = 44.4°, B = 57.1°, C = 78.5°
j 0.369 130º b b = 8.06 cm, C = 55.4°, A = 70.6°
6 a 2.09 b 150 c 2.83 d 21.2 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x
c C = 55°, a = 11.1 cm, b = 14.2 cm
A
e 15.9 f 246 g 1.90 h 6.43 d c = 37.3 cm, C = 37.1°, B = 40.9°
B
i 1.39 j 36.1 3 a AC = 13.3 cm, angle ABC = 124° b 58°, 122°
3 a 7 b 3 c 3 d -2
C2
C2
7 a 1.53 b 1.79 c 24.8 d 7.03 ´ 1016 c 30.6°, 55.1°, 94.3°
e -2 f 4
e 1.52 f 8.34 g 3050 or 0.000328 4 263 m
4 a 2 b 3 c 2 d 2
8 b 4.72 or 0.211 d 5 14.3 km
9 a x = ±316, y = ±3.16 c 1, -2 5 a n = 32, n = 9 b n = 53, n = 125 N
c n = 28, n = 256 d n = 73, n = 343 42º Exercise 12.3
10 a i 2 ii the first B
6 a 2.81 b 2.46 c 2.86 d 0.783 1 a 56.1 cm2 b 99.1 cm2 c 659 cm2 or 221 cm2
b The first method as no logs are involved, will
1 2 a 53.1° or 126.9° b 23 cm
give x = -10 e 0.146 f − g -0.387 h 0.349
3 A c 103° or 36.4° d 54.7° or 125.3°
Review 11 7 a 3.80 b -0.710 c 0.909 d -2.41 3 b x=1 c x=1
1 a 78100 b -32 c 0.00195 2
e -2.15 f 1.075
d 0.00032 e 0.316 f 1.55 4 They are in the correct order based on area.
8 a 1.46 b 1
g 14.0 h 0.000417 i 0.697 4 Exercise 12.4
2 a y 1 e N 1 a 0.349 radians b 1.88 radians c 9.16 radians
9 a 2.32 b
6 7 2 a 272° b 286° c 183°
y= 4x
5 10 a 1.39, 0.29 b -0.565, 0.356 3 a 2p b 3p c 5p
9 2 36
c -2 d 0, 1.26 A
10p
d 5p e 5p
4
f
3 11 a i log b + 1 log c ii -log a - log b 2 4 3
2 205º 4 a 36° b 1260° c 157.5°
2 iii 2 log a - 2 log b B 5 a 0.5 b 1 c 1
a2 ac 2
1 b i log ab ii log iii log d -1 e 0.5 f 1.732
c c b3
f 6 a 31.7 cm b 2.63 m c 27.4 m
–2 –1.5 –1 –0.5O 0.5 1 1.5 x 12 a 1.30103 b 0.39794 c 1.79588 N
d 0.0353 m
90º 7 a 16 cm2 b 8.04 cm2 c 0.188 m2
Before you start Answers d 14.5 cm2 e 313 cm2 f 0.00011 m2
b y
8 a 20.2° b 23.9 cm c 10.2 cm
25 Chapter 12 A B
9 a 6.77 cm b 9.77 cm c 78.0°
x 20 1 a x = 3, x = -1 40.0 cm2 3.82 cm2
y=
1
3 () 15
b x = -2.3, x = 1.3
d 33.5 cm
g 10.9 cm
e f
10 11 b 14.3 cm2
5 c x = -1, x = 1
2
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 x d x = -3.7, x = -0.3
354 e x = -1.4, x = -0.2 355

