noundary -layer Theory

McGRAW-I4ILL SERIES IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

JACK r. IIOT,MAN, Southern Methodist University

Co1tsu1lin.g Editor

Dr. HERMANN SCHLICHTING

Profresor J3rncrit.11~
nt, Llrc ICl~gincrrirrgU ~ ~ i v r r ~ofi t~. ~
~ ~ I I I I R ( .O~ cIrw
~ ~c l~n~r l, ~
Forrner 13ircctor of thc Arrodynnrninclre Vcr~rrclrsnnslnlt (:iittirrgc~~

RARRON . Cryogenic S y s t e m
ISC:KERT . hzlroduclion lo Heat and M a r Tran.fer
ECKERT AND DRAKE . Ana1y.ri.r of lien1 and Mos,r 7i-nnsfr.r

E C K E K . ~ AND DRAKE - Ifen1 attd A4ass 7ian.fer

HAM, CRANE, AND RODERS . Mechatlies of Machinery
HARTENRERO AND DENAVIT . Kinen~nlicSynlhesis of I,inkages
rrrNzE . Turbulence
J A c o n s m AND A Y R E . EtlGqineering Vihralior~~
~ ~ v 1 N A l.. Ettgitleering
i Cot1.1idera1iotl.rn/.Ylrc.~r, .ylrci~,ntzd Slretzgth Dr. J. KESTIN
KAYS . Co~tveclir~e
Heal and Mass Trcrtzsfir I'rofe~sor at ljrown Urlivrmity in Providcr~cc., ltliodc Ialand
LICIIIY Ettgine' P r o c e ~ ~ e s
. (~'o~nbt~slior~
M A R ~ N. K i l ~ ~ t t ~ aand
l i c ~D!jtian~Lsa/ machine.^
I-IIEL.AN . I)!/~lan~ics
qf Machinery
PIIELAN . ~ l l ~ l d f l t l l e l lrfl ~ ln/fecharlim/
~,~ I)(rrigtl
RAVEN . Arrlotnnlic Corrlrol En.gineerirtg
SOHP,N(:K . 7'hroric.r ?f Ettgitteeri~lgExpcrir~~enlnlio~l
scrrLlcrr.rrNa . Iloundary-Imyer Theory
s i ~ i o ~ . r : . u. Dyttamic Analysir of Machines
srrlnr.Eu . Kinenmlic Attaly.ris of iffechai~i.snzs M c G R A W - H I L L BOOK COMPANY
srrtol.eu . Mccltnr~icolEr~~gineerir~
Desigrl New York - .
St. Louis . S a n Francisco Auckland BogotL . .
s ~ l i o r . ~ :. .Sin~rrlnliot~
Mcchnrriral Sy.clcnl.r
nf
Diisselilorf . .
Johannesburg . London Madrid . Mexico . Montrenl .
~

S~IT)F(:KI;K . R~/j.igrro/inr~
ntld Air (~ondilioni~~g
New Uelhi - Pa~iarno . Pnri~l . Siio I'nulo . Singtrporo Sydnoy Tokyo . Toronto
 Con tents

L i ~oft 'Tnblcs xiii

Forc\vortl XV
Alltllor'n I ' r r f n r r t o I.llr Sovclll 11 (I':II~~~P~I) I':[lil.i~ll nvii
l'rnnslntor's 1'1~elncot o t l l c Scvcl~t,ll(l211glisl1)ICtliI ion xix
I'ro111 t l r r AIIIII~IV'S I'rcfncc t,o tho I " i ~ s(t( i r r l n n n ) IC(1it.ir111 sxi
Introdurtio~l I

I A. I'IBII~~;IIII~III~~
lrtws of n ~ o l i a ~
for
t a visrnrlr fluid

n. I'IIII~:IIIII~II~~~ rqltntiollrr of 111otio11 ~ ~ t y t o l l l ~ i t flon.

ntltl r o l ~ I . i l ~ r nl111lic.rl l
I,. (:vllrrnl nlrrss systclr~i t 1 n d r f n r ~ ~ l n hbotlg lr
c. 'J'11r r ; ~ t cat nl~irll t n t r n i l ~ r t ill
I I l ~ t i t rl l r l n n l ~ is
; l Ilo~v
rl. Ilrl:~t.i~,nI)rt\\nt.n strrsrr ittirl riitv o f ( l r f o r ~ t ~ a t ~ i o ~ ~
r. Slokm'n I ~ y ~ ) o t l i r s i n
f. 131111~ viscosit.y n l l d l l ~ r r ~ ~ ~ o c l1)rrsnrlrr y~~a~~~ir
g. 'l'lln N:rvior-Stokrs r l r l n t i o n n
Iirfrrrt~c~ra
.,
I his I ~ o o kw:rs sr.1 ill 1\111irj11n.'Tllr r t l i t o r war 1'r:llrlc ,I. Crrrri nllrl (lie p r o t l r l r t i o ~s~~ ~ p r r v i s lvns
or
,Jolt11 11.' l l : t r l r .
n. I)orivnlion o f I1rynnltl~'o1)rincil)lc of s i ~ ~ ~ i l r i r fro111
i t , y t l l r N:i\~irr.SI.okrs P~IIII~~IIIIR
1). F r i r t i o l ~ l m sflow 11s " n o l r ~ l . i o ~ ~osf" tlrc N~cvics-Stoltcnc q c ~ n l i o ~ ~ s
c. 'I'llc Nn\,irr-Sto1cc.s eqt~nt,iol~s illt(\rl)rntrd as vort.irit,y lr1111~1)ort (.~II:I~~~IIR
rl. '1'11<* l i t ~ l i ( , i ~cnsc
~ g o f vrsy Inrgc visvo8it.y ('cry ulnnll ILcynoltls IIIIIII~I(V')
c. 'I'llr lillliting rnse o f very UIII~III V ~ S ~ O I I R f o r ~ (~vn
r r y 111rg12 I < r y ~ ~ o I tIIIIIIII)~~~)
Is
I. h I : ~ l l ~ c ~ ~ ~ i:l~l ~t i~csntlr : ~ loi of nI . l ~ cprocrsn o f going to I.llr I i l l l i L R -'m
1Zc:fcrrnrex

lpirsl p ~ t l ~ l i s l l rill
< l 1111. (:rrlll:~n lollgltngc: 1111~lrr
1.111: fril,lc "(:llI':N;SSCIIl(~ll'~-~~II1501<I~"
ant1
C'olpyrigltt 1951 1j.v (:. Ijra1111(vnr111.C . I ~ ~ ~l I
l iI~If Il ~S
~ ~C
~ ~~
l ~11.I~\.vrIag)
~l r ~~~ 'GIIII)~~,
~ ~ k c ~I Cr a~s~l si r ~ ~ l ~ c
First. cllgIis11 c ~ l i I i n 1 1
( s r r o ~ ~b;fIitir)ll
ci o f t11c b r ~ o k )p ~ l h l i s ~ill
~ rIS155
~l
Srrotitl I C ~ ~ f i l ikCclilir)r~
sl~ (1701~rl.lr1Cclitio11o f I l r r book) p ~ ~ l ) l i s l i~nr d1960
'I'lrirrl I C ~ ~ f i l i sRlr~l i t i i , ~(Sixl.11
~ 1Crlilir111o f t l ~ nImok) p ~ ~ l ~ l i sill
l ~ rI!)liS
tl
 11 Flou in t l ~ inlrtr I r ~ ~ g of
t h n strnigl~tcl~nnnol
CIIAPTEII V. Exnct ~olotionaof the Nnvier-Stokes e q ~ ~ a t i o n a i. Tllr r n c t l ~ o ~orl finite diflcrcr~crs
a. Parallel flow j 13orlndory lnycr of second orcler
1. Parnllel flow t l l r o r ~ g nl ~straight channel and Couetto flow Rcfrrrnrc~s
2. T h e Hagen-Poise~~ille t l ~ e o r yof flow t h r o ~ ~ ga hpipe
3. The flow between two concentric rotnting cylinders \ l l X. ,\l)proxi~nntr ~ n c t l ~ o t lfor s t l ~ rnolnt,ion of t,l~e'
t w o - t l i ~ ~ ~ r ~ ~ n i strncly
on:il,
4. The n ~ ~ d d e n accelerated
ly plane wall; Stokes's first problcm l ) c ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ c I : ~ r ~y .ql ~ i~ync tr i n n s
5. I'low fornlat,io~rin Couet,tc motion n. ,\l)!)lii.nt,io~lof t l ~ rI I I O I I I ( . I I ~ I I I I I r q ~ ~ n l t.o
i ~ the
t ~ flow 11:lnL n fI11t 11llbt,e nt m r o
0. Flow in n pipe, start,ing f r o ~ nrest inc~clcnce
7. 'The flow near a11 oscillating flat plate; Stolccs's second problem b. The appr0xi1nat.c methocl d u e to 'TII. vo11 I<&r~n&n and I<. Pol~llraosenfor two-
8. A genernl class of non-steady solutions tli~nensionnlflours
b. Other exact solr~t.ions c. ('o~npnrison bct,\r.cen the npproxin~nt.eancl exact uolutior~s
9. Stngr~ntionin plane flow (FIie~nenzflo~v) 1. Flnt plate a t zero incidence
9a. l'n.0-tiin~ensiondIIOII-steadystngnntion flow 2. T~vo-rli;nensionsIst.agnation flow
10. Stagnntion in three-dimensional flow 3. Flow past n circr~lnrcylintler
11. Flow near a rotating dink d. I't~rtl~errxiirnplcs
12. k'lo\v in convergent nnd divergent cl~nnnels e. I , I I I I I ~flow
I I ~ with
~ ntlvcrrrc I>rcssItr(agrr~cliont;~ r ~ ~ : t r n L i o n
1:). C o n c l ~ ~ d i nr eg~ n n r k Ilc~frrr~~rcs
Refrr~nces
C!FI.ZI"I'IPIl XI. Axially s y t n n ~ r l r i r t ~ntlcl l tltree-clit~~cr~sic,nnl I,o~~n~l:iry layers
CIIAYL'ER V I . Very slow rnotion n. I5x1rct s o l ~ ~ t i o nfor s 11xi11lly~y111111rlrirl11 I)or~n(lnrylnycrs
I. I l o t a t i o ~II(-:I~
~ tllc gror~ntl
n. The d ~ f i r c n t i s leqr~xtionsfor t,he rase of very slow motion 2. 'Tile cirrnl:u. jct
b. I'nrallel flow pnst n sphere 3. 'I'lle nxially s y n ~ n e t r i c\r-nke
c. The I~ydrodynnrnictheory of I~~bricnt,ion 4. Ilor~ndt~ry 1nyc.r ~ I nI body of rrvolr~t,ion
d. The llclc-Sllaupflow I). r\plproxi~nntcs e ~ l ~ ~ t i ofor n snxinlly s y r n ~ ~ ~ o tbr oi c~ ~ n d n r1y1 ~ ~ c l - a
Rcfcrolrrs I. .\pl)roxin~n(cs o l ~ ~ t i o nfor s 0ountl:iry lagers on t~nclics\vhicll d o not rotate
2. lilow i r ~the entrnnrc of n pipe
Fort B. Lnnninnr L o u ~ ~ d a rlnyers
y 3. Bo~lndnrylayers o n rotating 1)odics of revolut.io~~
c. Ilrl:~tionbct\veen nxinlly uy~n~nctric:nl nnd two-tlirnc~~sionnl bonodnry Inyers;
CHAPTER V l l . l3011ntlary-lnycr eqr~ntion for tuo-dirnrnaionnl inrompre~sible flon; Milnglrr'3 trnnsforn~ntion
bor~nd:rrylnyer on n plntc el. ' ~ l ~ r e c - ~ l i ~ ~ ~ r ~I)o1111(1nry
~ s i e ) ~ ~ n layers
l
n. Ikrivation of bortnclnry-lnyer equations for two-dimensional flow 1. l ' h r I)o~~ntlnry 1:lycr on a yn\vccl cylinder
b. Tile scprr:itio~rof a 1)011ndary layer 2. lior~rltlnrylayers on othcr I~odies
c. i\ renlnrlc on t,l~eir~tegrntionof t l ~ cbortntlary-layer eqr~ntions I<rfrrrnrrs
d. Skin frir:tinn
e. 'Tl~cI)or~nclnrylnycr nlong a flat. plate
I . I ' l l < I I . 'I'l~rrt~~til I t o ~ ~ ~ ~ tlnycrs
l n r y in Inn~innrflow
I. I%or~nclnryInyer of I~igirerortlor ;I. I)l>riv~ltion of I llc cnrrgy rquntion
11 rfrrcnrrs I). ' I ' r ~ ~ ~ l ) c r :i~~crcasc:
~ t ~ ~ r r tllror~gl~ ndinl)nt.ic c o ~ n p r c s s i o nstngnntion
~ tr~npernt~~re
c. 'I'l~c.ory rrf sitnil:~rityin Ireat trnnsrer
rl. 1Ssnct s n l ~ ~ t i o nfor u t l ~ cproblcrn of t c ~ r ~ p e r n t u rlistribrrtion
re in n \.iscous flow
I . Cot~c.ttrflow
a. l)ejw~~(lrnccof t,l~ecl~nrc~ct,rrist.ics
of n 11o1111cl:~ry lnycr 011 tltc I l c y ~ ~ o l dn sr ~ ~ n b e r 1. I ' ~ ~ i s c ~ ~flow ~ i l l trl ~ r o n g ln~rt1:11111rl\vill~flat \vnlla
b. "Sinlilnr" so111t~ionsof tile hornrdnry-layer C ~ I I R L ~ O I I ~ c. I l o ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ l : r r ysin~l)lifirnt.ions
.l~~ycr
r. 'l'rnnnforn~nt~ionof t.110 bonntlnry-laycr cqontions into t,ho hcnt-condr~ction f. (:rnt%rnl11rol)crtics of thertnal b o i r ~ ~ ~ l nlnyers ry
CI~II~~,~OII I. Fnrcrcl : I I I ( ~I I ~ I ~ IfIo\vs II.~~
(1. 'I'l~e~ n o n ~ c n t , nnd
r ~ ~ ncnorgy-int.cgrnl o q ~ ~ a t i o nfor
s t,lre l)or~ndnrylaycr 2. .\<Iit~l):~tic \v:~ll
I{.clcrcnt.cn :j. i \ ~ ~ l ~ I)ct\\rr*n loq I~(-attrt111sfern11(1slcin frict,ion
4. K1fc.r.t Bf I'r:~ncltl nr~rnber
' 1 1 1 1 1 I 15unrt solr~tionsof the steady-stnk bountlnry-lnyrr rquations in two- g. ' I ' ~ I I . ~ I11n~111dary
I I ~ I ~ lay(.rs in forced (low
I. I';u.;rllc.l Ilo\v 1):rst a flt~tplntc at, zero incidence
tlirnensinnnl n l o t i o ~ ~ L .\clrlilio~~;~l s i ~ ~ ~ sol~ltions
il:~r of the cqr~ntionsfor t l ~ c r n ~ nI)or~ntinry
l lnyers
t
a. I'lo\r pnst a wrdgr :I. 'I'l~(.rn~irl1)o1111d:1rylayers on isothcr~nalbodies of nrbitrnry shape
b. Flon in n convergent cl~annel 1. ' I ' I I ~ ~ I I I I I Ibonn(li~rylnyers on \ra11s \vitlr a n arbitrary tcn~peraturedistril)~~tion
c . F l o ~ v~ ) n u t anylinclcr; nymmet.rical cnso ( B l n s i ~ ~series)
s 5 . 'l'l~c~~nirl I>nr~nclnry layers on rotatiotrally s y n ~ ~ n e t r an11 i c rotating botlirs
(I. J301111tlnrylnyer for t.he potentin1 flow given by U ( x ) = Uo - axn 13. . l l r t r s ~ ~ r c ~on ~ rcylinders
~ r ~ ~ t ~ nntl o t l ~ c rbody s l ~ a p c s
e. Flow in the mn.lte of flat, plate a t zero inridcnce 7. 1Slti-t:t of frcr-strrnn~t ~ ~ r l ) n l c n c e
1. 'Tlrc t.mo-tlimr~~sio~~nl lnn~innrjet 11. 'I'l~crn~i~l 1)01111(1:1ry lnyers in r ~ a t r ~ r nflow
l
g. I'arallrl sl.~cnlnuin Inminnr llow l<~~fl~rl~llrl~s
 1. 1lo1111dnrylityer brhillrl n lnovillg ~lorlnnlsllrivlc ~vnvc:
n.. I'l~ysi(~;il r o ~ ~ s i ~ l rions
rnt 2. Flnt 11loLe nt, m r o ilrcidel~cewith vnrinblc free-8l.rcn1n vclocit.y ntld slrrface
Ii. I?rlntion hrl\\.ccn tllr vclocit.y all11 IIlr t r ~ ~ ~ p r r n f rfirltln rrr tcll~pcrn.t.t~rc
I. A(li:il)nfi(: \v:ill
2. t l r : ~ tt. r ~ ~ ~ l s(flnt.
f c r pl:itr, clpit1.c
v. 'l71r ll:it, liInt,r 1x1,zrro i ~ ~ c i t l r t ~ c e
- 0)
l<<~fcrrlll~(~s

(I. I ! O I I I I { ~ 111ycr
: I ~ ~ wit11 11011-zrroprrssllrc grntlicnt Pnrl C. Trnnsiliol~
1. Exact. s o l ~ ~ t i o n n
I. I . 'l'llc L l l i ~ ~ g \ v o r l I ~ - S t c n . n r l~s~o: I~I~I S ~ C I ~ I I I : L ~ . ~ ~ I I
I .2. Srlf-si111i1:irso111Iin11s CITA IJ'rl~;lt X Vl. 0rigi11of I . I I ~ I ) I I I ~ I I ~ ;Io
2. Ap11roxi111:1to111rt11o(lu n. S ~ I Ic.xl~rrimt.t~lnl
I ~ r r s l ~ l h011 L r n t ~ ~ i l ~i o~ ~O ~I II I II I I I ~ I I I I ~1 0 t . ~ ~ r l ) ~ if llor\ v~ ~ l .
P. 111lrr:i(.lio11 I~c~l,\vr(*t~ sl~o(,lc\v;ivr n11rl lio1111[1:1ryl:iyrr I. 'I'r1111sitio11in 11ipc flow,
l~~~ll~l~~lll~os 2. 'l'rn11siIi011 i l l 1110 b o ~ ~ ~ ~ liiy(*r d n r y011 n ~ ~ l i Iio(lyql
I). I'ri~~rililen of tllc tlleory of st,aliiliLy o r Inll~innrIlo\vs
1 : I . I Z o ~ ~ ~ ~ c l : ~ r y c-o~~trc)l
- l : ~ y r r ill 1n111itl:ir(Ion. 1. Introtl~rc~t,ory rotllarka
2. Foundation of tllc ll~etllotlof ~III:LIItlist~crl~anccs
n. h l r t l ~ o ~of l s l)o;i~~~I:~ry-l:iyrr col~trol 3. 'I'lle Orr-Som~nrrlrltlrql~ntiolr
I . hl(it,io~~ of tllr solid wnll 4. T l ~ oc i g c n \ ~ n l ~prol)loln
~o
2. ~\<-(~c*lrr:~l in11 o r t II(* Iio1111(1aryInyvr ( l ) l c ~ \ v i ~ ~ g )
5. (:cnrrol propcrbics (II tllr O r r - S o ~ ) ~ r ~ ~ r crl~lnt~ion rfrld
3. SII(*I in11 r . Itcsr~llsof tile theory of ntnl)iliL,y nn tllry n p j ~ l yto tllc ~ D I I I I ( ~ I LI~~Yy c tri 1 1 i i 1I:1t
4. It~jc.(.lir111 of n clilli.rri~t,gns plat*? a t zero irlcidenco
6 . I'rrvrt~lin11t ~ trnllsit f io11 Ijy I I I C j~rovisint~o f s ~ ~ i ( n sl ~l ~l nr r ~ rIs,. n ~ ~ ~ i11cr0foi1s
t~nr 1. Sollle oltlrr i~lvcst.igntio~~s inlo st.nl)ilit.y
I;. ( ' o t ~ l i ~of~ gI I I wnll ~ 2. (Inlc:~ilnt,io~~ of bl~cclarvr of iln~~t.rnl nl.nl)ilit.y
I). l t o ~ ~ ~ ~ ( l ~ ~ rR yI I-CI~~~ iOj IcI r 3. I2csr1ll.s for I.lle l l r ~ tllllitn
I . 'l'llc~orvliw~lrc:s~~lln 11. Co111j)%ris011 of t,l~rt l ~ r o r yo f sliiliilil y \viI,l~rxprri111r111
I. I . I ~ ' I I I I I ~ : I I ~ ~CI OI ~I II ~~ ~~ ~ O I I R I. OI(1rr I I I C : ~ ~ I I ~ C I I ofI ~ Il I~~r ~: ~ ~ ~ s i t , i o i ~
I .2. 15xnct S O ~ I I ~ ~ O I I S 2. \'crificnLion o f the I.llrory of nl.;~l)ilit.yl)y r s l i r r i ~ ~ ~ r i ~ t .
I.:!. , \ l i [ i r o x i ~ ~ ~.:?~nl rl ~ ~ l i o ~ ~ s o. I':Ifict, of osciilntil~gfrre s t r c * n i ~ on~ t,rnnsitioll
2. l C x ~ i c ~ r i ~ ~rrsttlts ~ ( ~ ~ oil ~ l :s~~l ~ c t i o ~ ~ f . C ~ I I T I I I ~rr11111rk
I~II~
2.1. I llrrrasr ill lift. I<cferer~ces
2.2. I)vl.rrnsc? i l l clrng
c,. 111jrr.tiri11 of ;I dilli.rc*l~lg;ln ( I < ~ I I : IlIi.o~ ~ ~ ~ ~ li~yrrn) (l:~ry
I . 'l'lirorrti(~:~l rrs~ilts CIIIZI"TICII XVI I . IT
Origin of t.r~rl~~rlr~)r.c
I. I . '1.111. ~ I I I I ( I ; I I I I ~ I I I : I rq11:1lio113
I n. 15lTrrt cif [irrsnllre r:rclir~~Lon I.rnnnit.iot~i l l I)ortn(lnry I:ylcr ~ I O I I K ~ I I I ( > I I I I I \v:~lls
l .2. lCs:~vts r ~ I ~ ~ l i c > t ~ n . 11. t ) c t r r i ~ ~ i n n t oi ol t~t~r p o s i t i o ~o~r thr. ~ , n i l of
~ t i11s1ak1ilil.yTor ))rcsc:rilirtl Iiocly s l ~ ; i l ~ c
I .:t, . \ ~ ~ ~ i r ~ i ss oi l~~~~ ~t i:o~~l~( n~ c. EITt:rt of suct,ion OII trnl~sitionin :I bor~t~tl:iry layer
2. I ~ ~ I ) ~ ~ ~ I I I v I I rrs111ts
I:II tl. I':fTc:ct of I)ocly forc:c*s on trnneitiol~
I ? l ~ f f ~ l ~ l ~ l l < ~ l ~ ~
I. I!ountl;iry lnyrr on ~ o l ~ v c\vnlls x (rrnt.rif~rgnlliircrs)
2. The: flow of ~ ~ o n - l l o ~ ~ flr~i[ls ~ o g r(strnt,ilic:it,ion)
~~m
c. 14;ITc:cl.s drrr lo 11rt1t.I,r~~llsTt!rnild c:o~nprrssiI)ilit.y
I. 1111rotl~~ct,or,y rr111:trk
2. 'Clle c k c t of l ~ c a t.rn~lnfc:rt it1 i ~ ~ c o ~ ~ ~ l j r r sflow
silile
:I. 'I'lle elTrct o r col~~llrmsibilil,y
f. St:~l~ilil.y of :i I ~ o ~ i ~ ~ rInycr l a r y ill tllr p r r n r . ~ l cof ~ I l ~ r r . o - ~ l i r i ~ c ~ n s~i ol ~i s~ In tl ~ ~ ~ l ) ; ~ r ~ ~ ~ c ~
I . Iiloa. hct\vrcl~collcrlrl ric rot:~t.il~g ~yli~~(lcrs
2. U o ~ t ~ ~ r l nlnyrrs ry o n rollcn\rc \r:~llu
:!. Stnl~ililyof t l ~ r c . r - ( l i ~ ~ ~ n ~I ~~O sI Ii IoI ~( ~~I ;IInyrrs
~~ ~I
5.) 'I'llr i ~ ~ f l ~of~ rr o~t ~~ pcl r~ ~0l1 1c st r~a i ~ ~ i t . i o ~ ~
I . 111lr o t l ~ ~ r l r ~rrll~nrlz
r.y
2. S i ~ ~ g lryli~~(lric-t~l
r, 1~011gl111csn rlr111r111~
3. l ~ i s l ~ r i l i r ~r011g1111rss
tr~l
11. Axially s y ~ l ~ ~ ~ ~ r IIIo\vs ri?:il
I?vlrrrl~(vi
 4. Qundratr~refor t,hc cnlcnlntint~of plant t r ~ r b ~ ~ lboundary cnt layrrs
6. Apl)lic.ation or tho 111rtllo11
0. 1tc111arkson tho I)cl~avionrof t l ~ ctr~rbnlcl~t bo~rndnrylayers in t,lle prcnencc
of n prcsarlre gratlicnt
7. l ' ~ ~ r l ) r ~Iro~~ntl:trg l r ~ ~ t . Inyors wit11 snction nnd il~jcctio~i
8.
, . llortnclnry Inyrra on r r ~ ~ ~ ~ l )\vnlls rrrtl
r. I I I ~ I ) I I I C I I I I ) ; ) I I I I ~ I L I~I ~I ~ ( ' ~ H0 1 1 r~~.rofoil~;
I V I ~ X ~ I I I I I I lift
II
(1. 'Ll~rc(;.tIin~e~~ni~~~~al I ) ~ ) I I I I I ~ JI:~ycrs
L~,~
1. l301111tl:~ry Inycrs on botlirn or r c v o l ~ ~ t i o l ~
2. Boundary Iaycrn on rot,nting I)odies
A " I XI X 'I'l~rorrt.icnln s s n ~ t ~ p l i ofor
~ ~Illo
a cnlcul:~t.ionof turbr~lct~t
flows 3. Conv~rgcnta11t1divcrgrnt honr~dnrylayers
a. Fr~~rtlnn~cnl~al eq11:11io11u IZcfcrenccu
1). I'rn11tl1.l'~n ~ i x i t ~ g - l r ~ ~t,l~cnry
filli
c. l'nrt,l~cr nssutnl~lio118 fnr t,l~ctnrl)r~lrnt.sl~c~iringnt.r(;ss C!Ni\J"l'EI< XXIII. Turbr~lcntI~onndarylayers in cornjlressible flow
d. \'o~i I(krn~h.n'nsin~ilnrilyI~ypotl~mis
o. ITt~ivr~r-x;ilvelocity-ditllrib~~tion Inwu a. Getlernl rrnlarks
1. Tnrbr~lrntl ~ r a transfrr
t
1. Voi~I(hr~r~:in's vclocil~y-distril)~~Lio~~ law
2. I'1.;111t11.l'a
vcloei1.y-tlinlrib~~t~ion Inw 2. The fr~t~dan~elltal equntiotls for coinpressible flow
f . IC~crll ~ r clovclo~)rnc~nl.
r of t,l~t:orct.icnlhyl~ot,l~enes 3. Relation betxreen the exchange coefficient,s for r n o ~ n e n t ~and
~ ~ nheat
Itrfrrc-~~e,rn b. Relation between velocity a~itltrlnperatnro distrit)ntion
1. The trnnsfcr of l~cntfro~nn llaL plate
2. T l ~ ctmnsfer of hrnt fro111rough surfnces.
(Ill~\Pl'lCI1 XX. I'nrl)ulent flow t.l~ror~gh
pipru 3. 'I'crl~peratured i s t r i b t ~ t i oin~ ~rornpressiblc flow
a. E x p r r i ~ ~ ~ c nresillts
tnl for 811100th piprs c. Inflllence of Mach nunibrr; Iaxrs of friction
h. J<elntion hetween law of frict,ioll and voloeity distribution I. Tllc flat plate a t zero incitlence
c. IInivcrsnl vclocit,y-di~tribut~ion Iti~vsfor very large Reynolds numbers 2. Variable pressure
d. Ilv~ivr:rsnlresintallre law for slnootl~pipes a t very Inrge Rcynoltls n ~ l n ~ b e r s References
c. IJil)cs of IIOII-circ111nr CPORS-~(?C~~O~~
I. I{ongl~~tipcmnntlcclnivnlc~~t. st~ntlr o ~ ~ g l ~ ~ ~ e s s . CITAPTER XXIV. Free t , ~ ~ r b ~ ~flows;
l e n t jcta ant1 \\,akcs
g. O l l ~ r rIyl)cx of r o ~ ~ g l ~ ~ ~ r s e
a. O c ~ ~ e r rcrnnrks
al
11. 1"low in r i ~ r v c ~pipes l and tliffi~scrs b. Estirnation of the increase in width and of the decrease in velocity
i. No11-slrt~rlyflow 1t.1ro11gl1 R pipc
r. lcxlll1lples
j. l)r:~gI . ~ ( I I I P ~ ~ ( IlI ~I yt,l~cn~lclit,ionof 110ly111t:rs I. The smnothing out of a velocity discontinuity
I<rfrrcnc,vs
2. Free jet boundary
3. Txro-tlin~ensio~~d wake behind n single body
(Illt1l'~l'lSlt XXl. ' l ' r ~ r h ~ ~ l rl)on~rclnry
nt layrrn nt zero prcsnnre grntlier~t,;flat plate; 4. The wake behind a row of bars
rotnl.ing clink; r011~11ncss 6. The two-di~nrnnionaljet
n. 'l'l~cs111oo1l1flnt plntc 6 . The circnlar jet
I. J<rnista~~re fortn~~ln rlcdncetl f r o r ~the ~ '/7.th-po\vcr velority-Clint,ril)~~tion
law 7. The two-di~nensionalwall jet
2. Ilminl.:~nccfor~nr~ln tlodr~cetlfron~the lngorithlnic velocity-tlistribt~tiot,law d. l>iff~~uion of temperatrlre in free tnrbulont flow
3. Iprtr!11rr r e f i n e ~ n c ~ ~ t s ltcferencro
4. 151l'cc~tof finilc clin~ensiot~s; borrnrlnry 1:iyers in rorncrs
5. 1lor111cl:rryInye:rn \vit,h unct.ion rit~tlI)lowi~~g CHA1'TI':JZ XXV. T)ctcr~ninationof profile drag
1). 'l'hc re~tnling disk a. Ger~rr~il rcn~arlts
I. 'I'l~c"free" clink b. T l ~ ecxperiniontnl rnethotl t111et,o I3etn
2. '1'11~ (lid< in a. I~ortsing
c. The experitncnlal niethod d r ~ cto .Joneu
(,. l ' l ~ rr r ~ ~ r ~llntc
gl~ d. Calcr~lntionof profile drag
I . l'llr rrsistn~~ce l i ~ r ~ n t ~for
l i \a n ~ ~ i f o r t ~rong11
i l y plntc c. 1,osscu in t.he flow tl~rotlglicascatles
2. h l r : ~ s r ~ r . c ~ on
~ ~ sil~glc
r ~ ~ l . nrongl~ncsn0~rll1c11ts
1. General rernarku
3. '1'1.n11sition fro111a n l ~ ~ o oto t l ~t i rongl~R I I ~ ~ ~ L C O
(I. t1rl111issiI1lc rt~r~gl~ness
2. lnfl~lenceof R.eynolds number
3. Effect of Mach nurr~bor
I<t*frrrc*nr~c.s Referc~~cea
I
('1lAl"l'lClt XXI I. 'I'l~ri n r o n ~ ~ ~ r c n ~ti ~h l~r :r h n ll r~~o o~ nt d a i layer
.~ !vil.l~preqsurc gratlicnt Bibliography
Index of Anthon~
a. S o n ~ cr ~ x ~ ~ r r i t ~ ~rrsr~ll,s rnlol
' I). 'I'l~cc.iiIr~~ln (.ion of t \yo-tlin~rr~siotrnl I r ~ r l ) ~ ~ l honl~dnry
t*nt 10 yrrs Srtbjcct Index
I. (:r~~c.r:~l rcn~nrks Abbreviatioris
2. ' I ' I ~ I I I ~ I ( ( ~ I I I I ~ ~ i111rgr:11
~ ~ I I . ' ~ 111c1l1c~l List of most colntnonly uucd sy~nbols
3. 1l:lsit. (\c1111rl in~~n
'l':~I)lf~
I,I : Visrt~siIyvo~lvt.rsir>~l
f:~ctors
' l : ~ I l c I.2: I)+.t~sify.vis(.osily. IIII~I
I ( i t l r ~ ~ l i l t\,is(.osiIj
ir nf \ \ : ~ l f ' t:III(~
. itit. ill 1vr111s01' 1~111-
l ) ~ . K l 1lt.P
l

'I':IIII~ I.:&:I<~III~III:I~
ic, vist,osiIy
,.
I:IIIIV 2.1 : 'I'l~i(.I(l~vsn
o f I l o t ~ l l f l i ~ rl:~,y(*r,
y h. :II Ivililil~pt ~ I p ( o?r Il:ll ~ ) l : l l v:I(. xrsro ~ I I ( . ~ U ~ ( ' I I I . ~ '
ill 1):1t.alIt.l III~I>III~~III.
lIo\v
'I'nI)lc 5.1 : F~IIC~~OIIR orr11rri11gi n IIIC 8ol11lio11o f ~I:III~* :III(~ n x i : ~ l l yny111111c~lrir~:11 l11)\\ i l l 1
atngnntinl~p o i ~ ~I t' l.n ~ l rcnnc fro111 I,. I l o n . : ~ r t l(~141; : ~ x i : ~ l lf yi y l ~ ~ l ~ ~ ( * tr r:ISP
ir;~l
fro111 N. l ~ r r ) ( - s s l i ~IS]
~g
'I':~l)lo 5.2: \':111t(;s of Ill(:f1111r.1.in11s II(Y>IICIIfor Ill(* ( I v s r r i p l i o t ~of I I Illo\v
~ of :I (lisl< 1,01:1tit1g
ill :t l l t t i ( l t11 r ~ ~ n~YII(~III:II~II
l, 111, 1 . 1 1 ~\v:III :IIICI $11:I I I I ~ ~ C*
fIis1:111rvft.o1111111. \ t : ~ l l ,
:IS ~III~III:II~I 11y I$. hl. Sl~:trro\vIIIIII -1. I,. (:~,(%gg [:I21
'l':~l)lc. 7. 1 : 'l'llr f t t ~ ~ ~ . l /(I/)
i c > l f~ ~ t,l~(.
r l)o~tt~fl:~
l:~y(>r
r y ill0112n 1I:1l ~ ~ l : ~ l :tI.
c % ./.(TO~II(.~I~I~II(.I-.
r t 4 >I,.~ III)\\.:I~I II 1 I(;]
' I ' : ~ l ~ l c . 10.1: I<(:sII~~s o f t111: (::II('III:II~~oII
o f Ill(>1101111f1:1ryl:ly(.r for it Il:tt. jil:ll(* ill ~,I,~II ill-
r i t l r ~ l c v11:1sf~10 1 1 nl)l)roxi~ll:~I(*
I11r11ry
'I'lrl~l(! 10.2: Altxililrry ~IIII~~~IIIIR for 01t. :II)JII.~X~~II:I~~ o f IIIIII~II:I~
(.III(.III:II~OII I)OIIIII~III.~
l:~yf>rn,nl'lrr llr)ls1ci11:LIICI
l&ol11(!11
151
'I'nl)lv 10.:): ( l o ~ ~ ~ p : ~ roi fr ?~.xnc:l,
o ~ ~ : t t ~ r l nl)l~roxitt~:tI.c v : l l ~ l mo f IIIV I ~ o ~ t ~ ~ c l : ~ r y11:1vx-
-l:~y(~r
~llc.lr.rn for lllr c.:~sco f I ~ \ r o - t l i t ~ ~ c ~ ~ ~Rn~iRo~tI ~ l ( I I I110\v
I : Ii ~t ~
,.l:iI111:1 1 . 1 : '1'11~ f t ~ l ~ c l i ofor
~ ~ 1,Ilc
s v(;l~>rity( l i s l r i l ~ ~ ~ for l i o ~IIIP
i r;lst- r ~ ro1:1li011
f OVIT :I
s1:1lio1i:1ry \v:lll, : l l l r r .J. I{.N y f l : ~ l l~Hl l t t l
'l':~l)lc 12. I : I'li,ysir:tl ~~IISI:IIIIS
'I':~l)lc 12.2: l > i ~ ~ ~ r ~ ~ s ci oo ~ ~
f l li r si rs~o~f t l~c:il,
. - r , :III,I( l i ~ ~ t ( ~ : ~ s i oa~( ~
l t . : ~ ~ ~ s f t,il, l i :l ~r ~l )s: ~sl , i r
\v:LII IcIII~~-~:I~II~P. 1). for n II;LI, p l : ~ l c111.zrro ~ I I ~ I ~fro111 I ( ~(>~IIIS.
IIV~ ,
(12.70) :IIICI
( l2.7!i)
'I':IIIIV 12.3: ' l ' l ~ e(-OIISI;IIII, ,I ill t11c C-(~II:I~~OII for Ill(*V;II~~III;II,~~II01' IIlf-( ! ( > ~ - f l i ( . io~f* ~lt(::~l,
~l
t t , ; ~ ~ ~ sifnc rt,l~c~ ~ f ~ i g l ~ l ) n r)f
~ ~11rstng11:1t,io11
l ~ o o ~ l p o i r ~ l ,:~flc-r11. I&. SIIII~~(- ll:{l1
'I'JIIIIP \YIIII(>S
12.4: NIIIII(~~~~~:II If( 4 )
o f l l ~f1111clir>11
r
'I':tl~lc 12.5: \ ' i l l ~ ~ ronf (,Ire f ~ l t l r t i F
~ (l ~x ) f ~ frl ~rr: ~ l ( * ~ ~ l no tf inn ~IIIV~III:II
~ I ) o ~ t ~ ~ ( l1i1yr:r
:~ry
OII :L 11o11isoIlivr111:11 \\-:~ll; : ~ f l r r1). 1%.S p : ~ l ( I i l ~11201
g
'I'nl~lf! l2.G: Cof;ffivit-~~ls o f IIC:II, l , r a ~ ~ s f (n -t ri :t l~r:tl(~l vcri ic:~IIII:IIC ill 11:tI IIKII ~ Y ) I I Y
i r 1 1V
i ~I
(I;IIII~II:I~), n ( ! r ( ~ r d i ~1.0
~ grt-k. [!):{, !)4. [I)!). 121;)
.I.a l ~ l t ?13. I : 'I'l~c f ! ~ n r I , i oF'(,Y)
~~ fnr t11c jlrrssllrr ~ l i n l r i l ~ ~ ~:IIOII~ i n I,II(:
l , i n ~tt ~II:II III:IIA~
tlcigl10~111rI1norl o f a nliot-lc \ ~ n \ ~ill \vit,l~N~IIR. (l:!.S!)) :IIIII (l:l.!lO),
( ~tt(~~or(1:111(~
.
n f l r r N. (:III.IC 1241
.I.~ i l ~ 14.1:
lo l ) i ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ sI )ior~) ~~~~~l c( l.r sr vs, v - l ~. rl y~ci~~r ~ I 01
~ ~ntld
~ ( ~s11:111(-
sn f:~(.Ior r\l/rlq t111*
volo(:ity ~)rolil(:aill t.11~inil.i;ll 1(.11gl.l1on ;I Ilnt. p1:ilc. :LO zrrn iltrirlv~~rc. nil11
rltlifornl sllction, :t€lcr It. Iglisr~li[401
'I'r~lpleI1i.l :~f1~~vc.lrllgt,Il ,\(?I :tnd frrqllcr1c.v P,dr/~l, of 11rlll.rnlrli~111rbnnr:ra ill ter111sof the
I<c:y~~olcln t ~ r ~ ~ rR~Tor l ~ t.iro
r r bo1111c1:rry l:rycr O I I rr Ilnl. ~rlst,cnt. 7 . ~ ~i~rritlrrlce
0
( Ill:tniurt ~rrolilc.). 'I'l~rory nflcr W. 'l'oll111ir11 I!)!)]; nr~rn~.ricnl cnlc.~~lnt.iona by
I<.. .lorclirino~r1471 n ~ r t l1). It. I l o i ~ s l o ~bot.Ir ~ . Tor pnrnllcl flow. See Figs. I6.LO
allti 16.I 1
'I'i~blr17.1 : I)cl~c~~rclcnrc of rrilirr~lRcyriolcln I I I I I I I ~ I ~of: ~ vnlocil.y yrofilc~nu.iLI1 n~lotiollon
d i ~ r ~ c ~ ~ ~ ~nl~ctioir
i o ~ i I cvo111ri10
s$ f : t ( . I ~ rE, :~.fterUlriclr [24:1J
Foreword
'T:ll,le 20.1: I<:~t.io of Inearl to 1nnxi111u111 vc10t.it.y i l l pipe lir,w in t,ert~rsof tho expotle~~t n
of t,Ilc vclocity cliatribution, according to eqri. (20.fi) '1'0 t h e F i r s t E n g l i s h Eclitiotr
l':il)lc 20.2: (:c~rffirient,of rmintnnre for ~1110otli pi1)en i n terms of t,l~rI~eyt~olds rll111111er
'I':tldr 21.1: T<c.sist.nncefornrulri for fl;it p1ot.c corrrpr~ted frotn llrc lognrit,l~micvolority
~wofilcin eclns. (21.14) nrrtl (21.15) 13oiriitlnry~lngcrt.ltcory is tho cornerst.onc of our knowledgc of the flow of air
:mtl ot,lrt>rfllritls of small viscosit,y under circttn~stancc?~ of interest in many et)gincrr-
'I':~l>lo 21.2: ~ ~ r l ~ ~ l i ~height,
s i h l eof prot,r~hcrn~~cra i n t.ertiis of lhe Rcy~loltlsnr~rnhcr
i r ~ gnl)l~lir:~l.ions. T l ~ u smany complex problems in serodynamics have been rlnrifictl
'l':kl~lr21.3: ICx:~rr~plrs on tlrc a ~ l r ~ ~ l : ~of l i ontlrrri.wiblc
n ro~rgl~r~cas fro111Fig. 21.16 by a st.r~tlyof tllc flow wit,I~inthe bortntlary layer and its effect on the gcncral flow
'Ti~l~lc 22.1 : S~~nl~n:try of the qr~n~~t,it.ies w l ~ i c loccrtr
~ i r ~t.hc eqnnt.iona for t.lre cnlcnlnt.ion nrou~ttl t,lrc body. Srtch prol)lcn~sinclutle t,llc variations of minimum drag antl
of I,IIc tlirncnsionlraa rnomrnl,~~nl t.l~irknons,Rz, of tlio di~nensionlensenergy maxinlriin lift of airplane wings with Reynolds number, wind-tunnel t,r~r\,~tlener,
t~l~irlrrirrtn, Rn, a n d of the nlinpr fnr1,or; sre rqns. (22.1ln. 5 )
; L I I ~ Io(.li~;rpnrnmctcrs. Even in Lho~ccascs wltcrc (I complete mat~hernnt,iralnnnlysis
'rnblr 22.2: Sr11t1111nry nf n~r~rroricnl cotist,a~~ts Ll~ntorcur irr t,l~cexplicit cq~lnt,ionnTor 1,110 is at. ~wrsc:nt~ i~iipt~arlicrtblc, t,lic I~ortrrrlnry-laycrconcrpt, 11as been cxt.morcliri:~rily
cnlnc~lntionof r n o ~ n c r ~nr~rl l ~ ~ctlrrgy
r ~ ~ t,l~icknc*s;Rrc cqna. (22.lli), (22.17),nntl fr11ilF111 nt~tl~ t s r f r ~ l .
(22.I!))
'I':~lilr23.1 : The constaots 11 nrld b for the c:~,lrr~lntion of tho rocfficicnt, of lient trntrafcr 'rlto tlevclopn~ctltof boundnry-layer tlteory during its first fift,y ycars is a fas-
fro111cqn. (23.20) nnct of t l ~ crcco\,ery. fnct,or fror~~ eqn. (2:{.27), nft.cr H. Itci- c,i~~nl,ing illt~st,mt,ionof t,hc birth of a new concept,, its slow growth for many ycn.rs
clinrdt. 1731 and J.C. 1l.ottn 1811 in tlrc hntltls of its creator and Itis nssociat.es, its bclated acceptance by otllers, and
.
,Inl~lr24.1: I'oI\-c.r 1i~1r.n for 1.11c. inc:rr:~qcin ~\.idtIi:lntl for t.lie decrenac in tllc cc?~itrc-line
t,llc sr~I)srq~ict~t,almost expotlctrt.inl rise in the n u ~ n b e rof cont.ribut,ors t,o it.%furtller
vrlorit,y in trrtiln of tlist.nnce 3: for proI)lr~rlaof frre t~trl)r~lrnt flow devclopnrcnt.
T l ~ cfirst decade following the classical paper of Pranclt,l in 1904 brougllt forL1r
f w c r t.lln.1110 papers by Pmtrtlt,l anti his st~idents,a rate of a b o t ~ tono pn.pcr per
ycn.r. I)r~rit~g Llic pnsL yr:w ovrr 100 p:tpcrs were prtblisltcd on various XSI)CC~,S of
bor~rt(l:~.ry-ln~~cr t,hcory and rcl:~tctl nxpcrirncnl.s. l ? l ~ enn.me of 11. S(.lrlicllt.ing first.
nppc:Lrs in 1930 with his iloct,oral t,hesis on tile subject of wake flow. Short,ly therc-
nft,cr Sclllicht,ing rlcuot,ed major effort t o t,l~cproblcm of t h e stability of Intni~lnr
I~onntlxry-layerflow.
Rly O I V ~interest it1 !,tic cxpcrinretltal aspcct.~of boundary-layer flow begnn in
laltc l:~l,ct.wcnl,ics. Wiblt t,ltc n.pl)onr;cncc of Scltlicltl,ing's pnpcrs it~f.cnsivctrl,!~r~rr~l~l.s
were ~nntlet.o find Lhc amplifictl tlisturbarlccs prctlict,cd by t h e theory. I'or 10 yc:Lrs
tJic cxprrirnc!nl.al rcsrllt,s not only failctl t o conlirm t,liin t,ltrory I)ltt s~rj)[~~rI.(!ci
1.Itc
idea tllnt t,r:rnsition reslrlt,etl from t,ltc presence of trrrbrtlcncc in the I'rcc air sl.rc::~rn
as described in n theory set forlh by G. I. Taylor. Then on a well-rrmctnherctl d a y
in Augi~st,1940, thc predicted waves were seen in t h e flow near a flat plnt,c in a
wind turlrlcl of very low turbulence, The theory of stability described in t,llc pnpcrs
of Tollrnien and Scl~liclrtingwas soon corrfimedquantitativelyaswellasr~ltalit~~t~iv~~
German periodicals available in the United States after the war refcrred t o a
series of lectures by Sctllichting on boundary-layer theory whicli had been p~lblished
i n 1942. This document of 279 pages with 116 figures was not available for some
time. An English translation was given Limited distribution as NACA Technical
Memorandum No. 1217 in 1949. These lectures were completely rewritten t o include
material previously classified, confidential, or secret from Germany and other countries.
xvi I'orcworcI

T l ~ rcs~llt
c was t . 1 1 ~l)onlr c ~ 483
r pages nntl 206 figr~rospublisl~ctlin 1061 in the Gcrrnnrr
Iangrtagn. \Vhcn t,llis boolr bccn.mc Icnowrr t,o rcscarcll workers anti ed~lcntorsit1
t,llc Unit,oti St.ntcs, t.l~crowas nn inunctliat.c request fronl srvc~ralquarters for nn ICng-
lisl~t.mnslat.ion, sinro no rnrnpar:~blc book was avnilnhlc in t,ltc 1Snglisl1 Iatlg~lngr. Author's Preface to the Seve~itl~
(E~lglish)E d i t i o ~ ~
'I'l~ctcc:l~t~ical content. of t,llc? present. I':t~glisIretlit.io~tis dcscril)ctl i n t,l~cn r ~ t ~ l ~ o r ' s
prcf:~c.e.'l'l~cc~npl~:lsis is 0 1 1 t,l~oftlntl;rmc~l~l;rlpllysiral itlr:~srntd~c.r~,II:LII on ~ n n t l ~ c - 'rhe sixth (ISnglisll) r:tlif,ion of t,l~isI)oo:c ct,pl)rnrctl it1 I!)C,8; it tlin'cl~rtlvrvy litl.le
~ r l : l t . i c . : ~ l rc~finrlnrllt,.RIt:t.l~otlsof t,Ileorc:t,icnl n l ~ : r l ~ s iqrc
s sot fort41 along wil.11 s11c:l1
from thn fifth (Gcrlnan) ctlition of I!)FB. T l ~ ofirst) ((!rrmn,rl) rtlit,ion of t01is I~oolcurns
c~xl~~rirnont~al tln.t,n as arc ~tert.in(-tltt,n (Icfinc 1.11~regions of applic:tbilit,y of 1I1o
I~llc~orc:l~icnl rcslllt.s or t.n givr: 1i11ysic:rl it~sifillt,i ~ ~ tt011:
, o p11~:11orncnn. pt~l)lishctIin 1051. 111 t.11~(itne i~tt~crvnl 1)ctwccn l!)BI ant1 l!)fIR nn l<ilgli~l~ t!clit.ion
nl ways litllowocl n Gc.r.rrr:~nrclition. 1\11 Lri~t~rrli~Lior~a
Itnvc L)t!(,ri p r c p ~ ~ t ~
byx l1 ' 1 ~ o f i ~ s ~ o ~
Ac.rot~nrtt.icnl cngirlrc:rs ant1 rcscnrcl~ sc:irr~t.istsowc debt of g r n l i t ~ ~ t lto
o 1Ccst,ir1in nri n.rcon~plislrctlfnsl~ion.
1'1xd'rssor Sc:lilicl~t.ingfor t,liis t,irnolg review of l.hc 1)rc.scrlt stat,c of I)nr~trtlnry-lnycr
t.lleory. Whcrr J decided in 1075 t o writ,c a new rclit,ion of t.11i.qboolc I cnmc t,o t,llc con-
clusion t.l~nt,
t.l~oprc!crtli~~gst:clncnrc of a (1c.rtnnn rdit,ioll follo\vc:tl I)y nn 1Snglisl1c:clit.iotl
I). C., 1)corinl)cr 1064
\Vnsl~ingtot~ I l u g l ~I,. I ) r y t l r n was n o longrr ~trn.c:tic:nltlc.
'I'l~crcnsotl for it wn.8 lllc 11cnvilyinc:ronscvl cost, of ~)l.int,ing.
Conscqncntly, I suggrst.c-cl 1.0 the bwo pr~blishingcotnlm~lics,(:. llrnrlr~in I<nrlsl~rll~c
and McCrn\v-llill in New York, to protlrlcc n ncw otlit.ion only in tSlrcEnglisl~Iangrtage.
I express my t.llnnks t,o I)ot.l~I'u1)lislrers for their ronscnt,.
As in t,l~c~ ) r c v i o rrtlit,ions,
~~s 1 nt.t,onrl)t~rtlt.his tirrle also t.11sclcot for inc*l~~siotr 1.110
n~ost,i ~ n ~ ) o r t ~ co~~t,ril)rrt~ictr~s
:~nt, from among t,l~cnl)r~n~I:tnt~ t:rol) t,l~n.t,
n,pl~r:~t.(~(l
i l l l,ltc