Answers Answers
13 20.5 cm2 2 2 d 2 a y
5 a cos A = ; tan A = 1 y
14 79.1 cm2 3 2 2
–2r –r O r 2r x
5 2 0.8
Exercise 12.5 b cos A = - ; tan A =
3 5 y = sin x
1 Quadrants 0.6
−1 − 2
a III b III c III c sin x = ; cos x = 0.4
3 3
d IV e IV f IV 0.2
g II h I i I d sin B = 3 ; tan B = - 3 –1
2
2 a 55°, IV b 30°, II c 60°, I O 0.5r r 1.5r 2r x
p −
e p , II
2
d 40°, II f ,I e sin x = ; cos x = 1 –0.2
4 3 3 3
–0.4
p p p − −12
g
6
, III h , II
5
i
3
,I f sin q = 5 ; cos q = –0.6 y = cos x
13 13
3 Quadrants 6 a 30°, 150° b 30° c 45° –0.8
a III, negative b II, negative c IV, negative d no solution e 225°, 315° f 180° –2
d I, positive e IV, negative f IV, positive g 210°, 330° h 150° b y
g I, positive h II, positive i III, negative p 5p p 3p ( 2) ( 2) p 5p
7 a , b , c no solution y= ,- ;x= , 4
4 a -sin q b -cos q c tan q 6 6 2 2 2 2 4 4
d cos q e sin q f tan q
d p , 4p e 4p f 11p 2 Values of sin and cos must be between
g -cos q h cos q i tan q 3 3 3 6 3
p
-1 and 1.
j -sin q g no solutions h , 5p , 7p , 11p
5 a -3sin q b -3tan q + 1 c 6cos q 3 3 3 3
d -(sin q)2 e 2tan q f 5sin q 1 3 1
Exercise 12.8 2
8 a 3 b , , 1 a y
g 5tan q h (cos q)2 i -cos q sin q 2 2 3
3
j (tan q)2 Exercise 12.7 1
6 sin (360° + x) = sin x, sin (180° + x) = -sin x 2
1 a y
cos (360° + x) = cos x, cos (180° + x) = -cos x 1 –2r –r O r 2r x
C2
C2
sin (180° - x) = sin x, cos (360° - x) = cos x
cos (180° - x) = -cos x O 90º 180º 270º 360º x c
1 y
7 First column: +, +, -, - y = cos x –1
Second column: -, +, +, - 0.5
–2
8 a sin (180° - x) 8
–r –0.5r O 0.5r r x –3
b cos (360° - x); tan(180° + x) –0.5
c i 150° ii 300° iii 225° 4
–1
Exercise 12.6 b y b y
1 a sin 30° b -cos 30° c -tan 45° 2 O
–2r –r r 2r x
d -sin 60° e -cos 45° f sin 60°
y = sin i
g cos 30° h -sin 60° 1
1 –4
( 3) 0.5
2 a b 0 c − 3
2 i
1 ( 3) –2r –r O r 2r x –8
d - 3 e - f –0.5 O x
2 2 90º 180º 270º 360º
g -1 h - 3 –1
2 –1 3 a (135°, 0), (315°, 0)
c y y
3 a 1 b 0 c 1
( 3) 1
d - 3 e f -¥ –2
2 6
1 ( 3) 4
g - h -
2 2 2
c y
3 4
4 a 3 b 3 c - d - 0 x
6
5 5 5 3 –r –0.5r 0.5r r
3 3 3 4 –2 4
e - f - g - h - O 90º 180º 270º 360º x
5 5 4 5 y = tan x –4 2
3 3 –6
i j O x
5 5 90º 180º 270º 360º
–2
–4
356 –6 –1 357
Answers Answers
b (0°, 0), (180°, 0), (360°, 0) c (0°, 0), (360°, 0) 7 a -90° b -180°, -60°, 60°, 180° b y
y y c -117°, -45°, 63.4°, 135° 3
1 3 d -90°, 19.5°, 161° e -60°, -48.2°, 48.2°, 60°
2
2 f 38.2°, 142° g -141°, 141° y = 3 sin x
h -106°, 106° i -144°, -69.9°, 36.2°, 110° 1
1
p p 5p
8 a p , 5p , 7p , 11p b , , O 90º 180º x
12 12 12 12 12 4 12
O 90º 180º 270º 360º x –1
p 5p 7p 11p 3p 7p
–1 c , , , d 0.945, 2.52, , –2
O 12 12 12 12 8 8
90º 180º 270º 360º x –2 e 0.252, 0.795, 2.35, 2.89 –3
–3 9 b 0.588, 3.73 radians
2 tan q 1 − tan 2 q 13 a y
7 a 720° b 2p c 90° d 360° 10 a sin 2q = , cos 2q =
1 + tan 2 q 1 + tan 2 q 1
8 a y = 1 + sin x b y = 2sin x 11 sin x = 0 also satisfied the equation
–1 c y = cos (x - 45°) d y = sin 3x Extra solutions are 0°, 180°, 360°
plus 225° from tan x = 1
c (45°, 0), (225°, 0) Exercise 12.9
y 1 a 1 b -sin2 3x c cos 4q d tan 2q
Review 12
4 1 a 6.50 cm b 100°, 79.6°
1
e 1 - 2sin A cos A f g sin4 x 2 angle ACB = 49.3°, area 63.7 cm2
3 cos x
3 a 0.954 b 1.27, 1.88 radians O r r 3r 2r x
2 1
h 2 - 2sin x i 4 a radius 9.27 cm b area 40.1 cm2 2 2
tan q
1 5 perimeter 50.5 cm
4 9x2 + 4y2 = 36,
O Max & min values of x are 2 and -2 6 b 1.287 radians c 16.1 m2 d 4.1 m2 r
–1
90º 180º 270º 360º x
Max & min values of y are 3 and -3 7 a sinq b 5sinq (
y = cos x +
2 )
–2 8 -315°, -225°, 45°, 135°
( 2) –1
–3 Exercise 12.10 9 cosx = , tan x = 1
C2
C2
1 a 30°, 150° b 60°, 300° c 45°, 225° ( 3) 2 b y
–4
d 224°, 316° e 102°, 258° f 108°, 288°
b 2p , 5p , - p , - 4p
−( 3) 1 6
g 48.6°, 131° h 139°, 221° i 2.86°, 183° 10 a , ,- 3
4 a (0°, 0), (180°, 0), (360°, 0) 2 2 3 3 3 3 4
y j 156°, 336° k 36.9°, 143° l No solution 11 maximum at (0, 1) and (2p, 1);
2 a 15°, 75° b 30°, 150° c 30°, 150° 2
1 minimum at (p, -1)
d 120° e 22.5°, 113° f 63.4°, 117° y
O r r 3r 2r x
g 76.7°, 167° h 120° 1
–2 2 2
i 11.3°, 33.8°, 101°, 124° j 50.1° 0.8
3 a 30°, 150° b 105°, 165° c 26.6° y = cos x –4
y = tan 2x
0.6
d 37.8°, 142° e 9.2°, 99.2° f 25.7°, 116° –6
g 60° h 80°, 160° i 0°, 135°, 180° 0.4
O 90º 180º 270º 360º x 14 b 3 sin 40°
j 45°, 135° 0.2 15 a 0°, 120° b 60° c 26.6°, 153.4°
4 a 0°, 120°, 360° b 90°, 330°
c 25°, 205° d 180°, 300° O 0.5r r 1.5r 2r x Revision 3
e 90°, 270° f 60°, 120° –0.2 1 b x = -2, x = -3, x = 1
g 135°, 315° h 120° –0.4 2 a a = 10
–1 −11p 7p p 3 a (x - 3)2 + (y + 2)2 = 9
5 a p, -p b , - , , 5p –0.6
12 12 12 12 c x = 5.24, x = 0.76
b (45°, 0), (135°, 0), (225°, 0), (315°, 0) p p 7p 3p p 5p –0.8 4 a (x - 2)2 + (y - 6)2 = 10
y c - ,- d - ,- , ,
6 2 8 8 8 8 –1 b outside the circle
1 7p p p 7p 5 a i 3 ii 4 b i 1.18 ii -0.30
e - ,- , , f -p, 0, p 12 a y
8 8 8 8
6 a i log 10 ii log 8
p p 2p
g - , h - ,0 y = 3 + sin x 1
2 2 3 b i 2 log a + log c
2
p
i -2.82, 2.42 radians j - 3 ii 2 log a + log b - 2 log c
3
6 a 90°, 270° b 60°, 120°, 240°, 300° 7 a 2.32 b 0.861 c 17 400, 1.13
O 90º 180º 270º 360º x c 30°, 150°, 210°, 330° 8 a angle CAB = 81.8° b 17.3 cm2
2 9 5.8 km
d 0°, 30°, 150°, 180°, 360°
e 90°, 270° f 0°, 56.3°, 180°, 236°, 360° 10 b sin x = - 1 , sin x = 1 c 19°
2 3
g 38.7°, 219° h 71.6°, 90°, 252°, 270° 1
11 a 36° b 20 cm2
i 0°, 158°, 180°, 338°, 360°
–1 j 149°, 329° 12 b 60°, 240°, 420° c tan q = 2t 2
358 1−t 359
O 90º 180º x d t = 1.72, t = -0.12
Answers Answers
Before you start Answers 5 a 6, 3, 1.5, 0.75, 0.375; 11.625 Exercise 13.5 b y
b first term 5, third term 11.25; 40.625 1 a 120 b 5040 c 504 d 1
Chapter 13 6 10
20 4
1 a 4 + 8 + 12 b 10 + 17 + 26 e 144 f 34560 g 480 h 32 2
c 1+2+3+4+5 d 5 + 14 + 27 + 44 + 65 7 192 ; x = 3 or 15 2 a 6 b 10 c 20 d 6
x +1 O x
154 + 238 + 340 + 460 e 35 f 28 g 126 h 36 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3
e y3 y n −1 y18 –2 1
8 a 4th term 2 , n th term n − 2 , 19th term 17 3 a 1 + 9x + 36x2 + 84x3 y=2+