~ncnnt~iitlc in t,llc licltl of bountlnry-layc:r t.l~c,ory,wit.lror~t.,I~owcvcr,nlt.c~.ingt . l ~ oI):lsic

st,rrrctnre of nly I)oolr. I 11ol)c t.llat t,hn principal t,l~rnstof t,l~eboolc rcmni~lrtlint.net,,
nnmcly t,he int,rnt. t.o rnll~lrnsizeant1 t,o present t,llcorrt,ic*alconsidrrations in a, for111
acccssil)lc t,o c.nginecrs.
Tllc sr~btliLisionof tile 1)oolz into fotlr parts ( I ~ ~ l n t i a r n c n tlaws
, ~ l of ~tiot,ionof n
viscous fluid; 1,atninn.r houndnry layers; Trnnsit,ion; 'I'r~rbr~lentItountlary 1;~yt.r~)
lras ltorn ret,airlrrl. Concerning ttlr rcrlrlilio~rsI win11 to mcnt,ion a few. Owing 1.0 t.11~
atlvrnt, c~flarge rlcclronic compr~t,r:rsit. I~ccatriepossil)lc t>otn.clclc Inany ~ ) ~ . o l ) l ~ - t r ~ s
t.1lnt wr1.r c:or~sitlerccttrnsolvnble in tho past,. T l ~ c s einclrttlc rlr~lncric:n.lsolr~t~ions of 1.111:
Navier-St,okes cqr~at~ions for moderately large Reynol(ls numbers (Chap. IV), nnrno-
rical integration of tho boundary-layer eqr~nt~ions for laminar nntl turbulrnt flows
(Cl~np.ZX),a8 well RS t , l ~ eexpLicit n~unerienl int.rgr:~t.ionof tllc O r r - S o ~ l ~ ~ t ~ ~ l . r ~ l t
equation of t.lle theory of stability of laminar bor~ntlarylnyrrs (Cl)ap. XVI). An-
other sultjcct newly t,nlcrn into nccorlnt nrc cxnct sol~rt~iolls of tlle Nnvier-St,olccla
cqu:~t,ionsfor tlrc t~on-st.c;~tly st,ngr~nlionflow (Cl~np.V), ~<II(:tltcory of t.111. I : I I I I ~ I I : ~ . ~
Itonr1t1nt.ylngcr o f scrontl ortlor (C)hnp. V I I nntl LX). 7'110scc:tions o n l,I~t:(::~lrril:~I io1101
two-tlinletlsion:~I,inconiprrssiblc, t,urbrllcnt boundary Inycrs (C1in.p. S X I I), on t l ~ c
st,abilit,y of Inn~inarboundary layers wit.11 compressibility anti heat-t,rnnsfc~rc:flccl.s
(See. X V l I e ) , :lntl on losses in nnscn.tle llo\r,s (C:l~np. X X\') Ilavc: bee-n c*o!~~l~lrtcly
revised.
xviii Ar~t,l~or's
Prefncr t.o tho Scvent.ll (Etiglisl~)Er1it.ion
Transliltor's Preface to the Seventh (English) Edition
Along with t.liis ncur mat,erinl, I feel t,hat I ought, t o niention the topics which I
spcoifioally omit,t,ctl l,o inclrtde. I d o not, rliscrlss t,he effect of chemieal reactions on The present is the fourth edition in the English language of Professor IT. Sclilioh-
flow processes in bountlary laycrs a s they occur in the presence of hypersonic flow. ting's "Gren7,schiclit-Theorie". Once again, the new edition was prepared in c l o ~ c
The sarnc npplios t.o I)onndnry Inycrs in rna.gncto-fl~~itl-tlytin~~tics, low-dcnsitty flows cooprrnt,ion wit,l~t,hc Autthor whoni J visit,rtl acvcral t,irnc%sin (.hct,t.ingen to finnlizo
ant1 Rows of non-Nowt,oni:~nfluids. I still t.Ironght t,liat T ought t o refraiti from giving tho content,^ and blle wording. I wish t.o t,lrnnlr I'rofcssoi. St:ltIiclit.ing for his I~ospit.nlit.y
a.n rxposit,ion of t,lir st,at,ist,icalt,l~eorjrof t,ttrl)~~lenrc in t,his etlit,ion, as in t,hc prcvio~ls ant1 M ~ R s ~McGrnw-Ilill
R. for pnrt,inl financial nssistnnc:e in conncxion wit.11t.hc:sc trips.
OIICR, I ) r r n ~ ~ ~
s ci o ~ ~ ~ tt.11crc
l n y sarc a\.nilnblc otlrcr, good prcscnt,nt.iorls in I,oolr form. This time there was no German print,ed editmionand t,lre modifications int,rodt~crtl
Once again, t,I~clists of refcrenccs have bcen expanclcd considcrahly in many by the author were transmitted directly t o me.
rhal~t,crs. The tiurnl~crof illust,rations increasctl by about G5, hut 20 oltl ones have been
I owe a debt of gratitude t o Profcssor 11. E. Khalifa for his help in t.he task of
omit,t.erl; the number of pages increased hy about 70. I n spite of t,his, I hope t.hat
proof-reading. My wife, Alicin, prepared the authors' and the subject. inclcxes ant1
t,he original character of t,liis book has becn retained, and t h a t it, strill can provide
compet,ently t,yped tellem under difficult circumstances. My secretary, Mrs. Giarin in
the reader wit,l~a bird'.?-e?/eview of t~liisimportant branch of the physics of fluids.
Providence, and Mrs. Icreibohm in Gocttingen expertly typcd tlrc manuscript; 1
As I worltrd on the new manuscript I once more enjoyctl t,hc vigorous assistance express t o them my sincere thanks for their paticncc. Both pultlishcrs, Mcssrs.
that I rcccivetl from scvrral of my professional collcagues. Professor K. Gersten con- G. Braun of ICarlsruhe and Messrs. McGraw-Hill of New York, spared no trouble,
t.tihutctl sect,ions on boundary layers of second orrlcr t,o the part on laminar bollndary as on past occasions, in meeting our wishcs regnrding the protluction of tlic boolr.
lnycrs (Seas. VIIf ant1 I X j ) . This is a special field which lie successf~~lly
worked out
in recent ycnrs. l'rofcssor T. K. Fnnneloep contributed the completely reformulated Providence, Rliode Island, Augilst 1078 ,J. I<estiri
sc-ct.ion on the numerical inkgration of t,hc boundary-layer erlt~at~ions included in
See. I X i . In t.hc part on turbulent boundary layers, Professor E. Truckenbrodt
provitlcrl me witall a new version of the largest portion of Chapter X X I I on two-
dimensional and rotfationally symmetric I~oundarylayers Dr. 1,. M. Mack of the
California Institute of Technology was good enough to contribute a new section on
t h e stability of boundary layers in supersonic flow, Sec. X V I l e . Dr. J. C. R o t t a
tliorougl~lyreviewed P a r t I) on turbulent boundary layers and made many additions
to it*.For the Russian litcrxtnre I rccrivstl nlurll help from Professor Milthailov. Tlie
translation was once again cnt,rustctl t o Professor J. Kestin's cornpetrent pen I ex-
press my sincerc tlinnlts l o all tliose gcnt,lcmen for thcir valuable cooperation.
I sliould also like t o rcpcat my acltnowlcdgemcnt of tlrc hclp I rcceived from
scvernl professional friends whcn I worltcd on the fifth (German) edition Nat.urally,
their contributions have now bcen rctaincd for the seventh edition. This is the ex-
tensive contribution on colnprcssiblc laminar bountlary layers inChapter XIIT written
by Dr. F . W . Rirgcls, Professor I<. Grrsten's section on thermal boundary layers in
Chapter X I 1 and Dr. J . C . Rotta's text on compressible turbulent boundary layers in
Chapter X X I I I .
I rxprcss my thanks to Frau Gerda Wolf, Frau IIilde TCreibohm and Mrs. Leslie
Gintin for the careful preparation of the clear copy of the nianuscript; Frau Gerda
JVolf was also very llrlpful for me in thc library. Mesgrs. Rotta, Iiummel and Starlre
were Irinrl c:nougli to asgist wit11 the reatling of t h e proofs
J,ast,, h r ~ not
t Irnst, thnnlzs arc rllte to Vcrlag Braun for their willingness t o accede
t o rny'wishrs : ~ n dfor thc pleasing apprarancc of the ltoolr
 From Author's Preface to the First (Gern~an)Editiox~
Since :t,I)o~tt,tltc Ocgit~nirtgof tl~t!t:ttrrcnt ct!nt,ttr.y 11iot1t:rn rt!sr:~rt;lt in t , I t t * l i t s l t l
of flrlitl clyn:rntics has :~clticvctlgrcat sut:ccsscs ant1 llas l)t:t:n n l ~ l cto ~)rovitlc:I Cllc:.
oretiral clarific:tkion of obscrvt:tl ~)ltcr~on~t:na wllicll t,llc! scicncc? of rlnssirnl Ilytlro-
tlyn:sntics of t,llc ~)rocctlitlgc:cntnry f:tilctl t,o (lo. 1Csscrtli:~llyt.llrt:c br:tnc:ltcs of l l r ~ i t l
tlyr~:lrnic,s11:~vcbccomc p:~rticnlarly well clcvelopctl tluritig t,l~clast fift,y years; t,llcy
inclr~tlcl~ot~ntlary-layer tl~cory,gas tlyrlarnics, antl acrofoil Lllcory. 7'11~present t~ook
is conccrncd ~vitlttllc branch krtnwn a s 11otrr1tl:~ry-layertllcory. This is the oltlt:st
1)rancll of modern flrritl tlynarnics; it w:is fort~~tlctl by 1,. I'mntltl in 1904 wllctt I I ~ :
succcedctl in showing how flows involving fluitls of very s ~ n n l viscosity, l in particular
w:tt,cr ant1 air, t,ltc most imporl;:~nt,oncs from t l ~ cpoint of vicw of applications, c:ln
11cn~:ltlc:~tncnr~blc! l o rnnt~l~o~nr~t,icnIr~nnly.qix.'l'llis wris r~c:lliovotl11y t.tiltirlg I.11t: t:lli:c:l.s
of friction into account only in regions \<.hero they arc rsscnt,i:ll, rtamely in tho thin
boltndary layer wllich exists in t,ltc irntnctliatc tlcigt~bottrl~oocl of a solitl body. Titis
concopt ~ n a t l cit possible to clarify many ~)llcnomonawliicll occur in flows and a,lliclt
Itatl ~n-cvionslybccn incotl~pmllcrtsit)le.Most important of all, it, ltns bcconto possiblr
t o sltt)ject problems connecterl with thc occurrcnc:e of tlrag t o a tllcorctical an:tlysis.
r ,
llte scicnco of aeronaat,ical engineering was making rapitl progress ant1 was soor1
&ble t o utilize these t,l~coreticalresults in pract.ical applications. I t tfitl, ft~rtliertnorc,
pose many problcms wl~ichcould be solvctl with t l ~ caid of the ncw bonntla.ry-1ayc:r
theory. Arronautical engineers have long sinco matlc: tllc conccpt of a t)ountlary
layer one of cverytlay use and i t is now unt.hir:kable tlo d o without it,. In other fieltls
of lnaclline design in wlticl~problcn~sof flow occur, in part,icular in the design of
t,url~ornacl~incry, t,hc t l ~ c o r yof bottndary layers rnatlc rnt~cllslower progress, I,trt,
in motlern tinies t,ht:sc rlcw conccpt,~Itavo come t o t,llc fore in s11c:11applic.ztions a s well.
r
I IIR prt:~ent 1)ooIt I I ~ SI)crn writ,tcn principally for cngir~ecrs.I t is t l ~ colzt.comt:
7

of a course of Icct,rrrcs which the Author tlclivcrctl in t,llc Winter Scn~cstcrof 1941/42
for I.l~rscinnt,ific worltcrs of tho Aoronatlf.ical Itcscarch Institut,c in I3r:~trnscl1wcig.Tho
stll)jt!t:t. mnttcr 112sbcclrt r~tili;r.ctlafter tlto war i n nlarly spc(:i:~l1cct11rt:s 11cld a t t . l ~ t !
ICngitleering Univcrsit,y in 13m11nscl1wcigfor sttltlcnb of rnccl~anicalengirtccring :Inti
pl1ysic.s. 1)r. IT. IIallriclnal~r~ prcparccl a set of loctr~rcnotes :iftcr the first soric:s
of lectures \rat1 been given. 'L'lrcsc were rcad mxd amplifier1 by t.hc h~rllior.They wt:rc
stll)scq~lcr~t,ly p~rblishetf in mimeograpltctl form by the Office for Scicrltific I)octt-
rncnt,at.ion (Zontmlc fiir wisscnschaft~licllcs 13cricltt~swc.scn)nntl tlist.rit~nt.ntl 1.0 :t
lirnit,crl circle of irrtcrcstctl scicntifir: worltcrs.
Several years after t l ~ cwar tho antdlor tlecitlcd c o n ~ p ~ c t ~ ct,ol yre-etlit, this oltlcr
c:ompilat.ior~and t o p1111lisl1it in the fort11 of a book. 'l'llc t.inie sccrnctl ~~art,icrtlarly
propitious becallsc i t appeared ripe for tllc publication of a comprel~crlsivcI)ook,
and hocal~sct.hc results of tltc research work carrietl orrl, tlt~ringfJlc last trn t.o twcrtt,y
yrxm ror~nrlctloff trltc wltolc ficld.
xxii FI,OIII
,\t~llior's t%r.f:~cr I I I C lcirst, (Cit;rnlan)1?tlit,io11
'She book is tlivitlctl i n k four main 1):trts. 'L'hc first, part contair~stwo irltro-
tluct,ory ch:tpters in which t,l~cfl~ntlamcnli~ls of 1)ounclary-layer tl~eoryarc cxpoundctl
witlrout, the use of mathematics ant1 then proccccls t o prepare tho matl~ernatical
and physical jllstification for the tllcory of lanlinar bortrulary laycrs, and inclutlcs
the theory of thormal bor~ndaryIaycrs. The t,llird part is concerned with the plleno-
menon of transition from laminar t o t,nrbulent flow (origin of turbulence), arid the
fourth pert is devoted t o t n r l ~ u l c n tflows. It is now possible t o take the vicw t h a t
the theory of laminar bountlary laycrs is complete in its main outline. Tho physical
relations have bcen complctcly clarifictl; the meifhods of catcrtlation have been
largely worked out ant1 have, in many cascs, bccn simplified to such a n extent, t h a t
they should present no difficulties t o engineers. Jn discussing turbulent flows use
has been made e~sent~ially only of t,llc semi-empirical thcorics which derive from
Prantit,l'~mixing length. T t is true t h a t according t o present views t.hese theories
~)ossessa number of shortcomings but not,hing superior has so far been tlevised
to take their plate, nothing, t h a t is, which is useful to t h e engineer. No accourrt
of the slstistical theories of tr~rbr~lcnce has been inclutlcd bccanse they have
not yet attainctl a n y pract.ical significance for engineers.
As irlt,imat,cd in the t.itle, the emphasis has been lait1 on thc thcorctical treatmcnt
of problems. An att,ctnpl, has hccn made t.o hring these consiclcrations into a form
whicll can he rasily graspctl by engineers. Only a small n r ~ m l ~ of c r resrrlts has hccn
quoted from among t(he vcry volominous oxperimcntal material. They have bccn
chosen for their suitability t o give a clear, physical insight. int,o the phenomena and
t o provitlc tlircct rcrific:rtion of thc t.lrcory prcsentcd. Some examples have been
chosen, namely those a~sociat~ctl with t,url)nlcnt flow, because they constit~ltethe
fonntlation of the semi-empirical theory. An attempt, was made t o tlcmonstrat,e
t h a t esscnt.ial progress is not, ~ n a d ctlrrol~glla n accumr~lationof extensivc exprrirnental
rcsriltn but ratlrer tl~rougha small n r ~ ~ l t b cofr fi~ndamentalcxperiment,~backed by
theoretical consitlerat,ions.
Brar~nschweig,October 1050 - IIermanrl Schlichting
Introduction
Towards the end of the 19th ccntury t,he scicncc of fluid mechanics began $0
dcvclop in two tlircctions wlticlr had pmct,ically no points in common. On t,hc onc
side therc was tile science of theoretical hydrody~tamicswhich was evolvctl from
Euler's equations of motion for a frictionless, non-viscous fluid and which achieved a
high degree of completeness. Since, however, t h e results of this so-called classical
science of hydrodynamics stood in glaring contradiction t o experimental results - in
particular a s regards the very important problem of pressure losses in pipcs and
channels, a s well as with regard t o the drag of a body which moves t,hrongIt a mass
of fluid - i t had litt,lc practical importance. For this rcason, practical cngincers,
prompted by tlic need t o solve the i ~ n p o r t ~ a nprok~lcms
t arising from the rnpicl
progress in t,echnology, developed their own highly empirical scicrrce of hydraulic^.
The scicncc of hydranlics was basecl on a large number of cxpcrinlent~nltlal,a :~ntl
difl'ercd greatly in its mct,lrods ant1 in its objccts from the scicncc of t.llcorct,icnl
hydrodynamics.
A t the beginning of the present cent.ury L. Prandtl clisti~lguishedhimself by
showing how t o unify these two divergent I)ranchcs of fluitl dynamics. H e achieved
a high degree of correlation between theory and experiment and paved t h e way
t o the remarkably successful development of fluid mechanics which has taken place
over tlhe past sevent,y years. It had bcen realized even bcfore l'randtl t h a t the discre-
pancies between t,he results of classical hydrodynamics and experiment. were, in
very many cases, due t o the fact t h a t the theory neglected fluid friclio?~.Moreover,
the complete equations of motion for flows with friction (the Navier-Stolres equa-
tions) ha.d been known for a long time. However, owing t o t h e great mathematical
difficulties connect,ed ~vit,llthe solution of t,llcse equatio~ls(with t h e exception of :L
small 11uniber of particular cascs), tho way t o a thcorct,icnl treatment of viscous
fluid motion was barred. Furthermore, in the case of the two most important flrlids,
11:~mclywater ant1 air, the viscosity is vcry small and, conseqnerttly, tho forccs
due t o viscous friction are, generally speaking, very small compared with t h e
remaining forces (gravity and pressure forces). F o r this reason i t was very difficrilt
to comprehend t h a t t , l ~ frictional
e forces omitted from t h c classical theory influenced
thc motion of a fluitl t o so large a n extent.
I n a pzpcr on "Fluid Motion with Very Small Friction", read bcfore the Mathc-
matica.1 Congress in IIeidelberg in 1004, I,. Prandt,lt showed how i't was possible tJo
analyze viscous flows precisely in cascs wlrich had great pmctica.1 importance. Wit,h
Abl~antllnngc~~
rur
II. Schlicl~lingand II. U6rtlcr. r o l I1 p p ' 1 5 - 5 8 4 .

t h e aid of t,hcorctical corlsidcmt~iotisanti scvcrnl sinrplc oxperimenk, ho provcd t h a t
the flow about n solid botly can be dividod into two regions: a very t,llitr lnycr in t,lre
neighbourhood of t.11~body (ho~~r~(la.r?j lu.?/cr)whcrc friction plays a n essetitinl part,
and 1,hc remaining region ont.siclc this laycr, where frict,iorl may be ncglcctcd. On
tho basis of Lliis Ilypot,l~esisI'mntlt,l sl~ccccdctlin giving a physically pcnrttrat,ing
nxl)lnnattion of tlrt: i~ill)ort,n.rrcc of viscous flows, achicvitrg a t t*lrosamc titnc n tnxxiinit~n
tlegrcc of simplification of tllc attcntlant rnat,ltemntical rliffic~ilties.The t,heorct,ical
considerations werc even tJ~cti snpport,cd l)y simplc cxpcrimcntn pcrformc:d in a
small water t,onncl whiall Prn.ridL1 built, wit,h his own Ilatids. I l c thus tmok the first
step towards a ro~ttiificationof tl~coryand pmcticc. This boundary-layer tilcory provctl
cxtrcmely frl~it~ful in that, i t provitlcd an cKcctive tool for t h e tlevelopmcnt of flnicl
tlynamic~s.Since t h e 1)rgitinirlg of t.ha cnrrcnt century the new theory has been tlcvc-
loprcl a t n very fast r:lta lrntlcr t,llc atl(lit.ionnl st,im~tlrisol~taincdfrom t,hc reccrrtly
fo~lntletlscience of aerodynamics. I n a vcry short time i t hecame one of thc fo~~tldat,ion
st.onrs of motlern Ilnid clynamics t,ogct,hcr with thct other very inlportant tlevclop-
ment,s -- t . 1 1 ~acrofoil theory nncl thc sciencc of gas dynamics.
In more recent t,iliics a goorl (leal of at,t,ent,ion has been devotctl to st,udies of t h e
mntlirtnat,irnl just.ification of bounrlary-layer theory. According t o tllcse, hollndary-
layer theory provitlcs us wit,h a first approximattion in the framework of a more
general t,hcory designed t,o ca1culat.e n,sympt,ot,ic expansions of t,he solutions t o t h e
coml)let,e equat,ions of motion. The l ~ r o l ~ l cis~ retlucetl n t o it so-called singular pertur-
bation which is then solvctl I)y t.hc mct.liod of nrat,cIrcd asymptotic expnnsions.
I3ountlary-layer t.hrory t,hus providcs 11s wit,it n cIassic example of the npplication
of the met,liotl or s i n g ~ ~ l a~)crt,rtrbnt,ion.
r A general presentation of pert~urbatiori
rnct,horls in flnid mechanics was prepared by M. Van Dykt:t. The basis of these
rnat,hotls can Ile Itraced t.o 1,. J'raritlt.I's early cot~t~ribut~ions.
'I'lic 1)onntlar.y-layer tlicory finds its applicat,ion in the ~nlcnlxt~ion of t,ha skin-
friction d m g wllic:h act.s on a body as i t is moved t,hronglr a fluitl: for example t h e
rlr:lg cxl)cricncctl a flat p1n.t~at,xcro itrcitlcnce, t,Ile t1m.g of a ship, of an aeroplane
wing, aircraft, t ~ a c r l l ror , t,rrrl)ineI)latlc. 13o1111dnry-layer flow 11:~st,I~cpeculiar property
t.ll:tt, i~ntlorccrt.airl conditions t,lle flow in t,lte imnictliat,c ncighbonrhood of a solid
wall 1)ccomcs rcvcrsed causing the I~ountlarylaycr t o separate from it,. 1111isis accom-
pnnirtl I,y a morc or lrss prorlourlcctl fonnat,ion of edtlics in tJlc wake of t,hc body.
'J'1111s t.hc prcssnrc (listrih~lt.ionis rltatigcd and differs marlrctlly from t h a t in a
frict.iool(\ss strcnm. ?'hc tleviat.ion in prcssurc tlist,ribut,ion from t h e ideal is t h e
carise of form drag, ant1 its cnicttlat.ion is t1111.smade possible wit11 the aid of bouriclary-
laycr t.lloory. 13ortntlary-ln,ycr t,heory gives a n answer t,o t,he vcry i r n p ~ r t ~ a question nt
of' w11n.t shape ~ n n s ta, hotly t ~ ogiven in orclrr t o avoid t.llis dct.rin~arit~nl scpn.ration.
St.pnr:rt.ion c*n.nalso oc.c:ltr i t 1 l.llc i~lt.crt~:tl flow t.hrorrg11 R (:11nntrcI ant1 is trot, confitlet1
t o rst,rrtrnl Ilows past solitl 0otlic:s. I'rol~lrms conrrcct,crl wit11 t . 1 1 ~ How of fluids
t.hroilg11 t,hc clrmrncls f(>rnrctl I)y t.hc I)lntlcs of t,urhomachines (rot.ary compressors
ant1 t,rlrl)inos)ran also he 1,rrntrtl wit,ll tho n.itl of 11ourrtl:~ry-ln.ycrt,Jlcory. I'r~rt.llcr~nore,
~~llc~lonrcrla wllic:l~ occur at, t,llc point of rnn.xirnnm jift, of nn acrofoil and wllicll arc
assoc.int,c:tl wit,ll s t . : ~ l l i t l (:;I.II
~ 1)c 11ntlcrst.oot1 only on tJlr 11n.sis of I)on~rtlary-layer
theory. I~irlally,problrms of llcat transfer I)ctwc-rn n solitl hody ant1 n fluit1 ( p s )
flowing past i L also bclong t o tllc class of problems in wltic41 bo~~t~tl:try-l:~yc.r 1)11c~no-
m r n n play n dccisivc pnrL.
At, first the bo~rritlary-layertltcory was devclopotl rnn.inly for f.lle c:~soof 1:~nlin:lr
flow in a n incon~prcssil)leflltitl, RR in 1.Ilis c:~sc t . 1 1 ~ ~ ) l ) ~ t ~ o ~ n t : t ~ o I o I~j,~)oI.I~t-sis
~it::l.l
for shr:~ringst.rrsscs a1rr:ttly cxist.ctl in t.hc form of Sf.oltc.s'x I:\w. ' l ' l ~ i s t,c,l,ir: W:IS
sul)scqucntly tlcvclopctl in a 1:trgc 1111rnl)crof rcsonrclt 1):tpcrs :LII(I rt::1(:11vtl s1tt~11 a
stagc of pcrfoct.ion Ieltat a t prcscrtt tltc problcrn of Intninar llow c:1.11111: consitlt~rctl
t o lt:lvc hccn solved in its main ol~llinc.1,:llcr the Llrcory w:ls cxl.ot~clt:tl1.0 int:l~rrl(?
turl~nlcnt,incornprcssil)lc bountlary layers which are morc irnport,n.nt from ~.II(: poitlt,
of vicw of practical applications. I t is true t h a t in tltc cnsc of t ~ t r l ) ~ ~ lflows c ~ i t .0. Iloy-
xrolds introduced t h e fundamentnlly important conccpt of nppnrcnt, or virt,~tnlt,ltrl)n-
lent stresses a s far back as 1880. IIowevcr, ttllis conccpt was in it,sc.lf itisr~ffioirnt tso
mn.ke tjltc theoretical analysis of turbulent flows possible. Great progress was acllicvecl
wit.11 t,he int,rotlnct,ion of I.'randtl's mixinglcrtgt.l~thcory (1025) which, t,ogol,hrr wit,li
systematic cxperimcnt.s, paved the way for the theorcf,ical ttrcntmcrlt of t u r l ) ~ r I c ~ t t
flows wit,lt the aid of boundary-ln.yrr t.hcory. llowcvcr, a rational t,lieory of fcllly
developc(l turbnlcnt flows is st,ill rroncxist.cnt,, ant1 in vicw of t,lic cxl,rt;rnc conl-
plexit,y of sltcll flows i t will remain so for a consiilcmhlc time. Onc cannot even IIC
ccrtain t h a t science will cvcr be successfnl i n this t,aslr. Tn modern times tho phcrro-
rnena which occur in t h e boundary laycr of R comprcssiblc flow have becomc the
subject of int.ensive investignt.ions, t h e impulse having I ~ r c nprovided by the rapid
incrcasc in tllc spcctl of flight of motlcrn aircmft,. I n atltlit,ion t o a velocity 1)oitntlary
laycr srtc:h flows dcvclop a tllcrrnal bonntlnry 1:~ycrnrtcl its cxist~cnccpln,ys :I.!) irn-
port.arit part in tllc process of heat t,rartsfcr bctwceri the Iluitl and the solitl body
past which i t flows. At vcry ltigh Mach numbers, the surface of Lhc solid wall bccornrs
heat,etl t o a high t,cmperature owing t o the protl~~ct.iotl of frictional heat ("tllcrrnnl
barrirr"). This phenomenon prcscrits a tliffic:nlt analytic problem whose ~ o l ~ t t i o r ~
is irnport.ant in n.ircmft tlcsign ant1 in t,hc ~~ritlcrsl,ar~dit~g of the motion or sat,cllites.
r 7
1 Ilc ~)1tenomenonof tmnsit,ion from liltninar t o t,orbnlcnt flow wlticl~is ~ I I I I ~ : L I I I B I I -
t.aI for t,he scicnce of fluid tlynamirs was first investigated a t t,hc entl of t l ~ cI0t.11 cell-
t,nry, naniely by 0. 12eynoltls. I n 3914 1,. 1'm.ndtl cnrrictl olrt, his famous expcrimrnts
with sphcrrs ant1 s ~ ~ c c ~ c dinc (showing
I flllat the llow it1 tlrc 1)orcntlnry1:~ycrcar1 also I)c
either laminar or turbulent and, furthermore, that, tltc problem of separnt,ion, ant1
hence the problcm of the cal~ulat~ion of dmg, is govcrnctl by this t,ransit,ion. Y'hcoreti-
rat invest,igations into t,he process of t,ransiLion from laminar t o tnrbulcnt flow are
t)asctl on t.110 acceptlance of Iteynoltls's 1 1 y ~ ~ o t I 1l,liat
o ~ i st,hc latt,cr oc:curs ns a con-
sccluc~rccof a n instability dcvclopcd by I,hc 1nminn.r I)onntlary layer. 1'rnntlt.l ittit.int.ctl
his thcorcl.icn.l ir~vestigntiotiof trnnsit*ion in tllc ycar 1921 ; after marly v:rin cflort.~,
succcss came in the ycar 1920 wlicn W. Toll~nicncompntrcl theorct,icnlly t,hc crit,ic:aI
Reynolds rrutnbor for transit,ion on a flat plate a t zero incidence. Ilowcvrr, nlorc
t.lran ten years werc to pass 1)efore l'ollrnictl's t,heory coialtl ho vcr;ficd t,l~rongl~ t.hc
vcry careful experin~cnLsperformed by 11. 1,. 1)rytlcn ant1 11;s coworltcrs. Tho st,nl)ility
tltcory is capablc of taking into account the cKcct of a ni~rnhcrof parnmct,ors (pmssurc
gradient,, suction, Mach nr~mlter,transfcr of heat,) on t,mnsition. This theory has
found m ~ t i yimport.ant applications, among them i n t l ~ cdosign of scrofoils of' very
low drag (1arninn.r ncrofoils).
 Modc:rn itlvcstigalions in i d ~ cficld of fluitl dynamics in general, a s well as i n
t(11c ficld of bouritlary-ln.ycr rcscarch, are characterized by a vcry close relation
bc!twcen theory ant1 cxpcrimcrlt,. l'hc most important steps forwards )lave, in most
cases, barn t,nltcn as a rcslllt of a smn.li r ~ u m l ~ of
c r fi~ndamcnt~a,l
cxpcrimcrlt,~bacltetl
by t,hcorot,icnl considcrat,ions. A rcvicw of tJlc tlcvclopmcnt of bountlary-layer
t.lleory wllich st~rcsscst.11~ rn~rf~nal cross-fcrt.ilizstiorl bctwccn theory and cxpcrirncnt, I'art A. F~~ndamental
laws of motior~for a viscol~sfluid
is cor~tainctlin s r l n.rliclc writt.c.1111y A. l<ctzT. I?or about, twenty years aft,er its
inception I)y T,. I'randtl in 1904 the bonndnry-la.ycr tllcory was being developed
nln~ostexcll~sivclyin his own institute in Goettingen. One of t h e reasons for this
st.nt,c of nffairs nlay well havc been root,ccl in the circum~t~ancc that, J'randtl's first
pnbliont,ion on boundary-layer t~l~eory which appeared in 1904 was very dimcult t o
understatltl. This period can be said to have ended with I'randtl's Wilbur Wright
Meniorial I,ect,~lre"which was dclivcrctl in 1927 a t a meeting of the Royal Aeronautical Outline of fluid motion with friction
Society in 1,ontlon. 111later years, roughly since 1930, other research worlters, par-
tricrrlarly thosc in Grent nrit.air1 and in tllo U.S.A., also took a n active pn,rt in its
tlevrlopn~cnt.Toclay, the study of boundary-layer t.heory has spread all over thc
world; together with ot,hcr branches, it ~ o n s t i t ~ u t eone
s of t,he most import,ant pillars
of fluid mechanics. Most t.Ileoret.ica1 invcst,igat,iorls in the ficld of fluid tlynamics arc based on the
concrpt of a perfect,, i. c. frictlionlcss ant1 i~~comprcssible, fluid. I n t h e motion of
Tho first survey of this I ~ m n c hof science was given by 1%'. Tollmien in 1931 s n c l ~a perfect flnitl, two cont,act.ing layers cxpcritrnrc no tnngcntinl forccs (sl~caring
in two s l ~ o r tarticles in ~ J I C l ~ lSxpcrirncnt,alpl~ysiIr":. S11orl~I.vaftcr-
" l l a r ~ ~ l b n cdcr st,rcsses) b l ~ la, c t on caclr ot,llcr wit.11 normal forccs (j)rcssums) only. This is cqr~ivalcnt,
wartls (1936), Prnrltltl p~~l)lishcd a cotnpml~cr~sivc prcsentnt,ion it1 "Acro(1ytlamic g a pcrfc-ct, fluitl olrcrs no inI.crria1 r ~ ~ i s I . a rt~o t a~ ccl~angcin S I I : I ~ O .'I'IIc
t.o s t a l . i ~ ~tl~nf,
'J'hcory" ctlitctl I)y W . I?. Durands. lluring t.11~ intcrvcning four tlccndcs tllc volutrle t.l~corytlcscribing !,IIc mot,ion of a pcrft:cl. Illlit1 is ~ n a t l ~ c ~ ~ ~ ~ n vcry t . i c : far
~llytlnvclopctl
of rescarch into this subject 11asgrown cnorrnonsly$. According t o a review published ant1 supplies in many cases a satisfactory tlcscril;t,ion of real motions, sncll a s e. g.
by 11. I,. Drydcn in 195.5, t,hc rate of publication of papers on boundary-layer tlie motion of surface waves or tlie formation of liquid jets in air. On the ot.her hand
theory reached one hundred per a.nn7r.ma t t h a t time. Now, some twenty years later, t h e theory of perfect fluids fails completely t o account for the drag of a body. I n this
tliis rate has more than tripled. Lilte several other fields of research, the t,heory connrxion i t leads t o tllc statement t h a t a I~otlywllich moves uniformly t,llrongh a
of bo~rntlarylayers has reac:hetl a voll~mcwl~ichis so enormous t h a t a n individual fluit1 which cxt.ends t,o infinity expcrienccv no drag (tl'Alcmbcrt.'s psmtlox).
scientist., even one worlring in this ficltl, cannot be expcctetl to master all of its
specializctl s~ibtlivisions.I t is, tl~rrcforc,right that, the task of describing it in a 'Pliis unacceptable result of thc thcory of a pcrfect Iluid can be traced t o tile fact
nlotlcrr~Ilanclboolt has \)ccn cnt.rustcd t,o several authorst. The hist,orical develop- t,hat. t.l~einner layers of a real fluitl t,rsrls~nitt,angent,ial as well a s normal stresses,
ment, of 1)ountlary-layer theory has recentsly been traced by I. Tani*. this 1:cirlg also t,l~ccase ncar n solitl wall wetted by a fluid. Thesc tangcnt#ialor frict,iorl
forccs 111 a rrxl Ilnitl arc conncctctl wit,l~a propertry wllich is callctl t,l~cviscosil?/ of
t,I~cl111i(l.
IZccairsc of tllc al)scnce of t,angct~t,i:~l forccs, on the 1)oundary bctwccn a perfect
llnitl : ~ r ~ ta.l solitl wnII Lhcrc cxist,s, in gcnt-r:~I,:I. tlilrrrcncc in rt~l:~l.ivc t,:~ngrnt.i:il
vrloc.it.ics, i. c. t.llcro is slip. On t,hc ot.l~crII:I.II~~,
in r(::11 Il~ri(lst,110 cxist.cr~(:t~
of it~t.trr-
lnolccular att,ractions callscs t,hc flnitl t o a d l ~ c r ct.o a solitl wall ant1 t,his gives risc
t A. I ~ c ~Ziolo,
z , Wogc r ~ r l t ll ~ t ~ ~ ~ ~ ~A I. IrR~W~Cl~~~ .tdcr
IiI vI ~lr6lnlltlg~for.~cllllng,
I r~ ZciLschr. VDI 91, l,o slrraring stmsscs.
(1949)
. . 2fi3.
" 1,. J'rallrlI,l, Tho gor~crnlionof vortiron ill fluirlsofatn.zII viscosit,y (15td1\I1ilbrlr Wright Memorial
.1,hc exist,cncc of t:rngonlial (slrcarirrg) sl,rcsst:s nr~tll,l~ccondiliols 01 ,to lip II(::I.I.
Jfir(llr~,1!J27).J . Jtoy. Aoro. Soc. 31, 721-741 (1!)27). solitl walls cor~st.itut,ethe essential tliffcrcriccs bcl,wccn a perfect and a real fltritl.
: (!/. tJlr biljliogr.zl~l~y on 11. 780. Cert,ain fluids urlrich arc of great, practicn.l imporl,n~lce,s r ~ c as l ~ water ant1 air, havc
: I,. l'r:~t~tll,l,' ~ I I c 111ecl1a.11irs
ol' V ~ R C O I I Sfluiils. Arrocly~~an~ii~
tl1oory (\I1.I?. I)urat~cl,rtl.), \'ol. 3,
vcry smnll coefficients of viscosity. I n many instsr~ccs.t l ~ cmottion of s11c11llvcid.~ol
34 208, l%crIin,1935.
6 11. S1:l1lirh~ing.So111etlrvcloprncn(.sof I~oundnry-layerrcsearci~in the past t,hirty years (The sn~nllviscosity- a.grccs
- vcry well wit.11 t,llat of a pnrfcct Iltritl, bccausc in most cases tile
'l.l~irll L ~ t l c l ~ r ~Met~lorin.l
lcr J,rcture, I!)T1!)). J . ]toy. Aero. Soc. 64, 03- 80 (l%U). shearing stressc?~ arc vcry small. For this reason t,hc cxist,cncc of viscosit,y is corrlplctcly
Srr nl?lo: 11. Srlilicl~ling, Rccrrtt progress in hor~ndn.ry-lnycr rcse:,rch (The 37Lli Wright. Brothers nrglcct.ed in l,hc t,heory of perfect fluids, ma.inly bcca.11set,llis irltrodnccs a far-reacl~ing
I I I ~ I 1~t 1: 1 r 1 ,! 7 ) \ I . J t t i r i : ~ l 1 427 440 (1!)74).
-
'
ext.cnsivc niathe-
simplificatiott of tllc equations of mot,ion, a s a result of
* I . 'I':\t~i.Ilislory of I~o~~r~rlnry-lilyor n l rrf I z l l ~ i r IMet*hnnirs9, 87- 11t (1077).
rmrnrc.11.A n ~ ~ r i Itrv.
~naticalt,I~coryI~ecomcspossil~lc.Tt, is, I ~ o ~ v c v ci r ,s l p m &
ss the ,
fact t,Ilnt,
even in fluitls wit,lt vcry srnall viscosit,ics, unliltc in 1)crfc:ct. fluiels, t.lrc rontlit.iorl of Tlrr rlunntit.y p is n propertry of tho fluid and depcntls t o n great exl.t!nt on it,s t r m -
no slip near n, solill I~orlndaryprevails. 'l'l~isc:ot~dil~iorr of rlo slip int,rotlrrros in many pcrnt,rlrc. It is n rnoasrrro of tlro i)i.~co.vit~y OF irI1o Il~ii(l.'1'11~ I:LW of' fri(:tior~givrtr by
(::~sos very I;rrgc tlisc:rcl)arrcics in t,lrc laws of ~noLiorlof perfect an(\ ronl fluitls. 111pnr- ccltr. ( I .2) is Iznow~r:LS Nrlidotc's 1rr.v~of frictio~t.ICqn. (1.2) cntl bc rrg:rrel(vl :~.st,llc
t.iclrlar, tllc vcry largc tliscrcpnl~cjrI)ctwcc~rLlro valr~oof' drag it1 a rral ant1 a pnrkct, c1rlinil.iotr of visc:osit.jy. It. is, Ilowevcr, ncc:cssary t o st.ross tflrnt tlrc cxnrnplc cot~sicl(:rc:d
Iltti(1 Ir:rs its 1~lrysit:nlorigin in t,lrc contlil,ion o f no slip nc,:lr :L wall. a r l y case of flttitl ~not,ion.A gnn(~r:lliz:~l,it,r~
irr I'ig. 1.1 (:o~rstitrrt.rs:L p : ~ r t , i ~ ~ ~ lsinrplc of
'I'lris 11oolct1r:rls wil,lr 1.Irc rnot,ior~of l l r l i t l s of'sm:~IIvisrosil,y, I)(-r:~rrsr
of t.lrc grc:~L this si111111(~ in St,olc(:s's I:I\v of frict,ion (cf. (!II:L~.
e:rs(: is cotrt~:r.in~:~I I I I ) . 'lq1t(* (1it11c~11sic)ns
I ~ : ~ c t , i citnport.ance
al of' tllc problcln. 1)nrirtg 1,llc cotlrsc of tlrc st2rrtlyi t will l~cconlc o f visrosi1,y c:all IIC tlotlrrc:c:tl wit,hol~t,diFlicrrll.y from cqn. (1.2)-I-.'1'110 sl~c:nritrgs1,rc~ss
clear how this p:trt,ly consistent arltl p:r,rt.ly tlivcrgcnt I)cl~aviourof pcrfrct ant1 real is ~ncnsurcdin N/m2 =I J'n nrld tltc vcloc:it,y grr~tlicnt~ tlu/tl?y in ~ o I .c l I ( s ~ r ( ~ ( *
fltritls can l)c cxpl:tinotl.

h. Viscosity

'I'II~: I I : L ~ , I I ~ of' y 11cst I)c visr~nlizcdwith tire nit1 of t,ltc following cx-
C v i ~ r o s i t ~can arc I I S C ( ~ t,o (lcrrol,~111ri1.s. '1'11~ :rl)ov~is not. 1,Irc: o ~ ~ l or
wlrcro tlrc sqlrarc 1~r;~(:Icct~s y,
l~rrin~nrrt,: Consit1c:r t l ~ c~ n o t ~ i oof n a fltritl l)cl,\vccrt two vrry long pn.rallnl ~)latcs,one even the most, witlcly, employctl rlnit of viscosit,y. l'ril~lc?1. I lists t,ho vnriorrs trnit,s
of wlrinlr is at, rrst, tflrc otlrer moving wit,l~n, constant velocitry pnrallcl t,o it.self, a s togctlrcr wit,lr their conversion factors.
sl~o\r,rrin Fig. 1 . l . 1,ct t,lro clist.arlcohctwcc~rOlrc plates bc h,, tlrc prrssnre l)cing const,nrrt
.15qn. (1.2) is rcl:rt.ctl t.o IIooltc's law for all csl:ist,ic: solicl I)otly in wl~ic:l~
rasc: t,lrc
shearing sCrcss is proport,ional t o tho strain

Icig. I. I. \'rIol~it~y r l i s l , r i l > ~ ~ t~. iI o:bI ~ ~ I l r r c (: tlenotes lhe n~oclnlusof shear, y the clrangc in anglc bct.vrrc.cn tfwo linrs
viscorrn l l r ~ i t ll)c*t~vrrn I.rve) p;~rallrl wlriclt were origirrnlly nt right arlglcs, nntl 6 tlcnotcs tlrc clisplr~ccrncnt,in (.Ire tlircc:t.ion
Ilrrt \vnlls (Co~lrt.t.c flolv) of a1)scissae. Wllcrcas in tlrc cnsc of a n elastic solitl tlrn s1rc:aring s1,rcss is 1)rol)orl.ional
t,o the n~ngniturleof the strain,, y , expcricnrc tcaclrcs tlrnt in t l ~ ccase of fluitls it is
proport,ionnl t.o tllc vale of chnnrlc. of strrr.in tly/tll. If' we prrt

we s1r;~llol)tain, as bcforr,
a11
t 'fl
?I!/
bccal~sc5 = XI. Jlo\vcvcr, t.llis analogy is not, complcf.c, I~ccarlsc t,lrc: st,rc:ssas in :r
In ortlnr 1.0 s ~ r p p o r tt,lre motmionit is necessary 1.0 apply a I~n~~gcnt,ial forcn t,o t,lrn flt~itltlepcntl on one corrst,atrt., t,lrc viscosit.y ti, \vlrc~rc-:istlrosn i r r :tn isot,rol~iccsI:~sLic:
ttl)prr l)lnf,o, tlro li)rcc 1)eirrg in cc~t~ilibriurn with tlrc f'ri~t~ional forces in t,lrc flrritl. solicl tlnpcntl on two.
It, is Itnonw from expnrirnont,~llrnt t,ltis forcc (t.a.l~cnper unit a r m of t,lrc plal,c)
is ~)rol)ort.inn:r,Ito t,hc vc?loc:it,y 1J of tlrc 11l11)erplat.c, ant1 invcrsrly proport,ion:~l to
l h c tlist,:r.trrc~h. 'l'llc l'ricl.ion:ll forcc por r~rrit,area, tlcnotctl by t (Srict.ional slrcaring
sl,rc~ss)is, t,licreCore, proj)ort.ionnl 1.0 lJ/h, for wlricl~ill general we may als? ssulist.itpr~t,c
tlii/tl?/. 'l'ltc: 1)r01)01.t~iotr:rIil.y
tl(:~~ur(Is
I
fnr:l.or I)ct,wcnn t ant1 d71 tly, wlriclr we sllall d c ~ ~ o tI)y ,c ,~i,
or1 tho rralfrlrc: of 1.110 ll~ri(l.11, is srna.ll for. " l , l ~ i r i " fltti(ls, st~clrnk ival.cr or
:~l(:olrol,I ~ t r t1:~rgnin t,hc case of vcry visco~lsliql~itls,srtclt a s oil or glyccrinc. 'I'l~lrs
wc 1r;tvc ol)t,:~inctlt,llc ftl~rtl:rrncnt,alrclnt,ion for flllitl frict.ion i t r t,lte form
>
t \Vc sllnll ro~~si.sl.c~~t.ly
IISC i l l l.l~in I)oolc l.hc grnvil:ll.iri~~:il or c'~~gi~lr:cril~g sys1c111of r ~ ~ ~ ii ltl s :
ncrord:l~tcowit11 i~ltc:rt~n(io~~nl ngrccrncnt. t.l~cR Y I I I I ~ I k1)
~ :11111 I1)C \vill I),: rrst:(l 1 0 ~ ~ ( ~ I ~I JoIIP. ~ :
du rcsj~ectivcrt~titso f lorre; t.lte corrcspor~tli~rg ~~ttiLs
of n~a.rswill Ijc tlr.l~ot,rtlI,y t.lrr nl~lircvi;it.ions
(1.2)
= ~ I Y. kg n n t l Ib rrspoct,ivrly. I n some tnhlcs, tllc tnlit~\\.ill bc tl~osc? of 1110 SI S J . R ~ ( ~ I I I .
 I. Ont,line of fluid lnotion wit11 friction c. Compressibility 9

Table 1.l. Visco~ityconversioti factors Numerical values: 111t,lre case of liqnicts t h e v i ~ c o s i t ~/yt , is nearly indcpct~clent,
n. Aljsol~lteviscosity / I of pressurc a n d tlccreascs a t a high raLc with increasing tcml)crat,urc. 111 tlic case of
gascs, t o n first npproximat,iorl, t,hc v i ~ c o s i t ~cnrl y b e tnlzcr~t o b e intlcpcntlcnt of

kp ~ e c / m ~
I kp scc/mZ

1
I kp 1ir/m2

2.7778 x 10-4 9.8067

Pn see prcmitrc 1)11t,i t irlrrcnscs wil,l~l,crnllcr:~,l,r~rc.
has t,llc s:l,nlt? t.ypc of t,ctnl~er:at.ilrotloj)o~~tlct~c:o
oltly ~ l i g l r t l ywith t c n ~ p o m l , ~ l rIlowcvcr,
c,
'I'Iio Itinc?~nal,ic? vi~cosil,~ 1 1 , , for litll~itl.q

a s / r , I)ct.n.ttso Oltr tlottsit,y, 0,( - l ~ ~ i t ~ ~ r s

ill t,ho c a w of gn.scs, for w h i c l ~C, tlcc:ro:~..qc~
kp hr/ltlZ 3,600 1 3.5404 x 104 consitlcrsbly with incrc:~silig tc1npcr:~1,11rc,11 i ~ ~ e r c a s cr:t.pitlly s willit (,cmpcmt.urc.
I'n see 1.0197 x lo-' 2.8325 x 10-5 1 Table 1.2 contains s o m e numerical values of Q, p ant1 v for water a n d air.
kg/m hr J 2.8325 x 1W5 7.8682 x 10-8 2.7778 x 10-4
Ibf sec/ft2 4.8824 1.3502 x 10-3 4,7880 x 10' T a b l e 1.3 contains some additional lisefi~lclat,a.
Ihf lir/ft2 1.7577 x 10" 4-8824 1.7237 x 10"
Ilj/ft scc 1.5175 x 10-I 4.2153 x 10-5 1,4882
l'ahle 1.3. I<inc~nat.icviscosity

kg/m hr ] I d sec/fL2 / ibf 11r/rt~

I Ib/ft see
Liquid
Trltipcrnt.nre 1, x loe
3.5316 x 10' 2.0482 x 10-' 5.6893 x 6.5808 "C [ m2/el
127.1 x log 7.3734 x lo2 2.0482 x lo-' 2,3723 x 10"
1 2.0885 X 5.8015 X lo-'' 6.7197 X lo-' Glycerine . . . .
0.1724 x 10" 5.8015 x 10--1-6115 x 10-8 1+3666 x Mercury . . . . .
620.8 x 106 1 2.7778 x 3.2174 x 10' Mcrcrtry . . . . .
5.358 x 10" 3,600 1 1.1583 x 10" 1,nbricnting oil . .
3.1081 x 8.6336 x 10-a 1 1,ubricating oil . .
J,ubricnt.ing oil . .
0. I<incn~nt.ic
viscosity v

tn21scc
I tn2/11r cm2/scc ftysec I ft2/hr

m2/sec 1 3,600 1 x 101 1.0764 x 10' 3.8750 x lo4 c. Compressibility

m2/hr 2.7778 x 1 2.778 2.9900 x 1.0764 x 10'
cm2/scc (Stokes) 1 X lo-" 0.36 1 1-0764 x 3.8750 Compressibility is a measure of t h e change of volume of a liquitl o r g a s u n d e r
ft2/sec 9.2903 x 3-3445 X lo2 9 . 2 9 0 3 ~ 1 0 ~1 3,600 t h e action of external forces. I n t h i s connexion we c a n define a moduli~sof clnsticily,
ft2/hr 2.5806 x 10-5 9.21103 x l o z 2.5800~10 2.7778 x 1
R, of volume changc, by t h e equation

b e 2 . Dcnnit,y, viscosit.~,nnrl kinc1nnt.i~viscosity of wnkr utld air in terrns of tolnpcratrlrc

Air IIcrc A V / V o tlcnotcs t h e rclativc changc in volume br;ougllt a b o u t by n prcssuro in-

Wntcr a t n prensare of 0,099 MPa crease Ap. T h c compressibility of liquids is v e r y small :c.g. for w a t e r E = 280,00011)f/in2
(14.69G lhf/in2)

1
'I'cmperntnre .
.
--
which means t,llilt &: pressure increase of 1 a t m (14.7 lbf/in2) causes a relativc change
1Cincri1nLio Viscosity ICinelnatic in volume of a b o u t 1/20,000, i.o. 0.006 pcr cent. O t h e r liquids show similar propertics
Viscosity
ncnsity e viscosity Den~it~y
Q viscosity s o t h a t their compressibility c a n 1x3 neglected in m o s t cases, a n d flows of liquids can
v x loe l X loe bc regarded a s incompressible.
"C kg/m3 ,u Pa 8oc r~tz/4ee1 kg/ms 'I Pa set mz/sec
J n t h e case of gases, t,t~emodulus of elasticity, E , is e q u a l t o t h e initial pressure
- p,, if t h e changes a r e isothcrmal, a s can easily be deduccd from t h e perfect-gas l a w t
-20
-10
0
-
99!3.3 1795
-
-
1.80
,,1.39
1.34
, 1.29
16.6
16.2
16.8
11.2
12.1
13.0
For a i r at NTD (st~rnosphcricpressure a n d ice-point t e m p e r a t u r e ) E 14.7 Ibf/in2,
which m e a n s t h a t air is a b o u t 20,000 times m o r e compressible t h a n water. Similar
'=
10 999.3 1304 1.30 1.25 17.4 13.9
1.01 1.21 17.9 14.8 conditions o b t a i n for ot,Iler gascs.
20 997.3 1010
.40 991.5 655 0.601 1.12 19.1 17.1
60 982.6 474 0.482 1.06 20.3 19.2
80 971.8 357 0.367 0.99 21.5
22.9
21.7
24.4
t From tlic perfect gas laor it c:ln be tlcdncetl tllnt tlie clialtgc ill vol~ltnc,A V, cnusctl tty a cl~nnge
100 959.1 283 0.2!)5 0.94 of prcsnnre ilp. sntisfics tlie relatior1 (p,, -1- ;lp) ( Y, C A V) - p, V,. I i o ~ c ct l p - p, A IT/ If,,.
 111ortlvr 1,o i~trswrr1,Irc ~ ~ I I C S I ~ ~of O I I\vI~t:i.lrrrit is ncccssiLry 1.0 l.aI<eint,o account cl. Tlre Ilngrn-Poisc~rillee q ~ ~ a t i nof
~ l flow
s tlirougl~n pipe
t.lrt?c:otrr~)rt~ssiI)ilit.y nfg:~st,s~ I 1)rol)lc.m.s
I,Irt* t ~ l r : r r ~ i~l lcI)rr*ssrll,o
~s
I of f l r l i c l Ilow it is rrccc:ssnry t,o cor~siclcrwhether
I)rorlgl~t,:LIM)III. I)y 1,Irt: n~ot.iortof'I,lrcgllrtitlcarlse Jargc cllanges ..
I Ire c l c ~ n o n l . a law
r ~ of fricLion for a sirrrplc flow wil,lr sllonr tlt:sc~~il)ctl in SccLion
i r r v o l ~ ~ n tIt~~r .s l ~ c * of
i r r tlt*t~sil.y,
: ~ ~eor~sitlt~rir~g
l
0.Owilrg 1.0 (.II(. c:otrscrv:tt.io~~
If,, el,, so t.11:tt. /Ie/.,, --1--
V O I I I I I I ~ - S itr is :llso ~)ossiI~Ic
o f r r r r ~ swo
to e~1~i111~1,e
~ , t b ; l r i write: ( V,
A if/ I',,, nlrd ~ Y ~ I I( I, .f,) r:111 be written as
tJrc charlgo
/I V) (Po4-Ae) =
tllc wall is zero, l)eca~rscof atlllrsiort, a t ~ t lrcarl~c:~
-
I 1) o:tn I)(: ap~)lictlt o t,hc ilnl)ortant,. ant1 111orc:general, (:asc of (IOW Ir1rrt>t~g11
pipe of circular cross-sccl.ion 11aving a corist~anttlia~nnl.crI )
:L sl.r:\iglrtl
2 R. 'l'lrc vclocil.,~a t
a tn:txirnl~rnon the axis, I'ig. 1.2.
Tllc vcloc:iLy remains co~rst,arrton cylintlrical surfaces wlrit:ll arc conccnt.ric wil.11 t,lrc
axis, ant1 1.llc i~ltlivitlnalcylintlricnl i : ~ ~ n i n a~ol i t l covor tvl.r>llol.lior, t.110 vc~lot:il.yl)l.itrg
pr~rclyaxinl c:vcrywlrcrc. A rnot,iotl of t,l~isI t i t r t l is c:~llt*tlIrrnri)ttrr. At. :L s~ll'Iic~ir:rrl~ly
large (Iist,:trrccfrom t,l~c er~t,r:~r~c;t:
si:t:t,iorr l,l~t:vt~locil~~v
~list,ril)r~I~iorr
:li:ross l,l~i:st:t.t ior~l)t:-.
( ~ o n s c ~ t ~ ~ tl.lic I ~ I yof a g:r.s ~ . : L I I IIC consit1t:rrtl iltaom~,rcssiblc:wlrc?rr tllc relative
~ r ~Ilow cotncs it~tlc~ctltlcnt of Llrc coorclirlate :~long1I1c tlirc:c:l,iot~of Ilow.
elrango ~ I Itlrnsity rt:rn:rins very snl:~ll, Ap/e0 <
1. As know11 from J3erno11lli's
otlrtnt.ion p t ?, w Z = i:otlst (irr = . vt:loc:il.y of flow), t l ~ cchange of premure, A p ,
I)ro~lgIrl,:~l)orlt,I)? t.Ir(: flow is or t,ltc ortlcr of the tlyn:lmic hentl q = 1 p 1112, so t h a t
crltt. ( 1 . 6 a ) I)t~t:olrrcs
Fig. 1.2. l,:~rni~~nr
flo\v t.Iiro~rglln pipe
If, t.I~t~rc~foro, /lp/e,, sllol~ltlI)<: srn:r.Il cornl)am~l\vil,ll nnitrjr t.lrcn, as seen from cqn. (I .G),
wc ~nrtst.:~lsoIlavc q/IC Q I. It Ilas 1.1111s hccn proved t h a t flows of gascs car1 be t,rcat*ed
as i r ~ t : o ~ t ~ ~ ~ r o s\\,it11
s i l ~ l ac , good tlcgrco of approximabiocl, if t.11~clynamic lrratl is
?')re fluid moves under t,11e i l l f \ l ~ ~ofl l t,l~c
~ ~ pressure grntliont w11ic:lr act,s in till:
stnnll c:orrrp:~rc?tlwit01 ~ J I motlulrrs C of cl:~st,icit,y.
directiorl of t,hc axis, w h c r c . ~in scctions whicl~are perpondicrllar 1.0 it tlrc prcsstlro
r
I IIC s:Lrnc rrsrrlt, can Ijc cxprcssctl irr a cliffcrcnt way if the velocit,y of sound is
7
may be rcgnrded a s constant. Owing t o friction intlivitlual laycrs act on caoli ot.lrcr
itll.rotlrtc:c~rlittl,o t,l~attqrrat,ion. Accortlilrg t,o 1,aplacc's ccjrl:~t.ior~
1.11~
velocity of sollrrd witll a shcaring strcss which is proportional t o the vclocit,y gmdicnL (17~/i1?/.lIctloe,
is c2 = K/c),,. llt\trrc t.hc c:orrtlit.ion Ae/pO Q 1 from c:qtr. (1.6) can also be written a fluid particle is accclcrated by thc pressure gratlicnt anti rclardcd by t h c frictional
shearing st,ress. No additional forces arc present, and i r ~part,icular inertia forccs arc
absent, because along every streamline the vclocity remains constant. I n ortlcr t o
establish t h e condition of equilibrium wc consider a coaxial fluid cylinder of Jcngt01 1
r
and radius y, Fig. 1.2. l'he condition of equilibrirlm in t,hc x-djrccl,ion rcqrlirt:~tllat
J Ilc ratio of1.11t:vt:locit,y of flnw, 70, t,o 1.hc vcloc:ity of sonl~tl,c, is lcntrw~las the Mach
7

t h e presslire force (pi-p,) n y2 acting on the facrs of t,l~ccylinclcr Oe r.q~l;\lt.o t . 1 1 ~

nr~rnhcr shear 2 n ?J l . t acting on t,he circ~rnlfcrcnt~i:darea, w l ~ r n r owe olrllain

,I ,IIC ~)r(-rctling
a r g ~ ~ r r l cIeatls
n t ~ 1,othe cor1c:lnsion (.hat compressibility car1 bc ncglcetctl
it1 I,hc l.rt~:~l.rnt:~~l~
of t,llc flow of gascs if l n accortlancc with the law of fricLion, cqtl. (1.2), we Iravc: i r ~t21re prrscnt case

: M2 << 1 (approximately itlcornprcssiblc), (1.a)

i . a. if 1.lrr hlacli ri~rrnl)cris stn;rll comparctl wit,ll or, in otlrcr wortls, if t,ho flow
vt:locil,y is srnall t:ornl)amtl with t l ~ cvelocity of sol~ntl.I n t,hc case of air, wit,lr a
vrlori1,y of sollntl o f a l ) o r ~ct .=. 1100 ft,/scc, tho cllangr irr dcnsit.y is Ap/eo 1 M2 =
- 0.05 for n flow vi.loc:il.y lo --- :!:jO ftilscc. 'rl~jsvalue can be acccpt,rtl as 1,hc orlt,sitlo
-
litnitt wl~t:rr a g:r.srorls flow car1 I)c cotlsidorcrl int:omprcssil)lc.
I t 1 \vl1:1.t, li,llows \v(: slrall ofi,t:t~ assume tthc flr~itlt o I)c incotnprcssil)le, wllicll
will rcsl,ric-1, t,l~orcs111t.sLo small h l : ~ c l ~ rulr11l)crs. Ilowcvcr. or1 sevcml occasions,
i r ~p:trl it:~~l:ir i t r ( ; I I : I , ~ ~ .X I I , X 1 I I , : t t l t I S S I I 1, onr rrsttI1,s will l)c rxt,ct~tlrcit o ir~cl~r(Ic 'J'lrr const.nn1.of i~rt.cjim.l,inn,C, is obt.ai11ctl from 1 . 1 1 ~rontlit.iorr of IIO slip a,(.111t- \v:~ll.
c~orr~prc~ssil~l~: Ilrlitls. l'hlts 7, - O a t ?I -. It, st, t.liat (: r= 112/4, nntl finnlly
 1. Orrl.li~rr:
of firtit1 motion with rrirtiotr e. Iprinciple of ~irnilarit~;
the Roynolda and Much nurnbern 13

I n the present section we shall endeavour t o answcr a very fundamcntol qllcstiorl,

~ l a m c l ythat, conrcrnrd wibh the contlitions under which flows of diffcrcnt fluids
about two gcomct,ricellg similar bodics, and with identical initial How clircct,ions
~lisl,litygcomnt,rically nitnilar strc!atnlincs. Such mol.iorrs which lravc gconrot,rirnlly
si~nilarstrrcarnlincs arc cnllctl tb?y,atrm.icttbl?ysirnilrr.r, or .qimilnr /10111~9.Jpor t w o Ilowa
nl)ont, grotrrotrici~llyaitnili~r1)otIic~a(!:. y . irbont two s ~ ~ l t o r c awi1.h ) ~lill'(:~.(:tt(.
( I l r i ~la,
clilli~rclltvcloc:itics. r~rltl
. tiillkrcni;
.... - .iincirr tlirncrtsior~s,t,o bo ~irnilar,it,, is cvidcnLly
Ilccessary i h a t t h e f o.. l I o ~ v ~ ~ ~ g ~ qshoulcl
! ~ ~ ~bet ,satislic(l
i~n ;.st ?ll.gc,~-me_tr,~~~!ysirni,l.r
POillt$ thC . .f6FCCS
.- . .. acting
. . on a flrtitl psrt.iclc niust !car a fixccl ~ t i o - lcvcry t instatlt
df t.iii16,
\Vc sItaIl now cdnsicter the irn~~ort,nrrt casc whcn only f'rict,ional and inert,ia
forcrs are present,. IClaslic forces wl~iclimay bc d u c t o clrangcs in volrnnc will 1)c
cxcllltlcd, i. c. i t will bc assrlmcd t h a t t.hc fluid is incompressible. Gmvit:r.t.iot~:ll
ILln. (1.1 I ) s t n t ~ st h i ~ ttbc vo1111ncr;.tc of flow is propnrtiounl to tllc first Ix)wcr forces will also be cxcludccl so th:~t, conscqucntly, frcc surfaces are not adtnittctl,
the 1)r""Urc (1'0p ppr onit lrngth (pl-p2)/l irnd t o 1.11.: fo~trt,llpowor of tllc ra(jills of anti in the interior of thc fluid t h e forcc of gravity is assumed t o be bal:~r~cccl 1)y
the pipe. Lf the mran vclooity over tho cross-scctioa li = 112 is intrr)~llllsrl, buoyancy. Undcr thcsc nssnmptions the condit,ion of similarity is satisficcl only if
eqn. (1.1 1) can bc rrwrittcn ns a t all points the ratio of incrtia arlcl friction forccs is tlrc satnc. 111
a motlion pnrallel t o t.he x-axis t h c inertia force pcr unit volr~mehas t h e magnit,urlc
of g l)lr/l)l, whcrc u tlcnotcs tlrc componctlt of vclocity in Olrc x-(1irct:tiorr and I)/1)1
clcnot,cs the sribstantivc dcrivativc. 111tho casc of stcady flow wc can replace it
b y e aslax - (lx/,It = e v al~lax,where alllax clcnotcs t,hc r:hangc in vc1ocit.y with
position. 'I111us the incrtia forcc per unit, volumc is c q u i ~ ltjo C, u aulax. J'or 1.11~ fric-
tion force i t is easy t o deduce a n cxprcssion from Newton's law of friction, cqn. (1.2).
v 3
"qn ( 1 - 1 1) call
Illc n.:l,llo(l corl~isl*in thc mCanarel?~cntof tllc rat,c of flow ilnd of t,llc pressurn (jmp
C ,;.
6'.t l t ~cxperimcnt.nl d c t e r n ~ j n a ' i o i~) f ~ J IviSCmit,y,
~t,ili~(:(:"
Considering a flllid pnrt,iclc for which tho x-direction coinci(1es with t h c rlircct.ion of
motion, Fig. 1.3, i t is found t h a t t h e resultant of shcaring forccs is equal t,o
across a fixell portion of ~1cn(~ill:lryt ~ t b cof know11 m l t u r . Thus cIlollg~ldnt,a rite a~
= -a~
dxdyd~.
providrcl t.o dctcrtninc 11 from ecrn.
T ~ Itype:
. 1 I .11).
\--,-
of flow to'wlrich cqns. (1.10) and (1.1 I ) apply exists i n reality only for
rclativcly small radii arid flow v~locit~ics. For larger vclorities and radii t h e character Hence t h e friction force per unit volumc is equal t o atlay, or by eqn. (1.2), t o p a2u/ay2.
of tho mol.iorl changes complctcly: tlrc prcssurc drop ceases t o bc proportional t o
t,hc first powcr of thc rncan volocit,y as inrlicstctl by eqlt. (1.12), but becomes approxi- Consequently, t h e condition of similarity, i. e. t h e condition t h a t a t all corres-
mately proportionnl t o the second power of zc. The velocity distrib~lt~ion across ponding points t h e ratio of t h e inertia t o t h e friction force must be constant, can be
a secbiori hccolncs much more ur~iforln and t.hc well-ordered laminar ]notion is written a s :
-Inertin- fxcc L! =,on, t .
replaced h y a flow in which irregular and fluctuat,ing rarlial and axial velocity com- 2
Friction force p a2u/aya
por~cntsarc supcritnposcd on tltc main mot,ion, so t h a t , consequently, irlt,cr)sivc
ntixing in a radial djrcction takes placc. I n such cases Newton's law of frict.iorl,
eqn. (1.2), ceases t o I)e applicable. This is the case of lzdrbtcle?tt flow, t o l)c tliscnsscd
in great cl(:t,ail latcr in C l ~ a p .XX.

Fig, 1.3. Frictional forces

1.. I'rinciplc of si~nilarity;the Reyr~olds Mac11 n ~ ~ m b c r s acting on,a flrlid particle
Tltc t y p r of ilui(l n ~ o t ~ i ocliscussn:(l
~i in thoI preenling Scct,ion w r . very simple
b c n a s c evcry flrricl part,icle ninvccl iltr(lcr the irifl~tcnecof friotior~aland pressure
S r c a s orrl.y, incrtia b r c r s laing cvcrywl~crec q ~ l riln zero. 111a divergent or convergent I t is now necessary t o investigate how these forces are changed when t h e magnitudes
(:hn~trt~(:l fl11i11 ~):~,rticlm arc n.rt,ocl u1)ort by inert.ia forces in atlclif.io11 t o pressure and which determine t h e flow arc varied. The latter includc t h e density e, t h e viscosit,y
frirtiorr forrrs. p, a representative velocity, e. g. t h e frcc stream velocity V , a n d a characteristic
linear dimension of the body, c. g. the diamct,cr d of the sphcrc.
 Tlte vcloc+ily I L a t some point i11 tlrc velocit,y field is proportionnl t o t.110 free 1Sq1tat~ingl.Ile cxponen1.s or L, T, and F on hot,li sitlcs of t,llc cxprcssio~rwc ol>t:lin
strrnln velocity IT, l,hc vcloci0y gratlictlt au/ar is proportional 1.0 Vld, ant1 similarly three crqna(.ions:
a 2 t r / ~ yis
2 proporlior~alt o V/d2. Ilcricc the ratio F : )I -4- 0:: 0 ,

?'herefore, t,llc condil.ion of ~irnilarit~y

is sat,isfictl if tlie q l ~ a n t i l ~p yV d / p f ~ nthe
s same
value in bol,l~flows. The qo:~ntityp V d / / i , wllicll, wit11 11.1~ = v , can also 11c wriOt,cn
ns V d/11, is a tlimcnsiotlloss ~lnrnl)cr\>cen.tlsci t is t.11~ mt.io of t,l~ct,wo forces. I t is
R. Tlir~st,wo flo\vs arc similar when t,I~cl<t:ynoltls
known a s t.110 Ilayitnk1.c ~slr.?t~bar, J.liis
r, sl~o\vs~ I I I there
L ~ cxisl,s :L ~ t n i q t~l i~~cn e ~ ~ s i o r ~ct)tnI)it~al,ioti
lcss of t,l~t: I'ont. (111:1,1tti-
nlltrl her tics V , d , p ant1 /L, nnmoly t,lte Itcyrtolds n l ~ m b c rR.
e I'd - I'd
(1.13)
R= .- --~-
Din~ctlsint~lcss quaatities: 'I'hn rcasolring followctl in tllo precetlitlg drl.iv:~fitin
I' v
of the Rcynoltls nulnher can be e ~ t ~ c n t l et od inclndc tlte casc of d i f f c r e ~ ~Itrynolrls
t
l hoth. This principle was f rst r n u n c i a t ~ t lby Osbornc Reynolds [I 21
is c ( l ~ ~ afor numbers in the consitlerat,ion of tlle velocit,y ficltl ant1 forccs (normn.l :~ntltangont.i:rl)
in ronncxion with his iuvrstigations into the flow through pipes and is known a s for flows wiLh geornetrica.lly sitnilar bot~nc~arics. Let ttlr position of :L point in (.lie
Rryr~olcls'sprinciple of sin~ilarity. space around t h e gcomctricnlly similar botlics bc intlica1,ctl by tllc coortlin:tI.c~s1,!/,
z; t~llentho rat,ios z/ti, yltl, z/tl arc its tlitncjlsiotlless coortlirt:~l,cs.rl'l~c vc~loc:il.yt:oltt-
'rhr fact t.hat the Rcynol(ls nr~lttlit-ris tlimrnsiorllrss ran \)e a t o n r r verified
poncr~t,sarc lnatlc climensionloss by reli!rriog tllern t o the free-stream vc*loc:il,y V ,
clirrrlly l)y consitlrril~gt,hr climrnsiorls
thus 711 V, 111 V, w / V, and l l ~ ltorrnal
c and sltcarirlg strosscs, p :~ritlt , cart bo mn.clcr tlirnct~-
sionlcss I)y reforring thorn t,o Lllc tlorlbfc of t,llc tlyrtatnic lieatl, i. e. t o p V Zt.hus: p/p 1'"
ant1 t / p V2. Tlre previously cn~~nciat,c~d principle of dynnmical sitnilarit,y can I)c c~x1)rt~s-
set1 in :Ln alternative form by asscr1.ing t,llat for tile two gcomctricnlly sirnilnr sysl,cnls
with. equal Reynolds numbers t h e dimcnsior~less qr~ant~it~ics 141 Y , . . ., p/p V 2 i~tld
e Vd -
--.!b
C
:r2 . .f t . - rtg
=1
11 f t h v c lbf sec t/e V z depend only on t h e dimensionless coortlinatcs x/d, y/d, z/d. If, Ilowcvcr, t,Ile
two systems are geomet~ricnlly,b u t not dyrlamically, similar, i. c. if t.lleir Rcynoltls
wliich proves t l ~ a ttlic Reynolcls number is, i n fact, cbncnsionless. numbers are different, t,llen tltc tlimensionless quantities under cor~siderat~iorl innst,
Mrtl~oclo f indiccs: Instsntl of tlte corisitlorat.ion of t,hc cotldition of dynamic also depend on t.11echamctcristic quantities V, d , Q, 14 of the two ~ y s t c m s .Applying
sitnil:~rit~y,Reynolds's prit~c:il)lccan also bc tlctl~~ccd hy cnnsitlcring dimcnsioris the principle t,llat pl~ysicallaws rnust I)e independent of the syst,cn~of nnit.s, it. fi>llows
by t.hc tnctllod of intliccs. .In tltis oonncxion ilse is made of t h e observation tellat,all / . . ., p / e V2, T/Q VZ can only dcpentl on a
t h a t t l ~ etlimensionless qtiarif,it,ies ~ c V,
physical laws must be of a for111which is ititlcpcntlcnt of t h e particular syst,erri of dimcrlsionless combinatlion of V , d , Q, and 11. which is ~ ~ n i q n being c, tJlo Itcyr~olds
~ l n i t scmplo,yetl. J n t,l~ccase ~rntlrr corlsitlerat.ion I,lle pltysicrtl clunnt,it,ics wllich number R = V d e/,u. Thus we are led t-otile conclusiori t h a t for t01c two gcon~cbric:~lly
clel,er~nir~r the flow :me: t h e free st.rcam vc:locit,y, V, a rt?prescnt,at,ivo1inra.r tlimc>n- similar systtcms w11ich have different Rcynolds n u ~ a b c r s ant1 whicll arc bring
sion of t.l~chotly, (1. a s wt~llns thc densitmy,e, and tlic viscosily, IL. no\v a.slc compared, the dimensionless quantities of the field of flow can only be f~mcl.ionsof
whcl.llrr t.l~crecxis1.s a rornl)itl:l.l.ion of t,l~rscq~~attt,it,ir.s
in t , l ~ cform tlic tthree dimensiorlless space coordinates z/d, y/d, z/d and of t.11~R.cyriolcls
number R.
Tile ~)rccc(lingdirr~c~isiotral annlysin can bc ~ ~ l i l i z c t lo tt~:~ltc a n itrlport,:r.ttt,
asscrt,iorl about the t.obl force excr1,cd l)y a fltlitl strealn on an immcrsotl I)ocly. 7'11c
force acting on tlto bocly is tllc surface integral of all normal and ~ l l c a r i n gst,ressc:s
acting o n it. If P denotes the component of the resultant force ill a n y given direction,
i t is possil~lcto write a tlirncnsionless forro coefficient of t h e form P/c12 Q V2, 11111, in-
stead of tlrc a,re:b d2 i t is cnstomary to clloose a diKcrcnt chnract,crist.ic aro:l, A , of
t,he immersed body, e. g. the f r o ~ ~ ta.rea
a l exposed Ly trIle body t,o tile flow tlircct<ion
which is, in the casc of a spherc, equal tjo x d 2 / 4 . IIencc tho dirnerisionlcss force coef-
ficient becorncs P / A e V2. J)iniensional n.nalysis lcatls t,o the conclrlsiorl t.llat for
geomet.rically similar systems t.his coefficient can dcpencl only on t,lro tlirnensionless
grottp formctl wi1.11 V, (1, p, and 11, i. c. on l.11c: ltcynoltln t~rttnl~cr. 'J'hc c-otnlionc-111,
 c. I'rinciplc of si~nileril.~;
1110Ilcynoltls nrlti Mach nuin1)crs 17

of I,ho resultant forcc parallcl t o the ~lnctisturbctlinitial vrlority is referred t o a s t11e

drag I), and t h e component perpencliculnr t o t h a t tlircct.ion is callctl lift, 5.Ifencc
the dimensionless cocfficicnts for lift and drag become
L I)
C
,
-
-A nnd C, = - - --- - , (I . 1 4 )
18VSA
if (.he tlynatnic: 11cad 4 Q V 2 is S C I C C ~ , C ~ for rcfcrcrlce instcatl of t,hc clunnt,it,y e V2.
Thus tho argurncr~tleads t o the conclr~siont h a t the tlirncnsionless lift a,ntl drag
coefficients for gcornetrically similar systems, i. c. for geometrically sirnilar bodies
which have t l ~ esame orientatmionwith respect to t h e free-8trea.m direction, are
ful~ctionsof orie variable only, n s ~ n o l ythe Reynolds nr~rnhcr:

c,,=/,(R); CD=/~(R). (1.15)

I t is ncccssary to strcss once more t h a t this import.ant conclusion from Reyr~olds's
principle of si~nilarit~y is valid only if t h e assumptions undcrlying i t are satisfied,
i. c. if the forces acting iri the flow arc due t o friction and inertia only. I n the
casc of colnpressible fluids, whcn elastic forccs arc important, and for motions with
free sllrfaces, whcn gravitational forccs must be taken into consideration, eqrrs. (1.15) 2 = V'J
d o not apply. I n such cases i t is ncccssary t o dedrlcc diKerent similarity principles in
whiclr the tlin~ensionlessFroudc nurn1)cr F = v/G~
(for gravity and inertia) and
Fig. 1.4. Drag coefficicnt for circular cylinrlcrn n, a fr~nct.ionof tlie Jleynoltls nl~nibcr
the c1irnensionless Mach number M == V / c (for cornprossible flows) are inclucled.
T h e importance of the sirnilarit,y principle given in eqns. (1.14) and (1.15) is
very great ns far a s the scicrrccs of t h ~ o r c t ~ i cas nl d cxpcrirncntal flr~idmechanics are
concerned. First, the dirncrrsior~lcsscocfficicnts, C,,, C,, arid R are irlclependent of
t,hc syst,cm of unilm. Secondly, t,hcir use leads t o a considerable simplification in
the cxtcnt of expcrimcntal worlc. In most cases i t is itnpossible t o tlctermit~cthe
ft~nc(.ionsf,(R) and /,(R) t,l~rorctit:ally,ant1 exporimcr~t,:~i ~nct~lrotls
m ~ l s tbe 11sot1.
~ I I ~i t is tlcsirccl t o tlrt.crrnino the t l r : ~t:ocfficicr~t
S I I I I P O S tl~ali ~ ITI, for a spoc,ilit:tl
s11:q)cof I)ocly,c. g. a spl~crc,tllcn wiLl~otltt.11~ applica1,iorr of 0l1c~ ~ r i n c i pof
l csirni1:~rit.y
i t wo111tlhc? ncccssary t o carry out drag rncasuremcnt.~for four indepcntler~tvariables,
V, d , Q , a n d IL, antl (,his woultl const,itute a trcmondous programme of work. I t
follows, however, Lhat t2he drag cocfficicnt for sphcros of diKcrcnt tlinmctjors with
cliffcrcnt s1,rcarn vclocitics antl tliffcrcnt flr~iclsclcpcntls solcly on onc v:~ri:~l)lc, t.hc
Itcynolds r~nrnl)cr.Fig. 1.4 rcprcscnt,~I,hc d m g coefficient of circular cplintlcrs a s
a fr~rrct~ion of the Itoynolds number antl shows the exccllcr~tagreement hetwceri
expcrimcr~tant1 Reynolds's principle of similarity. The cxperirnentnl point,s for
the drag cocfficicnt, of c i r c ~ ~ l cylinders
ar of widely differing diarnetcrs fall on a single
curve. 'The sarnc applies t o points ohtnined for the drag cocfficicr~tof spheres plotted
against t , l ~ cIteynoltle ~ n ~ r n b in e r Fig. 1.5. The s~ltltlcr~ decrease in t h e value of thc
drag coefficient which occurs near R = 5 x lo5 in the case of circular cylinders and
near R = 3 x 10"n the casc of spheres will be discussed, in n ~ o r edetail, later.
Fig. 1.6 reproduces photographs of t h e stream$nes about circular cylinders in oil
talcen b y P. JIornann [7]. They give a good idea of t h e changes in t h e ficld of flow
associated with various Reynolds numbers. F o r small Reynolds numbers t h e wake
is laminar, b u t a t increming Rcynolds numbers a t first very regular vortex patterns,
known as Khrmhn's vortcx &recta, are formed. A t sLill higher Reynolds numbers, Fig. 1.5. Drag coefficient for spheres aa n fi~nctionof tho Reynolds nrunbcr
Curve (1): Stokcs's theory, eqn. (6.10);curve (2): Oseen'a thcory, eqn. (0.13)
not shown here, tho vortex patterns become irregular and turbulent in character.
 e. Principle of 8irnilnrit.y; t,he Reynolds ntld Mac11 n l ~ ~ r ~ b c r s 19

I'l:~r.l~nlrnrl (I!lR?)
O II<IIIII\II ( I I I G I )
0 NACA (1969)

Fig. 1.6. Firl~iof flow of oil n h o ~n~cirrl~lnr

t c.ylir~tlora t wrying IZrynolcln n~c~r~bnrs nltcr Homnnn \V. Jonm, J . J. Cillotta and 12. \V. \Val.
[a]
R = 65 t.o R -
171: Irnnnition from lnrninnr flow t,o n vortrx ntrrt-t, i l l I:1111innr fln\v. T l ~ rfreqr~cnryrnngr for
281 C:III I)c tnltrn Iron1 Fig. 2.9
krr

I l ~ f l ~ ~ eof
i ~rcorn ~ l ~ r r a ~ i l ~ i 'I'l~r
l i t y : ~lrrccvlingn r g l ~ ~ n r\vas
~ ~ tc:or~tlnc-tc><l
. ~ t t ~ r lttIIC
~r
asslllnption t.l~:~.t 1.11~ t l incornl)rcssilrl(:, : ~ n t il t wns fount1 t11:1t,t l ~ dc i ~ ~ l c l ~ s i o r ~ l c s s
f l ~ ~ iwas
111Int.er t.inlrs s n c l ~pici.nres for low R,cynoltls 1111rnl)crsu p t.o R =. 3 n c r c protll~cctl tlrprntlcnt qrlnnlit,ics w r r r fnr~ct.ionsof one tlirr~c~rlsionlrss n r g u ~ n c ~ ~t.hc
t , , Rc*y~~oltls
1)sS. 'l'nnetla. 1141. number, only. \V11cn Ll~cH11ic1is ro~nprrssil)lt:t.hcy tlcj~cr~tl on nrl ntltlit.ion;tI tlirnrt~sion-
I t is sect1 in Fig. 1.4 t,llnt, t,l~c.(IraF! corfficicnt, o f a. cirr~rlarcylitltlcr rrac:lles Iclss 11111nl,er,i , l ~ filar11
c nntnbcr M -- 1'1~ivhicl~can Ite rcg:~rtlrtl,a s sl1o11.11 in Stv-. 1. r.s ,
.. ~.

minirnllm of CD w 0.3 n t n I<,ey~\oltls n111n1,cr brt,wrc>t\R -- 6 x lo5 :%~ltl lo6. A rcglrlnr a s n ~ n r n s n r cof t . 1 1 ~co~nl)rrssibililyol' t l ~ rllowi~lg~ n c t l i r ~ l n111 . IIlc case o f sr1t.11flows,
vortex strect, tloes not exist in this rangr of Itcynoitls ntlnll)ors. A t very high R ~ y n o l t l s i. c . wllcn con~t~ressibilit~y plays an rsscrllinl pnrl., t l ~ otlirnrnsior~lcss corflicicr~fs
nurn\)ers exceeding R w 10" ttllr d r a g coefficient itlorrases a t n considrrnl)lc rat,e, clrl)r~iclon l)ot.\~pnrnmctrr R :l.ntl M. 1Stln:~tion( I ,151 is t11cr1 rc~l)I:~t.ccl I I ~
(1.4 seen from Fig. 1.7 which is bnsrd on t,lle mcasnrrmeni~spc.rformei1 h y A. Itoshko
1131 nnd (:. W. .Jones, J . .I. (>inot,t.anntl I t . W. \.Vnllter (81. A t R = 10' t ' l ~ r tirag C,, = fl (R, M) ; C,) = 1; (R, M) . (I.l(i)
oorffic-irnt, reaches n vnltlr of' Cn 0.56. According 1.0 t.he precedirlg ar~t~llors, n
rrg111n.rv o r t r x st.rret, c~st.nl)lishrsitself ngnin a(. R > 3.5 x lo6.
r 7
An r s n m p l r of s r ~ r la.~ rrlalionsl~ipis givrn in Icig. I .S \vl~ic,hSIIOII~S :L 1110t. (11. t l t P
1 11e drng of R ~ ) J I P T C R hns rrcrnt,ly also 11ern invrst,ignf,rtl at, very high R.cynolds tlrng (~oel'licicnt,(r, of sl)l~c.rc:sin t e r m s of t,lrt%Itrynolrls I I I I I I I I ) ( % R~ ':-- 1.' I ) / , , :1t1t1
r~unlbers[I]. I t e r e too, a s wns t h e rase wit,l~t h e cylil\clrr, thc tlrng coefficirnt increnses t,lle hl;~clll l l ~ l n b ~M~ r= V/C. 'J'l~c C U ~ V Cfor M 0.3 is l~r;i(-ti(~:~ll.y
~2: coit~citI(~~lt, 11.itI1
n.pprecink~ly1)eyond its minirnrtnl at GD w 0.1 n t nbout R = 5 x lObn.t,t>niningCLI i,liat in Fig. 1.5 for incolnl~rc-ssiblcflow w l ~ i r I)roxrcs
l~ f11:1t,111)1.0 M == O.:l i , l ~ict l l l ~ ~ c ~ r l c . ~ !
0.2 n t Iteynoltls n l ~ r n b c r sclose to R = 107. of tile M n c l ~n u m b e r is nrgligible. 011 t ' l ~ cot.lirr Il:~ntl at. 11igI1rrn l n r l ~~ I I I I I I I ~ ~tIlr
I.~
C:rit,ic,n.lrcvirws of drng mrnnurcnlrr~iso n s p h r r r s RS it filn(*t,iorlof tJ1c Rry1101ds ir~llrlenceis large. I n this conncxion i t is r~ot,r\vorlhyl,lrni, ill t.11r r:Lrlgr of ILc~g~~oltls
nl~n~\)c,r nntl t.11~Mn.c!h nnrnhcr wrre prrl)n.rrrl by A . 1%.Ilnilry n.nd ,T. Ilint~i.[ I n ] ns ~~lrml)c?rs roverrtl by t,llc tlin.gram, i1.s inflc~cnccr c t t ~ l r s1110r1~:111tl11101.ca s t,llr Alnrl~
IV(*II a s 1)s A. I$. l$nilry an(1 I<(. I?. S h r r I l l ) ] . n~lrnl)c~r is incrcnsctl.
 f. Comparison hrtween t,hc tl~eoryof perfcct 11r;itlsanti expcrin~cnt 21

f. Co~~ipnrison
belwccn t l ~ ctheory of pcrfcct fluiila nt~cl rxperi~nrttt

In t,he cases of t,hc motion of water ant1 air, wllic11 arc the most i~nport.antones
in el~girtecrirlgapplicat,ions, the Itcynoltls nurnl)crs arc vcry Inrgc l ) r m l ~ s cof t l ~ c
very low viscosil.ics of tl~cscflrtids. 1.t wor~ld,t,llorcforc, apl)c:tr rcasonal)lc t,o c-?c~)ccL
very good :tgrecmcnt 1)cLwccn cxperin~cnt,ancl a 1,hcory in w l ~ i c lt~l ~ citlllllcncc of
viscosity is ncg1cc:tcd alt,ogcthcr, i. c. with the thcory of pcrfcct fluitls. I n any case
it secms uscful to begin thc comparison with experiment by rcfcrcnce to t,llcory
of perfcct flrlitls, if only on ncconnt of tho large num1)er of cxist,ing cxplicit mathe- Fig. 1.0. Frictionlcss flow about a
matical solut,ions. circular cylinder Pig. 1.10
I n fact, for ccrt,ain clnsscs of prot~lcms,st~clras wave formation and tidal n~ot.ior~,
excellent results werc obtainctl wit01 t,hc aitl of this theoryt. Most problems to bc Pig. 1.10. Pre~strredistribution on a circ~tlarcylinder in the auhcrit.icnl and er~pcrcriLict~l
rntlgc of
rliscusscd in this boolr consist in I,tic st,udy of t,he motion of solid 9odics tjhrough fluids
a t rcst, or of llr~itlsflowing through pipes a.nt1 channels. I n such cascs t,hc use of
Reynolds nnnibers after t,he ~neasuremet~ts -
of 0. Flncl~sbnrt[4] and A. Roahko [13]. qoo T;.
u
1 e 172

the theory of pcrfcct fluids is limit;cd because it,s solutions do not satisfy thc con- is the stagnntion pressure of the oncorning flo\vs
I
tlihion of no slip a t the solid surface whicll is always the case! with rcal fluids even
- frlctionlerur
- - -R
= 1.9 x 10'
flow Flacl,s,,nrl
) (lg3')
a t very small viscosities. I n a perfcct tl~litlthcro is slip a t a yall, and this circam-
s t , a ~ ~ cinLrodtlccs,
e cvcn for slni~llviscosit,ics, sr~cllf~~ntl:~.mc:~t.al
tliKcrcnccs tjllat i t
R
..... R -
= 8.7 x 10'
8.4 x 10' Itonlikn (1001)
I
is rather surprising to find in somc cascs (e. g. in the case of vcry slender, stream-line
bodies) that thc two solutiorts display a good measr~reof agreement. The greatest
tliscrepancy 1)etwccn the theory of a perfcct fluid and experiment exists in the
cor~sitlcrationof drag. The perfcct-fluid theory leads t o the conclusior~that when
an n.rhit,mry solitl body movcs through a n infinitely extended fluid a t rcst i t ex-
pericnccs no forcc acting in t.he clircction of motion, i. e. t h a t its drag is zero (dlAlem-
bcrt's paradox). This rcsult is in glaring cont.radiction t o observed fact, as drag is
tncnsurod on all bodics, evcn if i t can bccorne vcry smaU in the case of a stream- Fig. 1.11. Pressure distribntion
line botly in stcady flow ~ a r a l l c lto its axis. around n sptlere in the auhcri-
By way of ill~~st.ration we now propose t o make some remarks concernirlg tlhe tical and supercriticnl range of .

flow about a circular cylinder. Tile arrangcmerlt of st,reamlirles for a perfcct fluid is
given in Fig. 1.9. It follows a t once from considerations of symmetry t h a t the resultant
forcc in the direction of mot,iorl (drag) is equal t o zero. The pressure clistributiorl
according to the theory of frictionless motion is given in Fig. 1.10, togcther with the
resnlt,s of measurcmerlts a t three values of the Reynolds number. At the leading
edge, all measured pressure distributions agree, to a certain extent, with that for a
perfcct fluid. At, the trailing end, the discrepancy between theory and measurement
becomcs largc because of the large drag of a circular cylinder. The pressure distri-
butlion at, the lowest, sobcritical Reynolds numbcr R = 1.0 x 105 diffcrs no st from
that given by potential theory. The measurements corresponding to the two largest
Rcyrtoltls numbers, R = 6.7 x 105 and R = 8.4 x 106, are closer to the potential
curve t,han t1hose performed a t t,11c lowest Reynolds number. The large variation of
pressure disltril)utrionwit,l~Rcynolcls number will be discussed in detail in the next
cl~apt~er.A corresponding pressure-distrih~t~ion curbe around a meridian section of o,
spl~creis rcprodl~ccdin Fig. 1.11. I-lere, t,oo, measurements show large differences for
the two Reynolds nrrmbers, and, again, the smaller Reynolds numbcr lies in the range
Reynolda nnmhem, aa mea-
sured by 0.Flachsbart [3]
of largc clrng cocfficicnl,~,wl~rrcastho Ir~rgcrvalue lics in l l ~ crllrlgo of srnnll clrc~g
coefficients, Pig. 1.5. 111this case tile r t ~ ~ z s n r cprcssltre-cli~t~ributior~
d curve for tho
largo Reynolds number approximat,es the theorct~caidi:rvo of frictionless flow very
well over the greatest part of the circumfcrcnce. ,
Considerably better agrcemcnt between the t h ~ o ~ e t ~ iand c a l measured pressure
distribution is obtained for a streamline body in a flow parallel bo its axis [5],
Fig. 1.12. Good agreement exists here over almost the whole length of the body,
with the exception of a small region near its trailing end. As will be shown later
this circumstance is a consequence of the gradual pressurc increash ill the down-
stream clirectiotl.
Although, generally speaking, the theory of perfect fluids does not lead t o
useful results as far as drag calculations are concerned, tllc lift can be calculated from
i t v ~ r ysuccessfully. Fig. 1.13 represent,^ the relation between the lift cocfficicnt ant1
angle of irlritlcr~cc,as ~neasurctl1)y A. Bct,.~[2] in t l ~ ccaso of a Zhukovsltii :ic~rofoil
22 I. Outlir~cof flrticl motion wit11 frict,ion
of illfirlitosl)nll : ~ n , lr)rovitlrs n compnrisori \c,il.l~t , l ~ r o r y .111 t.hc rarjgc of inc:itlrnco
illlglrs a : - ;- l o 0 I,(> l o 0 t,llo iigrcc?tncnt is s c c n l,o b e goo11 nntl t h c s m a l l tli~(.rcllces
c::Ln bc rxplnjnrrl I)y t,111: irllll~ctlccof frict,ion. 'J'llc ~ n r n s l l r r c ln1111 cnlrl~lnt.rtl1)rrssIIro
tlist.ril)~rt.ion.sngrcc vct.y wrll too, ns sllown in l'ig. 1.14. l'hc diucrrpnncg b r t , w e r n
t . l ~ r o r yn.ntl rncnsrrrclncnt tlisplnyctl in P i p . 1.13 ant1 1 . I 4 is n conscqclcllco of tllc
tlisl)lnccmot~t,:~c:t,ion of t h e I)ountlnry I i ~ y c rnntl const.it,~~t,cs n b o r r ~ ~ t l : ~ r ~ - l nc. fykc cr t
of liighrr ol,tlt,r. :LS will 11c s h o w n a g a i n in S r c . IXj.
Fig. I .12. Prmsrlre distrihntion
nl~ont n ~trenli~-litie body of
rcvolntion: cornpnrison bct-
n c o l ~tllcory nrlrl mcnsuremc~~t.
nftcr F u l ~ r l ~ l a n[ n
5]
Fig. 1.13. Lift nnd drag roeffi-
cicnt of n Zlnlkovnkii profile in
ptnnm flow, n8 ~neanrlred by
l%etz121
Fig. I .Id. ( ! o t ~ ~ ~ ~ n rIICLU~CII
isrr~i
t.11t: t.hrort*tir:~lnllcl nirnanrrrl
jlrrswlrr: r l i x l rill111inn f11r n
Z1111kovskii11ri)fiIr111 i~r111nIlifts.
:lflvr 11. 1h.1~(2)
Ilelrrr~~rrn
[ I J , \ $ c ~ ~ l ~ n r h15.:
, E.uj~cl.in~c~~ln on the flow pnsl. nllllrrrn at, vrry lliRll I t ~ ~ ~ n oI lI~I lI sI I I ~ I ~ ~ ~ ~ .
.JI'R1 5.1, 565--575 (1!)72).
[In] Il;iilcy, 11. 13.. ntld I-li:~t.L, .J.: Spllcrc tlriig cool'licir.nts for11 hrontl rnngr r,f ill:~cl~ nlrcl I<ryllol~18
n~i~nllers. AIAA ,I. 10, 1426 - 1440 (1!)72).
1 1 111 Ilnilry, A. 13.. anrl Rlnrr, I<.17.: Sllllr.ri: tlr:rg nl trnnnorlic*~pc*crln n11tl l~igllIb:y~~c,lrls IIIIIII~I~~H.
i1lAt1 .J. 1.4, 1fi:iI (l!)7li).
121 liot.~,A. : UnLcrsuc1111ngri~lcr~ T o l ~ l t o m s k i s'l'rnglliirl~r. rl~~~~ ZIPRI 6 , 17:) l7!) ( l ! ) 5). ~
(B] l~lecl~nl~nrl., 0.: Ncrlorc U~~terorl'.llur~gc~~ iiller dell ldUf~\vitlcr~~.n~~rl YOII 1i11~rl11. 1)llys. Z. 28,
461 - - 469 (1027).
[4] k'lncl~sbnrt,0 . : LlTincl(lrlr:.ic: ~ u C:lsbal~iilt,rr.
f Itel~ort,nof tile ,\\'A in (.:iif.ti~~ge~~, lVf.11Series.
134- 138 (1982).
[ 5 ] lPullrlnnnn !:.: Ti~coretisrl~c r l l l c l c x l ) r r i ~ l ~ r ~ ~U t ~~~~ltl rc r s r r ~ l ~ RIIr ~ ~l5n1101\111otlcI1c~1.
tge~~
1)iss Cot,l,il~e11 1910: ,]I). k l n ~ r l ~ ~ f l ~ c l ~ i K . S tV~ 6:$--12:s ~ ~ ~ l i ~(l!)l ~ ~ 1/12).
gc~.
161 T,:I~cII, (2.: i?bw rlic l3c:xveg1111gclcs \Vnsscrs i t 1 rngcn z y l i ~ ~ ( l r i s i ; It?i11rc11. l ~ c ~ ~ h g g . AIIII..l(;,
523-442 (IR:19).
(71 ITotnn1111,17.: I<i~rfluss grOSSCP Ziil~iglteitI)ei Skriimllng 11111 Zylilltlcr. I"ornclrg. Tllg..\\'on. 7 ,
~1 - I0 (l!)3($).
I R ] Joncs. (:. \\'., (!itlottn., .I. ,I., and \\'nllzo, It. W.: Aerocly~rn~~~ir. Srorr.cs on n alal.ionnry ntlcl
onr.ill:rLi~~g circrll:l.r rylindcr nt Iiigh Itey~~oltls ~ll~rnb(:rs. NACA 'Tit Jb-:3OO (I!)(;!)).
[!I] Nat~lllnlln,A.: I,~~ft.~vit~crsL:ll~rl Yon Krlgeltl bai hollcn U n t c r ~ r h n . l l g e a c l ~ ~ v i n t l i ~ 1\11. kcit~~~~~.
PVIII.\Viir.~~~cl.rl:l~~~iIz 4 , 21 7 2 2 1 (1953).
(101 ~ : ~ I I I I I ~I\., I I , l'(billi:r, 11.: Ubor (lit- ( : ~ C I I Z ~ C I I ~ C I I ~ ~ ~ L ~ ~11.111
I I I 11,1111 ~ I I IZyli~l(lcr
I I I I ~ Ilci 11011011
~cscl~wi~~ctigltcitcl~. A C ~ V ~ I I I in
C ~ Acroni~t~t,irnl
R SC~CIICCS ('1'11. V O I I I < ~ ~ I I Iell.) ~ I I \101.
, 3,
185.- 206, Londo11, l9li2.
[I I] J'oiort~illr, .J. : J~6rl1crcl1cs c ~ ~ ~ ~ r i ~ n cstir ~ ~lct c~ l~ lI cI \ s~ C I I I Cclcs
I I ~ ,Iii~~~irlcs ~I:LIIS IPS tt111rs(It:
t,r+njlct,it.s diarrlc?trcs. Colnl)t,cs R.enclus 11, 901 -967 nrld 1041---1048 (1840); 12, 1 1 2 -115
(1841); in Inore clctitil: M61noirm den Savsnta Etmngrrs 9 (1846).
[I21 Il.cynolcls, 0.: An r:x~~cri~~irntnl illvcstign.t,ion of t,lic cirr~rn~st~nt~c~cs n,lliol~tli:tcl.lninr. \vl~ctl~r-r
tllc tnol.ion of wntrr nllnll be dircrt, or S ~ I I ~ In.tld ~ I Iof
S ,Lllc Inar of rcsistntrcoi~ll~nrrlllclt~ll:~.t~t~c-ln.
I'liil. 'l'mnn. Roy. Soc. 174, 935-!)82 (188:l) or Scicnt ific PILJ)CPS I f , 51.
I131 Itoslrlco. A. : ICxpcri~nc~~ta on tile flow pnst IL circnlnr cylilldcr atvt'ry Iligl~Rcy11oIi1s1111111Irrrs.
J1'M 10, R45---:!5li (1961): sre nlso: 011t,lic wrorlyna.nlic drag of cylintlcrs .zL l~igllI<cyrtoltls
nlllrrbers. I':~l)er prcsontrtl a t t.11~ IJS .Jnpnn Itrscnrcl~Scn~innro t ~1Yi11tl1,ontls 0 1 1 S I r l ~ rttrps, l
Unir. of Il:~\vnii,Ocl. 1!)70.
I141 Tnnerln, S.: I<xperirnr~~t,nl it~rcat.igntio~~ of t,I~on-nkco I~cl~irrtl rylinrlct~airrl pln,tos :~t.low
Il.oy11olt1s11111n11rrfl. ,I. I'l~ys. Soc. ,Jnpnr~11, 302 -.307 (1!)5li).

Outline of boundary-layer theory
a. Thc boundary-layer concept
t n tho casc o f fluitl motions for which the measured pressure distribution nearly
agrcrs with the perfect-fluid thcory, such a s t h e flow past the streamline body
in Fig. 1.12, or the aerofoil in Fig. 1.14, t h e influence of viscosity a t high Reynolds
nrlmbers is confinetl t o a very thin layer in t h e immediate neigl~bourhooclof t h e
solid wall. I f t,hc condition of no slip were not t o be sat,isfit:d in the casc of a real
fluitl there wollltl 1)c no appreciable tliKcrcncc bctwccrl t h e fieltl of flow of tllc real
fluitl a s comparcd with t,hnt of a pcrfcct fluitl. The fact thaL a t t,hc wnll thc fluid
adlicres t o i t means, howcvcr, that, frictional forces rctarcl the motion of the fluid
in a thin laycr near the wall. I n that, thin layer the velocity of tile fluid increases
from zero a t thc wall (no slip) t o its full value which corresponds t o external frictionless
flow. The layer under consideration is called t h e boundary layer, and the concept
is duo t o L. Prantltl 1263.
Figurc 2.1 rcprodl~ccsa picturc of the motihn of water along a thin flat plate
in which the s!,rcamlincs wcrc made visible bjr the sprinkling of particles on t h e
sl~rfn.ccof tltc water. The traces lcft by the particles arc proportional t o t h e velocity
of flow. Tt is scen t h a t there is a very thin laycr near t h e wall in which the velocity
is' considorably smallcr t,han a t a In.rgcr distance from it.. The thickness of this
holtrltlary laycr incrc,ascs along thc plate in a downstream direction. Fig. 2.2 repre-
~ n n btliagrammatically the vclocity distribution in such a boundary layer a t the
a. Tllc hollndary-laycr concept 25
plate, with t>hc tlimensiorls across i t considerably cxaggcratctl. I n front of the
leading edge of the plate t,hc v r l o ~ i t ~clistribrttion
y is rtnifornl. With increasing distattrc
from thc leading edge in t h e downst,rmm direction t h e thiclrness, cf, of t,lle retardetl
layor incrrasrs continrlor~aly, nn ilicrrnsing qrtnnlitira of f l l ~ i t l I)oc*onlo t1TTc~t*lrtl.
15vitlcr1tly tho lhiclrnrss or the 1)onntl:~ryInycr tl(~t*rc*nsc.s wit11 O c ~ c r r a s i rvigrosity.
~~
Fig. 2.2. Sketch of l)orlntlnry ---
layer on a flat plate in pnr-
allel flow at zero inciclcnce -
On t h e other hand, even with very small viscosities (large Reynolds nrtmbcrs) t.hc
frictiortal shearing strcsses T = /c au/a!j in the 1)ourldary laycr arc consitlcrnblc
bccnusc of tJltc Inrgc vclocily gr~~tliont,
across lllo Ilow, wllcrct~so~tl~sitlo t l ~ oI~ol~~ltlttry
layer tiley arc very small. This physical p i c t ~ ~ srtggcst~n
rc t h a t the ficltl of flow in t.11~
casc of llnids of small viscosi1.y (:an I)c tlivitlctl, for l,l~opllrposo or mal,liornnt,icnl
annlysis, into two regions: ttlc t.llin bountlary laycr near the wnll, in w11ic:h rriction
must be taken into account, ant1 the region outside tllr bountlary layer, whcrc the
forces due t o friction are small ant1 may be n c g l ~ c t ~ c dand
, where, tllcrcforc, the
perfect-fluid theory offers a very good approximation. Such a division of the field
of flow, as we shall see in more detail It~tcr,brings about a considerable simplification
of the ~nat,l~ematical theory of the motion of fluids of low viscosity. I n fact, t,he
t,heoretical study of such motions was only made possible by Prandt.1 wl~erl 11e
introclucctl this concept.
We now propose t o explain the basic concepts of boundary-layer theory wit11
the aitl of purcly physical ideas antl without the nsc of ~nat~hcmatics.
Ttle mat,hcrn:~t.i-
cal bor~ntlary-layertllcory which forms tile main t.opic of this book will bc tliscr~sscel
in t h e following chaptcrs.
Tile decrlcratctl fluid pnrticles it1 thc boundary laycr (lo not, in all cnscs, rrmnirl
in the thin lnycr which atlhcrcs to t h r I ~ o d yalong thc whole wcttcd lcr~glhof ~ I I ( %
wall. I n some cases the boundary layer increases its ttrickness considerably i r ~t.he
downstrcarn tlirection and the flow in tho bountlary laycr beconics revcrscd. 'l'his
causes the decclcratcd fluid particles to be forced outwards, wllicll rnmns illat
thc boundary 1:tycr is scpnrated from thc wall. Wc tltcn spcalr of boundniy-ltryer
sepalation. 'J'his phenomenon is always associatrd wit11 the formatiot~of vortircs
ant1 wit11 largc energy losses in the walre of the body. It o_ccur_sprjmarjlyn r a r blunt
bodies, such %s circular cylinders ~ n c l ~ s p 1 . 1 _Behind
~ - ~ ~ . such a body thcrc exists a region
of strongly dccrleratrtl flow (so-calletl wake), ill whicll the pressure distribution
deviates considerably from t l ~ a in t a frictionless fluid, as seen from Figs.l.10 arlcl 1 11
in the ~ r s p r c t i r ecnscs of a rylindcr and a sphere. The large tlrng of such bodics can
be explau~edby the existence of this large deviation in pressure distributiorl, which
is, in turn, a conscq~~ence of bonntlary-layer separation.
2(i T I . Ol~tlirtrof I)ol~nclnry-lny~r
throry

E ~ t i n ~ n I iof n ~ht o ~ ~ ~ ~ d n r ~ -tllickllr~s:

l n y e r 'rhc t,l~icknesso f a boundary layer wltirlt
llas riot scpnrnlrtl can I)(! casily cst,irnnLrtl it1 t h c following way. Wl~crcasfriction
forccs can be ncglcctctl with respect t.o incrt,ia forccs outaide tho bourltlary layer,
- -
wherc s l ~ b s c r i p0 ~tlerlotes the value a t tlrc wall, i. e. for y = 0. Witll tllc estimate
( a u / a ~ ) ~U / d we obtain 7 , ,u U / d anti, inserting the value of d from cqtl. (2.11,
we have
owing t,o lo\v viscosit,~,t h r y arc of a comparable order of magnitrldc insitlc it. 'rhc
inert,ia forcc prr 11nit volu~ncis, a s cxplninctl in Scct,ion l e, equal to Q 71 ~ T L / ~ For X .
a pIat,c of lottgl.l~1 t,ho gr:ttlintlt arr/a:r is proporl.ional t o ll/l, where I J tlrrlotes tltr
velocil,y onLsitlv tltc! I)orlntl:~ryInyrr. Ilctlrc l,hc irlcrl,in forcc is of l.hc ortlt:r I, 1J2/1.
On l,hc ot,hcr 11at1tlt h e friction forcc per n r ~ i volurnc t is equal t o at/all, wllirll, on the We cart now for111 a dirncnsionlrss sl,rcss wit,h rcTc.mrlrc l o I, l l z , ns c~xl)l:~ittc~cl
ass~~rnpt,ion of lnrninnr flow, is ccl~lnlt,o 11, a21t/i)?/2.The velocity gratlicnt al~/ayin a in Cltnp. I, ant1 obtain
-
tlirrcLion prrl)rnrlic~llnrt,o t.l~cwall is of t,lm ordcr Ill6 so t h a t th(: friction forcc ])or
~ t i ) i l~~o l l ~ t t lisv i)~/&y lI/02. Proni t,hc cot~tlit.iorlof equality of the frictiorl :lrlcl
inertia forcsrs t.ho following rc*l:ltion is ol)t.ained:

t4
U
82 - e UZ
1
This rcsult agrees wit.11 Llle tlilncrtsiotrnl an:llysis i t 1 C11;tp. I, wllic,lt I,rc-tlic:t.c.tl~.II:II,
the tlimensionless shc:lring strrss r o ~ ~ ltlrpnrld
.
tl otl tho Itcynol(ls ~l~rllll,c.r ortly.
.Ihc t4nl drag 1) on t.he p1:~l.cis rq11:11t o hlt0 whrro 11 clcnol,rs (.It(: \\.iclt.lt of 1,110
Ot:
or, solving for t Itr I , o u n t l ; ~ r ~ - l a ytlriclcr~rss
rr
7

p1at.c. Ilcrlce, wit.11 t,hc aitl of ccln. (2.3) IVC ol)t,nitl

Tltc lnrnit~:lr frict.ionnl tlrng is t.ltrrs see11 t.o I)c ~)rol)ort,ional l,o I1:Il2 ;t.tl(l /It2. I'ro-
Tlte I~nlnr,ric:nlf:~rt,orwltic:l~ is, so f:~r,st.il1 ~tntlct,crn~inerl will be tleduc:ctl Iatcr ~)ort.ion:~lil,yLo I l l Z rnc:Llts l.It:tI. (1o11J~littg
1 . 1 1 ~1)1:1t(: I ~ t t g ( ,(Io(*s
l ~ l l O t r tl(,t~l)lt*
t l t c ! (lt.:tg,
(C!l~:lp.VII) from t,lrc exnc:L solut,ior~givct~by II. 13lasi11s141, and i t will turn out ancl t,llis result (:an he 11tiderst.oor1113' c.ott~idrrit~g f . l ~ a t.llc
t d o \ v ~ ~ s t , r c1)nrt.
: t ~ ~01' ~ t.11(?
t.llnt i t is ct,rlal 1.0 5 , al)proxinlatcly. llrncc for lnmiarrr flow in t h e bountlary layer plate nxpcricnccs n stnailer drag t,llall t.llc leacling portion hcc:~nsct.ltc I ) o u l t d : ~ r ~
we have layer is Lhicker towards the tarailingedge. Finally, we can write tlowll arl cxprcssioll
(2.1 a) for the climetlsionless drag cocfficicr~tin accortlnncc wit-11 cqn. (1.14) in whicl~1 . h ~
rcfcrencc aron A will be rcplnced by t.lro wettctl area 61. llcncc c q l ~ (2.4) . givrs tlt:~t,

\,onr\rlnry-lnyer tltirknrss, rcfcrrctf t o tlte length of the plate, 1.