2 a n=7 b n = 13 c n=5 d n=7 x x x –4 x
e n=8 b 1 + 16x + 112x2 + 448x3
b t=± 2 c 1 - 10x + 45x2 - 120x3 c y
Exercise 13.1 9 a £1420.68 b £2645.70 d 1 + 18x + 135x2 + 540x3
1 the geometric series are b, d, e and f 4 y = x3 – 8
c 14.69 km, 170.86 km e 1 - 21x + 189x2 - 945x3
common ratios are 2, 1, 2 and -2 d below by 102 calories f 1 + 4x + 7x2 + 7x3
3
2 a 3, 6, 12, 24 b 5, 15, 45, 135
10 Various possible answers 4 a 128 + 448x + 672x2
0 x
b 6561 - 17496x + 20412x 2 –1 1 2
c 11 , 3, 6, 12 d 2, 3, 4 1 , 6 3 Exercise 13.3 c 1024 + 2560x + 2880x2
2 2 4
1 a 4 b 14 c 10.286 d 8.1 1 x 7 x2 –4
1
e -3, -1 , - 3 , - 3 f 5, -10, 20, -40 d - +
2 4 8
e -10.667 f 0.625 g 4 h 6 256 16 16
a 2a e 64 + 576x + 2160x 2
1 1 1
g ,- , ,-1 h 1, 1 , 1 , 1 i j –8
1−a 3−a f x7 - 28x6 + 336x5
4 8 16 32 4 16 64
a 32 or 32 b p=4 5 a a=2 b a = 2, b = 0, c = 80 c 112
() ()
n −1 n 2
3 a (2)n-1 b 1 1 or 1 3 9 d n=4 e 70
2 2 2 d y
7 a 8064 y5x5 b 1 + 7x + 28x2 + 77x3
n-1 n+1 3 n-1 Exercise 13.4
c 4(2) or (2) d (2) or 3(2)n-3 c n = 0, -1, -2 d 0.33; 5.36%
4 1 a 1 + 5x + 10x2 + 10x3 + 5x4 + x5 3
y=x
()
n −1
b 1 - 4x + 6x2 - 4x3 + x4 2
e 2 5 f 6(5)n-1 Review 13 4
5 2 c 1 + 6x + 12x2 + 8x3 1 a r = ±3 b a=±
4
c x = ±12
( )
n −1 3
d 1 - 12x + 54x2 - 108x3 + 81x4
g 4(6) n-1
h 5 −1 2 a r = 0.9 b a=8 c 79.588 d 0.412
2 3 3 x3 0 x
C2
C2
e 1+ x + x2 + 3 b 0.03 c 3.996 –2 –1 1 2
()
n −1 2 4 8
i -3 1 f 1 - 10x + 40x2 - 80x3 + 80x4 - 32x5 4 b 51150 c 6.25
4 –2
g 1 + 12x + 48x2 + 64x3 5 b r = 4, r = 1 c a = 5, a = 20 e n = 15
1 1
4 a , b 3, 3 c 2
, 2 h 1 + 14x + 84x2 + 280x3 + 560x4 + 672x5 + 5 5
8 128 32 512 81 6561
448x6+ 128x7 6 a = 2, 1 + 16x + 112x2 + 448x3
() ()
5 9
d - 3 ,- 3 or - 243 , - 19683 2 a 16 + 32x + 24x2 + 8x3 + x4 7 729 - 1458x + 1215x2 e y
4 4 1024 262144 8 a 1 + 8ax + 28ax2 b a = -2, b = 112
b 81 - 108x + 54x2 - 12x3 + x4
5 5 9 729 9 a = 1, b = -3, c = 0 6
5 a 12, 192 b , c , c 8 + 36x + 54x2 + 27x3 1
4 64 4 4 21 y=
d 243 - 810x + 1080x2 - 720x3 + 240x4 - 32x5 10 a 1 - 7 x + x2 x2
d 2 , 32 e 27x3 - 108x2 + 144x - 64
2 4
4
5 5 11 a = 2, b = 4, n = 6
6 a a = ±12 b a=2 c a = ±4.5 f 64x6 - 192x5 + 240x4 - 160x3 + 60x2 - 12x + 1
x4 3 3
7 a x = 1, r = 5 b a = 1, r = 1 g - x + x2 - 2x + 1 2
16 2 2
3 2 2 Before you start Answers
8 a 14th term b 22nd term c 14th term h x6 + 3x4y2 + 3x2 y4 + y6
3 a 1 - 3x + 2x2 + 2x3 - 3x4 + x5 Chapter 14
9 a 15 years b 5 years c 6 bounces dy
b 2 + 7x + 8x2 + 2x3 - 2x4 - x5 dy –2 –1 0 1 2 x
d i 8, 12, 18, 27, 40.5 1 a = 12x - 2 b = 2x - 3
c 1 + 2x -2x3 - x4 dx dx
10 a -1, 3, -9 b 27, -81 3 a 0<x<4 b x < -3, x > 3
1 , 1, 2 d x5 + 3x4 - 6x3 - 10x2 + 21x - 9 c
dy
= 2x - 4x3 d
dy 4
=1+ 2
4, 8 4 a 1 + 3x + 6x2 + 7x3 + 6x4 + 3x5 + x6 dx dx x c x < -1, x > 3 d x < 0, x > 2
2
b 8 - 24x + 36x2 - 32x3 + 18x4 - 6x5 + x6 dy 1
1 2 4 8 16 e = 8x - 12 e -2 < x <
, , , 2
3 3 3 3 3 c x6 + 3x5 - 3x4 - 11x3 + 6x2 + 12x - 8 dx
d a3 + 3a2b + 3a2c + 3ab2 + 6abc + 3ac2 + b3 + Exercise 14.1
Exercise 13.2 2 a y
3b2c + 3bc2 + c3 1 a 12 increasing b 2 increasing
1 a 29
- 1 or 511 b -170
5 a -3 b -1 c -3x3 d 0 c 12 increasing d -5 decreasing
c 0.9998 d 147.8 e 102.3 f 10.5
6 a a=3 b a = 2, b = -1; 2
e - 1 decreasing 1
()
8 2 f increasing
2 a 3 (36 - 1) b 1− 1 c 6(25 - 1) 7
3 4 2 2
2 2 2 1
g 3 increasing h 0 stationary
() ()
10 10
1 8 1 1 1 8 a a:b=3:2 b k = 18 c a = 1 or -3
d (2 - 1) e 1− f − − i 4 increasing j -16 decreasing
3 3 2 2 3 1 4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 x
9 a i x3 + 3x + + ii x4 + 4x2 + 6 + + 1 –1 k -2 decreasing l -1 decreasing
3 a n = 12 b n = 18 x x3 x2 x4
1
4 a n = 10 b n = 11 b n is even –2 y=
1 m 1 increasing n increasing
x 4 2
o 3 increasing p -4 decreasing
360 361
Answers Answers
2 a x > 3, increasing; x < 3, decreasing 9 maximum (-1, 0), minimum (1, -4) b minimum at (-1.75, -10.125) b minimum (0, 0), maximum (-2, 4)
1 10 a (1, 2) Minimum point, (-1, -2) Maximum point
b x > - 1 , increasing; x < - , decreasing y y
4 4 b The curve approaches the line y = x
c x < 0, increasing; 0 < x < 4, decreasing; 0 4
–4 –3 –2 –1 1 x
x > 4 increasing c y –2
1 2
d x > , decreasing; x < 1 , increasing (1, 2) y=x –4
6 6
–6
2
e x < 0, decreasing; 0 < x < , increasing; –3 –2 –1 0 1 x
3 –8
2
x > , decreasing x –10 –2
3
f x < -2, increasing; -2 < x < 3, decreasing; (–1, –2)
x > 3, increasing
c maximum at (-0.5, 6.25)
g always decreasing c minimum (1.73, -10.39),
1 y
h x < -2, increasing; -2 < x < 2, decreasing; y=x+ maximum (-1.73, 10.39)
x
x > 2, increasing 6
y
d y = x and x = 0
i x < 11, decreasing; x > 11 , increasing
4 4 11 a The suspension wire will form a parabola 10
1 1 such as y = x(x - 4). 4
j x < , decreasing; x > , increasing 5
3 3 b (2, -4)
k x < 3, increasing; 3 < x < 5, decreasing; 2
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 x
x > 5, increasing Exercise 14.2 –5
1 −1
l x < 0, decreasing; 0 < x < 4 , increasing; 1 a 36, 36 b 6, 2 c -1, 1 d ,
3 4 4 2 2 8 2 –10
4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 x
x > , decreasing 1 1 1 3
3 e 10, 2 f ,- g -4, 24 h 44, 1
4 4 4
1 1 1
3 a 4 b f ¢(x) = 4 - 2 , x < - , x > , increasing d maximum (-1, 7), minimum (2, -20)
x 2 2 2 a minimum, x = -1 b maximum, x = 0
d maximum at (0.5, 2.25)
C2
C2
4 0 < x < 2, decreasing y
c maximum, x = 2 d minimum, x = -
5 a x = -1 b x = -1, x = 1 c x = -2 3
y 5
d x=4 e x=2 f x=0 e minimum, x = 13 f maximum, x = 1 2
4 12 2
g x=2 h x = 0, x = –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x
3 g maximum, x = 1 h minimum, x = 3 1 –5
2 2
6 a minimum point (1, -2) 3 a minimum (2, -32); maximum (-2, 32) –10
–1.5 –1 –0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 x
b maximum point 2 , 4
3 3 ( ) b maximum (3, 54); minimum (-3, -54) –1 –15
c inflection (0, 0)
d minimum point (-2, -1)
(2 4 )
c minimum 5 , − 25
–2
–3
–20
e minimum point (3, 0) d minimum ( 1 , 8 ); maximum ( 1 , 4 ) − − –4 e minimum (2.12, -4.06),

( )
3 3
maximum point − 1 , 49 maximum (-0.79, 8.21)
minimum (0, 0); maximum ( , )
f
2 4 2 4
e
( 3 27 ) 3 27 y
g minimum point (0, 0), maximum point 2 , 4 5 a maximum (0.67, 1.19),
minimum ( , − ); maximum ( 2, 26 )
3 45 minimum (2, 0) 8
f −
h minimum point (0, -16) 2 8 3 6
y
7 a maximum point (-3, 18), g minimum (4, -304); maximum (-5, 425) 4
minimum point (3, -18) 4 2
h no stationary points; x = (−1) has no real
b minimum point (3, 27) solutions 2
c minimum point (2, -44), –2 –1 –20 1 2 3 x
4 a maximum at (3, 1)
maximum point (-3, 81) –1 –0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 x –4
y –2
d minimum point (-2, -20),
maximum point (1, 7) 2 –4
6 a i (-3, 0) ii (-3, 0)
2 (
e minimum point 1 , − 17 ,
4 ) –2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 x –6
–8
7 c Maximum turning point at (1, 5),
point of inflexion at (2, 3),
maximum point (3, 27) minimum turning point at (3, 1)
–4
f maximum point (0, 3),
( 16 )
–6
minimum points ± 3 , − 33
2 –8
8 s=0
362 363
Answers Answers
Exercise 14.3 2 a 39 cm2 b 16.5 cm2 c 42.5 cm2 3 a –12 , 2 b –89 6 a maximum point at (3.75, 3.125)
1 a t = 5, s = 125 3 b y
d 10 4 cm2 4 a 6.75
1 3
b t = , a = -1 (a retardation)
2 5 a 1.6(00), 3.394, 3.2(00) b 43.86 m2
x2 3
3 a - 2x + c b x - x2 + c c 5260 m3 y = (2x – 5)(5 – x)
2 a x = 10, A = 200 2 3 2
1 6 3.5
b V = 5(4 - x)(3 + x), x = , V = 61.25 x3 x4 4 x3
2 c - 2x2 + 4x + c d - + 2x2 + c 7 a (-1, 0), (0, 0), (1, 0) b 0.5
3 x=1 3 4 3 1
4 a A = x(150 - 2x) c 0.234, 0.468
b x = 37.5 (or 75), A = 2812.5 m2 Exercise 15.1 y
1 0
5 x = 0.196, V = 0.132 m3 1 a b 9 c 14 d 4 1.5 1 2 3 4 5 x
3
6 r = 4, A = 301 cm2 1 –1
e 12 f 65 1
7 c V = 269p 3
8 c A = 192 cm2, 8 cm by 8 cm by 4 cm 2 a 4.67 b -3.67 c 8 d -12 0.5
15
15
32p r 3 c i increasing for x < ii decreasing for x >
9 V= e 6.5 f 0.67 g 5.28 h 9.33 4 4
81 –1.5 –1 –0.50 0.5 1 1.5 x
i 1.25 –0.5 7 maximum at (1, 4); minimum at (3, 0)
10 b 50 when number of predators is 10 3 n= 3 y = x(x2 – 1)
–1 y
a 82
1
Review 14 4 b 2 ∫0 (x2 + 4) dx 4
3 –1.5
1 a 6x - 12 b decreasing c x=2 y = x(x – 3)2
3
2 x < 0, x > 1 Exercise 15.2
4 1 a 80 b 4 c 24 d 4.67 2
( )
8 0.34
3 (0, 0) and 4 , − 32 e 82.14 f 6.67 g 18.67 h 4 1
3 27 y
2 a 1.33 b 4.5 c 1.33 d 0.17
4 1960 metres, 20 seconds 0
e 0.13 f 4.5 g 1.33 h 36 1 2 3 4 x
5 maximum (0, 0), minimum (1.33, -5.93) –1
3 a 0.5 b 40.5 c 0.5 d 3.08
6 area 50 cm2 1
e 11.83 –2
y = sin x
7 a v = 70 kph b 2800 c £40 4 a 9.83 b 2 c 4.92 d 8
v3 –3
C2
C2
8 a 3x2 - 18x + 24 e 3.08 f 1.50 g 10.25 h 1.50
5 a 1.33 b 10.67 y = 0.5
b (2, 4), (4, 0) 0.5 2
c 6x - 18 6 a 1.33 b 0.17 c 1.69 d 1.78 8 a 62 b a=3
d Maximum (2, 4) 7 a 4.5 m2 b 2250 m3
9 1.10
0 3
Minimum (4, 0) 8 b ∫−1 and - ∫0 10 b 1, 1.275, 1.383 c 1.234
80 2 0 x 11 a y
9 b x= d 448 m r r
4 +p Exercise 15.3 4 2
( 23 , 0), (-4 0), (0, -8); minimum ( )
5 − 49 1 a 5.56 b 9.33 c 5.24 d 3.73 10
10 − ,
3 3 e 13.2 f 43.1 8
11 a x = -4.41, x = 3.41 b (-0.5, -15.25) 2 a 6.73 b 9.21 c 51.9 d 5.35 Revision 4
6
y e 12700 f 2.93 1 a 5, 10, 20 40 b 5115 c n = 12 y = 2a√x
c 4
3 a 17.5 b 17.4 2 a 1 + 24x + 264x2 + 1760x3 a=3
15 b a = 1, b = 23, c = 240 2
4 a 9.33 b 8.83
10 5 a 18.1 b 18 3 a a=2 b 64 - 192x + 240x2
5 7 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 x
6 19.18; underestimate (convex curve); 19.20 4 a a=- b maximum point at (-1.75, 21.125)
4
0 x 7 b 0.55 c overestimate (concave curve) b 20.38; underestimate, convex curve
–4 –2
–5
2 4 6
8 a underestimate b overestimate 5 h = 2r
3 c 20.78 d 1.92%
–10 c exact
–15
9 No. of strips Estimate % error
1 1.5 3.97
d (-4, -3), (5, 15) e gradients 11 and -7
( 12 , 692 )
2 1.46 1.20
f −
3 1.45 0.51
Before you start Answers Review 15