'Yhc tlinlrr~sionlc~ss
t)eronles. -

Tlte nrlmrric:ll fartor follows from 11 Blasius's c x a r t solution, atttl is I 328, so t l l : ~ ~ ,

the drag of a ~ ~ l nin
t r parnllrl 1nmin:~rflow 1)rromc.s

wllorc R, clrrlotcs t,he Itcyrloltls nunlber rclatod t o the Icngth of the plat.c, 1. T t is
wen from cqn. (2.1) tallat t<hci~oandary-layerthickness is proportional i n and 4;
t,o I . If I is ropla.cetl t)y the variable tlist,ance z from the leading edge of the plate, Tltc followir~gtlt~~nrricnlrxamplc will serve t,o il11tst~~rt.c:
t.hr l)rec:c*clingc:st,i~rt:~
t.iolt :
i t is seen t,ltat d incre:lses pr~portionxt~ely to ii.
On tho other hand tho relative Laminar flow, stSipulntctlhere, is obt:~it~rtl, a s is known r'ronl exprritnctlt,, for Itcy-
nol(1s numbers CJllv not cxceccling :~l)out,6 x 10Ql.o 10% lpor 1nrgc.r I<cyltoltl~
boul~(~ary-Iaycr t,I~ickncssO/i ( l e c r e m s with increasing Reytlnlds number as I I ~ R
n u n ~ b c r st.11~
I~oundnrylnycr 1)ccon1cs I,~lrbr~lcnt..
\I'c sl~nllnow rnlc111:~t.o tht: I~o~ttltl:~r)~-
so t h a t in t,ho lirnil~irlgcase of frictior~lessflow, with R -+ oo, tllc boundary-layer
layer t,llickncss for the flow of air (11 = 0.144 x 10-Vt2/sc,c) a t t.lle c.ncl of n plat(:
t.lrickness vanishes. of length 1 = 3 f t a t a velocity U = 48 fklscc. Tltis gives R, == ( I l / v :- 10"nnd
We are now in a position t o estimate the shearing stress zo on t h e wall, and from eqn. (2.2)
c o n s r q ~ ~ c n t l yt.hr
, t,ot,ni drag. Accorcling t o Newrton's law of friction (1.2) we have 6- - 5
1 - 103
.--
= 0.005; 6 7- 0.18 ill .

Thc drag coefficient froni eqn. (2.6) is C,, .- 0.0013 i . (:. cxrcc:tli~tgly srrlall n,Itcrl
- - -- cornparetl wit11 t h a t for a circular cylindrr, Fig. 1.4, bcc:ausc t,l~cdmg rocffic:icnf, for
t A lllorr rigororls tlrfiniliott of I)o~lrtclnry-Iayrr
thicknrsn in given s t the cnct of lhia section. a cylin(1cr also includes pressure forces.
28 TI. Or11,linoof bor~ndnry-layerthoory
Dalinition of I~nnndnry-layerthickness: Thc clefinition of tllc bourltlary-laycr
t.lriclrncss is t o a ccrt,ain extent arbitrary 1)ccausc transitsion from t,hc velocity in
t,llc borlntlary t,o t h a t o~~t.sitlc i t t,:~.ltcsplncc asympt,obically. This is, I I O W ~ Vof C~,
no pract,icn.l import,ancc, I~ccnusct,hc vclocil~yin thc bor~ntlnrylaycr at.t,:iins :I. vnl~lc
wl~ic:his vrry c:losc t,o f.ho cxt,crt~n.lvclorit,y n.lrcatly nt, a snrnll tlist.ancc from 1.11~
wnll. It, is Ijossil)ln to tlc:fino Lhc I~oilnd;~~~y-I:~yc:r t~hioltrlcss:IS l . l ~ nrlis1,:~noo
l from l l l c :
wnll wllorc: t,hc vclonit,y tlilTcrs I)y I pc:r ct:t~L fro111 t l ~ coxt,crnn,l vrloci18y. \ V i l . l ~ t.11i.s
dcfinit.ion the rtrtlncric:~lf:~.ct.orin cqn. (2.2) has the valnc 5. [nst,ead of t,llc bonntlary-
laycr t.lri(:knc~s,nn(>trlrcrqnnnt.ity, thc dinplr~cernentthickness a,, is somct.imcs used,
Fig. 2.3. I t , is dcfirletl I)y t.hc cqnnt,ion
b. Srparation antl vortex fortnn(.ion 20
half frorn D t o E, and decelerated on the downstream half from E t o F. Ifcnce the
pressure decreases frorn D t o E antl increases from i' t o F. Wltcrl the flow is started
u p the motion in t h e first insttarit is very nearly frict,ionlcss, ant1 remains so as Iqng as
the bonr~tlnrylnycr remains thirl. O~rtsitlctho I~onntl:~ry lrtycr tllcro is n tprr~l~s~ornlctl.io~
of prcsstrro in00 Itincl.ic energy i~long11 R, 1.110 rc:verso I.nlting pl:tc:o rilottg IC I(', so
IJtat IL 1)arliclc n r r i v o ~111, 11' wiI,lt 1110H I L I I I ~ >vclociI,y 11s it, I t l i t 1 nl, J). A l I r c i ( l 1):~rI.iclt:
wltich lrroves i 11 t,I~cimlnctlinlo vioi~til~y of tatlo wtill in t,llc I)o~lntl:r.ryI:~.yorrc:~rt:iitls
under the influence of the same pressure field a s t h a t existing outside, I)crause the
external pressure is imprcssctl on the bountlary layer. Owing tlo tlrc large friction
forces in the thin boundary layer such a psrtic:lc consumcs so much of its kirtbtic

(2.6)

Fig. 2.4. Doundary-layerscpara-

tion ~indvortex forrnntion on a
circular cylin(1er (dingra~n~natir)
S - point nf 8cl1nrnI.lo11

'rhc displnccment tl~icltncssindicates l.llc tlistancc by which t l ~ external

c strcam-
lines arc shift,cd owing to the ionnat,iorr of t,llc I,orlndary Iaycr. I n t.he case of a plate energy on its pat.h from D t o E t h a t thc remaintlcr is too s ~ n a l lto srlrmo~lntt.hc
in parallel flow ant1 a t zcro incidcncc tlrc tlisplaccmrnt tVhickrressis about & of the "pressure hill" from E t.o F. Such a parLicle cannot move far into t,llc region of'
bountlary-layer l,hicltncss 0 givcn in cqn. (2.1 a). increasing pressurc between lC antl P antl its moLio11 is, evcntnnlly, arrcst,ed. The
external pressure callscs it t,lrcrl t,o move in tho opposite clircct,ion. The pllotograpl~s
b. Srpamlion ant1 vortcx forrnntion reproduced in Fig. 2.5 illnstrat.e the sequence of cvent.s near the downstrcarn side of
a round body when ,z fluid flow is started. The prcssurc increases along t,Ile I,otly
.. llte bo11ntln.ry laycr near a fl:~,t plnLc in par:tllcl flow ant1 at, zcro incitlencc is contour fronr left t,o right, the flow Ilnving been ma.tlc visil)lc by sprinltlirrg nlrtminirlln
~jart,icrllarlysirnplc, Ijccausc tltc static prcssurc remains consCnnt in the whole field rlrrst on tho surface of thc water. Tlrc boundary layer can be casily rccognizetl by
of Ilow. Sincc orlt,sitlc the ljo1111(1:~ry lnyrr t,hc vclocity rcn~aitrsconst,ar~tt,hc same rcfcrcncc t o tlte slrorl traces. In Fig. 2.5a, Laltcn shortly aftcr the s t a r t of Lhc rnot,iorl;
n,pplics t.0 t.he p r c s s ~ ~ l~ecallsc
re in t l ~ cfrictiorrlcss flow Bcrl~orrlli'scquat.ion remains the rcvcrsc motmionhas just bcgtln. 111 Fig. 2 . 5 b the rcvcrsc nrotion lrns pci~-t,r:.tctl
valitl. F ~ ~ r t h c n n o r ctlrc
, prcssnrc rcmnitls scnsibly cotrstnr~tover t.hc \vidth of t,hc a cot~sitlcrahlcdistance forward :~ntll , l ~ cbountlnry Iayor lrns tllicltcnctl n.j)prcc:i:tl)ly.
r y a t a givcn rlist.ar~rcx. 1Icncc tlrc I)rossurc over thc widt.11 of the
\ ) o ~ ~ ~ r r l alayer Fig. 2 . 5 shows
~ how this rcvcrsc mot,iotr givcs risc t o a vortex, whoso sizc is incrc,iscd
I~ountlaryIayrr has tlrc snmc mngnittrtlc ns ont.sitle t.hc bor~ndarylaycr a t the sanrc still furt,l~crin Fig. 2.6tI. 'l'l~cvorLcx bccorncs scp:~mtctlsllorlly n f L c r ~ : ~ rn.11c1
~ I s rnovc!s
tlow~~strearn in tho fluitl. This circnn~stanccchangcs complctcly blrc fiolcl of flow
elist.ancc, ant1 t.lrc sarnc applies Lo cnscs of arbit,mry hotly phn.pcs whcn tJro prcssnrc
o~rt.sitlcl.hc I)o~tn(l:~ry I:~yt:r vnrics along t,lrc wall wit11 t , l ~ cIcngl.h of arc. 'l'llis fnct in tho waltc, and Lllc prcssnrc clisLrib~l(,ior~ suKcrs a rntlical cltnngc, ns cornparctl
with frictio~rlcssIlow. 'L'llc final statc of nrotion can I)c irlrcrrctl from I'ig. 2.6. In
is cxprcsscd I)y saying t,h:~t,t,lrc cst.crnnl prcssnrr is " i ~ n ~ r c s s c t lon " t,hc boundary
Inycr. Ilcncr in t.hc cnsc of tJrc ~not.ionp : ~ s ta plate l,hc prcssnrc rcmairls constant. t,he eddying region bclrind thc cylinder there is consitlcrable suction, as sccrl fro111
the pressure distribution curve in Fig. 1.10. This suction causes a large prcssurc drag
t l ~ r o l ~ g l r ot,ltr:
~ ~ Lb o ~ ~ n t l n rInycr.
y
'j'lrr ~hrnonrrnorrof I,o~~rrtl:~ry \ - -
lnycrsrpnratiot ~nrt~tiot~c~tlprc~viously
- - . isi!rtinral~ly
on t.he body. 1
A t a larger distance from the body i t is possible t o discern a rcg111:lr patt,ern
c,ot~nc-clctlwrtll tlrr prcssurc t1istril)ution in ti16 orintlary layrr I n t,hc bountlary
of vorticcs which move alternately clockwise and courrt~crclocltwise,and which is
Inycr on a plate rro srpnmLion takrs pl:trr as no back-fldw occurs known a s a IGirmiin vortex strect [20], Fig. 2.7 (scc also Fig. 1.6). I n Fig. 2.6 a vortex
111ortlcr to e~\plnitrtht. very ilnportntrt pl~rr~ornrrlon of t)outrtlary-lnycr s ~ p a r a t i o n moving in a clockwise direction can be seen t o be about t o detach it,sclf from the
let us rorrritlrr 1 l ~ Ilo\v
r :~l)orlIn Ijlrrnt l)otly, r g abont, a rirrnlar rylirltlrr, a s shown body before joining the pattern. I n a fnrtlrer pzpcr, von Icilrmhn [21] proved
i t 1 IClg 2 4 111 ft ic.1 inltlc~ssflow, t l ~ cf1111tlpnrl irlrs nrr : ~ r r r l r m l r t lon tllr npst,ream t h a t such vorticcs are gcncrally nrrst,nblc wit,h rcspcct to small t l i ~ t ~ ~ ~ r b apnrallcl
ncrs
30 1I. Outli~rcor bo~rndnry-lnyertlrcory

Fig 2.6. Jnslntltnnrnr~s~~lrotogrnpll of

flow ~ r i t l r ronrplrte holrrlclnry lnyrr
nrp:rratinrr i r r I I r r a.:~ltc: of it c.ircul:~r
rylilrdcr, ~ ~ f l cl'r~i~r~lll-'~irt.jrr~s
r 1271

Fig. 2.7. KhrmQ~ivortex strcct, from

A. Tirnlnc [38]

Fig. 2.8. Strmmlirrm in nvortrx strrrt

(hll = 0 28). Thr fllrid i8 nt rest, nt
infinity, a~itlt h vortrx
~ street move8

1pi~.2 . 5 ~ Fig. 2.5~1

Urvnloptnrnt. o l I)onr,dsry-In,yrrsrgnrntiotr with limr, nft.rr 1'rnrrclt.l-Tict.jcrrn Circ~tlurcylittder. 'l'hc frccluency wit,lr wl~ichvor1,irc~sa r r shrcl in a I<:i.t,rrl:i~i vortrx
Fig. 2.5n. I,, r , tl.
1271. Src. nlal, Ipip. 15.5 ~ t , r e r1)rhintl
t a circular cylir~dcrwas l i r ~rxt~cns~vcly
t rncns~rrctlI)y 11. Hlnnlc, I). I"ucltx
n.nll 1,. 1,icbcrs [ R ] . A rngr~lnr K:i.rrn;irt st.rcct is ol~srrvt~tl orlly 111 t11r mllgc: of
J l c ~ ~ ~ n o lltllrnbrrs
tls IT I ) / v f r o ~ nabout 00 1.0 5000. At. lonrrr 1~vyt1oItlsI \ ~ I I I ~ I ) ~ I . s
t o thr~ns~:lvc:s.'I'lrc only nrmngnncnt wlridt sllows ncrrt.ral ctloilil,riurn is t,hat wit.11 t-he wnkc is lnminnr nrrd has the form visible in the first two pllot.ogrnplls of lcig. 1 .(;;
. - 0.281 ([Cia. 2.8). Tllc vort,ex sl.rcet rnovcs wit.11 n vcloc:it,y I L , which is slnallc\r a t l~iglrerlteyr~oldsn u r ~ ~ b c rt,herc s is c o ~ ~ ~ p l tclt~er b u l r ~ mixing.
show t,lrat in t,ho regular range given nbovc, the tlirncnsionlcss frcclncr~ny,
lt Mcn.sllrcb1nrr1t.s
I , \ ~ : I . I I t.Ilc no\\, vrIorii,y I I in front of t,he I ~ o d y I
. t cn.n l)c rcg:~rtletla s a highly idcalizctl
pict,r~rrof t.hc rnot,ion in t.he wake of (,hc bocly. The kinetic energy cortt,ainetl in the
vrlocit,y fit:ltl of tlre vort.cx street must be continually created, as the body moves
t.llrongh tile fnitl. On the basis of this rcpresentrn.,tion it is possible t,o deduce a n
also Izt~owt~ as t.llc S ~ , I . O I I tllttl1l)rt.
~ I : I ~ 1371, tlt%l)c.ntlso ~ r l yon 1 I 1 ( a I < c ~ ~ . ~ ~I oI I lI tI Il Is~ , ~ . ~ . .
exltrrssion for t.hc (1r:l.g from the perfect-fluid theory. I t s ~nngnit,rrtleper nnit lengt,h
of tllr cylir~dric:~l hotly is given hy 'J.'Iris rrlxt.ionshij) is s h o w ~ lplotted i l l Wig. Z.!) which is btrsc~lott tnc.zsr~rrmc~nt~s 1,cr-
forrnctl hy A. R , ~ s J ~ l r132.1;
v see also [IS]. 'l'hc c~xp~rirncrrtal point,s whic:h wprr 01)-

I ; ,
n = e U 2 h 2.83 -- -1.12 t.ai~tctlwil.11 cylir1t1cr.qo f tlilrr?rcnt8tli:~rrlot.cra11 nr~tlrtt tlill'c.rcrlt, voloc:it.ic~s I' ;rr.l.:ttrgc
t~~etnsclves well or1 n sir~glccrrrvc. At the higher Rrynoltls nu~nhorst.hr Stror~llnl
nurnbcr rernnins a~rproximntelycortst,n.nt.nt S = 0.21. '1'11is vtiluc. of S, ns ~ t ~ c . 1 1fl.0111
Fig. 2.!), prevails up to a I t c y ~ ~ o l r nambcr
ls R = 2 x 10" t,hnt, is i t 1 t,ho srtl,cr.it~ic~nl
hlorc rrvrrlt c.xpcvirnr~rt.nlirtvmI.igr~t.iolrs tlrle to \W. .I\ Dnrgin nnd ot.llrrs [I31 r.stnblishetl range (see also Fig. 1.4). A t higher Reyrloltls nnml)rrs, sn.y arolrrrtl R = 106, a, r,gt11nr
:III nc.tS1.lrr;lIin~
t.ltnt. i t , voltrx sll.vrt, 1 . 1 1 ~rnt io 01 (,ttrlnngil.l~tli~l:rl
to llir t~nr~svrl-sr s~raritlgof tllc vort'ex stret:t does not exist,. According to A. Itoslllro 131 1, s i ~ r ln~ rcgl~larstrrct.
vorl.icl.~ A s n rrs~tlt.,
t ~ l l n I l g ~r~o118itlornl)ly.
~n 1 lr(- rrgrrlnr nrrntrgrrrrr~rl
of vort.irm is l.rntlsfornlrclintn
n t . ~ ~ ~ ~ l )a:rkc.
~~lerrl, ., . re-nppc.ars at, ext,rcmcly large Rcyrloltls nurnbrrs (R 1 :1 x 100) ~vhcn1.111. St.1~0111lol
32 I I. 011t.lincof boundary-leycr theory

030- - V n = 3 ' 10cm

Frltnbrrgcr
028 -- ( I ) D = 2 + 1Rcm
I)rcnrl~er
026 - - 1)- 0 , d + 4 <,I11
Illbncr nticl lCl klnn
0 2L ( 2 ) 1)s 26 mi
1~11111111
O 1)- 45 ctn
0 22 Ilrallko
(3) 1)- 91 cm
020 -
Jones e t sl.
0 18 -

016 ~-

OIL- - -

0 12

Fig. 2.9. The Stroi~l~nl n~trnher,5 , for thc I<Lrni.ittvort.cx st,rcct i n t,hc flow pnst n r i r c ~ ~cylindcr
l~r
in terms of the Rcyt~oldsnr~lnber,R. Mcnsure~ncnt.sperformed hy A. Roshko 131. 321.11. S. Ribner,
13. 14;tkitls nnd K . I<.Nelly [30]. E. 1'. llelf end L. F. G. Simmons [28] ns \vcll na (2. M'. Jones et 81.
-
(181?f (.'l~np.I ) . 111 t,l~crange R 3 X 10Vo 3 k 10"(811pcrcriticnl rogit~~c
wit,h very Ion. tlrllg.
Fig 1.4) the 1<hrmA11vortex st.reet,is no loger regular. It is ol~lyat R > 4 x loRt,hat.n reg~~lnr
pst.terr1 ~ O T I I I Rngeitl; its St.ro111lnInumber iu now higher at. S = 0.26 t,o 0.30 compnrcd \vit,l~5
% 0-20 nt. R - 10Vo 3 x 105
number assumrs values around S = 0.27 I n this connexion the paper by P W Bear-
marl 1.7~1may also be consult,ed. When t,hc diameters of the cylinders are small and
the velocities arc moderate, tlic resulting fr~quencieslie in the acoustic range. For
example, the farnilinr "aeolian tones" emitetl by telegraph wires are the result of
t,liese phcnornena At a velocity of V = 10 mlsec (30.48 ftlsec) and a wire of 2 mm
(0.079 in) in tliarneter, t,he frequency becomes n = 0.21 (10/0.002) = 1050 sec-', and
the corresponding ltcynolds number R a 1200.
Flnt plnte s t zero incidence. The fact t h a t a regular vortex street est,nblislies it-
self, among ot,hcrs, behind slender bodies a s well a s in compressible streams has only
bren cstal)lishcd recently by 11. J . IIcinemann c t al. [18]. The photograph of I'ig. 2.10
shows S I I C ~a regular vortex street behind a flat plate a t zero incidence for a Mach
number M, = 0.61. The diagram in Fig. 2.11 contains a plot of the Strouhal number,
S = rrdl I,', formetl wit.11 t.he plate thickness, d, in terms of the Mach number, but only
mnpr M = 0.2 to 0.85. T h r dingram proves t,hnt, here too S a 0.2,
for t h r s111,sonic~
11s vais 1111- ri~s(.li)r t 1 1 ~virrulalr eylintlrr in Fig. 2.9. The corres~)ontlingReynolrls
rtumbers, rrfcrrcrl to t.11~ length of the platme,are in the range R = V l l v = 3 x 105 t o
8 x 10Vn which t,lle flow is laminar. I separation. Conseqnently, there is no apprcciablc prcssurc drag and the total drag
Two p.21)cr~by C. C. Lin. [22] and U . Domm [I 11 concern themselves wit11
the t,l~eoryof t,llc I<Armhn vort,ex street,. The formation of a vortex pair behind a flat
plnt.6 i l l cross-flow at, right, angles to it has been investigated t,heoret,ically by E. Wede-
rncycr [RUa], \\~herras1'. Sarplraya [3311] conducted t.licorcttical and experimental
st11(1i(>s For n ~ d n ( nrranprtl
r nt n I:~rgeangle ol'at,t,aclc (see Fig. 4.2); in t-his ronncxion
Fig. 2.10. Von I<hrtnltn vort.ox ~troet,l)t:I~itltl
a flat plate nt zero incidcncc at n Mncll n n t n -
I I I I I I I G ~ : ~S -- vt.d/lJ i l t
]Pig. 2.11. Stro~ll~t~l
terms of the Mach nrltnbcr for the vortex
ber M = 0.61 nntl a Ttcynolcls nrtn~bcrR = street bellit~dn flnt plnte nt zero incitlence,
V l / v = 6.5 x 105 after 13. J. Heinctnn~~n ct after H. J. I[einctnnnn et nl. [I81
al. [18]. Lengt,h of plnte 1 = 00 mni, thiclcncns
ratio dl1 = 0.05. 11:xpoanrc time approx. 20
nnnonec (20 x 10-"ec)
a n earlier paper by L. Rosenhead [32a] may also be consulted. The reader may also
be int,crested t o look up the text of a remnrlr made b# 1,. Prandtl on the occasion of a
lecture by I<. Friedrichs (,,Bemerlrung iiber die ideale Striimung u1n einen Korper bei
verscl~windenderZahigkeit" Lectures on aerodynadics and allied subjects, Aachen
1929, Springer, Berlin 1930, pp. 51, 52).
Scpnrntion. The borrndnry-laycr tl~corysuceccds in this nianncr, i.c. wit11 t,ho nit1
of the explanation of thc phenomenon of separation, in td~rowingligllt on t,hc occur-
rence of prcssurc or form tlrag in ntlt1it.ion to viscor~rrtlrng. Tllc t1nngc.r ol' I)ol~t~(lary-
layer separation exists always in rcgions with a n adverse pressure gradient antl t h e
likelihood of its occurrence increases in t11c case of steep pressure curves, i.e.
behind bodies with blunt ends. The preceding argument explains also why t h e
expcrinlent,al pressure distribution shown in Fig. 1.11 for t h c case of a sler~der
st,rcan:lir~e body differs so little from t h a t predicted for frictionless flow. T h e
pressure increase in the downstream direction is 11erc so gradual, t h a t there is no
consists mainly of viscous drag and is, therefore, small.
The st,rcarnlincs i r l the bountlary layer rlcar scp:tr:ttion arc show11 tlingram~natic-
ally in Pig. 2.12. Owing to the reversal of the flow t,llcrc is a consitlerablc t l ~ i c k c n i ~ ~ g
of t.11~boundary layer, antl associal,ed wit,h it,, thern is a flow of bountlary-layer
mat,orial i11t.o the outside region. At tllc point. of srpnr:~.l~io~l one st,rramlinc inter-

S - p o i ~ orscpnrnt.ion
~l
T'ig. 2.12. I)ingmnitnnt,ic represell-
t.nf,ion of flow i l l t,llc 11o1lt)tlnry
layer near n point, of ~cl)nrnt.ion
Fig. 2.14. Flow wit.11 1)ortnrlnry-
In.yor srlc(.iot~on upper w d l of
Irigllly tlivcrgerlt cl1n1111rl
Fig. 2.1.5. Flow wit,l~honndnry-
layer nuchion on 110th wall8 of
highly divergent channel
1). Scl)nralion and vortex iormntion 35
src1.s t,l~cwall a t n tlcfinitc angle, ant1 t,lrc point of s~p:iri~t,ion
it,sclf is tl~:tern~irlctl
1)y
tllr ro~lrlitinnt h a t t.11~velocil,y grarlic.111.norlnnl t o the wall var~isl~cts t.htrc:
r
I llc prccisc location of the point of st!pariit.io~lca.11 110 tlctcrr~lit~ctl
7
0n1y wit.h t.l~c~ i t l
of an cxncl. c:ilo~ll:~l~ion,
i. e. I)y tlto i n l i ~ g r i ~ t i oof'
r ~1.111: I,o~c~~tl:~ry-I:~.y~:r
t:q~l:~t,io~l?i.
ttyli~ltlcr,ciin :LISO occur in
Scparal.ion, as tlrsc:ril)ntl for l l ~ cr:~sc: o f n t:irc~~liir
a tligl~lytlivergerlt rhxnncl, Fig. 2.13. I n f r o r ~ tof the l.l~roatt . 1 1 ~prcssnre tlccrcnsrs
it1 thc dirrctiolr of flow, atltl the flow ntlllcrcs conlplclcly t.o tllc walls, a s in a f r i c t ~ i o n l c ~ ~
fll~i(I.Jlowcvcr, bcl~intlt,ho tllront t.lrc tlivcrgcncc of tho cl~nnnclis so I:lrgc? t.I~:it. t.11(:
bountlary layer bccolnes scparatetl frorn both wnlls, nrld vort,iccs arc I'ormcd. TIIC
stream fills now only n srnall portion of tho cross-scct.ionn1 area of t.11~ clrannc:l. llow-
ever, separation is prevcnted if bonntlnry-layor snctiorr is npplictl n.t t,l~cwall (Ipig~.
2.14 ant1 2.16).
Tllr. photogrnphs in Figs. 2.16 nnd 2.17t j)rovc t.hat tllo atlvrrst~ ~ ) I . I , S S I ~ ~ ~ :
gr:dicnt t,ogct,llcr will1 fricI.ion near t.lra wall tlctcrlninc tire proccas of sc~):~r:iLiotr
wllicll is intlcpontlcnt of sllch o t h r circumstance as c. g. t l ~ ccurvnture of tJlc wall.
'Jllic first picture shows the mot,ion of a floitl against n wall nt right angles to i t (plant
stsagnnt.ion flow). Along t,hc streatnlinc in t . h ~ - ~ ) l a of
n esymmetry whic11 lm,tls ho t,lrc
st,agnat,ion point tllcrc is a cot~sitlcrablcprcssllre incrcnsc i n t,hc clircclion of flow. No
sepnration, howcver, occurs, because no wall friction is prcscnt. 'I'herc is no sepnmt,ion
near t h e wall, either, because here t,he flow in thc bonntlary laycr taltcs place i n the
direction of clecrcasing pressrlre on both sides of t-he plnnc of symmetry. If no\\. a tl~irl
wall i~ placed along thc plnnc of syrnmctry a t right anglcs t o thc first, wn.ll, Fig. 2.17,
t h e ncw boundary laycr will show a pressure increase in t,hc dircct.ior1 of flow.
Conscqrlrnt.Iy, scparat,ior~now occurs nm,r 1 . 1 1 planc
~ wall. 'L'hc incitlcnce of scpnmt.ion
is often rntllcr scnsitivc to srnnll cl~nr~gt?s i r ~the slrnpc of t.he solid botly, part.ic:~~lnrI~.
when t h r prcssrrrc tlistribuLio11 is strongly affcct.ct1 by this charrgc in s11al)c. A very
instrrrctivc exnrnplc is given in L ~ I C pit:t,l~rcsof Fig. 2.18 whicl~show pl~otogrnpl~s
of the flow fioltl alto~rtn n~otlrlof :I tnot.or vefricle (t,hc Volkswa~gcrlclolivcry vnn),
123, 351. Whcn t,l~onosc was Il:~t,giving i t an angular slrapc (a), the flow past thc:
fairly s l ~ n r pcorners in front car~scdlargo suct,ion followed by :L large prossure incrcnsc
along the sidc walls. This led to ronlplcte scpnration and t o tlle formati011 of a wido
wake behind the body. T h c drag cocfficietlt of tlre velricle with this angular shape
11ad n valnc: of C , .= 0.76.Thc litrgc: sl~ct,ionncar t h e front cnd itnd l.11~ sc~~:~r:~l.ion
along t l ~ csirlo walls were clinlinat,c:tl WIICII t,hc s11ape wa9 ol~nt~gctl by a.rltlirlg 1.I1t:
rollrrrl nose shown a t (I)). Sirnult,ancortsly, tho tlrag cocfticierrl became rna.rltrtlly
smaller ant1 had a value of CD = 0.42. Further rcscarch on such vchiclcs have beell
performctl by 11'. H. IIucho [In] for the rase of a non-~yrnrnet~ric strcam.
t Fig. 2.16. nrld 2.17.11nve I)een t,alten from Llle "Stronl~~ngrr~ i n I)an~pfkossrlnt~lnfcn"
by TI. Foet,t,ingcr,Mittcilltngcn tlcr Vert-inig~~oc!
Ilr*.'IUUU:ICrsqelbenit,7.e.r, No. 73, 1,. Ihl (1!)39).
 b. Separation and vortcx formation 37

Separatiori is also important for the lifting properties of nn aerofoil. At small

IGg. 2.16. Frrc stagnation flow \vitl~o~~tarpn- Fig. 2.17. 1)rcrlrrated 8Lag11:~tiorlflow with
ration, au pliotogrnphrtl by Fotttingrr
I fa1 Anaubr nose
incidence arlglcs (up t o about lo0) the flow does not separate on either side anti
closely approximates frict8ior~lcss cot~tlit~ions.The prcssurc distrih~it~ion for slleh a cnsr
( " S ~ I I I Iflow,
~ " Vig. 2.11)n) WILR givo11 in Vig. 1.14. Will1 inoron~ingi~tcitlo~~cn l,lrc\rc*
is tlangcr of srl>arnt,iotion tPhesrlcI,io~~ sitlo of tho ncrofoil, I ) c e r ~ ~ ~
t,l~e
s o l ) t ~ e s s ~i~l lr. e
crcnxe bccomcs sleepcr. Por n given ai~glcof incidenc~,which is nljout l!jO, ~cparat~io~~
Litinlly occurs. The scp:~ratiollp o i ~ is~ tlocated fairly closely behind the lcadirig cdge.
T l ~ cwr-kc, Fig. 2.19b, shows a large "(lead-water" nrca. The friclionless, lift-creating
flow patter-n has I)ccornc dislurbcd, ancl thc drag has become very largo. The ,he-
ginning of scpnrat.ion n c ~ r l ycoincidcs with t<heoccurrence of maximum lift of the
acrofoil.
Str~acturaloerodynomics. Flow around land-bnsed bluff bodies, suc11 as struc-
tures ant1 b~~ildings,is consiclcral~lymore complex t h a n flow arountl streamlined botlies
and aircraft. The principal cause of complication is the presence of the grountl a ~ i t l
sc~~arntion,ns pllotogrnphed by Focttingcr the shear created in the turbulent wind as a consequence. The interaction between
the incitlent shcar flow and the stsruct,ureproduces coexisting static and tlynamic loads
[8, 9, 101. Tlie fluctuating forces produced by vortex formation and shedding can
induce oscillat,ions in thc structures nt. l.heir natural frcqllencics.
The flow patterns observed on a tlctachcd rectangrllnr building is shown sahrlnali-
cally in Fig. 2.20. I n front of the builtling t,l~ereappears a bound vortrx w11ic.h arises
from the interaction of the boundary layer in t,he sheared flow (d V/dz > 0) ant1 the
ground. There is, furthermore, strong vortex shedding from the sharp corllcrs of the
1 I building and a complex wake is created behind it. So far no theoretical mctliotls have
been developed t o cope with this extremely complicated flow pattern. It is, therefore,
necessary t o rcsort t o wind-tunnel studies with the aid of adeqrlately scalctl models.

I (b) Round nose I I

0.92
- (- z z
0
-

no separation
I

IFig. 2.18. I'low n.l,orrl, n ~ n ~ ( lof

c l a noto or vrl~inlc(Volltsw:i.gc:n t1i:livrry vrm). nftrr 15. Morller
1231. n) Angulrrr 11oso will1 8rpnrntcd flow nlorlg td~owhole of the aidc wall rind lnrge drag cocf-
ficicr~t(C,, = 0.70); h) 1tor111diionc wit11 11" ~cpnrntionnntl small clrng cocmcic~lt(CD = 0.42)

Fig. 2.20. Overall view of
flow pat,tern (schematic)
around a rcotnl~gularst.roc-
ture [MI.a) Side view with
foreward hound vortex in
the stagnation zonr and
bound ~cperntod roof l>otlntlnry
layer; h ) ~lpwit~tlfcce and
Pig. 2.20b vortex ~hcrlt~i~rg from tho
t hn willdward rornrr of thr
roof
\ c.
Y?\
Fig. 2.21. Acrofoil and cir-
cular cylinder drawn in
such relation to each other
as to produce t.he serrle drag
in pnrallcl flows (parallel to
axis of svrnmetry of a~rofoil)
-
.. 1 0 6 to 107, Fig. 17.14.
c i r c u h r cr/linder: Drag
liig. 2 . 2 2 ~ cocfficirt~tcn = 1.0 s t R d
- 104to 109; Fig. 1.4. TIIIIU
ttlo ratio of the chord of tho
norofoil,1, to tho clin~nctrr.
d, t.t~rryIil~tIt.ris Ild -
1 010.006 -- 167
l'ig. 2.22" Iiig. 2.22. '1'11~ I?,,) ~lolds
I
t l v ~ ~ x ~ w ~ . t ~ uFlow
e n t . ill
\v:tbr mnclr vigihlc by t.hr
il1jrc.tio11of n (lye, nftrr \Ir.
I ) I I ~ 1R121; a ) Int~,innrflow.
R 1150: 1)) t11rb111r11t !low,
R - 2520
%'o conclude t l ~ i section,
s we ~vislrt,o tlisc~issn partsicrlla.rlytellitig example of
enectively it is possible to reduce the drag of a body in n st,rearn wlret~t.lrc sel)arntioll
of the boundary layer is cotnpletely elirninatrtl ant1 wherl, in ntltlit,iol~,the I ~ o t itsrlf l~
is given a shape wlrich is contlucivc to low rcsist.nncr. Pig 2.21 illr~strnt.cstllr c.i~(:rt,
R fnvvrnble sllnpe (strenmlinc body) on drag: it syintrteLrlc ncrofoil nlltl a rirc-ltlar
c:ylintlcr (thin wire) have brrn drnwr~hrrc to n relative sc3:~lowllicl~rtssrtrc:s c:clrlnl t I r n g
in sl,rcnms of cclnnl velocit,~.'l'lre cyliritlcr Iras a tlrag coc>fficicnt(:I,% 1 wit,lr rc?s~c,ct,
arcn (scr also Fig. 1.4).0 1 1 t.hc otlicr I~nnrl,{.I\(: (Irag cocfficit:trt,ofI II(, ;I(.I.,,-
to it,s fro~lt~nl
foil, rcfcrrctl to iLs cross-seclionnl nrcn, lras the very low vnlllc* of ,:f - 0.00(;. 'I'll!:
cxt.rclnrly low tll.ng of tllc ncrofoil is nclricvetl ns n rcscllt, of n c n r t ~ f r ~r.llosc.t~
ll~ ,)l.olil,,
wlliclt assures l l ~ a the
t bor~ndnryInycr rcrnnins lnrnirrar ovcr nlmost t,llc \vllolc of its
wett.ed Irngth (Inlninnr nt:rofoil). Tfit,llis conncxion, Chap. XVf l nt~tl,c!s~)rc.i:tll~,Icig.
17.14, slrorlltl Ije oons~rlt.cd.
Turhl~lertt llnw in n pipe arid ill n bo~~ritlnry
layer
hlensnretrrctrt,s sllo\v tl1n.t t.lre t.ypc of tnol,iot~tl~ro~lglr n rirctllnr pipr \vhich \\.as
calc~~lal.cd in Section l(1, and in wlricli 1 . 1 1 ~ vclocily tlislril)trt.iotr w:~s ~~:r,rnbolic,
exists only a t low ancl n~odcrnteReynoltls numbers. T l ~ cfact t h a t in tllc laminar
motion tinder disoussion fluitl Inminno slide over cach other, and tlri~ttllcrc: aro no
rndial vc1ocit.y rori~potrrnt.s,so t.hnt I.l~eprcsstrre ilrop is proportiotr:~l t,o t)lrc firs1
power of t.he rrlcnrt flow vclocit.y, const.it1ntrsnn esscrit.ia1 c:linrnct.rristic: of t,llis ~ . y p c
of flow. T l ~ i sclrarnrt.rrist,ic the motion c:nn bc mntlc clearly visil,lo 1)s i n l r o t l r ~ c i ~ ~ g
a clyc into the st.rmm anrl by tliscl~nrgingi t tllrorlglr a t , l ~ i r rt,rll)c, Fig. 2.22. ~ l t t,lrc ,
motlernt,e Rrytiolds ~ i u n ~ h e rassocintc-d
s wit,l~In~nit~:rrflow t.lre tlyc is visit~lr i l l
tfhr form o i a clearly tlefinetl t,l~rcadext,cnding ovcr the wllolc Irngtlt of t,hc pil~,.,
Fig. 2.22a. 13y incrcr~singt.lte flow velocity it, is pnssil~lc1.0 r m c l ~a stage .vlretl t.hc
Ruid pnrtic!les cease t o inovc alor~gst,m.iglrt linrs ant1 t.lrc rcgr~lnrityoC tlrc mot.ior~
brrnks do\vn. l'lrc colourcd Lltrencl bcc:o~nc~ rnixecl wit,\) i,lw fll~itl,its s l t a r ~ )o~rt.li~~c?
becotnrs blr~rrcdant1 cvc-nt.11a.ll.ytllc wlrolc oross-srrlio~lI)c.rotnrs colorlrrtl, Pig. 2.221).
On t.lrr n,xinl nlotion t,hcrc are now s l l ~ ~ r ~ . i ~ n j ) oirrc~gr1l:tr
sotl ratli:ll f l ~ ~ c t . r l : ~ t .wI1irl1
io~~s
clli.c.t the rnixir~g.Suclr a flow pnt.tern is cnllccl l11,*ule~r!. 'l'lrr t l j ~ ec x l ~ c r i ~ l i r nwas t
first carried out by 0. R e g r ~ o l ~ l1291, s wlro ns~ert~ninctl tllnt, tire taansitsic.n honl
tlrc laminar t o Lllc t~trrhrl!c~lt t,ypc of motion ttaltcs pl:rcc a t a tlcfinit.~v:t.lnr o f t11,.
I<.cynoltls r ~ ~ l m l ) c(crit.ical
r Itcynoltls 111llnl)rr).7 ' 1 1 ~: ~ c t ~ l nvalr~o
l of llrc criiic.:~~
Tteynolds ~ t u m b c rclrpcntls firrtller on t,lic dct.nils of t , h ~cxt)crirncrrl,nl :trmngcmr~~t.,
in p:~rt.ic:~tlaron t.hc amollnt of disl.~lrl)n.nr!,s u f i ~ o t lby bllo fluitl Ijcforo c:~rt.c-ri~i~
t h e pipe. Wit.11 a n nrrangem~rit,wirirh is as f'rcc from dis1rlrl)ancrs as possil,lc rrific.:~i
Rcynoltls nr~mbers( i i d / ~ ) , , exceeding
,~ 10"nn I)c att.ainrrl (ii, = dc~iot,cstJrc meall
velocity nverc~gedovcr t l ~ ccross-sectionnl a.rca). M'i(.l~a slrnrp-ctlgctl nrtt.mnc~c1 . 1 1 ~
c:rit,icnl Iteynoltls ~ u ~ m h becomes
cr a.pproximnf.rly
(ct)crll = R,,, 2300 (pipr) .
,I his v x l t ~ r~ . ; I I I 1)c rcgnrtletl as t,llc lowrr lintit. Ihr 1,11(-
y t rit.ic:nl 1tc:ynoltls rir~~l~l)t\l.
I)c.low \vl~irlrever1 st,rotig dist,urbrttrcrs (lo not, rntlsc t,llc flon. to I,c.c,omc* l,~~rl)rtlnrr~..
 I n t,hc trtrl~rtlontregion t,hc pressure tlrop becomes approximately p r ~ p o r t ~ i o n a l
t,o t,hc sclllarc of tlre ~ n e a nflow velocity. 111 this case a consiclerably larger pressure
tliffcrencc is reqrrirctl in ordcr t,o pnss a fixctl quantit,y of fluid t.hrol~gIr the pipc,
ns corrlparocl wit.11 Iarninar flow. l'his follows from t,ho fact t h a t t.lro plrcnomcnotl of
t.url)~llrrrttnixing dissil)at,cs a largc qrt:u~lit,yof' enorgy which c:~rtscs t,hc rcsist,:tnc:c?
1.0 Ilow t.o incrt:asc cot~si~lcr:tl)ly. l~rrrl,llcr~norr,
in I.hc casr? of Lnrl)r~lcrlt,llow t,llc volo-
distritlut.ion over the cross-scct,ior~alarca is rnrlch tnoro c v c ~t,lr:trl
~ in 1:lrninnr
flow. 'rhis circnmst,ance is also t,o be explailletl by turbulent mixing which causes a n
cxt:hangc of m o m c n t ~ t mbctwccn the layers near t h e axis of the tube and tfhose near
t,hc walls. Most pipc flows which are enco~lntererlin engineering appliances occur a t
such high Reynoltls numbcrs t h a t turbrllcrlt ~notiorlprevails a s a rule. Thc laws of
turbr~lentmotion through pipes will be discrlssed in detail in Chap. XX.
111 a way which is similar t o the motlion through a pipe, the flow in a bor~ndary
laycr along a wall also becomes turbulent whet1 the extcrnal velocity is sufficient,ly
largc. lSxpcriment,al investigations into the transition from laminar t o turbulent
flow in t.he 1,oltntlnry Inyer were first carried out by J . M. Burgers [GI ant1 I3. G .
vnll (lcr licgge Zijncrt 1171 as wcll as by M. IIansen [lG]. The t,ransit.iorl from
laminar t o turbulent flow in t h e boundary layer becomes most clearly discernible
by a sr~tltlcna.nd largc irtcrease in the boundary-layer tl~iclrncssant1 in the shearing
st.ress near the wall. According t o eqn. (2.1), with 1 replaced by tohe current co-
ortlinatc s , the dimensionless boundary-layer thickness 6/1/1'27~; becotnes constant
for laminar flow, and is, a s seen from eqn. (2.la), approximately c q t ~ atlo 5. Fig. 2.23
oontains a plot of t,llis tlimcrlsiorllcss bountlary-layer thickness agairlst the IZcynoltls
number IJ, z / v . At R, > 3-2 x 10" very sharp increase is clearly visil)le, arid
Fig. 2.23. Bor~ndnry-layertllickness plob-
tedr against the Reynoltls number based
on'the current lcngth z along a plate in
pnrnllel flow a t zero incidence, ~s mea-
srtrccl by llanscn [I61
an itlcnt,irnl plrcnomcnon is ol~srrvctlin a plot, of wall slrrari~rgstrcss. 'l'lrr srttltlcr~
incrcast? ill t,llrsc c1r1antit.ics tlcnot,cs t01:lt t.l~cflow Il;ts cl~arlgc.tl fro111 I:lmirl:lr t,o
tr~rl)ulctll..'I'lrc Ttcynoltls tlrtrn1)cr R, 1):lsctl on t . 1 1 ~ ol~rrcnt,I(rtlgt,lr z is rc.l:tIrtl to
R,, -:(I,?,,?/I, 11:1sr(IO I I t.l~(,l ~ o r ~ ~ t ( I : ~ ~ ~t y
t,l~(: ltry~toltls1111tl11)rr l ~- li :~~: yl <( ~~I Ir~I ~, O~IsI s~ I I
t,Itt, cvln:Ll.io~~
R,, . - 5 I/ R* ,
a s sprn from rqn. (2 1 a). l l r ~ l r ct o tltr rriticxl Rrynoltls r~rtrnl~rr
there corrcspontls R g crlt = 2800. Tllc bor~~ltlary Inyrr or1 :I plate is Inrrlin:cr rrcnr t.l~t:
lentling edge nrttl bcconles turbulent f~lrt.llcrtlo~vrlst,rca~n. 'I'ltc nbscissn r,,,, of t l ~ t
poirrt of lrnt~sit~ion can IICclctcrminctl f r o n ~Llrc k t l o w ~v:~ltic~ of R, .,,,.
I n t . 1 1 ~caso
of n plate, a s in the prcvior~slytliscussctl pipe flow, t.ltc rrrtntcricnl vaI11o of R,,,,
dcpcntls t o a ~narkctltlegrce on tlre arnorlnt of' tlist.~trl~ancc in t.110 nxt,crn:tl flow, :1t1t1
the value R, = 3.2 x 10%slrot1lcl be regartlet1 ns a lower limit,. With oxccpt.iorl:~Ily
tlist~trrbnncc-frcccxt.crnal flow, valrtcs of R, ,,
- 10%rlrltl I~igltrr11:~vc been :~tt.ailrrtl.
A 1):~rticul:trly rernarltable phcnorncno~l connccl,ctl with the transit.iotl from
laminar t o trlrbrtlt:rrt flow occrtrs i r l t,he casc of blrtnt llotlics, sl~clla s circr~larcylintlers
or spheres. I t will be seen from Figs. 1.4 arttl 1.5 t,l~aLthe tlmg coef'ficierlt o f a circrtlar
cylirrtlcr or a sphcre srtffcrs a s~~tltlctr :tot1 consitlcral~ledccrcasc 1lr:rr Itcynoltls
rrri~nl~crs 1.' I)/v of bout 5 X lo5 or 3 x lo5 rcs~)ccLiv(~l~. 'I'lris fact was first, obscrvrtl
on spttcrcs by G . 1I:iffrl 1141. It. is a conscquerlcc of t,ransition whicl~cnttses t.lle
point of separation t o movc clownstacam, l)cca~rsc,in t,hc case of a turbulcrrt 1)ountlary
laycr, tJtc accelerating influence of tthc cxt.crn:ll flow oxt,cntls fur1,her due t,o t.t~rbulrrrt.
mixing. ~Tcncctile point of separation wllicll lies near the cqnator for a laminar
I)o~rr~tlary I:~ycr nlovcs over a corrsitlcml~lotlislnr~ccit1 t,he downstream tlircct.ior~.
In t,rlrn, the tlcad arca decreases considcmbly, anti t,ltc pressure dist,ribution becomes
more like t,lrat for frict,ionless motion (Fig. 1.11). The decrease in tltc rlcad-wat,cr
region consitlcmbly reduces t h e prcssrlrc tlmg, and t h a t shows itself as a jump ill
the crtrve G, .= f(R). L. T'mnrltl [26] provctl tlre corrcct,~rcssof t,lrc prrcccling
rcasoning 11y nlo~inl~ing n I , l ~ i r iwirc ring III; a ~Itort,(I~Y(~ILII(:Cill f r o ~ t tor I,11occlri:lt,or
of a sphere. This car~scsthe boundary laycr to bccome art,ificially tur1)rtlcrlt a t n lower
Reynolds n l ~ m b c rarrcl the tlccrcasc in t,hc tlrng cocfficicrrt taltes place carlicr Lllatr
would otherwise be the case. Figs. 2.24 and 2.26 reproduce photographs of flows
which have been made visible by smoke. They reprcsctlt the subcrit,ical pattern
with a large value of the drag coefficient and the supercritical pattern with a small
(Iced-water arca and a small value of t h e drag coefficient. The sttpercritical pat,tern
was achieved with Prandt,l's tripping wire. The preceding cxporimcnt sl~owsin
a convincing nlanncr t,hat t h e jrtnlp in the drag curve of a rircular cylintlcr and
sphere can only be interprctcd a s a borindary-layer phcnomcnor~.Otlror bodies
with a blunt or rounded slcrn. (c. g. elliptic cylil~tlcrs)display :I type of rclat.ionship
bctwcen drag coefficient ant1 Rcynolcls nttlnbcr wllicl~is sr~l)sta~~li:illy sinlilnr. \Vit,lt
increasing slcntlcrness the jump in tfhc ctlrvc i)ccomcs ~ ' i r o ~ r c s s i vless c l ~ pronor~nccd.
For a streamline body, such ns tallat shown it1 Fig. 1.12 t.h(:rc is rlo jump, I)nc:~~tsc
rto :lpprrci:r.l)lc srp:r.mt,io~roccltrs; t,llr w r y gmtlrt:tl 1;rc-ssrlrc irrc!rr:lso 011 I,l~cI~;lclt
 c. T~~rhulent
flow in n pipe nr~din a hourldnry lnycr 43
'hhle 2.1. Tllickness of bormdary Inyer, 6, a t t.rniling edge oF flnt plate nt zero inridencc in
of s11c.11 1)otlics csan I)e overcome I)y t l ~ cbor~ntla.rylayer w i t , h o ~ separat.ion.~t AS we pnrnllel t.nrb~~lent flow
sllall also scc Int,cr in grrat,er tlct.ail, t,l~epressure di~tribut~ion in thc ext,ernal flow (J, = rrcr ntrenlll vrloclty: I = lrnqtll or pla1.e: r = kinrn>nl.le risrasily
t.xrrt,s a clct~isivcinfl~~c:rlce on t,hc positmionof t.lle transition point. Thc bountlnry
Ia.yrr is I n t ~ ~ i n ainr t.11~regiotl of prcssurc deereast, i. e. rollghly from t.110 leading
ntlgc? to t.hr p i n t of minimr~tn pressure, ant1 becomes t,rtrhulent, i l l most cases,
from t . l ~ : ~
point
t on\\,nrrl t . l ~ r i ) ~ l g l ~t .ol ~ region
r~ t , of prcsslrrc inrrcn.sc. I n this corrnexion I (1,
I 1
~ r t / ~ * c l ifi,, 1" U 1
= . .. I "1
rill

it is iml~ort,antto statc t,hnt, scparnt,ion can only bc nvoitletl in rcgiorrs of incrensing Air 100 :I 2.0 x 10' 0.73
prcssnrc nh?n the flotv in t,hc bountlnry layer is turlrulcnt. A laminar 1)ountlary layer, v = 150 X 10-e f t Z / ~ ~ v : 200 :J 4.0 x 10' O+i4
2 0 15 2.0 x lo7 2.30
50 25 8,:s x lo7 2.!)0
760 25 1.25 x 108 2.68

\VntOr 5 R 2.3 x 10' 1.19

v = 11 x lo-' ft2/4cc 10 15 1.35 x lo7 2-52
25 150 3.4 x 108 13.1
r,O 500 2.3 x 100 29.8

I?ig. 2.24. I i l o t v I I : I S ~n spl~rrc:nt, n s ~ ~ h t ! r i I i ~ . : ~ l T'ig. 2.26. Flow past n ~plirrenL n n~~percri- Methods for the preveatinn of separation: Sopnrnt,ion is most ly nn r~ntlcsir:~.I~lt!
I ~ I ~ ~ I I n
~ r, ~
\ ~r \n ~~ rroll\
~ .~: \\lic.~rlnl,c.vNrrj : \ ~ ( t.icnl I<c*ytlolcla r ~ t ~ r ~ ~from
l > n r ;\Virurlnl~c.rgrr ~ ) l ~ r n o m c n bccnusr,
on it c l l t r ~ ilnrgo
l ~ onorgy losscs. I'nr (.his rcnson rnc\t.llocls I ~ r ~ v1,(:t:11
o
[3!)]. Tlw nopcrcrit.ical flow pnt,tcrl~in nr.l~ir- tleviscd for the artificial prcvcntion of separation. T l ~ csirnplest met.hotl, from t,l~c
ved by tlle mounting of n thin wire r i ~ ~ g physical point of view, is t o move the wall with the stream in order t o rcdr~cehhc
(I.rippingmire) velocity difference between them, and hence t o remove the cause of boundary-layer
formation, b u t this is very difficult to nchicvc in engineering practice. Ilowcvcr,
I'rnndtl t has shown on n rolaling circ11.1arcyli?zP.r tllat this metllod is very rfrcct.ivn.
On the side where t h e wall and stream move in t h c same direction separnt.ion is corn-
a s n.c shall see Int.er, can support, only n very slnnll pressure rise so t,l~at. scpnrat,iorr pletely prevented. Moreover, on the side where t.11~wall and st.renn~move in oppositc
wonltl occur rven wit.l~very slcndcr botlics. I n p,qrt.icular, t,his remark also applies t o tlircct,ions, separation is slight so t h a t on the whole i t is possible t o obt.ain a gootl
the flow past nn aerofoil wit,li n pressure dist,rit)ut,iorlsilr~ilnrto t h a t in Fig. 1.14. 111 experimental npproximat,ion t.o perfcct flow wit11 circulation ant1 a large lift..
t.llis cnse scpamt~iotlis most liltcly t,o ocrur on t.he sncI,ion side. A smoot,l~flow pattern
Another very effective metliotl for tlic prcvcnt,iorl of scparation is ~ o ~ L ~ I ~ < I I . ! J -
nround n.n ncrotbil, contlr~civct.o ~ I I C creation of lift, is possihlr only wit.11a t,l~rhnlent
Ltycr sudion. III this metl~otlt11c dccclcratccl fluid pnrticlcs in the bonntlary Inyrr
botlntla.ry Ia.ycr. Snrnming up it, ma.)i be st.at,rtl that, t.hc small drag of slencler botlies
are removed through slits in t,he wall into thc interior of the body. Wit,11 srrf'ficic.r~t.ly
a s wrll &s t . 1 1 ~lift, of acrofoils are rna.tle possible t,l~~.ough
thc cxist,enrc of n t,url)ulent,
strong snction, sepxrat.ion can be prevented. Bo~tndnry-layersuct,ion was nsecl
t)ountla,ry Inyer.
on a circular cylintler by L. PrantIt,l in his first. fnntl:~~nrntalinvcst.igat,ion in1.o
( ~ c r ~ e r a l lspealc~r~g,
y the thicknesq of a tnrbrllcnt boundary-layer flow. Separation can be almost completely eliminated wit.11 suct,iot~
B o u r ~ c l n r ~ - l n ~thickness:
er
through a slit a t the back of t-he circ~llnrcylinder. Instrnnccs of t,he cffrct. of snc.I,ion
1,011ntlary leycr is larger than t h a t of n laminar boundary layer owing to grratcr
can be seen in Figs. 2.14 and 2.16 on tile exnmplc of flows tlirougll n l~igllly
energy losses in the former. Nenr a smooth flat plate a t zero incitlcnce the boundary
divergent channel. Fig. 2.13 demonstrat,es t h a t witllout suction t.hcrc is strong
layer incrcascs downstream in proportion to xoR(x = &stance from leading edge)
separation. Fig. 2.14 shows how the flow adheres t o t.hc one sirlc on wlliclt srtc-
It will 1-I(. R I I ~ W I IInter in Chap. X X I t h a t the boundary-layer tl~ieknrssvariation
tion is applied, wherens from Fig. 2.16 i t is seen t h a t the flow complctcly fills the
in (nrt)nlrnt flow is given 1,y the rqnntion
f clrannel cross-sect.ionwhen t h e s ~ c t ~slits
i o ~are ~ pnt int.0 operation on botli si(Irs. I I I t . 1 1 ~
d
1
= 0.37 ( )
lJm,l -'I5 *
= 0.37 (RI)-'l' (2.9) latter case t,lie strea~r~lines
assunlc a pat,t,crn whicl~is very sinlilar t,o l , l ~ ain
flow. In lat.cr gears sr~ct~ion
t liiet.j;)rllcss
was sncccssfr~llyused irt acroplanc wings to ill(-rcasc. (.11c
lift. Owing t,o snc:t.ior~on the: rlppcr s r ~ r f a c :near
~ t l ~ ct.ra.iling edge, t,l~eflo\\~ntlllrrrs
\vl~ic-llc:orrt:sl)ontls 1.0 rcln (2.2) for laminar flow. I'ahlr 2.1 gives vnlnes for tJrc -.
11o1111~l:r.ry-l:tyt~r t l l ~ i ( ~ k ~o:~l(:~~laI.rtI
~css from ecln. (Z.!)) for several typical casos of air
: ~ 1 t t 1 watl~rflows.
t Prnncltl-Tietjens: Hydro- nnd Aerodynnmics. Vol. 11, Tnl~lrn7, 11 and 9.
44 11. Outline of boundary-layer theory References 45
[ l l ] Dotnm, U.: Ein Beitrag ztlr StabilitAtstheorie der Wirbelstmssen u n b r Beriicksicl~t,igu~~g
to t h e aerofoil at considerably larger incidence a n g l e s t h a n yonl(1 otllcrwisr b e t l r ~ endlieher u r ~ d zeitlich wachsender Wirbelkerndurchmesser. Ing.-Arch. 22, 400 - 410
rase. stalling is clrl:cyetl, nntl m u c h l n r g t r m a x i m u m - l i f t values a r e achieved [3F]. i 1954) -,.
[12] I)1111u,W.: Uber den Einfluss 1aniinn.rcr und tr~rbulcnlcrSt.rii~nrtngR I I dau ~ R i i l ~ l g ~ l ~ bVOII ild
Aft,er )laving g i v e n a s h o r t out,lino of t,he f n n t l a m e n t ~ a lphysical principles of
Wnusor ~rntlNit,rol~cl~zol. Ilclv. 11l1ys act,:^ 12. 100--228 (I!):)!)).
f l ~ ~ imdo t i o n s w i t , l ~v e r y snlnll friot.ion, i. c. of t l ~ cb o u n d a r y - l a y e r t h e o r y , w c shnll iI:3] I111rgit1,W.\\'., nnel I<l~.rlnson,S.I<.F'.: On 1.110 p l ~ c * ~ ~ o r ~of~ vor1.o~ n t l r ~ ~sl.rc,c~l
~ I~r(.:~liilon.~~.
proncccj t o clovc!lop n m t i o n a l tllcory of t l ~ c s opl~cnorncrlnf r o l r ~ 0110 o(1111~1.ions 01' I'll! 48, 607 -627 (1!)71).
m o t i o n of V ~ S C O I I Sfluids. Thf: (icscription will b e arr:~rlgctl in t h e followir~gw a y : Wt: 1141 ISiflhl, t i . : S I IIn~ rA~iut:~nc:c: clc:~~pl~i.rcu (IIIIIH I'nir or! I I I O I I V ( ~ I I I O I I ~(:oIII~I~.(:u
,. I~,I.II(IIIH 1.55, l5!)7
(1!112).
shall begin i n I'art A by deriving Ghc g c n c r a l Navicr-Stjokes c c i ~ ~ a t i o nf rso m w h i c l ~ , 114:~lI~iirnchi~~g. 11.\V.: Acroc~last.it;cl~r l'rol~lo~~~t: nn Hoc~l~I~n~llco~~st.r~tlctio~~cn i l l frrirr \ \ ' i ~ ~ ( l -
i n t u r n , w e s h a l l d e r i v e l'randtl's b o u n d a r y - l a y e r e q u a t i o n s w i t h t h e nick of t h e un~st.riic~~clng. Vt~llcnn-Verla.g,15sscr1, H n t ~ sder 'l'echnik, I'ilrt 347, 3 -- 18 (1971;).
sirnplificstions which c a n b e inl,rotlucctl a s a cor~seclucnccof tjhe s m a l l v a l r ~ c sof vis- [I51 l'rit~~bcrger,11.: Exparirno~~tclle Urltcrst~cl~unger~ an der IChr~nhnschcnWirl~clnt.rnssc.%If\Y
cosit,~ T h i s will b e followed i n T'art I3 by a t l c ~ c r i p t ~ i oof n t h e metjhods f o r t h e i n t e g m - 5 , 355-35!) (1957).
t i o n of t h e s e cqnat.ions f o r t h e caso of l a m i n a r flow. 111 P a r t C w e s h a l l d i s c r ~ s st h e [I61 Hnnscn, M.: Die Goscl~wit~digkeik~vcrteilung in dcr Gret~zschicht,an der I l n g s n t ~ g e s t r i i n ~ t , ~ ~ ~
ebencn Plntt,e. ZAMM 8, 185-I!)!) (1028); NACA 'I'M 585 (1!)30).
p o b l e m of t h o origin of t,nrbulcnt flow, i . o. w e shall discuss t h o process of t r a n s i t i o n [I71 van (lor IJrggc Zijticn, 13.C.: Mensr~rct~~ccrts of t,llo velocil.y clist.ril~~ltion in L l ~ c : I ~ o r ~ ~ ~ d i l r g
from l a m i n a r t,o t , u r b u l e n t flow, t r e a t i n g it, a s a problern i n t h e stabiliLy of l a m i n a r lnycr nlong n plane surface. Thcsiu 1)clft 1!J24.
mot,ion. F i n a l l y , Pn.rt .D will c o n t a i n t h e b o r ~ n t l a r y - l a y c r t h e o r y for complet,ely [I81 Hrincmann, fl. J . . I,a\var:zeck, O . , nnd 13iitefincI1, 1c.A.: I<hrmBn vortices n ~ ~ t.l~eir rl frc-
tlcvclopcrl t ~ ~ r b u l r n mto t i o n s . W h e r e a s t h e t h e o r y of l a m i n a r b o u n d a r y l a y e r s c a n quenry detcrn~inatiol~ in the wakes of profiles in the s31b-and t.ransonic rrgi~nc.S V I I I ~ O S ~ I I I ~
l'r:r~~snonici~r~~ I I (:iit,t,il~gen,Sept.. 1!)75. Springrr Vcrlng, 1!)7(i, pp. 75 -- 82: s r r s l s o T ~ ( : j \Itl).
I)c trrat,ctl as n d c t l ~ l c t ~ i vs e q u e n c e I ~ a s c t lo n t,hc Nnvicr-Stolrrs tlifTerent,i~leqllationx Cor~ferrl~co I'roc. No. 177. U~~ulcrtdy ~ ' I I C I I O I I I C ~ I i~l l ' ~ ' I I ~ ~ I ~ I I I : L C . ~ I ~ I(1!)75).
IOT~
for viscous flrritls, t h o s a r n c is not,, a t prcscnt,, possible for t u r b u l e n t flow, t)ccnusc thc: [I91 llucl~o,\Ir. H.: l<illfl~~as der Vordrrw:~geniorln auf M'idcrsCar~cl.(:icrlno~~~ort r l l ~ t l Sritc.n-
m c c l ~ a n i s mor t n r h ~ l l c n tflow i s s o c o m p l c x t . l ~ a ti t c a n n o t b e nlastercci by p u r e l y krnft von Jin.stcn\r.ngcn. ZFW 20, 341 -- 351 (1972).
t.l~rorct,icnlmct,hods. F o r t,his reason a t,rc;~iisco n t l n r 1 ~ n l c rflow ~ t must, tlraw 11e:~vily [20] von l(Lrrnhn, Th.: uber tlen Mcchanis~~~rls den Widcrnt.nntlcs, den cir~be\vcgtcr l i i i r ~ ~ in rr
einrr Fliissigltrit erzetlgt. Nechr. Gcs. \Vies. (%thingen, Math. l'hys. I<lnssc RO!) - 517 (I!)] I)
or1 e x p r r i m e r ~ t n lresult,s ant1 t,llc s r ~ l ) j c r tm n s t Ijc presented i n t,hc f o r m of a s e m i - and 547--556 (1912); src also CoIl. Works I, 324-3338,
cmpiriral throry. (211 VOII I<Armhti.Th.. and J t ~ ~ h a cf1.: h , Uher den h l c c l ~ n n i s ~drs ~ ~ I~liissigkcits-
~ls I I I I ~1,11ftn-itlrr-
st.nndcs. I'hys. Z. 13. 4 9 - ~ 5 9(1!)12); see 111so Coll. Works 1. 313!)- 358.
1221 ],in. C.C.: 0 1 1 11criodic:nlly osrillnli~~g wnkrs in the Oscen o p l ~ r o x i l ~ ~ i ~I<.t ivo. ~Rlisc:~ ~. i \ l ~ ~ ~ i -
vera:lry V o l u ~ ~St,utlies
~e, in h l n t l ~ e ~ ~ ~ nnda t i chtechnnirs.
s Ao~tlcn~ic Press, Ncw Yorlt, 1050,
170.- 171;.
References [23] hliiller. E.: I,uft\viclerst,n~~dsrnessungeli a111 Volks\\~ngcn-1,icfcr~vngrn. i2uto~~iol)iItcrl~~~isr:l~e
Z. 5.1. 1 --4 11951).
, ,
123n] Sovak. 1.: Strouhal nurnl~erof l,o~lic~ ancl their uyut.rt~~s (in 1!11usinn). Strojr~ii.kyf:;~ur~l,is
[I] Acl~enbac:h,E.: J':xperilnent,s on the flow past spheres a t very l ~ i g lIZeynolds ~ nr~lnbers. 26, 72---89 (1975).
J F M 54, 505--575 (1972). 12.11 U r i f l i ~0. ~ , Rl., at~tlRnmborg, S. E.: Tl~r:vortex-ntrcct wnkc3 of vilrrating ~ylil~(l~:ru. .Il'.hl (i6,
121 Ilcrger, J':., ant1 Wille, It.: Perioclic flow p h e l ~ o ~ t ~ cA
% >
l ~I nI I. I ~ :Review
I~ of lpluitl hlcch. 4 , 553-576 (1974).
3133--340 (1072). [25] i'randtl, L.: h e r I"liissigkeit~be\vcgu11g hci nelir kleiner I t c i l ~ ~ ~ nI'roc:. g . 3rd Int,c:rl~.Rlnt.l~.
(31 nerger, 15. : Ucut.iln~nrl~~g dcr I ~ y d r o d y n : ~ l ~ ~ (:riissen
i w l ~ c ~einer
~ I<hr~~~hnsrh \I'irl)rlutransr
cn Cot~gr.Heiclclberg 1904, 484---491. RcpriltL~tlin: Vicr ;\l)l~iindlt~nger~ zur Ilyelroclgl~ntnik
aun t l ~ t z c l m l ~ t ~ ~ ~ e sbci
s u ~klcirlc~~
i g c ~ ~ I<cynolds-Znl~le~~. ZF\Y 12, 41 --59 (1!)64). rind Acrodynornilc, Giitti~~gen, 1927; see nlso Coll. \\'arks I I . 575--584; Engl. transl. NACA
< -
13nl Be:~rn~an, 1'. W.: On the vortex shedclit~gfro111n rirrulnr c.ylintler i l l the c*riticnl Reynolds
number range. J1:M 37, 577-585 (l!)(i!)).
TRl 4TL (1!)28).
141 plnsitrs, H.: Cronzschirl~tenin Flii.qnigkeitcn wit klciner 1lcih1111g.I>ins. (:iiltingen 1!)07; [26J l'rnn(lIl, I,.: l)cr ~~t~ft.!!~i(~(:rsL:~r~d VOII I<II~C,III. N~tcl~r. (h.\'Vim. (Ii~t,l,i~~got~, hl:~t.l~. I'11,ye.
L. Math. u. I'h~.s.Mi, 1-37 (1908); Engl. tri~t~sl. in SAC'\ Thl 1250. J<lns~(:,l!)l4. 177 I!)O; sire*t~lso(:oil. \Vorlts i l , 5!)7 - fioH.
151 Ulenk. H . . I~urlis,I).. a~itlLicbcm, I,.: uber die 3lcssrlr1g van J\'irbelfrequer~zcl~.I,~lftfi~hrt- 1271 I'rn~~rltl.I,., and Ilietjet~s,0.: llydro- n ~ ~ Llcrorl~rcl~al~ilt
d (b:i~(:eI0 1 1 I'~ILII(~I.~'R I~ct~~rcs).
L ,