1 a 69.3 b 2 c 0.833 d 44
Chapter 15 e 4.67
2
1 a y=- b y = 43 c y = 25 d y= 1 2 a 12.43, 67.07, 155.56 b 4840 m
9 6 4 4
364 365
Formulae
Integration
Formulae to learn
function integral
1 n +1
xn x + c, n ≠ −1
These formulae relate to the Core modules C1 and C2. You need to learn them; they are not given in the n +1
Edexcel formula booklet. You may need to use formulae from C1 in the C2 examination.
{f(x) + g(x)}dx f(x)dx + g(x)dx
C1
Algebra and Functions C2
Difference of two squares A2 - B2 = (A - B)(A + B)
Algebra and Functions
−b ± b2 − 4ac
Roots of a Quadratic Equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 x=
2a Remainder Theorem If f(x) is divided by (x – a) the remainder is f(a)
Disciminant b2 - 4ac > 0 two real roots
= 0 two equal roots
If f(x) is divided by (ax – b) the remainder is f b (a)
Factor Theorem If (x – a) is a factor of f(x) then f(a) = 0
< 0 no real (imaginary) roots
Co-ordinate Geometry
Transformation of functions f(x)
Translation a units in the positive direction of the x-axis f(x - a) Equation of a circle, centre the origin x2 + y2 = r2
a units in the positive direction of the y-axis f(x) + a Equation of a circle, centre (a, b) (x - a)2 + (y - b)2 = r2
Stretch Parallel to the x-axis f(ax) scale factor 1a
C1/C2
C1/C2
Trigonometry
Parallel to the y-axis af(x) scale factor a
a b c
For the triangle ABC Sine rule = =
sin A sin B sin C
Coordinate Geometry 1
Area of triangle ab sin C
Equation of a straight line 2
General Equation ax + by + c = 0 sin q
tan q =
cos q
Gradient /y intersect form y = mx + c
sin2q + cos2q = 1
Gradient/one point on line form y - y1 = m(x - x1)
p radians = 180°
y − y1 x − x1
Two points = 1
y 2 − y1 x2 − x1 Length of an arc s = rq q in radians Area of a sector A = r 2q q in radians
2
General Exponential and Logarithms
y 2 − y1
Gradient (m)
x2 − x1 x = ay Û y = loga b
Parallel gradients m1 = m2 m1 ¹ 0, m2 ¹ 0 loga x + loga y = log(xy) log a x − log a y = log ( xy ) k loga x + loga(xk)
Perpendicular gradients m1m2 = -1 loga a = 1
Coordinates of the mid point