f o r n r l l ~ n ~ l 38--41
2, (1935). Vol. I nncl 11. Ikrlin, 192!) and 16:31; 1Ct1gI. trnnnl. by 1). Ilosrl~l~cnd (Vol. I ) nnrl ,I.IJ. (irci
[O] Burgers, J. M.:'The ~ n o t i o of ~ i n fluid in thr houndnry lnycr nlong n plnr~es n ~ o o t lsurface. ~ Ilnrt.og (Vol. II), Kow JTork, 19334.
1 R o c . First lnternatior~nlCongress for .\pl~liod Mcchnnics, 1)elft. 1131-- 128 (I!)24). 1281 IZclf, 1':. F.,nntl Sirnn~ol~s, I,. F. (:.: 'l'lic rrrqrle~~cics of cdtlirs gc:~~crnlctl by thr 111otionof
171 (:ll:lt~g, 1'.K.: Sep:~rntionof flow. l'ergnl~~ot~ Press. \Vnsl~ingtonI>.C., 1!)70. cirrular cyli~~tlrrs t.l~ror~gh n fluid. AllC I<M 917. l,or1do11 (1!)24).
[R] C,rrt~~nlr, J . E.: z\p~~liration of fluid n~rchnt~ics to \r-intl engir~rcring-- t\ Yrceelnnn Scholnr [2!+] I<rynolds,0.: An rxpc:ritt~rr~tnl ir~vcstignt.iol~ of the rircuc~~st:unccs \rhich tletertni~~c rvlicthcr
Icrture. 'l'rnns. AhhllC Fl~~itln Engineering 97, Ser. I, 9--38 (1!)75): ure nlso: Lal~or:~tory the )notion of \vat.rl. shnll be tlircct or s i r ~ i ~ oi111d ~ ~ nof , thr IR\V of rrsi4tnncc i r ~ ~ ~ n m l l c l
sil~~rllntiol~ of the :~tlnosl~l~cric h o ~ ~ n d n rInycr.
y t\l'\,\ .J. 9 . 174(i-1754 (1!171). cltn~~ncls. I'llil. l'rnnu. Iloy. Sor. 171. !):I.',- !)H2 (IXH:!); srr nlsc~Sc.ir~itifirI':~l~c~rs 2, 51.
18111 Cerlnnk, .I. E.: ~\crodynnl~~ics of h~lildingn.r\n~~rlal He icxv of Yluitl Birch. 8, 75-- I00 (1970). [30] R,il~ner,H. S., JStltins, B., and Nccly, I<. JC.: Noise research in Cnt~adn:i'l~ysioicl a l ~ t I~io- l
,!I] Crnant. J E . . and S ~ ~ C ~I IV, . Z .\:\ l i n t ~ . t ~ ~ ns inl ~n i6 t i o n of wincl io:iciitig on str~lctares. aco~lstic.Proc. First Int. Congress Acro. Sci. Madrid, Pergnmon press, I,ondon, Vol. I,
Jlrctinp: I'reprint 1417, r\SCIC Sntiotinl S t r ~ ~ c t t ~1Sngineeringral Alreting. 13nltit11orr.hfnry- 393 --441 (1959).
Inr~d,171--2 j .-\pril, 1971. [91] Itoshko, 11.:15xperit11enl.son t l ~ cIlo\v past n circ.t~lnrryli~lilrr:II very high I<eynoltlsI I I I I I I ~ ~ ~ .
[I01 j)nven[~ort,,\. (;.: 'rhc rclntionship of wind structure to wintl Ionding. Pror. Col~fercnrcon ,JI"R1 10, 345--350 (1901).
\ \ . i ~ ~ 15llrrts
tl on I311ildi11~u nnd Str~~cstr~res, Sntiont~lI'hynirnl I,nhor:~tory. 'Trtldingtol~, [32] J<oshko; I\.: 0 1 1 t,l~rtlcvelopl~~r~it of turbulent wnltcs from vorlrx strrc.tu. SL\(:A1trl1. 11!)1
Jlid(llrnrx. (:rrnt Itritnin. 26--28 ,111nr I!l(i:l. Ilcr Mnjmty's Stationt~ry0flic.r. I , o ~ ~ t l o l ~ . ( l!)54).
\'()I. I , 54 -- I I2 ( I !)t\5).
[:j2a] I?o~cilhrnel,I,.: Thr forn~atior~ of vort,icos horn n s ~ ~ r f n cofo tliscontin~iitj~. Proc. Itoy. Soc.
A 134, 170 (I!)BI).
[:iR] Jl,r~bact~, 11.: Uher die 1S11t.stehungund Iqortl~c\vcgnt)gdcs \Yirbrlpnnres bei zylinclriscl~on
I<ijrl~cn~. I ) ~ R R .(:iitt.i~lgen 1!)14; V ~ ) ~ - ~ ~ O r ~ l : ~ l l l 185 l l g ~(191 tlf6 t ).
[:):l~~lS:~rllkayn.'l'.:AII inviscid ~ ~ ~ o tof l o lt ~ r . o - c l i ~ ~ ~ c ~ V~Ou~iLrP~Xi ~ s11t~lrIi11~
nl for t r n ~ ~ s i c nnntl
t
asyl~~l~t,oLi(-nlly sl.cntly Ilow ovor nn incli~~rrl ~)lale..lFM 68. 1 0 ' 3128 (1!)75).
[:MI S:iclcl~,\V.%., at111(!(:~IIIII.~<, .J. I(.: r l ' ~ ~ r l ~r.lkc:t ~ ~ I (111 r ~ \vnll~ ~ ~I1rrnnllrrc .I. I':II~.
Ilr~c:lr~:~tiot~n.
hlcrl~.1)iv. AS(:lC !)#, No. IChI (\, I'ror-, 1'1tprr !)445, IS!) l!)S (1!)72).
(351 Sc:l~liclrt.ing.It.: Aerotlynalni~chcU~~tcmrrch~lngc~l nu 1<1~afIf:ihrzorcge11. Itcp. 'l'rc1111.I ~ o ~ ) I -
sc:hrilo I%~~nr~t~sol~rnc?ig, I:)0- 1:10 ( l!)54).
[;I(;] S(.III.OIII<,0 . : \ ' e r ~ ~ ~ cI~I lI ~
~ ~A I I I ~ In 27 (I!I:K).
r .- I ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ g ~ l lI ,iIiIg~ Ir. ~~I .l ItI~I ..I ~ ~ I ~ R ( ~ I I IrYII, 1)criv:ltion of t h e cc111:ltionsof 111otion ol'
i.471 St.ronh:~l.V.: Ubrr tino hononrlrro Art. clnr 'I'o~~crregr~~lg. A1111. I'II~R.111rc1(!0~11ii(~, No\v
Srricn 5. 21(i - 2 5 1 (1878). a compressi1)le viscous fluid
[:)R] 'I'irn~~ir, A,: i ) l ~ r rlic
r ( ; r u c ~ l ~ \ r ~ i ~ ~ t l i g k r i I , q \in~ \,VirhoIn.
r ~ r I i : i l ~ lng.-Ar(.l~.
~~~ 25. 205 -225 (1!)57).
[ : $ ~1I I\\'rclr~~~r?;c.r. 15.: A I I R ~ ~ cit~cs ~ ~ ~W~~IIOIII:L:LI~(~R
IIII~ at1 rlrn I<RII~.CII einer I'laLte. 1ng.-Arrll. .30,
187 ZOO (l!l(;l).
[B!)] L\'icsrlsl)rrgrr, C.: 1)cr I,~~ft.\viderst,n~~d von I<r~gcln.ZFM 5 , 140--144 (1014).
a. I ~ u n c l a t t t e l ~ lequations
al of tttolio~tatad e ~ t t l i t t ~npplietl
~ i l ~ l o f l ~ ~ i flow
cl

Mrc sh:~ll n o w ~ ) r o n r r t l1.0 tlcrivc: t . 1 1 ~ccjl~:~l,ionsof mot,ior~of a ro~nl)rr~ssil)lr.

visc:o~~s,Nowt.otiinr~Iluitl. I I I t l ~ cg c n c f i ~ lc::~sc?of t.111.cc:-tli~nc*t,niot~ill
m o t . i o ~ 1~. ,1 1 ~flon,
firltl is sy)c?cifictl I)y t . 1 1 ~vrloci(.y v c c t o r

, Ll~oprossurc p, : t . ~ ~by
w h e r e 16, 11, w a r c t,hc t l ~ r c cort11ogon:~l c o n i p o n c n t , ~ 11y t l tllc:
clcnsity Q, all conceived as f u n c t i o n s of t h e c o o r d i n a t a s z,?/, z , a n d t.imo t . P o r t h o
tleterminnt.ion of t81icse fivc qlln.nt.it.ics t h o r r o x i s t fivc cql~nLions: t.11~c o ~ ~ t , i n u i t , y
e q u a t i o n (conservation of m a s s ) , t h o t l ~ r c ee q u a t i o n s o f m o t i o n (ronsrrvnt.ion of
m o m e n t u m ) a n d t h e t,hermodynarnic c q ~ ~ a l ~ of i o snt a t e p -- I(@).:
T h e e q u a t i o n of cont.inl~it,yoxpresscs t , l ~ efnc:t t l ~ n tfor a unit, volllmo t~hcrc:is a
b a l a n c e b c t w e e n t h e m a s s e s e n t e r i n g ant1 leaving p e r u n i t time. ant1 t h e c l ~ a n g ein
tlrnsity. I n L l ~ ccave of non-,st.cacly flow of a comprcssil)lc llr~icl t h i s contlit.io11 Irntls
t o t . i ~ cctlrrnt.ion :

w l ~ e r e a sfor a11 incompressible fluid, w i t h p = const*, t,11~D ~ I I : L ~ . ~ of

~ I Ic o n t i n ~ ~ i t . y
asstimes t h e simplified form
cliv I,! = 0 . (3.1 :L)

The symt)ol l)p/I)l d e n o t e s h e r e tlle s u b s t a n t i v e dcrivat.ivo w l ~ i c lconsists ~ of t l ~ e

lorxl c o n t r i b u t i o n (in nor] s t e a d y n o w ) .'te/at, ant1 t.ho c o n v e c t i v e cont,ribl~t,ion(dlic
t,o branslation), rr..grad p.

-
t l u Ghe Sixth Editior~t h i rhnpter
~ has been rovisrd by t,hr Trnl~sla(.or
at. t,l~oAr~l.hor'ni~~r,it,atior~.
: If the e q u a t i o ~of~ ~fstecont,ains ternprntr~rc.zs nn wlditional varinhle, a f ~ ~ r t l ecln:rtioi~
~or in
s~lpplietfby the principle of the ronnorvat.ion of cl~crgyin 1.11~
l o r ~ of
l ~ thr lpirst I,a\v of T ~ I ( , ~ I I I o -
tlynan~inl;c / . Chap. X I I .
 b. Getleral stress systen~in e, defor~nablebody
48 111. Derivation of the eqrrat,ionn of motion of E compressible viucoou flrrid 49
I#. General stress syetetn in a deformable body
The eeI~lnl,ionsof motiot~ore dcrivotl fro111 Nowton's Scconrl Law, wlricl~st,ates
t,hat t h e protluot of mass and accelcrntiorr is cclual t o Lhe sum of the external forces I n order t o writo down expressions for the ~ u r f a c forces
e ncting on the b o ~ ~ n d a r j r ,
actir~gon t,lrc 1)ody. 111 fl~lid~not.ioni L is necessary t,o consider t,hc followirrg two ll o f volulno d V = !lx (I!/ tlz isolrcf,o(l ~ I I U ~ . I L I I ~ , I L I I ~ ~ ~
let, 118 imngino n ~ ~ n nprtrr~llcpipctl
tire mass of the botly (grsvit,ational forces)
classes of forcrs : forces acl.ing t~l~ror~ghorrt from the botly of tlrc fluitl, Fig. 3.1, and let its lower loft-l~nr~tl vcrttcx coincide wit.11
antl forces arting on Lhc bor~nrlnry(pmssurc ant1 friction). If F r= Q g denot,rs t l ~ c the point x, y, Z. On t l ~ ctwo faces of nrcn dy . tlz which arc pcrl~cn(licrllar1.0 t . 1 1 ~
gravit,;\t,iorl:~lforce per unit vcllumo (g vcrtor of accrlcmt,ion due t,o graviLy) ant1
7.7 z-axis thcre net two resr~lt~nnt stresses (vectors = sr~rfaccforcc per l~rritarca):
I' denot,es the force on the bountlary per unit volume, tthen t,hc e q ~ ~ a t i o nofs motion
can I)c writ.t,on in t,ho following vcct30r form 1 1 ~ and pl -4- apz
ax d x rcspcctively .

wit 11
I.' = i X +j Y 4-k B Ijotly force (3.3)
~lltl
1' = i I', -{j P,, + k Pz s r ~ r f i ~ cforce
e . (3.4)

'I'lre synrl)ol I)tr-/l)l tlcnot.c,s hcrc t,l~c

s ~ ~ l , s t . a n t i:~ac:clcr:~t,ion
vc whicl~,lilrc tlrc sul)stan-
t,ivc tlrrivat.ivc ol' clot~sit.y,ronsist,~of Lhc local cont,ribr~t,iorr(in non-stcatly flow)
c?tr~/at,nntl tho convrot.ivr cont,ribut.ion (tlr~ct o t,ranslntiorr) drtr/dl = (w-gmd) r c ~
Fig. 3.1. 1)rrivation of the expressions
t for the s t r r ~ etensor of nn inl~or~~ogcneorrn
utrcss nystcrn arltl of its syrnnletry in tllc
absence of n volurl~ctricdistribution of
local rnorncnts

'I'l~nI)otly lijrcrs arc: t,o I)c rcgardctl as give11 extcrt1:~lli,rct,s, bnt, t.lre surfnee forcrs
tlr~)c:nclon t,lre rate at, wlriclr t , l ~ rfluirl is strrtined \)y tlrc vrlocit,y field present in it,.
l ' l ~ osystem of fhrcos dot.crmincs a slrrtc o/ stress, : ~ n t lit is now our task to intlicat,e (Subscript x denotes t h a t t h e stress vector acts on a n elementary plane whicll is
t,lrc rclat,ionshil, I)ct,\vcen st.rcss and ri~tc!of st.min, noting t . l ~ a it t can only be give11 perpendicular t o the x-direction.) Similar terms are obtained for t h e faces d z . tlz
o~npirically.Trr our presrnt, clcriv:ttion \vosl~:~ll rcst,rict,ntt.ention toisotropic, Newto7iini~ and ilx . dy whir11 are perpentlicular to the y- antl z-axes respectivrly. Ilencc tire t l ~ r e e
/b?cirls for \vlrirlr it rnny I,r nssu~nedt,Ir:~t.t Iris relnl ion is a linear one. All gases ant1 net components of t?lresurface forre are:
lnanjr liclr~itlsof int.crcst it] bountlnry-1n.yrr t.lreory, in pnrt.icnlnr wat.er, belong t,o t.Iris
cl:~ss.A f l u i t l is snitl 1.0 I)(, isot,ropir wl~c:n the r.rlnt.ion 1)ct.wcrn t.he coml)oncnts of
st,rcss ant1 t.lrosc: of 1.11~rat,? o l strain is t.11~ sxnrr in all dircctiorrs; i t is said t,o bo
Ne\vtr,r~i:ln \vhcr~t,lris rclat.io~lis linrnr, t.l1:11.is whcn t,hc Ilrrid obrys Strokes's law of
f.rict,ion. 111 t , l ~ rcnsc of isotropic, cl;~stirsolitl I~otlirs,cxpcri~nentt,racl~esI,llnt t,lrc
st.nt.c of strt-ss (lt~11cndson tJrr rnngnit~~~tlc of sttrain il.sclf, most engineering n~at.erinls
obeying Jlooltc's lincnr Inw whic:l~is so~no\vlrntannlogons.l.o Stokes's law. \Vhcrens
t,he rcl:~tionl,nt,\vccrr st,rcss nnrl st.r:~itrfor a n isotropic elastic solid involves t,wo con-
st.nnt,swhic:l~cl~nrncte~.izc 1 . 1 1 ~~)ropcrt,ins of a given matrerial (e. g. elirst,ic rnotlnl~~s:kntl
I'O~SSOII'S rat,io), t,l~erc,l;rt,ion bct\vccri st,rrss and rat.c of s h i n in nn isot,ropic f l ~ ~ i t l srlrfacc forrc P per unit volume is, tl~crcforc,given I)y
ant1 t01e rc~s~llt~ant
irrvolvcs n, singlr ronst,:~r~t. ( 1 . 1 1 ~viscosity, [ A ) ns long :LS rel:~xat.io~r pl~cnornenad o not
occ5rlr wit,l~irrit.. ns we sl~:lllsro in Scr. I l l ( > . ,
The quantities p,, p,, p, are vectors wl~iclrcan I)e rrsolvcd into components per-
1 111 ortlrr to rxprcss thr vrrtor (u.gr:~cl)rr* i l l :III nrl)ilrnry s,vsl.rlrro f roorrlir~ntm,t l ~ cfollolving pendicular t o each face, i. e., into normal stressos denotetl by a with a srlitable
gf*i~(>rnl
r(,l:~t~ic~r~
sl1ot111I111; trsr(l
subscript indicating the tlirection, and into components parallel t o eacll facc, i. o.
11, - grntl I, r v 2 - 11, x r11i-I rrV,
(rt,.gr:~el) into ~ l i c a r i n gslrcsscs denoted by t.Tlrc symbol for n s l ~ t . n r i ~stress
~ g will I)o ~)rovielrd
1v11rr~rrv2 -- 11, . 11, .
 111. l)crivnt,iot~of thc cq~tntion~
of moI.ior~of n cornprrcmihlo viscous fluid b. Gencrnl stress ~ y s t e ~i rn~n dcforlnnblc botly 51
50
The surface force per unit volume can be cnlcrllabd from eqns. (3.G), (3.7), ant1 (3.10)
with two snbscripta: t h e first slibscript indicates the axis t,o which the face is per- and becomes
pentlicular, and t h e secontl inclicat8cs the direction t o which t h e shearing stress is
parallrl. Wit,l~this notation we have
11, =: i uz +j + k
t,, tn

11, = i t,, -1- j a,, +

k tyz
11, = i tzr4-j tryf k 0, .

Thn stxrss syst,on~in soen t o req~lirenine scalar qun.nt,itics for its clcscript,iol~.?'heso
nine quantit.irs forrn a alresa tensor. The s e l of nine componer~tsof the stress
t.rl~soris somct,imrs callrtl t,he st-rcss matrix :
---
fnce fncc fnce
(JZ zz ry

i n g expression (3.10a) irrt-o t l ~ eequation of motion (3.2), nrlcl resolving

I ~ ~ t r o d r ~ c the
into components we have:

'I'llo st.ress t,nnsor and tho corresporrding matrix are symmetric, which means
t.llat two shearirrg stresses with subscript8 which differ only in their order are equal.
This can be tlcmonstrated with reference t,o tfhc equations of motion of a n elemcrlt
of fluid. Tn gcncml, itasmotion can be sepnrntetl into a n instantaneous translation and
a n inst,znt,anoor~srotat.ion, and only t , l ~1att.or
c needs t o he consideretl for our purpose.
Denoting t,hc irlst,ant.aneous angular ncccleratiorl of t.11~eloment by &(ti),, ci),, h,),
we c:ln writ,c for t,l~orot.ation nljout. t,11o y-axis t h a t
tr), (1 1, = (t,, tl7J dz) d x - (t,, tix d7J)(1.2 = (T,, - T,,) (1 V
where t l l y is t,hc elernent,ary momcnt of inertia about, the y-axis. Now the momcnt
of inertia, d I , is proportiorla1 t o the fifth power of the linear cli~nensionsof the pa-
r ~ l l e l r ~ i p ewhereas
d, its volr~mc,tl l', is proportional t o their third power. On contract-
ing ttllc clcmont t,o a point, we notice t h a t t.hr Inft-hand sitln of t<hepreceding equation
vanishcs faster t,l~antho rigirt,-11n.rltlsitlc. Ilcncc, ~~lt.irnnt.cly,
if c;,, is not, to 1,rconrc infinit~elyIargc. t \ r r ~ l o g o ~cq~iations
~s can be writ,t.cn for t,lre
remair~ingt,wo axns, arid ~ h syrnmct.ry
c of t.11~st,rcss tensor can thus hc demorlst.ratod.
TI, is rlcnr from t.ho a r g n m m t tdlnt, t,hc st.rcss tensor ivor~hlrcnsc to bc symrncl,ric
if t.hc lll~itltlcvclopntl a local moment which wan propor1,ional t,o it.s voll~me,rlV.
T h e In.l,t,cr mag occur, for example, in an nlcct,rost.at~icfiel(l.
Owing t.o t.l,c fact t,hat,
t.110 st,rcss mnl.rix (3.8) corltains only six tliffcrcntfst,rcss componrnt,~ant1 I)ccorncs
symmct,rical wit11 rrspnct t o t,lrc principal tliagonaf:
I f t h e fluid is "frictionless" all shearing stresses vanish; only the normal stresses
remain in the equation, and thcy are, moreover, equal. Their negativc is clcfined
a s t,he pressure a t t,he point s,y, z in the fluid:
Tzv = Tz., = Tv* = 0
uz = u y = u , ---p.
I n such a hydrostatic stress syalem, the fluitl I)ressurc is cql~nlt.o t,hc xrit.l~rnc:tic:~l
mean of the normal stresses taken with a negative sign. Sincn mcasnren~ents\r.llich
lead to tho establishment of the thermodynamic eqrtation of s t a t e arc ~)erfor~neti
urlder such conditions, t h e fluid being a t rest, this pressure is idcr~t~ical with the
t,hermodynnrnin pressure in the eqriat.ior1 of slate. I t is corrvenicr~tto ir~trorlucc
the arithmetical mean of the three normal stresses - their sum being called the
trace of the stress tensor - as a iiscfi~l~ll~rncri(:nl
qu~ttrt.ikiyin tho C ~ S Oof n 7~i.~(.otis
/hid in a state of mot.ion also. It is still called the pressure, but its r e l a t i o ~t,o
~ t,l~c!
tl~ermoctynamicpressure requires further investigation. Altlro~~glr it, t11cr1 ceases t.o
be equal t o a particular stress which is normal to the snrface, it has the propcrty
of heing invariant with respect t o tfrnnsfornrat,ions of the systcrn of coordinnt.es,
as i t is a n invariant of the stress tensor, being tlcfincd as
5 (az -1 a, 4- a,) = -p . (3.12)
We shall see in See. ITIe tll~atit remains c q r ~ a lt o t l ~ cttlrcrmotlynamic press~~rc,
in
t,he absence of relaxation.
 c. The rntc nt \r,hich a fluid elomcnt is strninctl in flow 53

'1'110 system of the I.11rcw cqrt:~t,ions(3.1 1 ) aotrt.air~s the six st,rrsscs a,, a,, a,, It, is ronvrnirnt t o rVnrrangc the cxprcssiotls for the rcslativr veloc.ily r o ~ n p o r ~ t ~ t ~ t . :
Tho next t,nslc is t80 tlct,crlnir~ethe relation hetjwccn tllern and the du, dv, (110 from rclrt. (3.13) t o tllo form
T,,, t,,, s,,.
strairls so RS t o c11n1)Ic11st,n it~trodricc1.11~vrlocity components u ,v, w into eqn. (3.1 1). (111, = (i,tlx I- i,,(I?/ -{- irz
(12) -1- ,lz -- [ (I!,)

I
(91
Before giving this rclat,ion it1 See. 111tl wo sl~nllir~vcstigat.~ t,l~csyst,om of st,mins
in great,cr detail. tlv = (i,, tl:c -1- i,, tl!/ -1- i,, tlz) - 1 ( i t (lz) (3.14)

c. The rntc nt which a fluid ele~ncnti~ strnir~edin flow

tl11' -- (i,, tlx - 1- h,, (I?/ -1 k, rlz) -1 - ([ tl!/

it Itring rasy t o verify t,hat t,l~enew symbols hnvc tllr li)llowing

- 17 (1%) ,
I
I I ~ ~ Y ~ I I ~ I I ~ S
Whrn a cont,ir~l~o~ls 1)odq.of fllritl is rnntlc t,o flow, every rlcmcnt in it is, gcncrally
sl)t'n.lting, clis~,ln.cctlt.o a new posit,ion i r ~t,t~ecollrsc of time. 1)uring t.his motior~
r l c m ~ n t sof flrlitl l)ccon~cst,minctl, ant1 since t J ~ cmot,ion of t.11e flrricl is cornplet-ely
tIet.rrn~inrtlw l ~ r nt,he vclocit,y vect,or rrr is given as a funct,ior~of t,ime and positpion,
tr, = ru(z,?/,z,t), them cxist Itincrnat,ic rrlnt,ions l)et,wcen the componcl~tsof t,hc
r:~.tcof st.mir~ant1 t,ltis function. 'Vile rntc n t which a n clement or flllitl is strnir~ctl
tlcprn(ls on t.11~ ~ ~ 1 . l b z .n~otion
t: of t,\vo poin1.s wit.hin it. We, t,hercfore, consitlor the
t,wo ~reigl~l)onring points A nntl B whirl1 nro st~owrlin Fig. 3.2. Owing to the preserlcc (3.15a)
of t,l~ovrlorit,y ficlcl, point A will be tlisplncctl to A' in t,ilne dl by a distat~ces = ro dt ; and
sinrr, I~o\vevor,tho vclocity a t B, imngincd a t a dist,ance d r from A, is different,
point H will move t,o B' displ:~rcdfrom 1%by s -1- (1.9 = (ui -1-tlrri) dt. More explicitly,
if t , l ~ compone11t.s
r of vrlocity !lave tho valucs IL, v, 10 a t A, then, a t the ncigl~bonring
l)oint, I<, t,hc vcloc:ity componcr~t~s will be givcn t80 first order by the Tnylor-series I t is rlotrtl 1,lla.t the matrix i,j is syn~nictric.,so t h a t
Fur -- E,, ; F,, = F,, ; Ezy = Eyz , (3.15~)

w = rurl u~ (3.15tl)

1l:ach of tile new tortns can be giver1 a lcir~cn~nt~ic

it~t,crprctxtior~,
ant1 we now l~roceetl
t o obt,ain it,.
Since we c:or~centmt.cour ntt,cntio~lon t,llc inirncdiat,c ncigl~borlrl~ootl of point, A,
'~'IIIIs, 1110 rt4;~bivemotion of point. l3 witill rrspect to A is tlescribetl by t,hr following
ant1 since intmest is cent.red on the motlion of R relative l,o A, wc sllall plnco point. A
~ n a t r i xof nine pnrt,ial d e r i v t ~ t i v eof
~ t,he local vclocit,y field
a t t l ~ corigin, :~!ltl interpret dz, tly, dz as the coortlinat.cs of point 1%i r l a (::~rt,c:si;~n
syst,cn~of coortlinal(:s. Tn i>hisnl:tnnrr, the cxprcssiot~sin nclns. (3.14) will tlnlinr
n ficltl of rrlat,ivc velocities in which t.11~ componcn1,s tlrr, clv, tli~)arc lirlc?n.r I~nc:(.ions
of I,IIc s[):~(!t:not~rtlit~nl~es. In orclor Lo ~ri~~It~rsl~:tt~cl tnt~:~t~ing
of' t,l~o(IiIli*rt~t~l~
icrtns
in tJre ~ n a t ~ r i(x3 . l 5 a ) ant1 in cclns. (:1.151)), wo proccetl t,o interpret t,l~c%n~onc by onc.
'I'l~e diagram in Fig. 3.3 represent,^ t,lrc field of relat.ive ve1ocit.ics when all ternis
except r3?r/az val~islr on the assnn~pt~ion t h a t 2u/ax > 0. Tllc rclat,ive velocity ol'
a n y point B wit11 respect t,o A is now

ant1 tho field consisLs of plancs x =- const which displace thc~nsclvcsnniforrnly

wit,ll a velocit,y which is proportional Lo the clist,ancc tlx away from the plane x = 0.
An elementary parallelepiped with A anti R : ~ its t vertices placed in stlch a vclocity
field will be distorted in extension, its face BC receding from A11 wil.11 nn inorcasing
 Fig. 3.3. Tmcnl clintor1,ion of f l ~ l i t l rlenlc.111 X
wllcn &r/i?x > 0 wil.11 nll ol.t~crlrrnin being ex
eqnnl to zrro; rrniforrn rxlcnnion in tlrc z- IGg. 3.4. 1,ocnl tlislorliorl o f llr~rtlclrnrr~~t
direction whcn au/ay > 0 wit11 a11 oll~rrterrns bring
= - cq11n1 to zcro; r t t ~ i l t r r t s~ ~l ~ o ~dcfort~~:llio~~.
~r

vr1ocait.y. Tltr~s2, r e p r c s c n t ~t.he rate of rhn,galion in t.hc x-dircct,ion sr~flkrctlby tlto

clctnctit,. Similarly, the atlclit,ivc terms C, = a11/'11/ant1 C, = aio/i)z drscri1)o t,hc rxt.o
of rlorig:rl.io~l i r ~t,lic 11- xntl z-tlircctions, rcspcct.ively.
11, is nowr tt:l~yt o visl~nliactlrc clist.ort.ion impn.rt,etl t o a fluid clemcnl by the
sititlrlt.nllt~t~tl~ lt.t*t.io~~ of ,111 t , I i r t ~tIin,gon:~.l~ I t - n i c ~of~ tmatrices
,~ (3.132) or (3.15s).
'1'111. t ~ l t w i c * ~~~~l ,S ~ I I I . Ii Il l~ ~11.l1 11.11t1 tile (:Iiai~goin t . 1 1 ~Icngt,h of its
H l.lirt:t* tlirot:t.io~~rr,
Fig. 3.5. Local rlintortion of f l l l i ( 1 clc:~t~crt~,
t,l~rtst*~ i t l t s f l l~rotI~~tx:s IL ~ : I I : L in I I ~vo1111nc
~ a t a rt;l:~tivc rat,e

e -
( ~ Ir az
{a"t
lrI , dy
_
kz :
dy < ~ t ) 4 r1.z dl)
--
- C I X dy
-
di
when
E,, = E,, = ((&lay) -t ( a t ~ l a ~> ) )o
t I r dy ;iz (it- with nll otl~erterms bcing c q ~ ~ ntol zrro;
-PA

distortion i n ul~npe. (Tl~cdiagrntn has bern

drnwn for &1/8y = au/a.r )

1.0 iirsL ortlcr in t . 1 1 ~tlrrivxt.ivcs. 1)llring t,llis tlist.ort,iorl, liowcvcr, tdre s \ l x ~ ) cof 1.11~
rlrmcnt~,clcscril)cd by t,he angles a t its vertices, remains ~lrlchengcti,sitrcc all right
nrlglrs cont,inue t o I)e t.hat, way. T11us k tl~scribcsthe Ioc~rl,i n s t a n t , a ~ ~ o o~ ~I O ~ sI I L ~ I C I Y ~ C
rlilrr(ntio?~of a fIui(1 elenlent. Whcn t,he fluid is incompressible, d = 0,a s must be
l . a co~nprrssil)lcfluid tllc cont.inuit.y equation (3.1) shows t l ~ a t
e ~ p c c l ~ c tIn

t,Ilat, is L11:1t, t.llr voll~nirt,rictlil.il,xt,ion, t.lic rcla.t.ive cliangc in volllme, is rq11a1 tto
1,llr nrg:lt.ivc of t0ic rc:l:~Livc ra.1.c of cliangc in tho local density. ;
Tho rcl;ll,ivc vc1oc:ity ficlcl presents n tljlfcmnt appearance when ono of the
olr-diagonal t,erms of n~at.rix(3.13a), for example au/ay, has a niin-vanishing, say
pasiCivc, valrlc. The corrt-spontling ficltl, skctchcd in Fig. 3.4, is one of pure shear Fig. 3.6. Taral distortion of flnid el~mrnt
stmin. A rect,anglllar clemcnt of fluid ccntrctl on 11 now distorts into a parallelogram when
a s indicnt,ccl in the diagram. l'hc original right angle a t A changes a t a rate measured
Ity tlie angle y,, = [(ai~lay)d!/ tll]/tly, t l ~ a tis a t a r a t s &lay. When both au/ay
5 = t ((hlaz)- ( w a y ) ) + o ;
instnntnticous rigid-body rotation
 11 I . 1)t.rivntion of t.110rquntionrr of n ~ o l i n i iof n rotnprcasibln viscous tlnitl c. The! rate ~t wllir11 a Ilr~idelcnlrnt is ~Lrainctlin flow 57
56
(a) A pure tmnslatiorr t1escril)ctl by the vclocit.y components I L , v, 1il of rrr.
aritl r?n/8z Iiavc posit,ive nonvanisliing vnlnrs, tthe right, angle a t A will distort owing
t,o t,lie slipcrposit,ion of t.\ro mot,ioris, t,llc st.:~tcof affairs bcing ilIrrst,ral,etl in Fig. 3.5.
1 L is clr:ir tlint, 1.hr right n.tiglr at. A now tlist.orts a t t,wiae the mt8c (e) A volrrrrlctric tlilatation tlcscril)eci by e --
(b) A dgitl-body rotatiori describctl by t,hc components 5, 7, 5' of curl icr.
tliv in, the iinmr dil:it,:~tionsin
the tlircct,iori or tllc axes bcing describcxd I)y d,, i, : L I I ~ E,, r(~s~)e(:t.ivoly.
((I) A tlist,ort.ion in s l i a ~ ) cdrscribctl by t . l ~ rc o r n p o r ~ c ~i,,
~ t . (,I,(:
~ wit11 rnixt:tl
it~clicrs.
tlcscril,t~tl I)y I wo of the orf-tliagollnl
. . t,cr~nsof matrix (3.15%). In general, t,hc three Only tho last, two motions protluce a n ir~t~rinsic tlefor~nat~ion of n l l r ~ i t lolcme~lt,
o n ~ lEx!, - F,/,, F,, = d,,, :LII(I E,, = Fyr tlcsr.ribc t h e rate of dist,ort,ion
~ f f - ~ l i i ~ gt.rrlns sr~rrourltlirigtho rrfc:rcncc point A , lllc first two cnusirlg a rncrc, gelicral, tlisplacerncnt,
of a right, nnglt: locatrd iti ;L plaric ~iornmnlt,o t,he axis the index of which does not
of its location.
nppt'ar ns n srll)script.. 'l'hr tlistort.ion is volume-preserving and affects only the
shape of t,lic clcmcnt . T1ic e l ~ m e n t ~ofs nratrix (3.15a) ~onstit~rrtc tllc componcnt.~of ;t symrllet~ric
tensor known :IS t,he rale-of-slmitt lensor; it,s mat.liematjical properties arc? analogous
(lirrr~mst,:lnrrsnro ilgain tli!fcrcrit in t,lic pzrticlrlxr case when au/ay = - av/az
t o tliosc of the cqlrally symmct.ric st,ress t,cnsor. It is known from tJie tlicory of
tlow 2,, -
illrrst.r;ct,ctl in I'ig. 3.6. k'roni t . 1 1 ~prccctling considcrat,ions and from t h e fact that.
t) \\.e ran infsr n.t oncc t,liat, tJrc right angle a t A remains undistorted.
'I'his is also rlrar from t.hr diagram wliicll sliows t h a t t h e fluid element rotates wit,lr
elasticit$y 13, 71 or from general c:onsidcrations of t,cnsor algebra [I I ] t,lr;it wit,li
every symmetric tensor it is possil)lc t.o associate tlrrco rnrlt.rrally orthogon:rl pritt,cipnl
axes wlrich tlctormine tlrrce mut,nnlly ortllogorial I)rincipnl plar~cst,Ii:~tis a privilcgctl
rcsprrt, t,o t.llr rcfkrencr A . I n , ~ l a ~ r t n n e o ~ ~this
s l y , r o t d o n occurs witjllout
Cartesian syst,crn of coordinat,cn. In t.llin syst,cln of coortlinatlcs, t,he stlrcss vrrt,or
dist.ortion ant1 call I,c dcsoril)rtl as a rigitl-l)otly rot,ntion. Tlic instant,arlcons nngulnr
or t,llc inxtnt~t.t~ncor~s nrolion in tiny ono of t,Iic prinoip:~lp l n ~ ~ ciss nornr:~ll,o it., tlial,
vrlorit,y of t.l~isrot,at,ion in
is, pnrallel t,o one of the axes. IVlrcn sr~clia special system of c ~ o r d i n a t ~ ciss used,
the n~at~rices (3.10) or (3.15a) rct.ain their diagonal t,cmis onlg. DcnoLirrg the valrrcs
of the respcct,ivc coniponerit.~I)y syrnl)ols with I);irs, \ST woultl I)e tlrnlirig wit.ll tile
mat,riaes
<
I t , is now rasy t.o see t h a t the component. of crlrl 117 from cqn. (3.15b), known a s
t,llc vort.irit,yof't.11~ vclocit,y firlcl, reproscnt,~t.lw angular velocity of this inst-ant.ntleo~~s
rigitl-1)otlj~rrfi:.:t ion, and t.hat,

I t slrould, finally, bc remembered t,hat, sucli :L t,rnrrsli)r~i~:~liot~

of c.oortlir~:~t.c.s
tloc*s
111 lllr rnorc t-oml)lrx ease whrri (afl/a:r) $- - (au/a!y), t.lie element of fluit1 not affect, the sum of the diagonal terms, so t h a t
rot;it,rs nticl it.s sli:rpc? is tlist,ort,rd sin~~rlt~nnc.ously.
We can st,ill interpret the t,ernl

desrril)ing t 111- r ; to
~ :I(, wllic:l~ t . l ~ rrlt.mrtit, of Illlid part.iripatrs in it rigid-body
r.ot.:~t.iori.
I
'I'II(: linc:irit,y of rclns. (3.13) or of the c*~~t.irclg cq~rivalnrrtc q t ~ s .(3.14) signifies
t,h;it,t,I~t* most gc:noml c:ase nrisos by :I s ~ ~ l ) t ~ r ~ ) o s01'
i t ,tllc
i o ~simple
r cases just tlcscribed.
'I'liercli~tr, if :i.t,t.r~nt.ioli is lisecl oli t,wo nrighbouring points A and B in a body of Iz'ig. 3.7. i'rir~cil)ialaxes for
Illtitl \vlrirh slistnins n rontinr~orrsve1orit.y field ur(z,?y,z), Clrc motion of a n element st.rrss ;iriil rat.(: of sI.r:~in
of fltlirl s ~ ~ r r o r t n t ltilr~~e~s ct,wo ~)oint,s
t.nn I)c ~lriiqrlnlytlccomposetl int.o four compo-
nent. motions :
 (1. ltclntiotl hetwecrl R ~ ~ C Sand
S rntc of delornlal.ion
59
of flltitl is strcsscd in t,llrcc nlrltually pcrpcndicrrlar tlire~t~ions, and its faccs arc of whirl1 conicitles with i t and on the sum of tlio three, each with a different factor
displnactl instarrtarleortslg also in tlrrec niut.rtally perpentlicrllsr direotions, a s s~~ggestccl of ~mo~)ortionalit,y.Thus we rccortl, ~lircct~ly
in terms of t.hc spacc-clcrivat,ives, t,l~at,
by Pigs. 3.7a ant1 I). 'l'his clocs not., of course, moan tllnt bllcre exist 110 shearing
st.rrssrs in ot.Ilrr 1rl:~nrsor t,llnt. t,llo sllapc of t.11~clcmrnt rcmr~ins~lntlistortrd.

11. Rclntion between stress and rote of deforrnatiot~

I t s110111(1,1)crlla[rs, 1)c st.rcsscd once more t h a t t,hc cql~at,ionswhicll relate tho

surface forccs t.o tllc flow ficld must, be ol)tainetl 1)y a pcrccptlivc interpretation of'
experimental resrtlB and t h a t our i~rt~crcst is restricted to isotropic and Newtonian
flr~itls.l'hc consitlcmt,ions of tlle precctling section provided 11s with a 11scfu1mathc-
matical franlcwork wlriclr allows us now to statc t,hc rcq~tircmcnt~s srtggcstcd by 'l'!.,?rl"".llt,it,i?s ?I,,0 , : ~ n ( l4, r], C d o not appcnr in t i ~ c s ccxprcssiorts for t . 1 1 ~~.r:l.sotls
experimcnt.~in a sotncwhat, lnorc prerisc form. jttst explained. In each expression, the lnst term represents tllc appropriate rate
of lincar dilatat,ion. t h a t is, in essence, n change in allape, ancl tho first, terrn rcllre-
Wllcn t.11~flr~itl is a t rcst, it dcvclops a uniform ficld of I~ydroslaticst,rcss s c n b the vollrmetric clilatfation, Ulat is the rate of change in volume, in csscnct.,
(tlrgat.ivc prrssllrc - p) whicll is idcnt.ica1 witli the t.hermodynanric pressure. a change in density. Thc factors 2 kl the last terms are not essential, beirrg mcrely
When the fluid is in mot.ion, t , l ~ cequation of s t a t c st.ill tlcternlines a pressure at, c:onvenicnt t o facilit,ate thc interpretation, a s we shall see 1at.er. Tlrc fact<ors of
ovcry point ("princilrlc of lorn1 st,atc" 141), and it is rnnvcnicnt t o consider t,he ~)roport,ionality, p and 1,two in all, must bc the same in cach of the three pmccding
tlcviat,oric normal strcssrs cqnations t o sccllre isotropy. It. is easy to scc t h a t a n intcrchangc bctwecl~any two
ax1:= or ( p ; a,,':-a, I- p ; a,' -a, I- p ; (3.20) axes, t h a t is an intercltange of any of tfhc thrce pairs of qrtant,it,ics:( I Z , : ~ )(,d , g ) , (I?,?)
leaves the set of miations invariant, a s they nlitst be in a n isot.ropic mcdilltn. Moreover,
togrtllcr wit,lt the rlnc:lrnngntl shearing strosscs. Tllc six q ~ ~ a n t . i t i rso s obtjainccl t,llc prcrrding is the only ~ o r n h i n a t ~ i oof l ~ ~pntin.1gmdirr~t,s wl~icll possrsscs tllc
cor~st,itrct,ca sytlrnlct,ri(: st,rcss tensor tllc cxist.cnrc of which is tluc t o the tnotiorl rcquirt!tl propcrt.ies. 1f t.11~ rcatlcr cannot see t.l~isd i r ~ c t ~ l IIC y , may cotlsltlf. a more
hccnusc a t rcst. :ill it.s componcnls vanis11 irlcnt.irally. l'rom what Ilns bcen snit1 rigorous proof in n treatise on tensor algchra (or c. g. [11] p. 89).
l)rfnrc it follows t.11at Ollc componcnts or this tlcviat,oric t.cnsor arc creatctl solely
by t,hc compottcnls of t,11c ra1.c-or-shin t,cnsor, t.11at is t o tllc exclusion of the corn- .l ,h o rclat.ions in cqns. (3.21) cart bc re-written t o apply ill at1 arl)itrary syst,cm
of c:oorcLinat.es b ~ r
poncnt.~v , 17, m of vc.1oc:it.y as wc:ll as of the componcnts (, ?], [ of vort,icit,y. 'l'his a general rotation wit11 ttrc aid of t,ltc appropriate
is rclnivnletlt. to s:r\,ing t,l~:rtt . 1 1 ~inst.ntlt.:lncolts t.r:trlslat.ion [component motion (a)] linear t.mnsfornlation formr~lac.We shall refrairl from p r ~ t t ~ i ndown g t,hc tlrt:~.ilrtl
a s wrll a s tho it~st,:~.rtt,anco~l rigitl-l)otly rot,:~tion Icornl)or~c~ltmotion (I))] of' :tn ut,cps k~ccausc,t.Iio~tgl~ tctlions if pcrformetl tlircct.ly, tltoy arc qltitc sLr.zigllt,for\vnr~I,
c,lrtnrnt of llrtitl protlrtcc no slrrfaco fnrrcs on it in atltlit.ion to the e x i ~ t ~ i ncott~- g 'C'tlcy becomc sitnple if tcrlsor calcl~lr~s is used. T l ~ eapproriate direct fortnlrlac tnay
1w~w1it.s of l~ytlrost.:tl~ic prrsstlm. 'l'hc procrtlitlg st.atct~~ctrt,, cvidcr~l.ly,rnrrrly rcprc- I)e follt~tlin refs. [R, 6 , 71, whereas their tonsorial cotrnt.crpn.rt.s arc givc.11 i l l rrf. 1 1 1 I.
s c l ~ tx, ~prr(:iso 1oc::tl fortnrtlnt.ion of wltat we cxl)oct Lo observe whcn :I Gnitc I)otly Suc*h a tl(:rivat.iorl woltltl sltow t h a t
of Ilt~id performs n gctrcral nlot,ion wl~icll is ir~tlist~ing~rishablc from tllnt of a11
~:q,r~ivnlnst rigill I)n(ly. We tllus cr)n(;l~l(lrt,ll:it t11c erprrssions for tho aompononts a,' = 1tliv ,u t 2 p av
--
a, , 0,'.. . ., T ~ , of blrc tlcviatoric st.rcss t.c,nsor can ront,airr in lhcm only the velocit,y ax
gratlictlt,~aulax, . . ., allllaz in a p p r ~ p r i n t ~(:ombinations
c which we now procccd t,o
cl~t~crniit~e. 'I'ltcsr: rclntiotls are l)ostnlnt.ctl t,o Oc lincar; t,hcy must rcmain unchangccl u"' - 1cliv ,,, 4-2 p av
by :I rotatiorr of the syst.crn of coortlirlalns or by a n intcrct~angeof nxcs 1.0 ensure
ail
isot,rolry. Isotaopy also rocluirc-s t h a t a t ovcry point, in t,hc continuum, tfhc principal a,' - 1 < l l v r a -f
a111
2 , ~- ;
n.xcs of t,llo strrss t,rr~sormrlst roinrido with the prirrcipal axes of t h e ratc-of-strait1 az
t,crisor, for, ot.I~(~r\visr, :I. prrfcrr(x1 dirort,ion wolll(1 1)c int,ro~lrrccd.rlll~csimplest
WRY to nrllicvc otlr ninl is t,o srlect a n arlrilmrf point, in 1.1re cont,inunrn ant1 t,o
itn:~girinLlr:~.t, t.lte locnl syst.crn of roordir~at~cs ?, ?7,'2has been provisionnlly so clloscn
n s t.o coincitlc \vit,ll t,hc t,llrcc common princ:ipal axes of tltc two trcnsor~. 'l'hc corn-
I)ot~i.ttl.sof t , l ~ ( tvo1ocit.v lic*ltl in t,his syst,c:m of coordinntcs are dcnototl by ?(., ii, 111.
I t is tto\\- (.1~:1rt.I~:\t isot.ropy rnri 1r1, snc:rlrrtl only if r::tcl~onr of t.hc t,llrt=c normitl
( T i , ,r
s(,I.,.ss~~s ;,, (ri is IIIIIIII- llo tl(!p(:~t~l
O I I t , l ~ ( s(:otrrpon~~nb
of' ~:I.(,I! of' st,l.itill t.lt(! (li~.(.(:tio~r
T,,

z.

r.1
-."-.(;;
= -cur = 1" --

~z -I"(&
(:: ;p;)
a
1
+

1-
);
;
 f. T311lkviscoait,y nnnd tlieri~iod,y~~nrnia
l,resn~lro 61
where div irt has been used for hrrvity. 'J'l~crcatlcr may notpicethe regularit,y with t l ~ c~ h r n r i n gstresties rernairlir~gurirl~angrtl.Malting usr of eqrln. (3.20), wr 011tni11
w l ~ i r hthe indices x , y, z, t h e componrntn n, v , in, ant1 t l ~ rcoortlinntrs x , y, z arc t l ~ rso-ralled conrtitutioe eqlantion for a11 isotropic-, Newtonian fluid
permutcdt.
Applying t,l~eseequations t,o the si~nl)lccase rcprescnt.ctl in Fig. I . I , we rccovcr
eqn. (1.2) and so confirn~ t h a t t,lic precctling more gcnrrnl rrlat,ion rcctr~ces to
Newt,on's law of friction in t01r casc of simple shear ant1 tlocs, t,l~orcforo,const.it,~lt,c?
it,s proper genornlization. At the samr timr, we identify tt.ie factor /I. witJt the viscosity
of the fluid, amply discl~ssetlin Scc 1h, and, incid~nt~ally, justify the factor 2 previously
inserted ir~t,oeqns. (3.21). The physical sigr~ificnnceof the second factor, 1,requires
f~lrt.Iicrtlisc~~saion, b u t we 11ot.c t-l~at,
it, plays 110 part in a n incompressible fluid when
div 1 1 9 = 0 ; i t then disappears From the equat,ions n.lt.oget,hcr, ant1 so is seen t o be
in~port.antfor r~ompressible Ruitls only.

e. Stokes's hypothesis

Althongl~the problem t , l ~ a twe arc about t o cliseuss has arise11 more than a
ccnt.ury and a half ago, the physical intcrpretatiort of the sccontl fact,or, 1, in
eclns. (3.21) or (3.22a, b) a n d for flows in which tliv I I J does not vanish identically,
is still being disputed, even t,hough tohe v a b e which should be given t o i t i n the
ic,orkirtg e q t u ~ f i o ?is~not.
~ 'I'l~is numerical VRIIIC is determined with the aid of a. hypo-
t,l~csis:~tlvancodby G . G . St,oltcs in 1845 11.71. Without,, for Lhe niomcnt,, concerriing
o ~ ~ r s c l v cwit,h
s the physical reasons which just.ify Stokes's h?yl/path~s~:s, we first st.ate
t.liat according t.o it,, it is nerrssary to assume
i r ~it,s final form, ~ ~ o t , i trh~agt p reprcser~t.~
the local t,l~orrnotlynarnic:[)rrns~lrrl-
Regartletl as a pure hypotl~esis,or ever1 guess, eqn. (3.23) can cortai~lly I)e
:~cce~)tctlon t.11~
ground t h a t the worltir~geclr~at.ionswhich result from the s ~ ~ b s t i t n t . i o ~ l
of cqns. (3.26a,b) into (3.11) have been si~bject~cd t,o an u ~ ~ u s u a l l1;~rge
y number
of cxpcri~rlentnlverifications, ever1 ~ ~ n t l cquite
r cxt,remc conditions, a s t,Ile reader
will cor~crtlcafter having stutlicd this book. Thus, even if it shorrld not rrprescnt,
t h r state of affairs exact.ly, i t certainly constiti~t.csan rxcellent approximat,iol~.

This rclat,es Ore v a l ~ ~ofc the fnrtor 1 t o the visrosity, 14, of thc romprc.ssible fluid Since t,hc deviatoric components are the only ones which arise in motion,
and redt~rest h r n l ~ m b e rof propertics which rhamct~erizethe fieltl of stresscs in t,l~cyrcprrscrit those components of sttress whiclr protluce tlissipation in all isot~hertnnl
a flowing romprcssiblc fluid from two to onr, t h a t is t o tlir same numl)cr a s is flow, t,l~crcI ~ c i l ~further
g dissipatior~in a t,cmperature field t l ~ l ct,o thermal corltl~lct,ion,
r r q ~ ~ i r c for
t l rcn i~icomprrssihlr fl11it1 ( ~ I I : L ~ I XI
. I . F~~rt.hcrmore, since t,hc S:~cbor1 occurs only in tilo normal c o r n p o ~ ~ r n t , ~
cr,', u,', a,' w11ic:h also c o ~ ~ t ~1.11~ i ~ it~l~crnm~lynaniic
n ~ ~ r c s s ~cqrls.
~ r c , (3.20), it I)ccomcs
S~rbst,it.ntingt,l~isv:~lncir~t,oeqrls. (3.22s), we ol~t,airithe normal corni)o~icr~t,s
t,It-nr t , l ~ n t .t,l~cpl~ysic:~l significnncc of 1 is connectctl wil.11 t . 1 1 ~~ n c c l ~ a n i s m
of tlissi-
of tlevia.t.orio st,ress : p:\t,ion \ v l ~ c ~t .i1 1 ~v o l ~ ~ r nofc t,hc fluid clcrncrit is cliangqd a t a finit.c rat,c as well :as
\\.it,l~ 1 . 1 1 ~ rrl:~t.ior~ I)rl,wrrr~the tot.al st.rcss t,orlsor :tntl t.lrt:rnmotlynatnic: I I ~ ~ : H S I I I . O .

f. Bulk viscosity nr~cltl~errnodynamicpressure

aw
uzf = - /L div IIJ 2 ,u az ,
3
y of Stokrs's hgpotlicsis, but, confine it to the casc wllerl no shearing st.r~ssrs
\ al~tlit

t Tllc :~boycncL of six erlnnl.ionacan be oontrac:tc(l to a single one it1 Cnrtrsian-hnsor riotation :Lrr irivolvctl, 11cmusc their physical sigriifiranre arld origin is rlcar Conseql~r~itly,
6
( w i t . l ~Einflkin's .snlnmnt,ion rot~vention):
I n tlre compact tcnaorial notation wr wollld write

u'IIc~(. tllr l<ronrrkrr tlrlta dl, - 0 for i + j nr~tldij - I for i -- J .

 at, ;I fit1it.c mt.c. 'l'lln I~rrlkvisc:ositsy w o ~ l l ~t . 1l 1 1 1 ~ rwnstitl~tcn scc~o~ltl III.o~)I,I.~.J' of :t
\vo cot~sitlrra fll~itlsyststn, say the s p l ~ c r csI1ow11 irl Fig. R.8a w11iol1 is snbjectcd ronllwt~ssiblc,isotropic, NcwLoniatl f l ~ r i r ltirc.(l(~tl1,oclol.ctrn~i~lr i1.s corlst.itl l ( i v v c s < l r l : ~ i(c t l l
t o a r ~ ~ ~ i f o rrlorrnal
rri stress, 3,011 it.6 I~ortnclary.I n t ~ l ~ e a l ~ ~of c nmot,iorl
ec Z is nI)vio~~sIy :I.II(I ~vonltl11:tvc lo l ) t ~ I I I ~ - : I S I I ~ ( -i~l l ;~tltlil,ioti 1 4 . 11, is ( * v i ~ l t , I,II;II,
~~l
c r t ~ l aallti
l ol)lx)sil,c!i r ~s i g ~ ll o ~,II(: I.l~rr~noclynnmic prcssrlrc, 11. 'l':~l<itlgIrllc S I I ~ I I of -
1' : 0 inlplirs 1) - - . n
t,hc t.hrrc cclt~nlions(3.21) :11111 ~rl~ilizil~g ( - ( ~ I I(3.20),
s. wc: f i r t t l I~11:tl.
1' 1 0 inll)li(*s 1) 1 . F ,
,I Ilitts 1 . 1 1 ~ nc-c:cy)l.anrc of Sl.oltrs's Ilyl)oIl~c-sisis ctlt~ivnlrt\l7
lo 1.11t~:rss11111~1tio11
l11:11.
131~c t , l ~ t ~ r t ~ i o ~ l1)rt>ssur(:
y~~;i~~~ is it:qt1:11
e l , l ~ t -on(:-t~I~ir(l
of tl~(:ii~v:~,ri:t~~I, st111101' I I O ~ I I I ; ~ ~
c r ollr ccluat.ior~nrrflc-c:t, t.llis f:ict, a s aIrc:i(I~poillt,c(I (1111 earlier. Now,
nlltl ~ l ~ t . i111;~t, st,rcss(:s cvc-11 in CWPS \vI~t*ti~ : o ~ n ~ ~ r ( ~ors sc!xp:l~nsiot~ iot~ l)rort:(:tls 111. :L I i t t i l v r : ~ l e ,
t,llc clllcst,iotl I~OSCR itself its 1.0 wllat, this rc\:tt,iol~s11oc11(1 hc in a gctlcrnl flow ficl(l. 17~~~-l.llrrmorc, it, is also c q n i v a l r ~ ~ tot t.110 nssclmptiot~t.11:l.l~t01o o s r i l l a l ~ o~nof,iot~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 01'
n Inrgc sr~ht:rinal system ~ v o ~ ~IIC l t lrc:vcrsil~lo if it, wc.rt: i ~ o t ~ l ~ r r mRlol.c* nl. cltbt:\ilt-(I
t~onsitlrral.ionsin 1.r-rtns of I8llo cot~ccpl.sof l.llcrtnotlyt~:lnlic:!:a s it. n l~l~litxs 1,o i ~ ~ r . t ~ r t ~ r -
siblo proccssrs in cont.incroils systcrns r:In I)o foi)(~r~tl in I.II(! \ v o r k ~o1.J. X ' l ~ ~ i x181, ~~t~~.
I . I'rigoginc 1121 ant1 S. R.. tlr (:root, nntl 1'. Mn.7.11r (11.
In ortlrr 00 tlet.rrminc rlntlrr wl~at,c:orltlit,iotls t.11~ \)c~lkvisrosil y of;^ r:otnl,rc~ssil)l(.
llltitl v:lnisl~es,ill is ncross:Lry 1.0 11:ivc: rccwilrsc to (*xj~t:rit~ltv~I~ or 1.11~;~ t ~ c l ~ l t01' otl~
st~at.ist~in:~.l I ~ l ~ n r m o t l y r ~ a ~wllicll
t ~ i t ~ spcrrnil 11st,o c::ilct~lntct,r;trlsport t~oc~l'firic~tlt.~ I~.OIII
firsL princ-il~l(:s.'I'lic tlirc:ctp mcasurclnrnt of 1)111l< viscosit.y is very tlifl'ic:t~lI.1.0 lwr-
f'ornl, : L I I ( ~ 110 dcfi~iit~ivc rcsr~lt~s arc in ~xist.encc.St,:~t.ist,icnl n~ct~hotls for tlcnso gases
or liqlritls lmvc not yet, been tlcvclopctl 1-0 it point w l ~ i c lwonltl ~ nllt~w11s to ~nnltca
romp1ct.r s t ~ n t c m r t ~ ont tfhe srll~ject. It, :ippcnrs. Ilowrvcr, t,l~ntt,lle br~llr \.iscosit.y
vnnislics irlent,ic:n.lly in gases of low tlensit.y, t.llnt is nntlrr c:ontlit.iorls u.11c.n ortlg
binary collisio~~s of molecules noctl t o I)c t,nkcrl into account,. 111t l c ~ ~ sge; ~ s r s tlrr ,
1:i~ 3.8. Qltnsintzt.ia cottlprrssion and orroill:rlory nlobion of n upllorical maas o l fluid lir~rncricalvalue of brrlk viscositp.y nn.ppc:Lrs to be very small. 'rllis nle:ins t,llnt, c:clt~s.
(:<.2(ia,t))cont,ilnre t o tlcscribc tllc work in a continuous s y s t c n ~in t l ~ :~bscnco c of sl1cn.r
l,o a n c x c ~ l l c n ttlrgrce of n,pproximat.io~~ ancl t h a t tlissipnt,ion a t constant. t.t>nll)rra-
Wllcri t-he syst.om is c o n ~ ~ r c s s eqrl;tsist~ntinally
d and reversibly, we again mcovtv trrre, cven i n the general case, occitrfi only t,l~ror~gll t , l ~ intervention
r of 1.l1rtlrvia-
t . 1 1 ~prcvions casc becauso 1.11cn ciiv rrt -> 0 : ~ s ~ m ~ ~ t o l . i Wo
c a l lnote
~ . Ll~ntin suc:h torin st.resses. 'L'Ilr~s,once again, we :trc lot1 Lo St.okr~'fihypot.llcsis nntl so 1.0 I'OII.
cascs t,ho rate a t which work is performed in a t.hcrn~otlyn:trnicdlyrcvcrsihle process (3.26). 'l'liis conclr~sion(Ions not, cst.rrltl l,o fluids wllicll :trc c:il)nl)ln or rltl~lrrgoit~g
per 11r1i1,vc~lt~me
hccomc:~

which is t , l ~ rsame a s
rP - ptliv rrr
tl v
Jk 7 p -- -
dl
(3.26b)
in t.lie not,at.ion cr~sl,omaryin t.hermodynnmics.
When div rrv is firiitc, ant1 the fluitl is compressed, cxpar~tledor made t o oscillat.a,'
: ~ t ,n fuita mt,c, equalily hotwesn and -- P pcmist-9 o t ~ l yif tho coefficirrlt
2 (3.27)
11' " 1 I :3 lL
) ; it docs not. If p' - l = O , L ~ I C
valrishm itlcntically (Stokes's I ~ ~ ~ ~ o L ~ o~trl ~s oi rsisc
i
oscillatory rnot,ion of a spl~ericatsystem, Pig. .8b, would prodrlce dissipation,
oven if t l ~ ctcnipcmt,ure remained constant throughout the bulk of the gas. The
snrnp would be true in t,lie casc of cxpnnsion or compression a t a finite rate. Por
t.his reason, tlw coefficient 14' is citllcrl t.he bulk viscosity of the fluid: i t represenh
tllnt. properl,y, like t,ltc shear visconit,y IL for deformation in sllape, which is responsihlc
for energy clisaipntion i r ~a flrlitl of l~rliformtcmporntr~roduring 8 cllnngc in volumo
(3.2Ga)
rclaxat,io~lprocc-sses I)j: virtnc of a 1oc:nl ilcpnrturc fro111 n st,nt,e of t~hcmic:nlctlnili-
l)ri11111(1 .a]. Such rclaxntiorl processes occur, for cxanlplc, wllcrl n cllc:rnic:rl rcnctio~c
van titlre place, or, in gascs of corni~lcxstr~rntnre,~vllen:L c~rnpnrnt~ively slow I,r:~nsli.r
o f energy betsweeri the translntionnl nntl rotat,iorlnl tlcgrcrs of frcotlom on t.hc onc:
Ilantl, nnrl t.11~ vil>ratio~laltlegrcrs of I'rccdom on thc ot,hc:r, btcornes possil~lr.'I'IIIIS
wllen rel:txat,ioti 1)roeesses are possible, t,hc t,l~crmotlynnrnicpressure is no longer
c c j ~ ~ at,o
l one-third of tlie trace of tJle st,ress tensor.
I t is somrt.irnas orgrlctl Gllnt 1 . h ~n.tlol)tio~lof Sl,olrt.s's Ilyl)ol.llc~sis.1.l1:l.tis l . l i t \
s~zpposit,iont,Ilnt t l ~ cI~lrllrviscosit+y of Ncwt,onian Ilnitl vnr~isl~cu, tloc:s r~ol,:lrc:ortl
wit,h our irlt81~it,ivc ft:c!litlg tllnt, n spl~crc:of fliritl wl~osctI~ollntlr~ry ~ s t : i l l : ~NOl ~ t~ ~
.II~
;I(.
t.l~c~rc is :L ryclic? scquencc of compression s.rltl expansion, Lpig. 3.8L, wotrltl tlissi1):~l,o
no erlergy. This woulrl, intleetl, be t8he case, its is easily sccn f r o n ~t,l~c . prcccditlg
argllmrnt, bccaclsc the tlissipativc part of tlic stress fieltl vanishrs 111ldcrsrtcll corl-
tfitions. I t must, however, not be forgotjI,cn t.11at such a conclusion is valitl only if
t.lre tjc~npcrat~uro of the spllere of gas were to be kept const,nnt- during tlie oscillat.ion
t,l~rougl~out t.he wllole volume. Norrnnlly t-his is impossible. Co~~sequontly,an
oscillat.irlg splterc of gns will soon develop n temperatarc field n.nd eriprgy will be
tlissipnt,etl tlown t,l~ccxist,irlg t,cmpem.l.r~regrntlicrit,~161.

g. The Nnvier-Stokes equations
\Vitll t h r aid of rqns ( 3 20) the non-viscor~spressrtrr ternls can I)r srparatcd
in tltc ctll~atiotlof ntotion ( 3 11) so illat they l)crolnc
Jntrodrlcing t,he ronst,itntive relatioil from cqns. (3.24) we o1)tain the resultant
surface force in ternis of thc velocity components, c. g , for the 2-clirertiorl we obtain
wit11 the aid of eqn. (3.10a):
and correspontlitlg exprcssior~sfor tlle ?I-and z-cornponent,~.111 the general case of
a compressiblc flow, the viscosity /A n l r ~ s tbe regarded as dependent on t,l~cspacc
coordinates, bccause p varies considerably wit11 temperature (Tables 1.2 and 12.1),
a n d the cllangcs in velocit,y and pressure t,oget.ller with the heat due t o friction
bring about considerable tetnpcrat,urc variations. T h e temperatllre dependence of
viscosiLy p('r) must. be ol)t,ai~letlfrom experiments ( c f . See. XTIla).
If thcse expressions nrc int.rotlucrtl into t h e funtlamelltal ecluxliol~s(R.11), we
oljtain
Tl~pscvery wcll Icnown tliffcrential equations forin t,l~eItasis of tllr wl~olescience
of fluid mechanics. They are usu:~llyreferrcd td a s t h e Navier-Stokes equations.
t Ir! indicinl notation:
g. 7'11~
Nnvier-Stokes equatiotls 65
I t is necessary t o inclrlde here the equation of continuity which, ns scetl frorn ctytl. (:j.]),
assumes t,ho following form for cornprcssible flo~v:
'I'lle :tltovc ctl~lat,ionstlo no1 givc n cornplcln tlt:script,iorl of t.110 ~rio(.io~r
ol' :I, cwn-
;rcssiblc llr~itlbcca.usc changcs in pressure ant1 dcnsit.y clfcct tcrnpcrature varint,ions,
ant1 principles of tl~crmodynamicsmust, t,Ilt:reforr:, oncc morc ent,cr into the con-
sit1cr:~tions.Fronl thermotlynarnics we obtain, in the first, placc, the cllaractcristio
eclt~nt~ion(eqrtation of state) which combines pressure, clcrlsit.y, :inti t,err~pemt,r~rc,
:lntl wllich for a perfect gas I ~ a sttlle form
wit11 12 d r r ~ o t i n gt h e gas constarlt arltl 7' denoting t>heal)soltrt,c t3cmpcmt,urc.Srcontlly,
if the process is not isot,hcmial, i t is fnrtllcr necessary t,o tnaltc IISC of tho cnrrgy
rc111at.ionwllich draws u p a Oalancc l)c:t,wcc:n Itcat, ant1 mccl~ar~ic::tl cncrgy (First 1,:lw
of'I'l~cr~notlynamir.s), and wllicll furnishes a dilTerenLial ccluat,ion for t h e ten~ltcmtrtro
tlistSril)nt.ion.Tlle energy equation will be tliscussctl it1 greater tlctail in C ~ I : L XI ~ ) .I .
Tllc final equatio~lof the system is given by the empirical viscosity law p ( Z 7 ) it.8 ,
tlepentlencc o n pressure being, normally, neglected. In all, if the forces X, J', Z are
consitlered given, thcrc are seven eqrlatiorls for the seven v:~riablcsu, v , 7 0 , p, p , T ,11.
For isothermal proccssos tltcsc rctlr~cct o five cqltatior~s(3.29a,b,c), (3.30) nntl
(3.31) for tohe five rtnknowns u, v , W, p, p.
Ir~com~ressible flow: The above syst.cm of equations beconles further si~nplifietl
in tile case of incompressible fluids ( e = const) even if the temperature is not
const,ant. First, as already shown i n cqn. (3.la), we have tliv iu r:0. Secondly,
since tVcmpcr:~turevariations are, generally speaking, small in this case, the viscosity
may be taken t o be const,antt.
The equation of state as wcll as the energy equation brcome superfluous as far
a8 t he calculat,ioo of the fielcl of flow is concernetl. The Reltl of flow can now be considered
intleprntlt*ntly horn t l ~ ccqrtntions of tllcrmorlynnniirs Tllc cquations of tnotion
( 3 29n,l),c) ant1 ( 3 30) can be slmplilietl and, if tlic accclcration terms arc w r ~ t t c n
o a t fully, tllcy assume t h e following form:
66 111. 1)~rivntionof the eqnntions of mot,ion of a conlprr~siblovi3roi1~
fluid
g. Thr Nnvirr-Stokes equations
MTit11 known body forcrs there arc four ccluations for the four unknowns u., v , t u , p.
I f vect,or not,atiorl is nsrtl t,hc simplifird Navicr-Stolcrs cq~iationsfor incompres-
~ i b l cflow, cqns. (3.32n,b.c), can bc sllort~cncdt o
e + vr + :'
.:.
+ Trrv+- + vz =

av, V, all
whc-re t h e sym1)ol V 2 denotes t,he J,nplncc oprrator, V 2 -- a2/i)x2-4- a2/a?y2-1- a 2 / a z 2 .
Tho nl~ovcNavier-Stokrs r q l i n t i o ~ ~diKer
s from Euler's equations of motion by
e($,
"4

+vr +, Bd +VZ :)=

t,he viscous terms / I V 2(11.
'r'hc solirtions of the above equations herome fully clrterminrtl pllysically w11cn (3.3fi.i
111 t,he case of visco~isfll~iclsthe
t Iir 1)onrltlary ancl initial rontlitions arc sprcifietl
ar v 1 av, av
c.ontlition of no slip on s o l d boundaries must, be satisfird, i. e., o n a wall both tlie -+'+--
a r r a+ +'=o.
az (3.3Gd)
normal ant1 tangential components of the velocitfy must, vanish:
v, -- 0 , v, = 0 on solid walls . (3.35) The stress components assume the form

.l ,h c equations i~nrlcrdiscnssion wcrr first tferivcd by M. Navier [9] in 1827 and

I)y S. 1). I'nisson [lo] in 1831, on tthe basis of a n argument which involved the
r o ~ ~ s i d r m t i oof
n int,ermoleci~lar forces. J,at,cr the same equations were derived
without t h e use of a n y such hypotheses by 13. de Saint Verlant [14] in 1843 and
by G . G. Stoltcs [13] in 1845. 'l'heir tlcrirations were based on t h e same assumption
as made here, rlamrly t h a t the normal and shearing stresses are linear functions
of the rate of deformation, in conformitry with the older law of friction, due t o
Newton, and t h a t t h e thermodynamic pressure is equal t o one-third of t h e sum of
the normal stresses taken with a n opposite sign.
Since t h e hypotliesis of linearity is evidently completely arbitrary, i t is not
a priori cert,ain t h n t t h e Navier-Stokes equations give a true description of t h e Curvilinear coordinatee: Tt is often risrfr~l t o employ a o ~ ~ r v i l i n r a~ry s i c mof
r n o t i o ~of
~ n fluitl. J t is, therefore, necessary t o verify them, and t h a t can only be coordinates which is adapted t o the shape of the body. In t,hr rnsc of two-dirr~ensior~nl
arhicvecl by experiment,. I n t.l~isconnrxion i t should, in a n y case, be noted t h a t flow along a curved wall, it is possiblr to srlect a coordinate syst,cm whose
the enormous ma.tI~ernaticaltlifficulties encountered when solving the Navier-Stokes abscissa, x, is measured along the wnl;, the ortlinate, y, being rncn,snrrrl a t right angles
cq~iations have so far prevented us from oI)toaininga single ~ n a l y t i solution
c in which t h e to it, ld'ig. 3.9. Thus the curvilinear net consistsof c u r v ~ swllicl~are parallel t o tlrr wall
ao~ivcrtivot,crn~sint,eract in a gcrleral way wit11 t h e friction terms. However, known
solnt.ions, snch RS Inminnr flow throngh a circular pipe, a s well a s boundary-layer
flows, t o bc discussed later, a.gree so well wit,ll experi~nentt h a t tlie general validity
of t,lic Navior-St.olrcs cqnations car1 Iiarclly 1,e doubted.
Cylilic1ricnl coorclinntcs: We shall now transform the Navier-Stolces equations
t,o cylindrical coordirlatcs for future reference. Jf r, +, z donot,e the radial, azimuthal,
and axial coordinates, respectively, of n three-tlimc~lsionalsystem of c~ortlinat~es,
ant1 v,, v,, v, d c ~ l o t et h e velocit.y components in the respective tlirect-ions, then
the t,ransfor~nnt,ionof varinbles [3, 111 for t h e rase of incompressible Huid flow, Fig. 3.!). TIW-tlinlennionnlhonrltlary layer along n c~trvetlwall
eclns, (3.33) and (3.34), leads t o t.he following system of equat.ions:
and of stmight, lines perpendicular to t,hem. The corresponding velocit,y compol~er~ts
are
denotcd by 7~ and v, respectively. The radius of curvature a t positmionR: is derlotetl
by R ( x ) ;it is positive for walls which are convex outwartls, ant1 nrgat,ivc whon t.hc
wall is concave. Tho appropriate form of t,he comp1et.e Navicr-Stokes equation~1has
been clerivetl Ity W. Tollmien [lFi]. They arc:
 111. l ) c r i v n t i o ~of~ 1,Iir eqllntio~lsoC motion of a rornprcssiblo vincoun fluid

[!I] Nnvicr. 174.: hI6rlloirc srlr Ics loin tlu ~ ~ i o r t v e ~ ~clos l o n tflr~itlcs.kli.111, clo I'Aci1rl. tlc Sri. 6,
380---410 (1827).
[I01 I'oisson, S.ll.: hl6111oiro sur les 6qrlntionn g6rl6rnlrn clr I1(.qnilibrc r t d r ~rilr>~~vetiic:~lt, (Ips
c~or1)molitlos6l11ntiq11osc t tics Iluiclcs. $1. (10 I'l':colo ~lol,y(yc~l~~l. 1.1. I3!1-- l8li (IH:!l).
[Ill I'rclgrr, CV.: J~~t,rotlltc(.iot~ 1.0 I I I C O ~ I I L I I ~ COF
R col~t,it~t~ C:illlJ
n . RI. C~O.,I!)(;].
1121 l'rigogi~~c,I . : I < t , ~ t (Ll ~~ I ~ ~ ~ I I I O ~ tlcn ~ ~ pl1611o11iA11ca
I I ~ I ~ I ~ Cirr~~vt!rsil)lc;u,
~ I I ~ I ) I I I I O ~ I . I ~I!bl7. I~~~I~~~,
[I:)] S t o l c t ~ ~(:.(:.:
, On 1110 t11c.oric.s o r itllsrl~nl frit:tior~ o r I l ~ ~ i ill t l ~tllnLioll. 'I'I.:LIIH. ( : : I I I I ~ I ~ .
I'l~il.Soc. X , 287-305 (1845).
[I41 d e St,. \'erl:ttit,, 1%.: Note ii jointlre 1111 mdtnoire sllr la rlynnltliqur dcs fluitlen. Coln1)trv I<cntlrrs
17, 1240- 1244 (1843).
[IT,] 'I'oll~llicn,\\I.: Crcnzscl~icl~ttl,coric. 1TnntlI)nt:h clcr1Cxper.-l'l~ysik, VoI. I V, I':~rl,.1, 241 - 287 3

(l!J:tl).

au at,
R
--
1, , !/ ar -I- I -7&
-
-
0
r
l h e stless components are
1

[ I ] tlr (:root, S.lt., nnd M w u r , T.: Noli-cqnilibriuni t,hermotlynnniics. Nort,l~-llolla~ltl J'ubl.

Co.. 19ii2.
(21 I'iil)pl, A , : \'orleslingcr~ iiber kchniscllc hleol~nnilc.\'ol. 5, 'J7cul)r~er.Lcipzig, 1922.
1.11 H o l ~ f I,.: , ZIllr I"1iinniglceilcri. Cont,riblll,ioll to: lln11tl1111cl1 tlcr P l ~ y s i k Vol.
, V I I ( H . Geiger
:lrlcl J(. St.llrrl, rd.), lirrlin, 1027.
[4] I(estit1, J . : A C O I I I . ~ill~ t . l ~ c r t ~ i o d y ~ ~VoI. n ~ ~ I~, iJ3lniplell,
t'~. 19(M.
[T,] I!cs(.il~, , J . : Il:(~rtlotllcr~nodynanliqr~c d r s 1)116no111i~1lev ~rrdversihlcs.Ilnp. No. 66---7, Lab.
(l A'rtit.l~t-r~~~iqr~c, hlcutlo~\,\!I(\(;.
I(;] I,:LIII~). 11. : I l y t l r o d y r ~ ~ ~ ~6th ~ l i (ntl.,
. ~ . (Inn~l~ridgc. I!lT,7; also ])over, 1045.
( 7 1 I,otrt.. A . 1':. I I . : 'l'lle ~ ~ ~ n t , l ~ e ~ ~t,Ilcory ~ : ~ t , iof
c nctl:isticity.
I 41.11 cd.. C:l~ilhridge Uliiv. Press,
1052.
[HI hlc.iurlrr. .I.. r~rltlTlrik. 11. (:.: 7 ~ l i c ~ r n ~ o t l y ~ ~tlrr n n irrc?vrrsil~lrn
~ilc I'rozessc. Co~iI,rih~lt.iorl to
I ~ : I I I ( I I , I I c I I (11.1. I'I~y~ilc.Vol. 111/2 (S. I+'liiggr, ctl.), Springrr, I!)5D, 11p. 413 -523.

CHAPTER I V
General properties of the Navier-Stakes equations
Reforc p:lssing on t,o thc int,rgrat,inn of t h e Navicr-St.okrs cq~rnl.ionsin t.11~
following ch:lpt,ers, it now sncms pcrtincnt, t o discnss sornc of their general properties.
In tloing so wc shsll restrict ollrsclvcs to irrcornprcssiblc viscous fluitls.
R. J)c.rivntion nf Reynolds's principle of sin~ilnrityfrom the
Nnvicr-Stokes cquntiorla
TJr~tilt,Ilc prrscnt clay no gcnc,r:~la.~tn.lyt,ic
n~rt,l~otl.s 11:tvr I~rcotncavailnltlc for tlle
intc-gmtion of t,hc Nnvirr-Sl.okcs~clt~at,ions. I ~ u r t l ~ c r t n o rsolrtlion~
c, wl~inlla1.r vnlitl
for all values of viscosity are Irnown only for sonle particular cases, c. g. for Poi-
seuille flow tl\rorlgh a circular pipe, or for Couctte flow bet,ween two parallcl walls,
onc of which is a t mst,, the other moving along its own plane with a constant
vcloc:ity (set: Fig. 1.1). For this reason t l ~ cproblcm of calculatir~gthe motion of
a viscous fluitl was attaclrctl by first tackling limiting cases, t h a t is, by solving pro-
hlcrns for very large viscosit,ics, on t h e one hand, and for very small viscosities on
t,hc other, I)cmrlsr in t,ltis manner t.hc matllcmatical problem is considerably simpli-
Actl. liowevrr, tlro casr of modcrat,c viscosit,ics cannot 1)c irlt,erpolat,cd I~ct~ween
1l:ven the limit,ing cases of vcry largc ant1 very small viscosities present great
mathematical tlifficulties so t h a t rescarcll into viscolls fluid motion proceedetl
t o a largc cxtcnt. by experiment. I n this conncxion t,l~cNavier-Stnlrcs equations
ftrrnish vcry uscSttl 11int,s wtiicl~point t o a considerable rcduct,ion in the qnantity
of cxpcrimcnt.al worlr required. I t is oft,cn possible t o carry out. expcrimcnts on
models, which means t h a t in t h e e ~ p e r i m c n t ~ arrangement
al a geometrically similar
motlcl of t,hc not11a1 body, b u t reduced in scale, is investigated in a wirttl tunnel,
or ol.hcr slritahlc arrangement. This always raises the question of t h e dynamic
sim,ilnril?y of flclitl mot.ions which is, evidcnt.ly, intimately connect,cd with t h e ques-
tion of Itow far rcsult.~obt,a.inod wit,l~motlcls can Jlc nbilizcd for t h e prediction of
tho I>t:haviollr of t h e FIIII-scaleI)ody.
I
As a1rr:ttIy oxpl~incrlin Chap. I, two fluitl nibtions are dynamically similar if,
with gc?ornct,rit:allysirnilnr k)ot~ndn,ries,t.he velocity ficltls are geometrically similar,
i. e., .if 1,ltc.v have gromct,ricnlly similar st~rcnrnlincs.
This qucstiot~wits atlswcrrd in Chap. 1 for t h r case in which only inertia and
visrntts fnrt*rs t:~Itc1)itrI.in tile proc,css. I t was found tllere t h a t for t h e two motions
(lie Rry~ioItIsI I I I ~ I ~ J Cmnst
~S be rclrtnl (lirynolcls's p r i ~ ~ ~ i ~of
) l csirnil:~rit.y).
b 'I'llis
roncllrsion was tlrawrl by astimatirtg t.hc forces in the st,rcanrn; wr now propose to
tlctlr~cei t again directly from the Navicr-Stolrcs eqltatiorls.
'rlrc Navicr-Stokes cqr1a1,ions express tSl1o coltclit.ion of c t l t ~ i l i l > r i ~ ~I I~: I lI tI I, C I ~
t h a t for c a c l ~pa.rticle t,llerc is cqrrilibrir~rnbetwccn l~oclyforcrs (woigI~(.),S I I ~ ~ ; L C ~
f o r ~ c sa ~ t tjncl-ti:t.
l forcrs. 'J'hc sr~rf:bc!c forc:c:s co11sist.of prc?ssurr fort'cs ( I I O ~ ~ I IIi)r(:t:s): ~ ~
ant1 frictiotl forrcs (sl1ea.r forccs). TZotljr forccs n.rc in~l)ort,nt~t, only i r l c::t.sc>s ~ I I C : I I
tlicro is a free s~lrftlccor wllcrl l,lto tlrtlsily clisl.ril~trl.iotlis itll~orno~c:~~c:o~ts. 111 111,:
( : x s ~of a hornogcnrol~sfl~titlin tltc :l.hsenc:t? oS n Srrc s\tr(i~t!ct,Itrr(: i s c:tl~tiIiI)t.i~tt~~
I ) C ~ I V ~ ( : I I 1,110~vcigltbof'c:at:l~ p;l.r(.ivIo:LIEII it,u l~.yrlr<)d~:~tiv
I ) I I O . ~ I I I I ~ :l'orc;~!,
~ in t11(!S:I,IIIC
w : ~ y3.8 a t rost,. Ilc:nco i l l 1.11~rnot,iorl of :L I~o~nogcncons Illtitl, i r ~thc :~t~sct~t:c of:^ I'rc-(2
snrf:icc, 1)ocly forces can 11r cat~rcllctlif I)rcssttrc! is t,o.It~nto IIIC:II~ tlio (Iillcr~~ncc
Octwccrt t h a t in nlot,ion a.r~tla t rcst. I n t,llc followirlg arpttnc~tt,wc shall rc.st,ric:t. our
at,tclrtion t o cases for wl~ic:l~ t,llis assttn~ptionis trtrc bccalisc t11r.y :we: t,ltc: t>rost inl-
port,ant oncs in n.pplicntions. Tltrls bltc Nnvicr-Stoltcs rqnations will now c:ortt,air~
only forces clue t o pressure, viscosity, and inertia.
Unclor thesc asst~mptionsant1 ronvcntions i.hc Nitvier-St,olccs rcln:ttions for
:In inromprcssiblc flr~itl,rcstrick:tl 10 s t c i ~ d y[low nncl in vcclor ftjrttt, si1111~lil:yt o
'J'llis clifl'crer~tinl cql~ationmust l ~ cindrpcnclent d the clloicc of t . 1 1 ~t~tli(.sfor t.lrc
various physical quantities, s11c:h as velocity, prcssnrc, clc., which appe:lr in it.
We now consider flows about two gcomctrically similar boclics of diKcrcrlt lincar
tlimcnsions in streams of different velocitics, c. g., flows past two sptlcms in wllictl
t h e densitics a n d viscosities may also bc different. Wc shall invcstigatc tllc corl-
tlition for dynamic similaritfly with the aid of tho Navier-Sbokcs cqoat,iot~s.Evi-
dently, dynamic similarity will prevail if wit11 a suitablc choice of t l ~ units c of Icngf.h,
tirnc, ant1 force, the Navicr-Stoltes cqn. (4.1) is so t,mnsforn~ctl t h a t it, I)cco~ncs
iclent.ica1 for the two flows with geomctric:ally similar botirltlarics. Now, it is [~ossil)lc:
t o free oneself from (.he fortuitously selechcl r ~ n i t sif clirncnsiorllcss tlllntltitics n.rc
introducetl into cqn. (4.1). This is acllievccl by snlcct.irlg ccrt,:~in sr~itnhl(:c:llar:rc:-
taristic mxgnitr~dcsi r l tllc flow a s our ~rrtil,s,ant1 I)y rcfcrring all othc:rs t,o t.11c:nr.
..Ll~its
, c. g., the frcc-slrcan~vcloci1,y anrltl tllc tlianlcI.cr of (,I111 spl~rrc:c:alt IJ~: st-l(:c:l.c:tl
a s t h e rcspcctivc 11nit.sof vcloc:it.y nrltl Icrlgth.
1~r.tV, 1, and pl tlcnotc t l ~ c s ccltaractcristic rcfcrcnco magt:itrltlrs. II' we now
introtltlcc into thc Navicr-Sl.olzcs eqn. (4.1) thc tlirrrrr~wionlrss ri~i.ios
pressure P = -p
PI '
72 I\'. C:rncr:tl prol,e~lirsof tlrc Navier-Stokrs ecluat.ions c. The Navicr-Stoltes eqnations interproled as vortirit,~t.rnnsporL e q r ~ n t i o ~ ~ s 73

s frictional terms in eqn. (4.1) vanish identically for potential flows, but ge~~erally
T l ~ r ~the
speaking both boundary conditione (3.36) for the velocity cannot tlrcn be satisfied sin~ulta~reor~sly.
If the normal con~ponentmust ccsu~tn~u prencribed vnlucs along n bonntinry, t l ~ r n ,in potential
flow, 1.l1o t,iw ont.inl oon~pono~lt i~ tl~orobyclolorr~~i~rnd
no I,llr\t l,l~n110 nlip oo~~cliI.io~~
I , I I I ~ I II tO
0 I~
sdislicd nt Lf~oR I ~ I I I O l,i~no.Jd'or Ll~isrt!ason clno cnnnok regnril p>hnLinl ilowe a" p l ~ y s i t ; ~ d l ~
1 )g) ~ c)
or, c l i \ f i t l i ~ ~ 172/18

(I1:gratl) ll - - I"I?, grad P -t e "V l "2 11'.

(4.2) /
moatringfill nol~~tiona of 1.110 Nnvicr-Stokon cqr~ntionn,bocnrrno tl~oy(lo not nnt.inry tlic ~)r~:scril)rd
boundary conditions. l'lrcro exist^, howcver, an i~nportantcxccption to t l ~ oprccccli~~g
mcnt wl~iclroccurn wl~ontho solid wall is in rnotion and when this condition tlocs not apply.
The sin~plestparlicular case is that of flow ~mnta rotating cylinder wl~cnthe potential ROIII-
~t.xtc-

.
,I l ~ oIll~icl I r ~ o t , i o ~li~s n t l v rc-o~isitlcr:~t.io~l(,;in I,rt.omc similnr o i ~ l yif t l l ~ osolntions tion tloes constit,utc a meaningfnl solution to the Navicr-Stokcs cquntior~s,as explainctf i l l
grcatcr detail on p. 80. The rcadcr tnny rcfor t,o two papers, one by G . 1InnieI [ 4 ] n~rdonc by.
t.xlr':Ss'.,I i l l {,(:rnls O[ (,II(: rcrsl~oclivc: t l i ~ n c ~ ~ ~ s i o ~v:iriiik~lcs
ricss nro itlc~~l,icnl.'Vliis J. Aclteret [I], for fnrt.ller details.
rccltlily:s (,I1:Lt,SO^ I,ot,l~nlol,io~lst , l ~ rc,sl~c:c:t,ivc:
c t l i ~ n c n s i o l ~ ~ Nnvior-St,olrcs
ess cc]r~:~.t.ions
The following sect,ions will be rest,ricted to the consideration of plane (two-din\rnsional)
tlilTrr o ~ ~ \)y l y n fac't.or common t o all t.crms. 'l'l~c qnnntit,y p,/e V 2 rcprescnls tllc flows because for such caocs only is it possible t,o inclicato son~egcncral properties of Lhc Navicr-
r:~t,ioof prc?ssltrc t.o 1.11c tlo~lblcof t.hc tlynanlic l ~ c a dant1 is u n i m p ~ r t ~ a nfor t the Stokes equations, and, on Mia oClrcr hand, plane flows roostituh by fir tho lnrgrst clans of
tlynnrnic si~nilarit,yor t,hc t,wo motions I ) c c n ~ ~ sinc i n c o n l ~ ~ r c s s i b lflow c a clrnngc prohlcrns of practical i~nportance.
in 1)rcssIlrc cnrisrs n o c:h:irigc i l l v o l l ~ m c .l'hc sccond factor e V I / / L is, liowcver,
vory irnl,ort,:inl, :ind m n s t nsslllne t,Ile s a m e valrlc for bot.11 motions if t h e y a r c t o
c. The Navier-Stokes equations interpreted a s vorticity transport equatinns
I)e tlyr~n.n~ic::iIIy similar. Ilencc tlynnmic sil~lilarityis assured if for t h c t w o nlotions
I n t,he case of two-tlimensional nori-stcatly flow in t.hc x,y - p l a ~ l ct,l~ovcloc:it.y
vector b c c o ~ n c s

'J'his princil)lo was tlisc:ovrrctl I)y Osbornc Iteynoltls when ho i~lvrst,igxt.etlfluitl

_
g l ~ nn(I is, t IrrrcSorc, lznown ns t h e Reynolds prilrripla o/ si??rilnrib?/.
1rlol.io1lt , l i r o ~ ~~'ipcs a n d l h c s y s t e m of rquat,ions (3.32) a n d (3.33) t r n n s f o r ~ n si n t o
'I'hc r l i ~ n r t ~ s i o ~ ~ral.io
lrss
e." = vz R (4.3)
Cc v

is cnllctl t h e Itoynoltls rlrl~ii\)cr.JTere t h o ratio of t h e d y n a m i c viscosit,y 11, t o t h e

clcr~si(,ye, tlcr~otctlb y = ,I./@, is t h e Itir~cmaticviscosity of t h e f l ~ ~ i tint.rotl~lccd
l,
cn,rlicr. S ~ ~ n i m i nngp we can s t a t e that, flows n h o u t g e o n ~ c t ~ r i r a l lsirrlilnr
y 1)odics
a r e tly~~n.miaally similar whcn t h e Rcynoltls n u m b e r s f o r t11c flows a r c e q ~ l a l .
T h u s Itcynoltls's similarity principle h a s been d e d ~ ~ c c once tl nlorc, t,his t,imc wl~iclifurnishes three equations for u, v, artd p.
f r o ~ nt,he Navicr-Strokes c q ~ l a t i o n s ,having I ~ c c nprcvionsly dcrivcd first from a n
c:st.irnnt,ion o r Sorccs :in(] sccontlly from dimensional analysis. W e now introduce t h e vector of v ~ r t i c i t ~ ycurl
, r r ~ , \rrl~icl~
rctlr~ccst o t.hc o n e
component a b o u t t , l z-axis
~ for two-diniensional flow:

1,. I.'riclior~ienn flow a s LL801t~1io~~n"

of t h e Navicr-Stokes equations

I t nay bo n.ort,l~not,i~~g,~)arcnt.Irrt.ically,that, the .solutions for incomprcssil~lc/riclionless I~rict,ionlessmotions a r e irrotat.ionn1 s o t h a t curl cct = 0 in s ~ l c l lcascs. Eli-
flown may also bc regarded as exact solutionn of 1.h~Nnvier-Stokes cq~~nt,ionn, bcca~~sc in s u c l ~ minating prcssurc from eqns. (4.4a, b ) we o b t a i n
rases t.ho frictional tcrnrs vanish itlont.icnlly. In t,llc case of incomprcssiblc, fricl.ion~csnflows tho
vrloc.il.y vector can he rrprrscntn?tl an t,hc grntlicr~to f a potcnt.ial:
= grad di ,
whrrr t.he potcnt,ial @ R R ~ ~ S ~ t,hc
I O SL:lplacc cqllat.ion ,' or, in short,hand form
V2@=0.
We t.11~11
n l ~ ohave grad ( V 2@) -V 2 (grad @) = 0, that is, V 2 w =0 .
This equation is referred t o a s t h e vorlicity transport, or transfer, equatzor~ I t stat(.s
t See foot.nota on 1,. 48. t h a t t h e subshantive variation of vorticity, wl~icltconsists of tllc l o r d a r ~ t rl o t ~ v r c t , ~ c c ~
74 TV. Gencrol proprtic~of tho Novior-Stoke8 eqrlnlionrr C. The Nnvirr-Stoke3 rqrrol.ionfi intcrprrtccl W
I vorlicit,~Lrnnsport rqtlnt ion3 76

terms, is cqrtal t,o tlrc rate of clissipntion of vorticity t,lrro~~glr friction. Eqn. (4.6), I n this form the vorticit,y t r n n s p o ~ tcquntiorr contains only one unknown, 11). 'Clre
togclher with tlrc equat,ion of contiiruit,y (4.4c), form n system of two equations left-harrd side of cqn. (4.10) contains, as was the casc with the Navicr-Stokcs
for t,hc two v ~ l o r i t ~components
y ?I, anti o.
equations, the inertin tormu, whcrcas t2ho right-lrhrld siclo cont,aitts tho frirtionnl
tcrms. I t is a fourtll-order 1tarti:ll dilfercrrtial cquatiorl in tile strcarr~f~irrctiorr '7,
Finally, it, is possible to transform t.hcsc two cqriat.ions wit,lr two ~rnknowns I t s solution in gcneral terms is, agnin, vcry clifficult, owing ho its bcirig iron-lirrr;rr.
ir1t.o one eq~iat.iorrwit4h one ~ ~ n k n o wbyn introtlrtcing tJhe st,rcam fnnc,tior~t(r(x.y).
Pltt,l.it~p V. G1. Jcrrsorr 151 fount1 a s o l ~ ~ t i otno the vorticity transport cclllatio~~ (4.10)
for the case of a sphere by numcricnl integration. The resulting pat,trcrns of s(.rcain-
lines for different Reynolds numbers arc seen plotted in Fig. 4.1 which also contnirls
clingrnms of the distribution of vort,icit.y in t h r flow fioltl. Tltc smnllost. Itc:ynol(l~
we see t,llaLtho cor~t,innil.~~
oclltation is s:tt,islictl aut~om:rt.irally.I n ncltlit,ion l.lle vorLici1,y number irrclrldcd, R = 5 in Figa. 4.1s anti 4.1~1,corresponds to thc casc w11c11tlrc
from eclrl. (4.5) 1)c:conrcs viscous forces by far outweigh the inertia forccs and the resulting flow can bc de-
w=- +v2y,t (4.9)
scribed nu crecping motion, Scc. I V d ar~tl(~11nptr.r VI. hr this casc the wholc flow fit-It1
is rotatiorral and tho pattcrns of strcnmlirlcs forward and aft are nenrly ident.ic:nl. As
thc ltcynolds number is incrcnscd the sphere dcvclops on its rcar a scparatcd region
with back-flow and the irttensity of vorticity is progressively more concentrated near
the downstream portion of the sphere, wherca.. in thc forward portioir tlrc flow be-
comes nearly irrot,ationnl. The flow patterns undcr consideration which have been
dcdr~ccdfrorn the Nnvier-Stokes equation, allow us to rccognizc thc clrnractcristic
changes which take place in the stream as the Reynolds number is made to increase,
even i f a t t,he highest Reynolds number rcachcd, R =. 40 in Figa. 4.1 c and 4.1 f, tile
boundary layer pattern has not yet had a chance to develop fully.

Very extensive experimental inveutigations of the wake behind a circular cylinder

in the range of Reynolds numbers 5 < R < 40 nre described in two papers by M. Cou-
tanceau nnd R. Bouard [lc, ld] who coveretl both steady and unsteady flows.

The development of very efficient elc~t~ronic computers in modern times has made
i t possible to solve the Navicr-Stokes equations for flow past geometrically sirrrple
bodies by purely numerical methods. In order to do this, tlrc differential equations
are replnccd by difference equations. The numerical techniqucs used for this purpose
will be explained in Sec. 1x1. Without discussing this matter here irr any ilcpt,h, we
quote one irrteresting result. Figure 4.2 shows tlre flow past a rect,angular plate placed
a t right anglcs t o the stream calculated by J. E. Fromrn and 1;". H. IIarlow 131. At
the back of the plate there forms a vort,cx street similar to that bchintl a circular
cylinder shown in Figs. 1.6 and 2.7. Figure 4.2ashowsan expcrirnentnlly detcrmined
p n t t ~ r nof slreamlincs, where*! Fig. 4.2b rcprcscrrts thc calculatcd ficld, both for n
Reynoltls number Vdlv = 6000. Thc agrconctrt bctwccn tflrc two patt,crrrs is rcmilrk-
ably good, in spitc of thc fact that in this rnngo of 1tcyrroldanrtml~crsl.l1cflow aecluircs
I':r.ltrrns or rlro(.iorr i r r :b visrorls llo\v 17ns11 n ~1111orc
at 11illi:rrtrt. 11c~y11old~
IIIIIII~O~S an oscillat,ory character, Fig. 1.6. Tltc earliest attcml)ts t,o ol)tain UIICII nl~rncrical
liiR. 4.1
IT1)/v tlrrivc<l froln l . 1 1 ~vorbicily Lrnrrsport rrlrtntiorr (4.10) hy V. (:. ,lrrrson [5]. sol~rt,iol~s t,o t,lrn N:~virr-St,okc,sc~clt~:ltionscan I)c t.rnt:c,tl 1.0 A. 'l'ltotr~ 101 ~ 1 1 1 , ~ , c r -
R
n,
--
I,, r, I'nt,trrrrn of nl.rmtnlit~c:s; t i , r, f, I)ist.ril~rrt~ion
(:,, .
-
of $ort,ic-it,y(t,II/I' (:onst
formed such cslc~ilat.ionsfor a circular cylindcr nt the low Rcyrrolds n~rrnl)crsR -- 10
to 20. I,ater, the calculations wcre carried to R = 100 [2].As the R.c:ynoltls numl)rr
a, cl
I,, r
. f
R
R
G. ,
20 ,
R - 40 ,
--= 8.0
CD 2.!1 ,
T(,I 1.9 ,
no sopnmt.ion ".
-
scpnrntion at 6 17 1 "
sc.pnr:~t,iorlat, 4 -= 148'
increases, the degree of difficulty of such numcrical int.egrat,ions increases st,ccply.
I n this conncxtion i t is worth consulLiiig the comprchensivc sr~mmnryby A. l'lrom
and C. ,I. Apclt [7], as well the work of C. J . Apclt [I n] and I). N. tlc (2. Allerr and
R. V. So~it~l~wcll [ I I)) nnd of If. B. ICcllcr nnt1 11. Takami L5nl.
76 1V. (2enrrnl proprrtir~of tlir Nnvirr-Stokm rqustio~~n
Fig. 4.2n
Fig. 4.2. T'nt,tcrn of st,rcnlnlinra t)clii~~tl
a rect.nt~gr~lnrflat.pl:ito (lf/rt = 1.6) ~~liictrtl
nt. rigl~t,nnglr t.o thr flow at. n Itry~iolils
t111111l)rr R = I' ![/I) = 6000, n f k r J . I<.
Frolnrn nlld 1'. H . IIarlow [B]. (11
Iioigllt of plate. d = thickncnn of plate)
- t.l~oltcynoltls I I U I I I ~ ~rrprt.scnls
n) utroanlline ~)nttcrl~ tlckr~ninerlcspcri-
n~ent.nlly,
h) st.rrntillit~rpnltcrrl rxlr~llntrtlby t i l t -
nioricnl integrat,ion of tllc Nn\-ier-Stokos
- -
eqltntion for T = I lr/II 2.78 (I t.irtle
froln stnrt of rnotiol~).Nun~rricnlintrgra-
ti011 pcrforrncd 011 nn 1Ril.I 7090 rol~ll)r~ter
cl. TIIC lilni~illgenee of very lnrge viscosity
(very s r ~ ~ eRryllolds
ll tlumber)
I I I VCTJ sIo\v rnotiot~sor i l l rnot.iotls \vil.I~vcry large viscosil.y the viscorrs forccs
:ire ror~sirlrml)l,ygreator t.l1a11t.hc incrti:t f'vrccs beonttse the lalt,er arc of t,lle order
of tllc vc!loc:ity s q ~ ~ a r r dwllcrc:is
, tllc I'orrnrr are linear wit11 ~ c l o c i t ~ y'ro
. a first
ar)l)roximnl.iol~it, is possil)lc t,o nrglcct tllc i~rcrt,iat,crms wit.11 respect t.o the viscous
Irrtns SO tllat from cclrl. (4.10) we ol)t.ain
I
r .
Illis is, now.
:I, lit~c-arc c ~ ~ l a t , i\rrl~ic:lr
o ~ ~ is c~ol~sitlcrnbly Inore amcnablc t.o rnnt,l~e-
tnatirnl t,rcaI,lnc-nt t,l~xnt,llo eor~~plrt,c ccln. (4.10). I'lows dcscril~rdI)y cqn. (4.1 1)
~~roct.t,tl
wil.ll vrry srn:ill vc.loc.it,irs ant1 nro somc:t,itncs cnllctl crecpir~gmotior~.~. '1;llo
r. 'I'llr litr~iti~~g
c.nw of vrry small visoo~tsh r r r ~ 77
omission of t,llo illcrt.in t o m s is l)c-rrnissiblc li-orn tlre ~ n a t ~ l l ~ r n : ~ tpoil~t.
. i c d of viow
I~rcartset.l~eorrlcr of tile ccl~lnt.io~~ is not t,llercl)y rrtlnrcd, so tJla1 with t01c siml)li-
Iictl tlilTt:rent,ial cqn. (4.11) it. is possil)lt? to sat,isf.y a s marly L~ourltlnry(:o~~tlit,iot~,q
11s \ v i t , I ~ t l ~ c
f111l(~111.(4.10).
(:r(:cl)i~~gtnot,i<~t~s 11s uoIt~l,ions01'
C:III:~lso I)I- t~~~g:~rtI(xl t,Ilo N:~vi(~r-Stol<t~x
c t l ~ ~ : i t i oi l~l ~t,l~c
s li~ttbliw~/
rnss o/ vcry smnll IIc?/NoW/PII?I.?~I./)P~.Y ( R .- 0). I ) ~ ~ . : L I I S ( :
C~ 1.l1cr;~l.ioof irlcr(.ia t.o f'riction li3rec:s.
Sol\~t,ionsof oqn. (4.1 1) for t.hc c:rc-cping rnotiotl of ;L visco~lsflrticl \rrc-rt!li)1111tl
by (:. (>. Sloltcs in the rksc of a spllorc artcl by tJ. I,arr~l)in t.ltc case of ;L circ~rl;tf
cyliritlcr. Stokcs's solr~tiori(:an hc npl)liccl t o the falling of pnrt,iclrs of mist in air,
o r t o t.lw rliot,io~lof srnall sphCrcs i l l a vcry viscous oil, \i,lten thc \.elocit,ics arc so
s~nnllIllat incrt,in forccs can he ncglcctrtl wit11 p o t 1 accuracy. l?~lrtllcrrnore,t l ~ c
h ~ ~ t l r o y r n theor?/ ic o/ hrhricn~iorr,i. c. t,llc 1,llrory of t,ho mot,ion or lr~l~ri(:a.l,i~~g
oil i t , t,l~c:vcry narrow cllatl~lclI)ct\\~ccr~ t.lic jol1rr1:~1ant1 bearing usrs t.l~issilnplilicd
rtlrl:~t.ionof tnot,iorl as its st,art.ing point,. 111 I.11oIal,t,cr case it will Iro ol)scrvotl 1,11:1t,
if t l ~ ovclocitics arc not very small, I,llc vnry small cle:~r:~nco lloigl~ts,n~ltll.11(: ro1:i-
l.ivcljr I:~rgrv i s r o ~ i t ~of y t.110 oil, ~ I I S I I ~I.l~at,
~ : t.llc visco~lsforccs arc rn~rcll1:irgc.r ~.II:III
Ill(! ~ I I ( ~ I , ~ ,for(:cs.
~IL llo\vc\~(!r,nl);irI, fro111t,l~ot.licory of lul~ricittiot~, t , l ~ c(i(:ltl of :~pl)li-
c*:ll,ionof t , l ~ ct.llcory of creeping ~not,ionis fairly insignificant.
e. Tllc limiting cnee of vcry srnnll viscoue forces
(very lnrge Reynolds nurnbers)
I'rotn itlie point of view ol' pmct,icnl applirnLior~s t * l ~ secollct e c x t , r r ~ n ccl:Lse,
nan~cl,vt.llntr of very small viscous forccs i l l rqn. (4.10) compnrctl wit,h tllc inrrl.ia
forcc.s, is of far greater import,ar~cc.Sincc l.llc t,wo most irnport.ant flui(ls, narncly
water a.r~tlair, have vcry small visco.rit,ics, the rase 11ndcr corlsiderat,ion ocanrs,
generally sprnlcing, already a t modcmtcl~vhigh ~elocit~ics. 'Cllis is the limitirrg crrss
o/ I)er?/ /rrr{/c Itcynolds ~z?lm./~cr.~ (R -> m). 111 this case the [lroccss of m;~t,h(~lrl:~l,ic::~I
sin~~rlificnt.ion of tllc tliKcrc~~t,ial cqn. (4.10) reqr~ircsn consitlcrablc anlount of rart:.
I t is not 1)crtnissiblc simply t,o olnit (,lie viscorls t,crrns, i. c., t,lle riglrt,-h:~ntlsitlc of
~ ~ four to two, :LII(I t.110
(:(in. (4.10). T l ~ i swoultl rntlnco the ortlcr of t,llc o q u : ~ t , i ofrom
s o l ~ ~ t i oofn t,l~csimplifictl c q u a t . i o ~coultl
~ not be mndc to salisfy t,l~efrill bountl:lry
corldit.iol~sof t.11~ originn.1c q ~ ~ n t . i oThe
n . problem wl~icllwas ontlirlcd in t l ~ cprccctlir~g
scr~t~criccs hclollgs esscntinlly t o t l ~ erc;~lrnof hou~cdnr?/-kr!/erlheory. We rlow proposc:
to t l i s c ~ ~ sbriefly
s the gent-ral st.at,r~nc~lt,s wllich can t)c made nbout the solrrtions
of Olle Nnvicr-St,oltes cqnal,ions for t,hc special mse of small viscous forccs a s corn-
pared \ifit.ll t,hc incrt,in forccs, t.l~:~t is in t,11c limiting case of very Inrgr: 1tt:ynoltls
t111m1)crs.
7:lle following analogy rnny scrvc to ilh~st,ratetl16 c:llsr:~cter of tile solr~t.ior~s
of t,hc Navier-Stokcs c q ~ r a t ~ i o for
r ~ s t,l~clitnit.ing c;~seor vt:ry small viscosil,y, i. c.,
of vrry small friction terms, as comparetl with t,llc inertia terms T l ~ etcrnperatrlrcb
distril)ut,ion O(r,y) abo111, a hot, I)otly in n flriid strrarr~is clcscri1)c~tl1)y L ~ I C follow-
ing tlilTer'rrrntial rqrlation, Cltap. XI 1 .
 c. 'rho limiting caw nf vory ~nlnllV ~ R C O I I R l i ~ r t . ~ ~ 79

remains, practically speaking, free from vortioity (scc IPig. 4.1). It, is, t.l~ercforc,
to be cxpected t l ~ a in t the limiting case of very small viscons forces, i. e. nt I;rrgc:
Itcynolds numbers, the solutions of the Nevicr-S(.okcs Q ( I I I : L ~ ~ ~ O I arc
IS SO ('otlst.it.~tt.rtl
Il(:rr v , c , :tntl k tlrnol,c 1.I1t: tlr~lsit.y,sl>cc:ilic Itt::rt, : ~ n dcontl~tcl,ivit.yof Itl~cllr~itl
ns 1.0 permit n s~ll~tlivision of the fioltl of flow itll,o a n cxt.crn:~Irrgion \vlti(*ll is I'I.CO
r c ! s ~ ~ ~ - l i v r0l yin; t.llc! tlilli~rcnt:c?I)ct,wco~~ t.110 loo:rl t,t:llll)onrt,r~rc:nntl t,llat a t :t vory
frorn vort.icity, and a thin layer near Id~cI)otly togcthcr with a wakc I)(:llit~tlit.. I11
1;rrgc: tlist.:~t~(:r fro111 t 1 1 ~I)otly, wl~orc:I,llc: l.c:tn11cr:~l,11rc:,7', is c:onsl,ant nntl cr(~l:rllso 1.11~:first, region t.110 flow Inny I)o oxl>nct.ctl 1.0 s~r(,isfy~ I I O ~ t ~ ~ ~ ~ r tof, i oI'ri(:t,iot~lt.:i?(
nx
' / , i. c . 0 - - '/ - '/I,,,. 'I'llt: vcl06iI.~lic:ltl w(z, 11) :rt1!1 ~ ( z11) , it1 oclt~.(4.12) is ;~.xst~rnctl
flow, the potc~lt~ial llow theory bcing uscd for i h cvnlnaI,ion, wl~crcnsin tllc sc~c-otr(l
1.0 I)c k t l o w ~ ~ 'L'hc
. t,ernpnrat~~rc: dixtribr~l~ion on t h e I~our~tlarics of Lhc botly tlcfir~etl
region vorticity is inherent, and, t.hcrcfore, the Navicr-Stoltcs cq~int.iorlsm ~ ~ shn t.
b ? ~'/I,, 3 7', is prrsc:ril)ctl nrttl in l,hc sirnplcst cnsc it is constant wit11 rcspcct Lo ~ l s e dfor its cvnluntion. Viscous forccs are import,ar~t~, i. c. of 1.11~ santc ortlcr 91'
sl)a(:t: ant1 t.imc 1)111., gcncrnlly speaking, it varies wit11 both. I'rom the pllysioal poinl. mngt~itt~tlc n9. inertin forces, only in t l ~ cscc:ontl region known :is t,hc bo~~.~~~lrtr?y Irr?yrr.
of view cclrl. (4.12) roprosents the 11c:rt 1):~lanc:cIhr an clcn~cnt,ary v o l u t ~ ~'l'hc e . IcfO- This concept of a boundary layer was introduced into the scicrlcc of fll~irlmechanics
Ilnntl sitlc represents t . 1 1 ~qu:~nt,it,yo f Ilrnt, c:xcl~:~~~gotl I)y c:or~vcc:tiorl, wht:reas the by L. Prantit,l a t the beginning of thc present ccntury: it has provecl t,o hc very
rigl~t-ll:rrl<l side is tJ1c ~ ~ ~ ; ~ r l of ( . i11r:lt
t . v t : x t : I ~ : ~ t ~11y
~ c dcon(I~t(:t.ion.
' r l ~ cfrit:I.ion:~lllcatl fruitful. The subdivision of the field of flow into tho frict,ionlcss oxtcrnnl flow i~ntl
gcneratcd in tile fluid is ncglcctctl. Tf 7',,> T,,t,llc: prol)lom is t h a t of dctcrrnining the cssentinlly viscous boundary-lnycr flow p c r m i t k d thc retluction of the mnt,llc-
1.ltc tcmperatl~rcfield around a hot body which is cooled. 13y inspection it is scrn maticnl difficnlties inllcrent in the Nnvicr-Stokes cqnntior~st o sllcl~at1 c x t r ~ l tt, f l ~ n t
t h a t cqn. (4.12) is of the same form a s eqn. (4.6) for the vorticity w . I n fact tJicy it, l)ccnme possible to integrals them for a large numbcr of cnscs. Tllc tloscril)t.ion
hccomc itle~ltiralif the vorticity is replaced by thc tcmpcraturc tliffercncc and t.llc of t,l~cscmethods of integration forms t.hc subjcat of the boundary-laycr t.hcory prc-
conclit,ion 0 -
k i ~ c r n a t ~viscosity
ic v by t,hc ratio k i p c known a s thc thcrmnl diff~~sivity.
0 a t a large dist.ancc from thc body correspontls t o trhe condition
tr, = 0 for t.hc undisturbed p,nrnllcl st.rcam also a t a large dist,nnce from t h e body.
'l'hc bourltlary scntctl in the following chapters.

From n nt~mcrical analysis of the available solr~t~ions of the Nnvicr-St,okc~s

llcncc we rrlay expect t h a t thc solutions of the two equations, i. e. t.hc dist,ribntion cq~~at.iorisi t is also poasiblo t o show directly t h a t in tho limiting case of very lnrgc
of vorticity ant1 t h a t of t f c m p c r a t ~ ~around rc t h e body will be similar in chnrnctcr. Reynolds numbers there exists a thin boundary laycr in which t h e influcncc of vis-
Now, tllc t~cmpcratlrredist,ril)l~tionnronncl the body may I)c pcrccivcd i n t ~ ~ i t ~ i v r l y , cosit,y is conccnt,ratcd. We shall rcvcrt to this topic in Cllnp. V.
1.0 n ccrtnin cxlcnt. 111l,hc limiting ca.sc of zero velocity (fluid a t rosl) the infll~cnccof
tile I~ratccl11otly will extend ~ ~ n i f o r r n lon
y all ~ i t i c s .With very small velocit,ics t h e The previously discussed limiting case i n which viscous forcrs heavily outweigh
t l hotly will still he affectfed by i t in all directions. With irlcrcnsing
fluit1 a r o ~ ~ r lttlc inertia force3 ((creeping motion, i. e., very small Reynolds number) results in a con-
vclocit,y of flow, howcvcr, i t is clcarly seen t h a t the rcgion affected by the higher siderable mathematical simplification of the Navier-Stokes equations. B y omitting
tempcreturc of t h e body shrinks more and more into a narrow zone i n t h e imme- the inertia terms their order is not rcduced, b u t they become linear. 'J'hc second
tlint,c vicini1.y of the body, ant1 into n tail of hcntcd fluid bchind it., 1Pig. 4.3. limiting case, when inertia forces outweigh viscous forces (boundary layer, i e. very
large Reynolds nrrmbew) present8 greatrr matl~rmaticaldifficulties than creeping
motion For, if we simply substitute v = 0 in t h e Navior-Stokcs equations (3.32),
or in the stream-function equation (4.10), wc thereby suppress the derivatives of Lltr
highest order and with the simpler equation of lowcr order i t is i~npossiblct o satisfy
.- sirr~ultancously all botlndary conditions of the cornplrto tliKrrcntial eclont~ous.
Fig. 4.3. Annlogy bet,weetl trnlperntuw However, this does not signify t h a t the solutions of sucll nn equation, sin~l)lificdby
and vorticity di~tributionill the neigh- t.he elimination of viscous terms, lose their physical meaning. Moreover, it is posxil~lc
b o ~ ~ r of l ~R dbody plnml in a strerrrn t o prove t h a t this solut,ion agrees with the &mplete solutionof the full ~ s v i c ~ : - ~ t o k e ~
of fl\lid
cq11nt.ions nlmost. everywhere in t,he limiting case of vrry large Reynoltls n r t n ~ b ~ r s .
a), b) I.lndCq of rrgion or it,crrhsrd trmprrsture
-- -
-.__ n) for ~ r n n l lvclucitlrs Tho exception is confincd t,o n 1.hin lnycr ncnr the wall - t.hc bountlnry 1n.yc.r. l ' h ~ l s ,
- - _ _- - - - - - - - - _ _ . . _ _
Ir) fur
__ Inrge_ vrlucitirn
_ uf flow
t h r complete nolution of t.hc Nnvicr-Stmkcs c ~ t r a l i o n sc:nn I)e t.llorrgl~l,of nrc t:o~~rcist,ing
of two soirrt~ions,thc so-cnllctl "outcr" solution which is ohtninctl wit11 t11c ;lid of
Eulor's ccluctions of motion, and a so-callcd "inner" or bonndnry-1n.yc.r solnt.ion
'rllc so111t.iotlof rqn. (4.1 2) nilrst-, n.s mcnt,ionkd, be of a chn.ra.cter sirnilar t.o t h a t which is valid only in the thin layer adjacent to the wall. The "inner" solut,ion
for vort,icit,y. At snlall velocities (viscous forces h r g e compared with inertia forces) satisfies t h c so-called boundary-layer e q ~ ~ a t i o nwhich
s are dctlncctl from t,l~cNavicr-
(.here is vorticity in 1,tlc whole region of llow around the botly. On the other hnntl Stokes equations by ~oortlinat~e stretching nnti pwqsagc t o tho limit R + m, n.s will
for' large vclocit,ics (V~SCOIIS forccs smnll compnrctl wibh ir~ctl~in forccs), we may be shown in Chap. VII. The o ~ l t c and r inncr solutions must he malchcd t,o each other
rxprc*t,ifirltl of flow in which ~ o r t ~ i c i is
t yconfined to a small Inycr along t h e surfacc by exploiting the condition t h a t thcrc must, exist nn overlapping rrgion in which
of the I)otly and in a wake behind thc boily, whereas thc rest of the fcld of flow bbth solutions are valid.
80 I\'. C r n r t n l p r o p r r t i r s of the Nnvier Stolic~sr q r ~ n t i o n s f. Mnt,lre~iinticnlillt~st,rationof the procens of going t.o the l i m i t R -t m 81
f. M n t l t c ~ t ~ n t i c ni l l c t n t r n t i o n o f t l t c process o f g o i r l g t o the l i n t i t R 4 oo t

P 7
I l ~ vc n l l ~ cof const.nnt. A z folloaw froin t.110 tnrrl.t:l~i~ip; t o t11c " o ~ ~ l r rn"o I ~ ~ l , i orc111.
~ r , (4.17). 111 1111
Let IU rotinitlrr t.lie tlnmpr(l vihrntiorls of ti point-mass t l m r r i l ~ n t hl y t,llc t l i f i r r n l i n l c r ( ~ ~ n t , i o n o v r r l n p l ~ i n grnngr, t,lrnt. is for ~noclcr:i(cv n l t ~ r nof t i l n r , t . l ~ ~
n :o l ~ ~ l i oi n~nclnn.
~ n (4.17) : ~ n ( l(4.21)
n i ~ ~ nngrc!c*.
l. 'l'lit~s\I.(; tnr~sl,I~nvc.
t1=x
4 k-
111.
I- c,:r -
nr-
1112 tll
I).

H e r c i r r donolrn the vihrnlirtg ntnsn, c (.lie spring c:or~ntntlt., k I.l)c. tl:~nil)ing f:~c.lo~..r t.I~t:Irng(.ll
I* -. m 1 -.
lii11 zr(t*) = l i t n r o (1)
0

or, i n worcln: 'l'llc "or~t,nr" l i m i t of t.lic "innor" s o l r r t i o ~III~

R~, 1)r C~IIIRI
l o the "itrnt:r" l i n ~ i 01
l tJ11'
r o o r d i n n t . ~ntct~mcrcclfrom t , l ~ jiosit,io~l
r ~ n . I ~.III.
of r i l ~ ~ i l i l ) r i i r nnrl t i ~ n r '.1'11c. i n i t i a l ron(lilions arc " o ~ ~ t e rsolnlion.
" (:ondition (4.2:)) Icntls nt, oncc to
ILRRIIII~~C~ t,o be

r - O at 1 - 0 . (4.14)

In ~ l i n l o g ywit11 (.tie Nnvier-Stnlzo~eqr~ntionsfor t.lie cnse \rlicn t l ~ lrr i t ~ r n i n t i cvisronity, I*,is very ntltl no t o the i n n r r solrltion
sninll, we conflitlcr h c r r t l ~ litnitsing
r rnsc of v r r y stnnll mnss nr, h r r n ~ ~ this n r l o o rnrlnrs 1.11~l e r m
.rr(t*) = A ( 1 - c x p (-- k t * ) } . (4.25)
of t l ~ cIiigllest or(1r.r it1 cqn. (4.13) t o brromt! very small.
l'lir c o m p l r t r solrition of cqn. (4.13) u ~ ~ h j c t~nr the
t i n i t i n l c~orrclit.ion(4.14) lins I l ~form
r 'I'l~csnnle form r n n be obt.ninrtl from I,llr r.ot111)lclr40111t icm fro111r q n . (4.15) I I r~* x ~ ~ : ~ n ( l(It(.
ing
~ l gfi~.nLtcr111 only, 1Iirit is I I1111t,ling
tirut t,rrni for s ~ n a l vl n l ~ t r sof I ntid r c t n i ~ ~ ithe ~
x = A {c%xp( I ) -- c x p ( - k 11iri)): irr -t 0, (4.15)

w h r r r A in n f r r e [:onstrrnt \vl~osc~111110r n n I)(, c l r t r r n ~ i t i r t \villi

l r r f c r c t ~ c rt o 11 s r r o i ~ (initinl
l cott-
tlit,iott.
I f we put, i n -0 i n eqti. (4.13), we nrc l r t l t o I.lw si~nplifiedrqrltrt.ion
7'11~t\rfo iic!11tio11~,t l i c onter s o l t ~ t i o nfrotn eqn. (4.17) nrirl L l ~ citillcr ~ o l t i t i o nIron1 r.qt~. (4.26).
togct,l~erlorrn the ,:o!!iplcte s o l ~ t t i o no n contlition t l i n t c n r l i is 1 1 8 r t l i t 1 its p r o j ~ r I.III~~C
ht finite 1, cqn. (4.15) tends ( c tlie outer solut~ionfor 711 + 0. whcrens a t constant t* eqn. (4.15)
r of vnli(lity.
dx
k- f e:r =0, t o t ~ t t,o
l ~ tlie inner nolutiolt. 'l'lle pnrtinl solilt,io~isgive Illc cori~plrtc,co111posit.cn o l ~ ~ t . i o\\.l~iclr n is
tlt vnlitl it, t l ~ ccnl,ire rnnge o f v n i ~ c so f t 1)y :l(lditig t h r n l t o g r t l ~ r r ,r c m e t n h r r i ~ i gt,l~ntI h r ronlli)on
tcr111from eqn (4.23) ~ n n s the . included only orrre, tlint, in sul~t,r:r<:lrrlfrom tile RIII nr,c,orrli~igt o
w i i i r l i is of first orclcr, nnrl \rliosc solrclio~iis
tlio prt:srription

This solrrtion is idcnt,irnl wit,h the first term of t lie a o ~ n ~ ~ lscotl cr ~ t i o nd l ~ tro the f e l i r i t o r ~ schoice
x(1) = ~ " ( 1 ) + r t ( t * ) - I* -.
lit11 x: ( l * ) =
m
TO (t) I r t ( t * )
1-.
-- lirn .rn(l).
tJ
(4.27)

of t.lw ndjrtntnble co~lutnr~b. However. this solution r n n n o t he tnntlc t.o satisfy t,lie init,iol coridit.ion A gmpllicnl roprencntation of the complete .soIr~t,ionfrom eqn. (4.15) i~nhown i n F i g . 4.4
(4.14); i t ~IIIIRrcprc~cntRa ~ o l ~ ~ t ,fori o n1n.rge values o l t h r time, t ( L c o ~ ~ so111t.ion).
L~r" 'l'I1~8oIntion for the cnse \vhen A > 0. Curve (a) corrcspontls t o t , l ~ eoliter s o l l ~ t i n t(4.17). ~ Cnrvcs (I)), ( r ) nntl
for smnll vnlrtcs of t i m e ("inner" s o l t ~ t i o n )snlisfies n.not,hrr diflercntinl e q ~ i n t i o n\rliirlt <:an also (d) reprrsent solutiotis of t l i c c o t n p l o t , ~t l i f i r r l t t i n l equation (4.13) n.itlt ?tr c l r r r m s i t ~ gfrom ( h )
be dnrivtxl l r o n i eqn. (4.13). 111 o r d r r l o nchicvc+ this, t.hr i n f l o p c r l t l r t ~ vnrinl~lr:
t t is "stret.cltcd" t o (11).
in t,hnt a now "inner" vnrinhle I f wc now cor111):irc this r x n m p l o x\~itlrtllr Navier-St,okcs crl~~at,ions, \ve COIICIU~O l.liat. 1,Iie
t* = t/irt (4.18) r . o ~ i ~ p l ccrlrt:rt
tc ~ nt.lir Nnvicr-Stol;cs cq11a1.ionsfor n v i ~ o o n nIl~~icl.
ion (4.1:)) is n n : ~ I o g o ~1.0 I\-ltrrms
IIIC sirr~plili(,(l t*q~z:tt,io~~ (4.1(;), ~ : o r r c s ~ ~ o10~ i ~1C11Irr's
ls r q ~ t n t i o r ~for
s 1111 i(lc.nl l l ~ t i d .'1'111. i11iti:lI
iv itit,rodr~ccd.111this manner, cqn. (4.13) is Lra~lsformetlt,o

d2r
--
tll*2
(11.
4-k - I
rlt*
111 e l - 0.

I n I.ho lirnit. i r r = 0, \rrc (lc:tlnc.r tlic t l i r k r c ~ ~ t iecll~irLiot~

nl

t12r
l~ " d:r
(it*
-' 0

\ v l i i c l ~gi)vrrnu II I "innr-r"
~ 'I'III! soI111io11~ i o is
~oI111,ion. ~ r ~ Fig. 4.4. So111lio11s o f l l ~ viOr:iIio~r
r cq11:1li(111
I ( t . I:!). (a) Sol111io11 of t l ~ es i ~ i ~ ~ ) l i f irr111:~t,ir111
c*tl
1.1 (I*) = A , r x p ( - kt*) 1 A,.
(s!. 14). 111 -- 0 : (11). (c), ((I) rr[)rrsetrt s o l ~ ~ t i u t i s
o f 111rc.o111111rt(:tlil'li~rrntin1 cqtlntion (4.13)
\I it11 v n r i o ~ ~ s o f i ~ r . JVhctr i r l is w r y
t 1 n l n i ~ ~ ~ l c l ~1.0
f . cProfrssor
~(l I<lnns Grrnten for (I1c rosisrtl vrrnion of t,liin section.
V:I~III*~

s ~ ~ i n l st>I111io11
l. ((I) :1r(111irrnl~o~~n(l:tr,y- layer
* 1,. I'r~l.t~cIt.l,A ~ ~ s r l ~ n r ~ l 1t11t1
i c l i e~ r t ~ r l z l i r hhlnt,hemntik.
c I,rrt,l~res d r l i v r r r d nl. (;oe(,t.ingrn U n i -
vrrnil.y ill t.hr \Yint.rr-Srmrnt,rr of 1!):11/:12. 1.11:rrnrtrr
conclif.ion (4.14) plnyn a part wl~ichia ~ i n ~ i l ntnr 1 . 1 1 ~no-slip condit.ion of a real fluid. 'Chc latter
cnn be saLislir*tl by Ll~csolutions of 1.11~Nnvicr-Stokcs e q ~ ~ a t i o nI ~s r r tnot by those of Euler'a
c q ~ t a t i o ~ 'l'l~c
~ s . aloady-varying solnt,ion is trnnlnp;rr~~n In) tile frictionlcsn sol~~t,ion