( x +2 x , y +2 y )
1 2 1 2
Differentiation
For a stationary point f⬘(x) = 0
Distance between two points ( x2 − x1 )2 + ( y2 − y1 )2
Integration
b
Differentiation Area under a curve = y dx (y 0 0)
a
Function derivative
xn nxn-1
f(x) + g(x) f ⬘(x) + g⬘(x)
366 367
Glossary Glossary
Common difference (d) The constant difference between Difference of two squares (DOTS) Expressions in the form of Family of curves Curves which are parallel to each other. Their Indices The plural of index.
consecutive terms in an arithmetic progression. a square term minus another square term, A2 - B2. They can be equations differ by a constant only.
factorised into (A - B)(A + B). Infinite series A series with an infinite number of terms.
Common factor A factor which is common to all terms under Finite series A series which has a finite number of terms.
consideration. Differentiate from first principles Use small increments, ¶ x, Integer A whole number. It can be positive, negative or zero.
to find the results of differentiation. First derivative A function differentiated once. If the function is
Common ratio (r) The constant multiplier used to form each Integrand The function to be integrated.
consecutive term in a geometric sequence. Differentiate To find the gradient of the tangent to a curve at a differentiated with respect to x the first derivative is denoted dy
dx
particular point. or f⬘(x). Integration The opposite of differentiation.
Completing the square Rearranging a function into the form
(ax + b)2 + c where c is a constant. Discriminant In a quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 the First term of a series Denoted by a in an arithmetic and Intercept The y-intercept is the y-coordinate of the point where
discriminant is b2 - 4ac geometric progression. a graph cuts the y-axis.
Constant A quantity with a fixed value.
e.g. 8, p Displacement The distance of a moving body from the original Formula (Plural formulae) A formula is used to express the Like terms Terms which include exactly the same letters or
point after time t. This is a vector quantity. relationship between two or more variables. variables, including their powers.
Constant of integration When a constant is differentiated it e.g. C = 2pr expresses the relationship between the circumference e.g. 3x and 4x are like terms, as are 3x2y and 4x2y. 3x and 3y
goes to zero. When integrating you need to assume that there was Divergent series The sum of a divergent series has no limit, C of a circle and its radius r. are not like terms.
a constant in the original function and add this onto the result. it changes value as the number of terms increase.
General form of a straight line ax + by + c = 0 where a, b, Limit of the sum The sum to infinity of a convergent series.
Convergent series The sum of the series tends towards a Divisor In division the term which is divided into the other. and c are constants.
specific value as the number of terms in the series increases. Line produced A line, say AB, extended beyond the point B.
e.g. In 6 ¸ 5, 5 is the divisor, or in x + 6 , (x - 3) is the divisor.
2
x−3 General term of a series/sequence Denoted by Un. By

Cubic equation An equation in which the highest power of the 2 2
substituting values for n the general term becomes a specific Linear equations An equation which involves no powers greater
variable is 3. Ellipse A closed curve with an equation x 2 + y 2 = 1 where a term. than 1 of the variables.
C1/C2
C1/C2
a b
e.g. x3 - 2x + 1 and b are constants. e.g. 3x + 4 = 5 is a linear equation. 3xy + 4 = 5 and
Geometric Sequence A sequence in which the next term is 3x2 + 4 = 9 are not.
Cyclic quadrilateral A quadrilateral with its four vertices lying always formed by multiplying the previous term by the same
Equilateral triangle A triangle with all sides equal.
on the circumference of a circle. constant (r). Sometimes called a Geometric Progression or GP. Linear functions A function given in terms of a linear
Estimate An informed guess, given certain information, to find expression.
an approximate solution, which is correct to a given place value.
Geometric Series The sum of the terms of a geometric
sequence. Logarithm ( loga x) The logarithm of a number is the power
Evaluate Review Work out the sum and give a single numeric to which the base, a, must be raised to give that number, x.
answer.
Gradient The slope of a straight line which includes its direction
or sign. Positive gradient is and negative gradient is. Magnitude Size.
Expand Multiply out the bracket(s).
Highest Common Factor (HCF) The largest factor common to Maximum point The point at which the gradient of the curve
the terms being considered. changes from positive to negative giving a Ç shape.
Exponential function A function of the form ax where a is a
Decreasing function A function f(x) is decreasing for a < x < b positive constant.
if the graph of y = f(x) has a negative gradient, or f⬘(x) < 0, for all Hyperbola A curve with an equation ax2 - by2 = c2 where Local maximum point The name given to a maximum point
values of x in the interval a < x < b. a, b, c are constant. of a curve which has more than one of these points.
Expression A collection of algebraic terms.
e.g. 4x - 5
Definite integral Integration between given limits, a and b, Hypotenuse The side opposite the right-angle in a right-angled Minimum point The point at which the gradient of the curve
b
triangle. changes from negative to positive giving a È shape.
written
Factor theorem If (x - a) is a factor of the function f(x) there is
f(x)dx.
no remainder when f(x) is divided by (x - a) and hence f (a) = 0
a Increasing function A function f(x) is increasing for a < x < b if Local minimum point The name given to a minimum point
Denominator The ‘bottom’ of a fraction. the graph of y = f(x) has a positive gradient, or f⬘(x) > 0, for all of a curve which has more than one of these points.
Factorial of a number The product of all integers up to and
e.g. the 4 in 3 or the (x - 3) in x including that number.
values of x in the interval a < x < b.
4 x−3 Natural logarithm A logarithm to base e. This is covered in C3.
e.g. factorial 4, 4! = 4 ´ 3 ´ 2 ´ 1
Derivative The result when a function has been differentiated. Independent of x A term independent of x does not include
x or a power of x. Natural numbers Whole positive numbers. Zero is not included.
The derivative with respect to x is denoted by dy or f⬘(x). Factorising/Factorise The reverse of ‘expand’.
dx
Index The power to which a number or variable is raised. Neighbouring point Another point on the same curve which
e.g. 3 is the index in 23. is near to the point being considered.
370 371
Glossary Glossary
Normal The normal to a point on a curve is the straight line Quadratic formula The formula used to solve a quadratic Second order derivative second derivative is denoted f "(x) Stretch of a function/graph A transformation where shape
perpendicular to the tangent at that point. equation if the equation does not factorise easily. 2 and position are changed.
or d y2 .
For the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, the formula is dx
Numerator The ‘top’ of a fraction. −b ± b2 − 4ac Stretch parallel to the x axis All points on the curve are
x = Sector The area of a portion of a circle bounded by two radii.
e.g. the 3 in 3 2a stretched with the same scale factor in the x direction. Points on
4 There is a major and a minor sector.
the y-axis remain in the same position.
Obtuse angle An angle whose size is between 90° and 180°. Quadratic function A function given in terms of a quadratic
expression. Stretch parallel to the y axis All points on the curve are
Parabola A smooth È or Ç shaped curve. The corresponding major minor stretched with the same scale factor in the y direction. Points on
function is quadratic. Quadratic Inequality A quadratic expression given in term of sector sector the x-axis remain in the same position.
an inequality.
Parallel Two lines which do not meet or intersect. Substitution
Quotient The answer when an expression is divided by another. Formulae Replace a variable in a formula by a particular value.
Perfect square A function which can be written exactly in the Segment of a circle The area of a circle formed when a circle is
form (ax + b)2. Radians A unit of angle measurement. p radians = 180° divided into two parts by a chord. There is a major and a minor Simultaneous equations You use this method when solving
segment. simultaneous equations.
Period The interval in which a periodic function repeats itself. Rate of change dy is the rate of change of y with respect to x.
dx
e.g. the period of y = sin x is p (180°). minor Sum to infinity of a series The sum of a convergent series.
Rationalising the denominator Removing a surd (defined segment
Periodic function A function which repeats itself after a given later) from the denominator of a fraction to give an integral Supplementary angles Angles whose sum is 180°.
interval. denominator. You do this by multiplying both top and bottom major
of the fraction by the same quantity. segment
Surd The positive root of a number written with a root sign.
Permutation An arrangement in which the order of items is A surd is an exact value.
important. Reciprocal curve A reciprocal curve has a function in the form e.g. 7
C1/C2
C1/C2
1 Sequence A set of terms which are derived using a general rule.
y =
Perpendicular bisector A line which intersects another line at (x − a) Tangent A line which touches a curve and is parallel to the
its mid point and is also perpendicular to that line. Series The sum of the terms in a sequence. curve at this point of contact.
Recurrence formula A rule, or formula, which generates the
next term in a sequence. Simultaneous equations Several equations in several
Perpendicular lines Lines which are at right angles to each Translation A transformation which moves an object or curve
other. variables which you can solve to give a common solution. without changing its size or shape.
Reflex angle An angle whose size is between 180° and 360°.
Point of inflexion At this point the gradient [f⬘(x)] is zero and the Sketch A freehand drawing of a curve showing the shape of the Trapezium A quadrilateral with one pair or opposite sides
Remainder theorem When f(x) is divided by (x - a) the curve and the important features of that curve such as the points
gradient of the curve has the same sign on both sides of the point. remainder is given by f(a). parallel.
where the curve cuts the axes.
Polynomial A function which includes positive powers on a
variable and a constant.
a()
When f(x) is divided by (ax - b) the remainder is given by f b .
Small increments (method of) Increasing the x coordinates
Trial and improvement method A method involving trying
different values in order to improve your solution.
e.g. a0 + a1x + a2x2 + …… + anxn Roots The roots of an equation f(x) = 0 are the values of x which by very small amounts and considering the points generated on a
satisfy the equation. In other words when a root is substituted for particular curve. Trigonometric identity A relationship between trigonometric
Power The same as index. x in f(x) the answer is zero. functions which is true for all values of the angle.
Specific term of a series The general term when evaluated for
Product The result of a multiplication. Satisfies A value of x satisfies an equation if it is a solution a specific value, r, denoted Ur. This is the term used when Turning point The point at which the gradient of a curve
r =b
of the equation. expressing the series in sigma notation ∑ ur changes direction. It can be a maximum or minimum point.
r =a
Quadrant of a circle A quarter of a circle. First, second, third and
fourth quadrants of the coordinate axes are used in trigomometry. Second derivative The result when a function has been Stationary point At this point the gradient of the function is Variable A letter which can take various numerical values.
differentiated twice. zero. It can be a maximum or minimumpoint or a point of inflexion. i.e. Not a constant.
Quadratic Equation An equation in which the highest power of
the variable is 2. A quadratic in the variable x has the general Second derivative The result when a function f(x) has been
form ax2 + bx + c = 0 where a, b, and c are constant and a ¹ 0. differentiated twice. If the function is differentiated with respect
e.g. x2 + x + 1 to x the
372 373

A Level Mathematics For Edexcel C1 C2 Book (Peter Hind)

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3 About this book

Great Clarendon Street, Oxford OX2 6DP

Test this rule for yourself by using

In the quantity 23, the base is 2 and the index is 3. index

Some important results follow from these two index laws. b 27 ¸ 24

a Use am ´ an = a m+n: 32 ´ 33 = 32+3 a = 3, m = 2 and n = 3

a Use am ´ an = am+n: p2 ´ p3 = p2+3 a 3a3 ´ (4a)2

Exercise 1.1 5 Simplify these expressions.

k (98)2 - (2)2 l (0.4)2 - (9.6)2 i 4(y2)-3 ¸ (2y)-2 j (3y2t)2 ¸ (3yt2)-2

d 0.001 e 25 f 0.04 c 4a2 ´ 9a3 d 4a2 ¸ 9a3

1.2 Fractional indices

The index laws also apply to fractional indices.

The other index laws also apply to fractional indices.

1 ×2 = 25 Remember to square both

= 27 Remember to cube both the

= 9p4 27 and the p6 inside the inner

Sometimes you will need to use a combination of rules to

e.g. 2 and 5 are surds. 18 + 98 = 9 × 2 + 49 × 2

To rationalise the denominator of

(2 − 3)(2 + 3) = 22 − ( 3)2 = 4 − 3 = 1 You can show this yourself using 18 98 245

3 Rationalise the denominator in each fraction.

You can use the method of rationalising the denominator

9 Rationalise the denominator and give each answer in its

13 a Express 45 in the form a 5 , where a is an integer.

a 200 b 128 c 400

b Express 24 in the form a + b 3, where a and b are integers.

(x, y) is a general point (it can be anywhere on the line).

e A 1, 1 , B(5, -2) ( 2) f A(-7, -3), B(-2, -6) y = x + 1 y = -x + 2

c Write down the equation of the straight line which has

2 a Find the points where the line 2y + 3x - 1 = 0

d The lines 2y = 3x - 2 and 3y + 2x = 1 See Chapter 0 for revision on

Write the following equation in the form ax + by + c = 0 INVESTIGATION

2 Rearrange the equations in the form y = mx + c:

The line 2y = x – 3 has gradient 1 Perpendicular lines

Determine whether the lines y - 3x + 3 = 0 and 3y + x = 6

Rewrite equations in the form y = mx + c:

Equation(1) has gradient 3. Equation(2) has gradient − 1 .

Exercise 2.3 3 a The line y = mx + 1 is perpendicular to the line y = 1 x − 3

b y = 1x - 1 The line L2 passes through the origin and has gradient − 1 .

4a Are the lines 3 - y = x and 2 + y = x perpendicular?

d The line y = ax + b is perpendicular to the line x + 3y - 2 = 0

The general form of a quadratic function is f(x) = 2x2 - 3x + 7 is a quadratic

Solve the equation x2 - 6x + 8 = 0

Find x when (x + 4)(x - 1) = 0

EXAMPLE 5 4 Factorise these equations using the difference of two squares

Exercise 3.1 j 21x2 = 55x - 14

m (4x + 2)(2 - 4x) = 0 n 3(2x + 5)(5x + 2) = 0 o 9(3 - 2x)2 = 0 Equations: Solutions:

d x2 - x = 30 e x2 = 11x - 28 f x2 = 24 - 2x Use some of these factors to factorise the quadratics

Such expressions are known as perfect squares. a x2 + 10x + 7 = 0

2 help you in completing the square:

ax2 + bx + c º a(x + p)2 + q º means ‘is identical to’. Either x = -5 + 3 2 or x = -5 - 3 2

Complete the square for the expression x2 + 8x to 0.

Try (x + 4)2: 4 is chosen because 4x + 4x = 8x Hence x2 + 5 x − 2 = 0

(2 + 1625 ) = ( 1632 + 1625 )

a (x - 3)2 = 25 b (x + 2)2 = 25 4 Completing the square has a useful purpose when

3 Use the method of completing the square to solve these

You can often use quadratic equations to solve word problems.

negative, then the parabola will

The solutions are x = 1 + 6 or x = 1 - 6 Leave your answer in surd form unless

There are three possible cases for the solution of a

c Write down the values of a, b and c: y f(0) = 9, f(-1) = 4

By finding the value of the discriminant, determine the

a For one (repeated) root b2 - 4ac = 0