( p t r n t i n l flow)
wllicl~f:rils to satisfy the no-slip contlil.ion. 7 ' 1 1 ~f~rst-vnryinp;solntion rc~trcscnt.sLhe cour~lr?rpart
of t l ~ cbonntlnry-laycr ROIIIL~VII whicl~ia delcrn~incdby t.110 prcscnm of viscosit.y; i t clin'cn fron~
zero only ill a narrow zone near tho wall (borlndary layer). I t is to bo n o k d tliat the second
bonndary c o ~ ~ d i t i o(non slip a t tho wall) can only be sal,inficcl if t.hin bonntlary-layer solution is C H A P T E R V
a.~lclr.tl,t,l111nmnking t.ho whole soll~biorlp l ~ y ~ i ~ areal.
lly
This nirnple rxarnplc cxl~ihit,sthc sarnc mat.l~rmaticalAatures M t.l~oscctisor~sscd in 1,110
prcrcding cl~u.plcr.I t is, nrrrnrly, not pcrn~iasil~lc s i ~ nrly In onlit t l ~ cV ~ R C O I I R tern18 i l l t110 Exact solutions of the Navier-Stokes equations
Navicr-Stokm c q ~ ~ a t i o nwl~on
s performing the process or going over to t.110 litnit Tor very s~nall
visconit.y (vrry I;irge llcynolrln n ~ ~ r n b r r'l'his
). r:rn only bc: clone in tile intrgrnl solnl.ion it-~olr.

W e sha.ll t l c n i o n s t r a t c lat,cr in grcal.cr c1cl:iil t l ~ a if,

t is n o t t1cc:c:ssary t.o retain l,hc
Cull Navirr-St.olrcs eqrrat,ions f o r tilo process of lintling t h e l i m i t for R -+m. F o r
l l ~ csalte of n ~ n t h r m a t , i c a lsimplilicat.ior~i l will p r o v c possible t o o m i t c e r t a i n t . r r ~ i i ~
in i t , pnrticnlarly c e r t a i n stnxll viscous tcrnls. It is, h o w e v e r , i m p o r t f a n t t o n o t e that,
riot a l l viscous t r r m a c a n b c ncglrctrtl. ns t h i s worll(1 depress tfllc o r d r r of t h o Navier-
Stolrrs rqnntiotis
I n g r n r r a l , t h e problcm o f finding c x a c t s o l u t i o n s o f t.he Navier-Sl.okrs rcllla-
tiona prcscnta i r ~ s u r m o u n t a b l cm n t l ~ o m a t ~ i c diflicolLic~.
al 'I'his is, primarily, a con-
srclucncc of l h e i r being non-linear, s o t.11at trhc a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e principle o f s u p c r -
position, which s e r v e s so well i n t h e cnsc of frict,ionlcuu p o t e n t i a l motionu, i~ axcludctl.
Ncvcrthclrzla, it, iu p o u ~ i h l o lint1 cx~rnt.H O ~ I I ~ , ~ O I inI H rt.rI,t~in r ~ l ~ r t , i ( ! t t(:IIH(~II,
l~~r I I I O I I ~ . ~ ~
wlicn t h e q u a d r n t i c convccLivc f o r m s vaniuh i n a nat.ural way. Jn thin c:l~al)t.c:r wo
shall d c v o t e o u r a t t e n t i o n t o t,hc cliscuu..ion of s c v e w l e x a c t solutions. I n c i d c n L ~ l l y ,
it, will bc, s h o w n t h a t i n t h c cnsc of smnll viscosity m a n y of tllo c x a c t solulioris havc:
a boundary-layer structure which m e a n s t h a t t,he influence o f viscosity i s confined to
a t h i n l a y e r itcar t h e wall.

[l] Ackcrct, J . : Ubcr exakte J5sungen dcr Stokes-Navi~r- Glcicl~ungeninkomprr~nihler1Pliis~ig- A compreliensive review o f s o l u t i o n s of the N a v i c r - S t o k e s e q r ~ a t i o n sh a s b e e n
kciton bci vcriin~lorbn(:rr~~r,l~c~li~~~rtngc?~~. %1\;\11' 3, 259--271 (1952). givcn b y I t . B e r k c r (41.
[In] Apeelt. C. ,i.:'l'hc ~ t r n t l yI l r t i v of a viscous finid p.mt a circular cylindcr a t Reynolds numbers
40 and 44. I3ritial1 AltC ItM 3175 (IWil).
(Lh] Allen, D.N. 1)e G . , m ~ t iSo~~t.hwcll, 1t.V.: ltclaxation methods applied to d e t e r l i n e the
n~ot,ion,in t,wo d i ~ n m ~ i o nof a , a visconn flnid pnat n Bxetl cyli~ldor.Q~mrt.J . Mech. Appl. a. Parallel flow
MnLIl. 8 , 12!)-145 (1!)55).
[lo] Coutnnccau, M., nnd Uo~lnrcl,R.: 15xpcrirno1tnl dckr~ninnt.ionof t.lw main fent,~~rrs of the Parallel flows c o n s t i t u t e a p a r t i c u l a r l y s i m p l e c l a m of motions. A flow is called
vinro~~n flow in . . t., ~
l~
~
wnkn
. of a circular cvlinder in 1111ifor111 tra~~nlation. Par1 I. Steady now. parallel if o n l y o n e velocity c o m p o n e n t ie diKercnt, f r o m zero, a l l fluid parliclcu m o v -
JFM 78, 231 -256 (1977j. ing i n o n c direction. F o r e x a m p l e : if t h e con1poner1t.s e a n d 10 a r c zero cvcrywhcrc,
[Itl] ( h ~ c t a ~ ~ c e M.,
a u . ,LIIVI I%or~ard, It.: Rxl~rritnrnLaldetcnninat,ion of thc main fcnC~~ren of thc
viscol~rf l r ~ will tbe w:tkc of a circulilr cylinder in rrniforin translation. Part 2. Unsbndy flow. i t follows at o n c e from t h e c q u a t i o n of c o n t i n u i t y t h a t i)u/az 0. which me:tns t.hat,
.1I7L\i 79, 257- 272 (15377). t h o c o m p o n e n t u c a n n o t tlepend o n x. Thus f o r parallel flow w c h s v c
[2] Ihnnis, S.C.K.. and GRII-ZIIC11ang: N11111criea1s o I ~ ~ t , i tfor ) ~ ~stcarly
s flt>\v past a r i r c ~ ~ l n r
oylit~tlcrat, I<cy~~olcls ~ i u m h r r so p to 100. JJ'M 42, 471 -485) (1070).
[3] Yro~nln. .l.lS., nnd Il:rrlow, I'.II.: Nn~ncrionlnol~itionn of the prolrlom of vortex ntrcct
~ r t . . of kglllids6 , !375--9RLt (l!)(iR); sw also: h i /\A $e\oclrcl Ih:printn, (:ompll-
d r v c l o p ~ ~ ~ cI'ltyn.
t.;rt.ionnl Fl~~icl
(t071).
[4] ~ ~ a l l l oG.:
l ) v r ~ n ~ r ~(C.
i c sI<. CIIII, cd.). R2 - R9 (i!)(iR) nr~cl AGIIRI) I,ccttr~re Series 34
l . t)t)er die Pob~~f.i:~lst,riirrl~~ng
151 J ~ I I R OV.G.:
xilhcr I'liinsigltoitcn. ZAMRI 21. 12!J I:!) (1941).
I ~ , Viscor~sflow ror~ndR RI)II(TP. nt, 1e1w ILcynoI(Is tlr~nil)t:rs( < 40). I ' r ~ c .Jloy.
t.11~y- ant1 z - d i r c c t ~ o ~ l sthat. ap/r?y = 0, a n d i)p/8z -
F u r t h e r , i t also follow^ i m n ~ c c i i a t a l yf r o m thc N a v i c r - S t o k c s cc111;~tions(3.32) f o r
t 0, s o t l ~ a ttl i c p r r ~ s u r rd c j w n d s
only on r. I n aclclilion, i n t h c c-clunl,ion for t h r 2-tlircc.lion all c:onvc.c.t.ivc- t,c~rtns
Soc. 1,orltlon A 249. 346 --:!C,C, (19551). vi~nish l l r n r r
[An] l<cllcr, 11. IS., nt~cl'I':lk:u~ri, 11.: Nutr~cricsl~t,rlcliesof sk;rdy visco\~sflow ahor~t,cyli~lclrrn.
N~~nlcric:nlR O I I I ~ ~ O ~ I S 01. no~i-li~~c::rr difTcrcr~t,ialerl~rnt.ions.l'roc. Atlv. S y r ~ ~ pnt. liniv. of
\Vinr-onsi~~, Mntliso~~, I!)lifi (I). (:rw.~,slt:r~~, cd.), J . \Vilr.y RG Sons, New York. I!)(;(\, pp.
115 - 140. I
(61 'l'llon~, A , : I'low pwt. rirc.l~lnr ryli~~clrrn : ~ tlow
. spcecls. Proc. Roy. SOD.1,011tlo11 i\ I'll,
651 - I;(;!) (1!):%3).
171 'J'lmrn, A., a11tl Altrlt. (;I. .I.: 1"irld co~np~~t.ationr in c~~ginrcring ant1 pl~ysic*.v a n No- ~ ..-- --. .
nl.rnr~tl,I,ontlot~, I!Jlil. t In the following a r g ~ ~ m ct.110
n t term "prcmnre" clcnotm UICdifimncc ~ ~ W M 1.11~
I I l~>t;iII)rrxqlrrc
and tlio hydrostaLic prcastlre (pnxwt~mat, rest). This mnma t . 1 body
~ forccn t o ( Y L I I ~LSP I thry
,
are in cqnilibriurn wit11 t,he I~ydrostnticpmmurc.
84 V . Exact. sol111,ions
of t.he Nnvirr-Stokrs eqt~nl,io~rs

1. Parallel flow t l t r o ~ ~ gah straight channel nnd Col~eltcflow. A very sirrlple

solut,ion of eclnat,ion (5.2) is obtained for t,lrc case of st,oatly flow in ;I channel with
t,wo parallel flat,walls, lpig. 5.1. 1,et. t,hc tlist.at~ccbctwcen the :valls be denoted by 2 h ,
so t.liat cqrl. (5.2) can I)c writ9tcrl
tlp - tI2u
-clx /4

\rit.ll t , l ~ c c:ontlition : 11, -= O for :-- rk1). S i t ~ r caplily = O the jlrcsslrre gra-
I~ol~rttlnry
tlictt~ti r ~tlrn tlircclior~of' flow is rorlsin.nt,. :IS scot1 froin cqn. (5.3). 'l'111rstlpltlz = const
:111t1 t.l1(!solt~t,ionis

, I . llc r c s u l t i r ~vc~lot~ity
~ profile, I'ig. 5.1, is 1):~rabolic.

over a porkion of tlre clr:~tlnclwitltl~can I~ccolncrrcgnt.ivo, t,lrat is, back-/lo117]nay occur

Anotl~er simple solution of e q n (5.3) is obtained for tho so-mlled Collett-e near the wall wllicl~is a t rest, and it is seen f r o n ~Fig. 6.2 t,l~ntt,his Irappens ~ ~ l l c t ~
flow l)ctweer~t,wo pnrnllcl flat walls, one of which is a t rest, tlre ot,her moving in I' < - 1. Tn this case the dragging act.ion of t8hcfast,cr layers exertetl on fluit1 1)nr-
its own plan? wit11 ;I velocity rJ,
Fig. 6 2 \Vit11 the boundary conditions t,iclcs in the ncigl~bourlrootlof the wall is insufficient t o ovcrcomc t.11~intltrence of
t,hc adverse pressure gradient. This type of Coucttc flow with a Irrcssurc gratlictrt
y=O: u=O; y=h: u=U
has some importance in the hgtlrodynamic theory of l ~ h r i c a t ~ i o'J'llc ~ t . flow in tltc
nnrrow clcnrar~cebctwcen journal and llenrirlg is, by a.nd large, identical wvit,lr Cor~ct~tc
flow wit11 a pressure gradient ( c / . Sec. VTc).

2. The IIngrn-Poiseuille tl1eory or flow tl~rorrgha pipe. Tlre flow t.llrougl~a

st,migltt, t l ~ b cof ciroular nross-scc:t.ion is t,l~ccase wit,ll rol.:~t,ionn.lsylnlnct.ry wllic*h
\vhic-ll is shown in Fig. 5.2. Tn I~arLicularfor a vanishing pressure gratlicrlt we )lave r o r r ( ~ ~ ~ ) o nt ot l tho
s prcc:otlil~gcasc: of t.wo-tli~rlcnsior~:~l
flow t.lrrol~gh:I oll:~.r~rrt!l. 1,~t.
tlro z-axis be solcct.c:tl alorlg t,lln axis oL't,lrn pipe, Pig. 1.2, : L I IIr:t,~ ?/t1onot.o 1,llo I.IL,I~:LI
eoortlirratc nicnsl~rcd from tllc axis outwards. T l ~ cvclocit,y com1)oncnt.s irl t.llc
tnrlgt?nl,inl and rntlinl directions arc zero; the velocity component pnrallcl t.o t81rc
axis, denoted 11y 11, depcntls on alone, a,ncl the pressure is const#antirr every cross-
'I'his p:lrt.inllnr case is lrnowr~ns simple Couct,tc flow, or siml,lc+ sllcar flow. Tlre sect.ion. Of t h e tllrcc Navicr-St,olres equations in cylint1ricn.l coortlinatcs, cclns. (:1.:16),
gcrlrral casc of (:ouct,t,c flow is isupcrposit,io~~ of t.lris simple casc over the flow only t,he one for the axial tlircct,iort remains, nntl it, simplifies t o
bet.wec~rrtwo fl:lt, wn.IIs. 'I'l~c sllapc of t.Irc vclocit.y~profilcis tlctcm~incdby t,hc di-
rrroltsionlrss I)rcssurc p~.:~tlicr~t, I

tlro boundary condition being u = 0 for y = R. The solut,io~~

of cqn. (5.6) gives the
velocity distribution
For 7' > 0, i . e., for n prrssrlrc tlccreasing in t01c tiircctior~of mot,ion, the velocity
is posit.ivc over tlre whole witlt,ll of tlro channel. For ncget.ive values of P tho velocity IL (y) = - -1- dp
- - (R2--y2)
411 d z
wlroro - -tlp/tlz : - (p, p a ) / l ! = ~ ( J I I S L is t.lic pressure gr:~clie~rt,,
t,o be rognrclctl a s
given. Solut,ion (5.7), wlricli was obtdincd hcre a s a n oxact solution of tlrc Navicr-
St,okns ecli~at,ions,agrees with t,hc soli~tionin ccln. (1.10) wliiclr was oht,;~iricdin on
c-l(:~ncnt,aryw:~y.'l'lic vc?loc:it,y ovor tlic c!ross-secl,ion is tlist,rihutctl in t.hc form of a
l~nr:tI~oloitl
of rovolr~t.ion.'I'lic mnxirnr~rn~c:loc:il.~ on t.hn n.xis is

r .
1 lie nirnli vc.loc.il.y 17. -- v,,, t h a t is,
Fig. 5.3. Im~nirinr flqw t,l~ro~rglip i p ;
resi~t.nnrccocfficicnt, A, plottcd ngninst
Itcynold~number (rncasured by Hngcn),
fro~nPrnntltl-l'ictjrns
: ~ r ~ ct.lio
l vol~r~nc.
r:~tnof flow I~cc:omcs

R = (id
1'

'I'ho lariiiriar flow elc~scribcrtl11y t,ho al~ovc?solr~l.ionoccurs in praotic:~only ,n~long a s Jlcro R tlcnotes Lhc Roynolds numl)cr c a l c ~ ~ l a t cford thc pipe d i n m c b r arid Incan
t.he 1b:ynoltls 1111rnlirrR .-- .lid / v ((1 =- pipe cliatiic?tfc:r)has a v n l ~ ~which
c is less t h a n vclocity of flow. The laminar eqr~ntionfor prewilro loss in pipcs, cqri. (5.1 I ) , is
t.hc so-c:allccl critici~lJtcyrioltls n i ~ m l ~ rin
r , spite of t,hc f:~ctt h a t t,l~cabove formr~lac in excellcnt ~ g r c c m c r l twith experimental r c s ~ ~ l for
t s t h c laminar range, a s SCCII
corist.it.uta : l r i cx:tct sollltion of tlrc Nnvic:r-Stn)kcs ctlu:tt,ions for arbitrary values of from Fig. 6.3 which rcj)rotfr~ccscxpcrimcntnl [~oinLqm o a s ~ ~ r cby d (2. 1I:i.gc:n [I()].
cIp/cln:, R, :~rrtlp, or Iicnc:~,of IT, R, and f r . Acsorclit~gLo cxpcrirncnta From this i t is possible to infer t h a t t h e Ilagcn-I'oiscuillc parabolic vclocity
('p) Cril
= Rcri, = 2300
distribution represents a solution of t h e Navicr-Stokes cqrrations which is in agrce-
mcnt with experimental results [22]. I t is also possiblc t o indicatc a n exact solt~tiori
of the Navier-Stokes equations for thc case of a pipe with a circular annular cross-
approximately. For R > R,,, the flow pntdcrn is entirely tliPFcrcnl, and bccomca l i ~ r - section 1201. T h e problem of laminar and turbulent flow through pipcs with cxccnt,ric
s s type of flow in greater detail i n Chap. XX.
hulc~tt.Wc shall d i s c ~ ~ t.liis annular crow-scctions was discusscd theoretically in ref. [38] whiclr also contains
'I'hc rcl:rtion bchwecn t,hc pressure graclicnt and thc mean velocity of flow is experimental results.
~ l o r ~ n a lraI~roscntcc3
ly in cnginccring applicat,ions by introducing a resistanc~coe//icient
3. The flow between two concentric rotating cylinders. A f ~ ~ r t ~ lcxamplc
icr wliirli
o/ pipr /lola, l . 'l'liis coc:fticicrit is clofincd I)y setting tho prc5stlrc gr:ulicnt proportional
leads t o a simple exact solution of t h e Navier-Stokes cqr~ationsis affortlcd by thc
t,o l.lin clyn:l.mic Iit:atl, i. n., 1.0 ldic sqirarc of tlic inonri vcloc:itsy of flow, aocorclit~gt o t.hc
flow bet,ween two concentric rotating cylinders, bot,11 of which nlovc a t tlifTt~cnt
c:tluat,io~it
but steady rotational spccds. Wc shall dcnotc thc inner and outcr radii by r , , and r2
rrspcctivcly, arril similarly, t h e two angular velocities 11y w , , and w,. TIic Navicr-
Stokes equations (3.36) for plane polar coordinates r e d t ~ r et o
lr~t,rotlr~eirig
tho cxprcssion for dp/(lz from cqn. (5.9) we ol)t:~ir~

wit.lr I with dcnobing the circi~nrfcrcntialvc1oc:it.y. The 1)oundary contlit,ions arc: u - r l r 1 1 ~

gild Ed for r = rl a n d u = r, (0, for r = r2. The solution of (5.14) which satisfies tticse rr-
R r = - .
11 I qr~irementsis

t
- - - - -
This qimdrnt,ic?Inw which nnsllrnra dp/dz 12% fitn t.urbulcnt flow vcry well. It is r e b i n d
fin Irmiinnr flow, nlt.horlgh in Lhnt rnngo clp/dz 12. Thus lor leniirrar flow A ~ ~ I C Wto bo
a mnnbnt. E q ~ ~ n t i o(6.13)
n doterminos tho rndinl lircwriro distril)~rl.iotircsrllf.i~~g
fro111 tho rnot.inri.
88 V. Rxnct uolutions of tile Nnvinr-Stokcs rqr~ntions n. Pnrallrl flow H!)

'rho rnsr WIICII I,IIP it111rrc:ylintl(*r is tttl rrsl.. wllilr t,l~r

orlt,cr rylintlcr rotnt,rs, h a s
sotno pmot.in:~lsignificnt~c.c.111 this itlst,:~rlrrt,hr torql~c: t.mnsmit,t.etl by 1,Ilr orlt,er
t:ylintlcr t,o t,llc flr~itll ) r c o n ~ c s

\ v l ~ r r oIL is t , I ~ t bheight of t h e (:.yIit~(lcr.'The ~ n o l n r r ~fill

t , wit,ll \vhit:h t,Ilo flrlitl a c t s o n
~.IIc! inncr cylintlcr II;IS t h r snmc mngr~it.r~tlr. 'I'ht? n r r a t i g c ~ n c ~untlcr
~ t ~ consitlcr:~t.iorr
11:~sI~c(:tl11sct1 o ( ~ ~ n ~ i n n :for ~ l l 1y . h ~(lct.crnlinnt,ior~of viscoxi1.y. '1'11~a ~ i g n l n rvclocit,y
of t h e rxt.ernol cylinclcr :l,ntl t,hc r n o n ~ c t ~nc.t.ing t, o n tho inner nylintfer a r e menslrrotl,
so t,lrnt t.he viscosit,y cnn 1)r cvalnnt,ed wit,l~t.11~ :lit1 of r q n . (5.lG).
\Ve now proposr t.o int1icnt.c I.hc vrlot:it,y dist~.il)r~tions in t , l ~ cnnnl~lrlsOctwtcn
t,he t.wo cylirltlnrs for t,wo pn.rticular cnsrs. I r i Cnsr I , t,he inncr rylindrr rotn,l,es wit.11
t,he orlter otlr a t 1.t,st,; in Casc 1 I , llir irl11c.rc.ylintlrr tlocs not. rrlovr, but. t h c out,er o n r

x -
rot.ntcs. I<otll flows nrr cnllrtl C!orlrt,l.c flonr. 1)rtlol.ing 1,l)r r:~tio of t.11~t.wo rntlii b y
r l / r z , t , l ~ c\vitll,h of tllc n n n r ~ l r ~l)y
x = r / r 2 , Fig. 5.4, wc fiticl
s s = r z - - r l , nntl t,llc cllrrcnt rclnt.ivc m t l i i ~ sb y
Fig. 5.4. Vclorily (list,rib~ttint~
x - -
- r-r,
5 - 5

it1 the nlln~~lr~n l)c~t\r.c~r~~ ~.ot;ttilr~

t,\\.o,c-o~lc.c.~~tri~..
5
XI
-- - -.r - r ,
5
~ ~ J l i l l ~> Iln ~~ ~~; lrl sl ~ l l -
I:tlrtl with t l ~ c:tit1 of cqt~s.( 5 . l 5 n , b).
n) Cnsc I : iril~rrcyli~ltlerrot.nt.ing;orct,rr cylitlticr at, rest, r o 2 - 0
h ) Case I I : i t ~ l ~cylitlclrr
er a t rcst, (01 = 0 ; o~tt,rrcylitlclrr rotatirig
r, - r;t11i11sor ir1111.r1.~1i11dcr.r, = r:t<Iiu$ o I ' , u ~ l ~cyIin,lpr
,r

,J? = r .
--.I.
2nr
It, is sccn, therefore, tIllnt, t,he case of fric:l.iot~lrssflow i l l t,hc r~eiglll)or~rhootl of a
vort,cx line constitput.cs a. solut,iorl of t.hc Navirr-Stokes cquntiorls (c/. Scc. I V b ) .
Ilcrc, 111 = r1(,,1 is t h r ~)cripllernlvclc>ril,y of l . l ~ ci n n r r rylintlcr, nntl 112 = rzroz is In t,llis connexion i t ]nay be i n s t n ~ c t ~ i vt,o
e n~cnt,iotla11 cxnrnple of a n cxnct no)L-
t,h:t1. for I.II(- o111c.r cylintlr~..Fig111.r5.4 ~ . r p ~ ~ r s cl~hnc l two
s velocily ~ l i s I r i l ~ ~ ~ t .in
ions slendy solnt.ion of t h e Nnvier-Stokcs cclrlnt,iotls, rlnmcly t h n t which tlescribcs t h e
tcrrns of t h e tlinlcr1siotllrss tlist~anc(;fro1111 lie i n n r r cylintlcr process of t1cca.y of n vortex t,hrougIr bhc act,iorl of viscosity. T h e distribr~t~ioll of t . l ~ e
t,angctlt~ialvrlority component 7~ wit,lr r c s l ~ e c tto t . l ~ erntlinl tlistn~lcer ant1 tirnc t
is give11 by

I1 is 11ol.t.wo1~1hy IIlnt, t , l ~ vclocit.,y

r vnrirs strotlgl~rwil.l~t,hc rnt,io x
rntlii i l l Cnsr I , \\~lierrxsfor ( h s r I1 it is nlrnosl i n t l c p r n c l c ~of'
-
rl/rz of t,hc 1 2 ~ 0
~ t it. MThcnx = rl/rz + 1 ,
I>trl.l~c~tscvitcl~tl t,o t h e linrnr vrlocity tlistril)l~t.ionof (!oucstt.(, flo\sr, a s it, oceurrctl
1)cI.wc~c~n l,\vo flat l)lat,cs in t h r rnsc rrprc~srr~tctl in Pig. 1.1 . T h e cc~nnt~ion of' Cnsr J
yicltls tho sntilc, lin~if fi)r r1 -- 0, i. C. fn1. x = O \v11c11110 i ~ l ~ l rylintlcl cr is p r r s c ~ l t .I n
(.Itis c,nsr, I,II(, Ilr~itl~.o(;tlt>s insitlt: IIlc out,cr rylintlrr a s n rigit1 I)otiy. Ilcncc il. is seen
1Iln.t ('nso I1 yicsltls n lineal vcloril~ytlislril)~~t,iotl POI.llir t,\\'o sy1111)1.ot.icC ~ S C xS -- 0
n11t1x -- 1. 'l'l~isI ) r h n v i o ~~ r ~ a l t ci ts rn.sy t o rintIrrst,e.r~tlwhy t,llc vclocit,y tIist.ribut,iol~s
for 1Ilr. ot.l~er,inl.crn~etliatcvnlllrs of x tlilTc,r so lit.t,lc from n st,rniplit line. Pig. 5.5. Vclocit.y distrib~ltio~l
a t vaaryir~g
111 t , I ~ t ; pnrticr~I:tr(:;isroS :I singlr (-ylintlrr rot:~t~ing in a11 infinit,e fluid (r? -+ m, times in fllo ncigl~bo~~rl~ood of n vortex
( Q ,- - - - 0) t:tln. (5.15) givcs i r = r12 (ol/r. ;lntl 1.11~ t.ort111ct.rn.11~11lit~trt1 t ) t ~h c fluid t o t.he filament cnl~srtlby tho action of viscosity
c:ylit~tl~t~. I)c.c:on~rs A l l -- 4 rr 11 11 r I 2 ' 1 ' 1 1 ~ vc~lorit,ytlist,ril)r~I.io~~ in t h e flr~itlis t h o 1; - circulnlinn or l l ~ cvortox nnrncttl nt 11 nio 1
w1:c.n vircoslly Itrylnr lo ncl: -.it I ; / ? n r.
=. 0

s:lntc :IS t.11;1(. :1ror111(1 ~xS S ~ I . I ~ IIll

:I lint> v o ~ . t t ~ I ~. I- J2I n: r,",), i l l f'rialio~~lrss Ilow, o r
90 V. ICxnct sol~tl~iot~~
of tho Nnvior-StOkcs c q i ~ : ~ l i o t ~ ~ a. Parallcl flow 9I

a s derived by C. W. Osecn [21] and G. 1Ia1nel [I]]. This velocity distribution is t.hc compleme~dczryerror /u?tdion, erfc q, 11.w been t,abulatedt. The velocity distribu-
represonbd graphioally in Pig. 5.5 Here 16 dcnotcs t,he c i r c ~ ~ l a t i oof n the vortex tion is rcpresontcd in Pig. 6.0, and it may bo notctl t h a t tho vclocity profilcs for
filamolt, a t time 1 0, i. c. a t t l ~ omorncr~twhcn vi~cosit~y
=1 is nssun~edt.o I)cgit~it* varying tinies arc 'si1nilar', i. e., they car1 bc rctl~lccdto the sanlo cllrvc by changing t,lrc
l . cxpcrimenLal investigation of this procoss was 11ntlcrt,nlta1111y A . Tirnmo
. ~ c t i o ~An scalc ttlong the axis of ordinates. TIIC cornplcmcntary error f ~ ~ r ~ c twhicl~ i o r ~ appcnrs
[40]. K. Kirdc 1171 mndc an nnnlytio s t ~ ~ tof f ythe caso when the valooity distribution i r eqn.
~ (5.22) has a valuo of about 0.01 at 7 -- 2.0. %.killg into accorir~tt l ~ otlcfir~ition
in t,l~ovortcx tlilT(:r~from I.hnt irnposctl hy pot,cnt,inl t.hcory. of t,l~c: t~ltic:ltnossof the: I ~ o t ~ n t l ~Inyor,
try 0 , wc: ol)t.r~ir~

4. The sudder~lynecclernted plane wall; Stokes's first problem. We r ~ o wprocccd 6 = 2 q a J Z x 4 JZ. (5.23)
t o calculntc somo non-steady par;rllcl flows. Sirlee the convcctivc acccleratior~terms
I t is seen t o be proportional t o the sqnnrc root of tho ~)rotIl~ot,
of kir~ornnLiovisc:osiOy
vanis11itlcr~tic:ally,t,l~cfrictior~forcos int,rmct with t,ho local nccelcrnt.iori. Tho si~nplcst
silt1 time.
flows of this clam occur when motlion is stnrtcd i r n p r ~ l s i v a lfrom
~ rest.. We s l ~ a l l
begin with t h e c,wc of t h c flow near a flat plntc which is s ~ ~ t l d c n accelcr:~t.cd
ly from This problem was generalized by E. Decker [3] t o ir~clr~dc: more genrml rat.rs
rost and n ~ o v c sin it,s own plnno with a const,:~ntvclocitty [lo.This is onc of the pro- of nccclnraI.ior~a s well a s the cqses involvii~gsrict~iorior blowing or tho c f i c t of
I~lcmswhioli wcro solvctl by (2. St,okos in his colcbr:rtccl memoir or1 p e r ~ t l ~ ~ l u r r ~ s compressil)ility.
[3ri]t. Seloct8ing t.ho z-axis along the wall i r ~the direction of U,, we obt,air~trhc
simplifiotl Navicr-SOnlccs oqt~nt.ion

'rho prrssuro in tho wI101o space is constant,, and Ll~ebol~nclirryconclit,iol~sarc:

Tho cliIT(:rcnt.iel ccl~~at.ion (5.17) is ictcr~t.icalwith the equntior~of h e s t contlaction

which clcscribcs tllc p r ~ p n g n t ~ i nofr ~Itoat, irl tho space y > 0, whcn a t time 1 = 0 t h e
wall y = 0 i s sr1dt1c11l.yI~catcdt o a t,cmpcr;~t,nrewhich oxccecls t h a t i n the surround-
ings. 'l'l~e pnrl,i:~ltliffcrcnt.ia1 oq~iat,ion(5.17) can be retlucctl t.o a n ortlinary diTcr-
t:irt<ialcql~:~t.ior~ 11s t,ho sul)st.il,nt.ion
Y
2 1/ "--3' (5.19) Fig. 5.6. Vclocity dist,ribution
above a artddenly accelerated wall
If wn, i i ~ r t ~ l ~n.ssrlmc
cr,
~t = U o j ( r ] ) , (5.20)

wc o11I.air1t h e followi~~g
onlinary tliITorcnt,ial cc.jnntion for / (q):
5. Flow forn~ntioni n Cmuette motion. The s11bsti111l.ion (5.10) which Icncls t,o eqn. (5.21)
d m not, in general, lend to a sol~ttio~rof 1.hc so-ct~llcdlwnt condt~ctioncqttnt~ion(5.17) i r lnorc
cotnplicntotl boundnry contlilions aro irn/~osccI,Sitla>cqn. (6.17) i~ linear, soll~tion~ (i)r il, (:IIII
be obtained by the use or t l ~ c1,nplncc t,mnsfor~nal,ionnntl by tnoro direct nlcl.ho~lsclcvclopc:tl
in conncxion with tho study of the conclr~ctionof hcnt i n solids. Mnny r c ~ ~ l obtni~~ccl,
kt c. g.,
71. =.I!,, rrfc r] , for the tcmperaturc vnriation in nn infinite or semi-infinite solid, cnn be tlircctly transposed
and uacd for the ~oIut,iot~of problems in viscons flow. T ~ I Ithe
R prcccding problem in which the
wl~c-ro formation of tho 1)oundary layer noar a suddenly accclcrakl wall has bwn invwtigntrcf can
also be nolvcd for tllc CDSC when the wall movur in a direction parallel to ar~otlrorflat w:ill at.
mt and a t a distantx, h from it. This is the problcm of flow forn~ationin Couettc motion, i. c.,

- - t Soe c. g. Shoppard. "The Probability Tnbgrnl", Rritish Atwoe. Adv. Sci.: Matln. Tsblea
t Somo a11t,110m rcfrr to l.l~isprohlc.tn h q tllc 'ltnylcigh problem'; there is no jrtstificntion for vol. vii (3039) and Works Project Administration "Tables of the Probability Function", New
t , \ ~ ti I~c w i K ~ ~ : t t i c )IICC:IIIIRP
t~ 01c: ~)robIc:tr~
C:LII 11t; 1o111t0
f ~ ~ ldinc:~~u~c.tl
ly 1111tl~ o l v t ~ ict 1l rcf. I:lr)]. York, 1041.
 a. I';irnllrl flow 93

of how the velocity profilc varion with tirne tonding nsyn~ptotically to t l ~ elinear lnyor ncnr tho wall. 'Tl~cinflrrcnco of vi~cosityrcnchcs the pipe ccr~t.rro ~ ~ il ry~tlle 1:rt.c.r st,:~grn
the of no ti of^, ant1 tho velocity profile tonds asy~~~~~LoLically
to tho pt1rol)olic tlisl.ribt~l.io~~
for ste:rtly
diutribtrtion nlrown in Fig. 1.1. The diITcrcntinl cqriation is the same en before, cqn. (5.17), cross-section was given 113. W. M ~ ~ r l l1201.
flow. The correspontling solut,ior~for an nnn~tlarcircc~l~rr er
ltllt with rnotlifietl I)o~~r~clary
conditions which now are:
1
t
< 0;
- 0:
11

71
- 0 for all 11, if 0 <?I< h ;
- i I , , for - 0 ; 71 = 0 for - \I .
,1,IIC n c c r l c r ~ ~ t of ovrr ~ , I I c X V I I ~ I CI C I I ~ I , I I of pipe tli~(:~~sst%(l
~ i o11~I111i(l
~ l~c*rcI I I I I H ~ , ~~41rcsrlllly
(iiu~,ir~g~~inl~ctl fro111t.lic acrcIernt.io~~ of n f111itlin t l ~ cilllet j ~ o r t i o ~or ~ aa pipe in ~ I J * : L ~ I , IIOW.
~ ,I'II(:
'rllr s o l u t i o ~of
~ eqn. (5.17) \vhicl~ sntinfien tho bor~ndary :tnd initial r o ~ ~ c l i t i ~ran
r ~ sI)o reclangnlar ve1ocit.y profile \ral~icl~ exists in t.hc entrance ucct.iol~is grncl~lnlly t r a n s f o r ~ ~ ~as ed
n t ~ t . : ~ i nin
( ~t.llc
~ l form of a ucrio~of c o n ~ p I ~ ! n ~ c ~ ~
error
t n r yftln~l~ions t.he fluid progresses through the pipe with x increasing, ant1 tends, ~ ~ n dt,hc c r influence of viscosity,
to nssnnle the Hagen-l'oisc~~illcparabolic dinl.ribntion. Since I~c?rca ~ / a z:t 0 tho flo\rs is not
onc-rli~ncnsiond,nncl the v~locitydepends on x , nu \vrll ns on t.llo rndi~rs.Thin prof,lo~n wak
-
11
= x erfc
'y'

,,-I,
r2 n 4- 711 - x crfc [ 2
7x1

,, -.I3
(71 -1 I ) ?I# - ?I]
(5.24) rlisrusric(l by 11. Srl~licl~l.ing [DO), who gave t,llo solrlliolr for L\vo-tlin~c~~sio~~nl Ilo\v tl1ro11~11
('0
l , by I,. Srhiller 1291, ;111dB. 1'1111nin1241 for nxinlly symrr~rt.rir,nlflow ( r i r c ~ ~ l a r
n st.r:ligl~t.r h a n ~ ~ eant1
rrfc - rrfc (2 q1 - tl)-1- crfc: (2 -1- 71) - rrfc (4 11, -- 11) 1- rrfc (4 71, .1- 71) - . . . 4- . . . pipr): s r r nlno Seos. IX i nnd X 111.

wllerc 71, := h,/2 1/ F i (lot~~t.cn t,l~ccli~nenniol~lcsn

tlistancc between t,l~ctwo wnlllr. 'Tho solut,io~~
is represellted in Iiig. 6.7. 'rllr corly profiles nre dill aplwoxi~nntelysimilar ant1 rc~nairlso, an
long nn t,llr bolllldary layer l ~ n snot sprcad to the stationary wall. Tllc s~lcceedingvcloc:ity r)rofilcn
:).re no l o ~ ~ g "similer"
rr n11tl t c ~ ~ nsymptotirnIly
cl to t,lre linrar distribrrt~ionof tile s k n d y st,ak.

Fig. 5.8. Vclocit,y profilc in n rircrrlnr pipe d ~ ~ r i ~ ~ g

ncc*rlrrat,ion,art give11 by 1'. Szytnn~lski[87]; T .- v //I12

7. T h e flow n e a r at1 o s c i l l a t i ~Rat ~ ~ plnte; Stokes's s c c n ~ ~problenl.

rl In t h i s src.t.ior~
wo i ) r o p s e t,o discuss t h e flow a b o u t a n inliriito flat wall wllic:lr c x c r n t r s lincar I ~ n r -
~ n o n i coscill:~t,ions para.llel t o itself ant1 whicll w a s first t r e n t r d 1)sG. SLolres (351
: ~ n t l lntcr b y 1,ortl 1i.nyleigI1 [ 2 5 ] . T,ct 1 dcnot,c t l ~ ccoortlilint,~ p n m l l r l t,o t , l ~ e
(lirert.iot~of n~ot,iotiatid 11 1.11~~ o o r ( l i r l n l ~1)erpcnclicnlnr
c tjo t,hc wall. O w i n g t.o t,he
E x a c t solrtt,ions for r ~ o n - s t r a t l yCoric.l.t,c flow werc rlcrivcd I)g .I. S t . r i n l ~ c r i r (331 r c~ontlit,ior~ of tin slip :I(, 1,llr wnll, 1 . 1 1 ~f l ~ t i t l vrlncil.y : r t i t rnrtsl. 1,r i-t111:1110 t.11:tI.of t.lt,?
1'01.111~: (:;t,sr ~ I I I ~ OI III V ol' 1,110 \vn,lls is I L ~ , ~.(kst,in ;I, s l , ( ~ ~llo\v
t l ~ I I , I I ( ~ is 111v11srttI(1r11i~~ S ~ I lI, l~~ i sI I I ~ I , ~ ~i~I I givo11 1 1 ~
w;~Il. S I I I I I ~ ~1,11111,
t o R gi\,c.tl, c:ot~sta~it,
t~c.c:~>lv~.at.c:cl vcloc:it,,y. '1'0 (lo t , l ~ i s ,il, is Iicbvc:ssal,y 1.0 solve! t ' ( l 1 1 .
(5.17), \vI~ic~liis itlcnt,ical w i t h t h o onc-dirrlrnsior~nl Iicat conrlr~cl.ion cqrlat,ion, l)y
lncnrls of n l7otiric.r srrirs. A spccic'll CR,SC i t , t.llis class o r solr~f.iotlsis t.hal w h r n t ' l 1 ~
rno'iing wnll is srrtltlrnly st.oppctl s o t , l ~ a li,t rcprt:sct~t,st l ~ otlecay of (h\rot,t.c flow. l ) l . 1 1 s~o l i ~ t ~ i oot fl ccjli. (6.17), togcl,llcr \vil.lt t , l ~ o
wr l i ~ ~1 (, I ll i ~ LlI11c fluid v~lo(:iLyi ~ ( ? y , is
Oor~rltlaryc:otrLLit.ion ( 5 . 2 6 ) , w l ~ i c l ~ns, n l r e ; ~ d yrner~l.iot~cd,
is k n o w n J'roln t,lrr tlic:ory
6. Flow in a pipe, filarling rrolll rcst. 'Tllr nrrclcr:~l.ionof :t l l ~ ~ iin t l n pipe is closrly rrlnlrtl of Ilc~1.trntltl~rc:t,ion. F o r 1.11~mst? rrntlrr corrsitlcmt,io~~
t,o the prccrtlir~gcxalnplcs. Snppose th:it t.11~lllrirl in ;in, infinit,cly long pipe or c.ircr~l;~r crosn-
sr~c~tion is nt, rcsL for t < 0. At the it~sl,antt - 0 n prcssllrc graclicnt d p i t l ~ ,w l ~ i c ~isl ~ronsCant.
i r l time, 1)rgins tn act along it. The fluid will I~cginto rnovo r ~ n ~ l t,hr r r i r ~ l l ~ ~ cof
r ~ vi.scouo
cc ant1
illc.rti:~.forcrs, nntl t.lx vrlorit,y profilc will al)proxcl~asyn~l)tot.irallytllr 1):rr:~l)olirdistrihr11.ion
in Ilag~~l~.l'~,isc~~iIlc Iloa. 'l'lrc soll~t,ionof thin prol)lr~l~ \r.l~irllIra(Is t.o n tlillrrrnti:ll rqr~ation
i ~ l v o l v i ~IIrsst.1
~g f ~ l l ~ ( * t , iW:IS
o ~ ~gs i v r ~Ily
~ I?. S%,y~nnnski1371. 'J'l~r v(-IociIly prolilr is tIri~\r.nill
Fig. 5.8 lnr v:~rint~s ~IISL:LIIIS. It is I I C > I . , ~ ' I \ , O ~ I , IIII:LI,
I,~ in I,IIc: o:~rl,ysl,:~grsI,llc vcln,.il,y nr:ir 1I1r
axis is ;rl~lwoxin~:rtcly ro11sl.:i111, ovrr 1.h~r i ~ l i n11(1 ~ ~ sI,l~nl,visrosily ~nnkc:sil.nelf f(bIl. in :I nnrrow
 V. Exnct sol~ltionool' t,ho Nnvicr-Slnltc.q oqr~nt,ions b. Other oxnct s o l u l i o ~ ~ s 95
94
If we now prescribe a c n r ~ u h r vclocity
~t v, < 0 a t thc wall (suct.ion), wo notice that cqn. ( 5 . 2 7 ~ )
is satisfied in~rnediatelyhy a flow for whicl~o = v, and t l ~ n the t prc.nsttro p bcaorncs indcpnndcnt,
of sirnnltrmco~~sly. Accorclingly, we put - (l/e) (aplaz) = tI(J/cll,, whom 11(t) donotes bile frw-
strrnln vrlocity n t jr very largc dishnc:o fro111t.11~w:rll, nncl I~cncco l ) t u i ~1l1c
~ followir~g~lilTc~rcl~l.itrl
cqtlatio~lfor u ( y , 1):
Tho velocity profile u (!y,t) t l ~ u shas tilt form of a dampccl harmonic oscillaLion, thc au
3t 1 l,,,
b
- .
d[l
. . - -1 azu
ag dl ay2 ' (5.28)
amplitude of whir11 is in whirli a fluid layer a t s distance y has a phase
I/, c w i ? ; ,
lag y l/;t% with respect to the motion of the wall. Fig. 5.9 rcprcscnts -this -. mot,ion
According to .I. 'r. Stuart m2] thorecxista an oxnct sol111,ionofccln. (5.28) for tllo arl)iLr:iry oxlc-rr~al
vclocity
for scvcral instants of 1,ime. Two fluid layers, a clistance 2 n / k = 2 n d 2 v/n apart,
oscillate in p l i ~ c This
. distancc car1 be regarded. as a kind of wave length of the 'lll~isso1116ionis
motion: i t is somctimcs calletl the depth o/ penetration of tho viscous wave. The
layer which is carried b y tho wall has a t,hidrncss of t11c order d
for decreasing kinematic viscosity and increasing frequcncyt.
Jqand dccrcasos - whcro

Sllh~titllLingt l ~ cI.wt t h r w c q ~ l ~ t i o n
i ns k cqn. ( 5 2 9 , we a m led ID n psrtinl diffcrrntial oq11st.ion
for the unknown f~rnctiong(!/. 1 ) = g(7. 1); thin hnn 1110 forrn

and 1.l1cI)o~~n(lary
roncli1,iorls arc:

Tllc following non-di~ncnsionnlvarinhlcs hnvo bcer~i r l t r o d u d in the prccocling:

I'ie. 5.9. Vrlocit,y elistrihut,ion in

*, = X(-IL~ .
v ' 7, = 4
I v,'
v
t.he neighbourhood of an oscillet-
ing wall (Stokes's second problem) Solutions of (5.32) hnve hccr~ohtaincd by J. W n h n (411 who crnploycri Lnplaoo trans-
fe)rrnat.ions and who restricted hirnuclf to severnl apecinl forms of the furlctior~/(1). (:cncrally
speaking, the following cxternnl flows, U(1). hnve been incIudw1:
a ) cI:rmlwd nnrl undamywd oscillations,
h) stop-likc chnngc from one vnlr~oof vcloci1.y to xnot.l~cr,
c) linear irlcre.nuc from ono vnltlc to anoll~cr.
8. A of non-steady solutions. A general cl:iss of no11-stcnely soll~lionsof the
rlnss
Nnvinr-Stnltw ,scq~latiollswhir11 possean bor~ndary-lcycro11arnctr:r is ol~tainrdin the sr)ccinl m8e In the upncial c.wc whcn the exlcrnnl flow is indcpcn(lcnt, of tin~c,/(t) - 0, cq11ation (5.32)
when t.ho velocity com~~oncnta arc indopcndcnt of Lho longitudin:~lcoordinnl,c, a. ' r l ~ cs y s t c n ~of I-~ds to the uirnple sol~ltion'(7, 7') = 0. This CDIIRP* tho voJoc~i1.yprolilo from oqn. (5.30) to
rrlr~nt.ions(8.02). writln-n for 1)lnno flow. nasun)cs 1.11~forrn I~orornciclot~t.ic:rilwiI.11 Ll~cnuyrnptoLic s11clio11prolilo givc.11 I I L I A ? i~l l ~ Y I I I . (14.l;).

----. .-
t Tltc ROIIIL~OII i l l ccln (5.2fin) roprcscr~t.salso t,l~ctcn~porat~lrn
rn~lwelby l.ilc fwri(~tlio
t,l~cscnfu~nsin a yf::Lr.
The preccding examples on one-tlimcnsional flows were very simplc, I)cca~~se tho
convective acceleration which renders thc equations non-linear vnnisl~cdidontically
aa
I everywhere. WG shall now proc:ccd to examine sorno exact solutiorls in wllich thcsc
---
a!, - '1 . terms are retained, so t h a t non-linear equations will havo to t)o considcrcd. We shall,
however, restrict oursclves to steady flows.
clintril)~ltionin Ll~cr a r t l ~which is 9. Stagnation in plane flow (Hiemenz flow). Tho first simple examplc of this
Iltlc*t.r~at.ion
of I.ho k ~ ~ l p c r a t uon
r c t11r sclrfncc, my,fro111clay 14) d:ly o r over t,ype of flow, represented in Fig. 6.10, is that lending 1x1 a sh.gnc~tionpoint ill plane,
 1,. 0t.llrr exact volr~tiol~n 97
'I'lrc bo~rnrlal~y rontlit~ionsfor / and F arc obt,irinecl frorn 11 v -- 0 at. t l ~ ewall, \vIrrrc>
-2

?/ =-. 0, n.tltl 2) :
: po :tt the st,ngnntion point, a s \vrll a s froin 11. ==(J = n. x a t n Inrgt:
tlisl,anc-c: Sroni t,lro wall. 'l'l~rrs

l4;tl~is.(5.:!t;);~ntI(5.37) :rrc 1,110I,\vo cliIli~t.c:t~t,i;~l IOr t , l ~ cI'IIII(.~,~OIIS/(!I) : L I I ~ I

c.(lr~;ttiot~s
b'(?y) \vl~icl~ tlotcrmine the velooity ant1 prcssnrc distril)rltion. Sincc F ( y ) does ~ ~ o t ,
:tppcar in t J ~ cfirst cquntiorr, it is 1)ossil)la to Ijcgin by cloLcr~nining/(?I):tn(I t,l1(!11 to
proc:cctI t.o firrtl Y(y) froni t,lrr sccontl cqrr;tt.ion. 'l'l~e norr-lincnr tlifTcrcnt,inl c:qrr:tt.io~l
(5.3;) c:rnnot be solved in closed terms. In ortler l,o solve it. nulnrricnll,y it. is c.011-
vc*nicnt. to rcniovc t.he const,nnt,s rr2 anc1 IJ by pllt.t.in~

wl~c.rct , l ~ c , ~rrin~c,
n o w clc!lrotrs tlilkrcnl.i:~t.iot~ 01. t I I ~ .
wit,l~rosprcl, t,o 8 1 . 'l'l~ot:oc.l'lic~ic*~~ls
t*clu:~t~ion 1)cc:otnc. all itlrnl,ically cqunl 1.0 1111it.yif \YC ~ I I ( ,

i . c., t.wo-dirnrnsior~dIlo\r~.'I'llc: vcloc:il,y clist.ril)~~l,ion in frict~io~rlcss~ ) o l c ~ l ~ lflow

~i:~l
in t,11e ~ ~ r i g l ~ l ) o ~ ~ or lf ~t,lrc
o o tsl.ngnnt,ion
l point nt 2: 11 -= 0 is given by
-7

whcrc n tlcno1,r.s ;L cotrst,nrrl. This is a n cxa.~r~plc

of a. plane polent,ial flow wlricl~ar-
rives from thc !I-nxis ant1 impinges on a flat wall placed a t y = 0, dividrs into two
strenlns on the wall and Lenvcs in bot,h directions. The viscor~sflow mnst ndlrere tjo
t,he wall, wl~crcnsthe potc11tia1flow slides along it. I n pot.ent(ia.1flow the pressure is
given by Rernolllli's cqr~nt.ion.Tf pa, dcnotcs the stagnnt,iorr pressure, and p is t.11~
1wcss11rc nt. a.n arl)itr;li-y point., wc? Ilavc in pot,cnt.inl flow
wit 11 111c l)o~lr~(l:iry
c~nclitions

I'or viscor~s Ilow, wc: now ninkc t,hc n s s ~ l m p t ~ i o t ~ ~

?I =x /' (71) ; ?I = - 1(?I) ,
Po - p = Q (L ":r2 -1- F (y)1 .
'I'llc solution of' tl~c?diITerrnt,ial c q ~ ~ n t i o(5.3!))
n w:ts first givcn in a thcsis I)y I<. i l i r -
111 this way t , l ~ ccqrlat,ion of cont,inrrit,y ( 4 . 4 ~ is
) snt,isfietl i(lc!nt,icnlly, :1r1t1 thc t.wo rncn7, [I21 nntl latcr improved I)y 1.. Itowart11 [14]. T t is shown in Fig. 5.1 1 ( s c ~
Navicr-Slnltcs cqr~at.ionsof plane flow (4.4n,l)) n.re snfliciont t o dctrcrminc l l ~ cfr~nc- :LISO 'l':~l~lc
5.1). 'rlrc crrrvc: d'(7) brgir~sto increase linrnrly a t k 0 nntl t.cr~tls
{.ions i ( y ) and F ( y ) Substituting cqns. (5.34) an(\ (5.35) i1it.o eqtl. (4.4a.,b) \vc 01)- :r,sy~nptot,icallyt o r~nit~y. At approxin~at~cly 11 = 2.4 we Ilavc (b' = 0.00, i . o. t,llc
tain t,wo o r d i n 9 . r ~tlifTercnt.inl eqant.ions for / arrtl F: final va,ltle is reached there ~vit~ll an accuracy of 1 per cent,. 1f we corlsitler t.11~ corre-
spoucling dist.ance from tShr\\fall, tlcnotjetl by y = 8, as t.11c: bonntlnry Inycr, Irc 11:lve
i'z - i j,' cf,2 1- 3, j"' (5 3 6 )
aqtl
/ /' =< I (,Z F' - 1, /" . (5.37)
 b. Otlirr cxnct no~lltiolln 99

Table 5.1. Fenctiorra occrtrrirlg it1 thr noltrtion of plnnc nnd axinlly ~ymm~t.rionI
flow with Tllo nnn-steady flow p a t t e r n wlticli results ~ q w ut h o sl~pcrposit.ion of :rn nrbi-
atngnntion point. Plnrre caqc from L. Hownrtl~1141; nxinlly symmetrical cnnc frorn trary, timc-dependent transverso m o t i o r ~of t h c pl:~ncwas sl,~ldicdb y .l. W : ~ k o t l1.121
N. Fr~eR~litlg
181 'Chc spcrial cnac of a h a n n o n i c t r a n ~ v r r s cn i o t i o r ~was solved carlicr 1)y M. 1%.(:l:rt~rrt
(1143 in Cllap. XV).
plnne nxinlly uyrnrnat,rical
- -
-- - .~~. .
-~
. . . .. . -. . ~-

ia 9.. Two-dimensional noo-steady ntngnation flow. The cnuc of non-stnndy, t3~vo-tlinirnsionnt

flow sturlicd by N. ltott 128.1 conut.it~ltc~n gcncr~rli~atiot~ of 1110prcc~:tIi~rg cnnc:. We\ r:o~~niclc~r I l~c:
c u e of two-di~r~cnsionnlshgnntion flow dopictat in l'ig. 5.10 nrrcl hour~tladby n wall nt 1, 70.
We m u m e tllrnt tho velocity nt rr Inrgo clint.anro frc~rnl.ltc wnll i~ clit-c.c:trrl towitrcln l.hc. \r.itll, rultl
0 0 0 1.2326 0 0 0 1.3120 thnt the wnll ilaclf pcrfortns n hnrmonic motiot~in ila own plnrto. In tho resr11t.irlgflow pnt,tc~rrr,
0.2 0.0233 0.2266 1.0345 0.2 0.0127 0.1755 1.1705 the velocity rcmnina stcncly nt n lnrgcdiutnnce ( y +m), wl,crrnn ncnr t.ha wall it nnq~~irra a nnn-
0.4 0.0881 0.4145 0.8463 0.4 0.0487 0.3311 1.0298 atondy pnttcrrr of t.bc name kintl ns thnt nanr tltc oscillnt.irrg wrrll of I'ig. 5.!) (Slnkrn'~scvnt~cl
0.6 0.1867 0.6663 0.6752 0.6 0.1054 0-4669 0.8910 problem). According to ( 2 8 ~ 1iL
, ia pom~ihlnto irtt,cgrnt.c the ~rorrolcntlyNnvirr-Stokc%nar~ttnt.ic,tt
0.3124 0.6859 0.5251 0.8 0-1799 0.5833 0.7563 (4.4~1,h, a) hy m ~ ~ m i n g
0.8 0.6283
1-0 0.4592 0.7779 0,3980 1.O 0.2695 0,681 1

0.2938 1.2 0.3717 0-7614 0,5097

1.2
1.4
0.6220
0.7967
0.8467
0.8968 0.21 10
0.1474
1.4
1-6
0-4841
0-6046
0-8258
0.8761
0.4031
0.3100
?I(!,) - - (CI v) + (,I),
1.6 0.9798 0.9323
1.8 1.1689 0.9568 0.1000 1.8 0.7313 0.9142 0.2315 in t.11~snmo 88 w~ done in eqn. (6.34). As fnr as t l ~ oprDRS111.C i~ o~rrrart~(~tl,1,11t.
2.0 1.3620 0.9732 0.0658 2.0 0.8627 0.9422 0.1676

2.2 16578 0.9839 0.0420 2.2 0.9974 0.9622 0.1175

2.4 1.7553 0.9905 0.0200 2.4 1.1346 0.9760 0.0798
2.6 1.2733 0.9853 0.0523 IIerc, q = y(n/v)'l2 denotes tho dirncnsionlrua tlint,nnoe frorn t.11~ wnll iron, cclrr. (5.38), b .i tllr
2.6 1.9538 0.9946 0.0156 constnnt. nmplit,rtrln of t.hc wnll oscillntir~gin itsl own plnt~c,rrt~cl(11 in t . 1 1 ~airc:~tlnrfrc?qtir.l~c:y
of t.l~ip
2.8 2.1530 0.9970 0.0090 2.8 1.4131 0.9912 0.0331
3.0 1.5536 0.9949 0.0202 oscillation.
3.0 2,3526 0.9984 0,0051
The preceding n ~ ~ u m p t i o n(5.40n,
s 11, c) nrc it~t.rod~~ccdinto I.ho Nnvier-Stokrn oqtrnt.iorrs
3.2 25523 0.9992 0.0028 3.2 1-6944 0.9972 0-0120 (4.4a. h, c), and the problem is reduced to uolving (.he following R Y R L C ~ I Iof e(llt~t.ionn:
3-4 2.7522 0.9906 0.0014 3.4 1.8356 0.9985 0.0088
3.6 2.9521 0.9998 0.0007 3.6 1-9769 0.9992 0.0037
3-8 3.1521 0.9999 0.0004 3.8 2.1182 0.9996 0.0020
4-0 3.3521 1~0000 0.002 4 .0 2-2596 0.9998 0.0010

4.2 3.5521 1.0000 0.0001 4.2 2.4010 0.9999 0.0006

4.4 3.7521 1.0000 0.0000 4.4 2.5423 0.9999 0.0003
4.6 3.9521 1~0000 0~0000 4-6 26837 1~0000 0~001
Here k = win clenotw the dimensionlrm froq~tottogof t l ~ awnll o~c:illnt.ion.T l ~ orlifirrr~t.inloqltn-
tionu (540c1) nnd (5.40~)result fmm 1110 norl-stcntly Nnvior-St<>kracqttnt,ion in t.ltc r-tlirrc:l.iorr,
cqn. (4.4~).when 1110velocity cornlmnent # in roprascn(r?d im t.ho ntlm of n ~tnndyLc:r~n,pr ', nncl
an unstendy term, g, wm done in cqn. (5.40~).' ~ I I o filncl.iorr +(7,) nntisfies the I,otrntl:rry conrli-
ITence again, a s I,cfore, tlic laycr which is inflr~enmclby viscosity is small a t low tions
kinematic visrositit:~a n d proportiorla1 to 6
l'lic pressure gradient ap/ay becomes 9 (0) = 0'(0) -- 0 nnd 4 '(m) = 1 .
proportional to Q n i i a a n d is also very s m a l l f o r s m a l l k i n e m a t i c viscosities.
A eompnriwn hcl.wecn cqns. (5.39) nncl (5.40~1)sltow~thnt 1,llin f1111~t.iot1 i~ i c l c ~ r ~ t , i e ~will1
r ~ l I,(I(.
I t is, further, wort.11 noting t h a t t h o dimcnsionlcns velocity distribntion u/fJ well-ktrown solution of t.ho stcndy-nlnL0 prOlll~Ir1ellto to Hiomcrrz. 'j'lto ft~rtc:t.iorrg ( r l ) Hllt,iRfiCR (,IIi.
a n d t,hc b o ~ ~ n c l a r ~ - l thicltncss
a~cr f r o n ~cqn. (5.40) a r c indepcntlent of x, i. e., t h e y boundnry coniIit.iono
tlo n o t v a r y along t h e wnll. g(0) = 1 nnd g(m) = 0.
I
It is w , n from eqns. (5.40d) and (5.400) that in 'his cnso the strndy component, is i r ~ d r p ~ n d ~ ~ ~ t
'rho t,ypc of flow rrnder considcrat.ion does n b t occur n e a r a plane wall only, b u t of the st~pcrimpoaednon-stcndy component. The dihrcnt.inl aq~rnt.ion(5.40~)for t.lrc r r ~ r r - ~ l ~ ~ d ~
also in two-climcnsional flow p:rst arty cylincirical i)ocly, provideti t h a t i t h a s a b l u n t contribution g of tho z-component of tho velocity can he cnsily ~olvccl,I ~ r c n \ t at,l~c~ ft~nrl.i~~~
noso near 1.11~ stagnabion point. I n SIICII cnsrs t h e s o l l ~ t i o lis~ valid for a mall neigh- + ( v ) , Tnblc? 6.1, is known. Igurt,l~erdetails conccn~ingthin problrnr call bc fot~tldit1 (2nn]. The
bourliootf of t h o s t s g ~ i n t ~ i point,
o ~ l if t , l ~ portion
c of t h e curved surface can h c replacctl rcnder mny also consult the papers by M. Glauert, 1141 in Clrnp. XV, and J. Wnhon, (651 in (:Ilnp.
b y it4 t a n g c r ~ tplanc
~ n c a r t11t: sL:~gn:~t,ionpoint.
xv.
 10. Stagststinn in three-dimensional flow. I n :I similar way it is possible t o o l ~ t a i n
an cx:~c:t, sol~~t.iorr of the Navicr-Stoltcs cqnations for the three-clirncnsiorlal case
of flow wit.11 st,a.gnat,ion, i. c., for t.hc axisy~nmct~rical casc. A fll~ids t r c a n ~irr~l)i~rges
011 a wall at, right, nllglcs t,o it and flows away mdially in all tlircct-ions. Srrch :I casc
occrirs i l l t . 1 1 ~~ ~ r i ~ l ~ l ) o r ~ rofl ~aosot c. al g ~ ~ : ~ tl>oi~il.
. i o ~ ~o f a 1)otly of revolr~t.ionin :I flow
I)arnllrI to it,s :[xis.
wl~orc is a consta.nt. Tt is scnn a.t on(:c t,I~ntSIICII a s0111t.io11 s:ttisfi(~st.II(' ( ~ ( ~ I I : I ~ of~ o ~ I
ront.inrrit y. 1)enot.ing once nlorc t l ~ cst,:~gnnt.ior~
I)rc.ssllrc: I)y I , ( , , wo l i ~ l ( lt I)(: ~)rc.ssllrp
in itlcal flow :
Po - 7J --
-4p(1J2 1- IQ2) -- 4 @ n 2 ( r 21 4 z 2 ) .
111 1 . 1 1 ~r:lsc of visc.orls flow we assllmc: t . 1 1 ~following li)r111of t.11c. s o l ~ ~ t Sor
~ i o(.IlP~ ~ ~
vrloc.i(.,v nnd prcssllrc clist~ril)ut.ions

It, can be easily verifird t h a t :L solr~tionof Ll~cform (5.4:1)s:itisfic~stllc: c q ~ ~ a t i oof~ l

c-onti~~uityidcnticnlly, wl~crcast.lic cclr~atior~s of niot,ion I t t : ~ r l 1.0 t.l~nfi>llowing t\ro
rclt~ntionsfor / ( z ) ant1 F ( z ) :
]pig. 5 11 \'rlorily tlistribrltionof
planr nr~tirotnt,ionalIysyrnri~rtrical j'2- 2jJ" = .2+ "Jl1l1 (5.45)
flow nt n ~tag11nLio11 point 2jJ' = )a2Pf- "J". (5.46)

'l'l~cI)o~ln(larycondit.ions for / ( z ) ant1 F ( z ) fi~llo\rfro111rcln. ( 5 . 4 1 a). :111tl arc

2 = 0 : /--/'=:O, F==(); z=--m: /'::,&.

7'0 solve tile problenl we shall use cylindrical coordinates r , 4, z, and we s l ~ a l l As I)cd'nrr, t.lw first of the t,\vo cql~ationsfor / ant1 F c:ln l)o frc:ctl ol' I l l ( - c:o~~st.;r~~t.s rr"
assunrc tlrat, t.hc wall is a t z = 0, the stagnatiorl point is a t the origin and t h a t t h e and 11 l).v a sirnilarit,y transforrnat.ion, wl1ic.11 is idrr~tical\!,it11 tl~:rt.i r ~t,hr I I I : I I I ~ . (.;IS(',
flow is in tlre direct,ion of the negative z-axis. We shall denote t h e radial ancl axial t l~ns
cornpo~lentsin frictionless flow by IJ ancl 11' respectively, whereas those in viscous
flow will be tlcnc~tedby u :.= v ( r , z ) , anrl 7u = w ( r , z ) .I n accordance wit11 eqn. ( 3 . 3 6 )
t,hc N:~virr-St,okcsrclrrntion for rotnt,ional symmetry can be written as
'1'lrf: tiilfcrrntial rqnat.ion for d(() sin~l)lificsto
+"' -1. 2 4 - 4 ' 2 - 1
,#,'I
J :-: ()

asit11 t 11c: I ~ o ~ ~ n t l ncorrdit

r y ions
5-0: 4--+I=(); i.=oU. d'- 1.

'J'lic solution of cqn. ( 5 . 4 7 ) was first given by F. 1lorn;~nrl1131 i r ~t II(% Sorm o f :t I)o\r.c,r
srrics. 'I'lrc plot, of 4' = 71,/1! is givrri in Fig. 6.11 t,ogct,l~c.rwit11 t.l~(.p l n ~ ~c.:~sc.. r :~r~tl
t11r v:1111e:sfor 4' giv(*t~
in '1':iI)lr 5.1 11:lvr I>(Y>,I (:,I<(,II fro111:t 1):11,e,r0~ K , l ~ ~ ~ o ~ [S].
~ssli~~g
 h. Ot,hrr rxnct nc,l~~t,io~ls 103
.,I ho no-slip condition a t the wall gives t h e following bountlary conditions:
11. Flow taenr n rotntirag disk. A furlhor cx:~tnl)loor : t t ~ cxant solnLiorl of the
Navicr-St,okcs cqrt:~t,ionsis fitrnishctl I)y t.llc: flow arortnd a flat clisl; wllich rotatcs z=O: u=O , u=rw, w=O,
a t ~ o ~arll t , axis pcrpct~tlicrtlart o it,s plant: wit11 a nnifi,rm : t n g ~ ~ lvclocit.y,
ar cr), in a fluid 1 (6.49)
ot.hcrwise at, rest. Tltc: I:~ynr rle:Lr tllc disk is carried by i t througll frict.ion a n d is
z=w: 11=0, v-0.
I
thrown outwa.rds owing to tllc :xction of ccnt,rif~~gnl forces. This is comprtlsakd by We shall begin I)y cst.im:~tirtgtho ttlic:knc:ss, A, or (.)lo 1%-ycrof f l l r i t l 'c::l.rrit:tl' l)y 1 . 1 1 ~
part,iclcs whinh flow in a n axial direction taowarrls t h e disk to Le in turn carried disk 1,231. It, is clear t h a t Lhc t1ticknt:ss of the Iaycr of flnitl whicll rot;btras wit,l~th(:
and c:joetrcl ncr~t~rif~tgally. 'I'tt~lstho cast: is seen t o I)o ono of f111ly three-ciimcnsionsl tlislc owing to friction tlncrcaqrs with ttltc: viscosilg r~rtdthis view is c:or~firtrtc.tlwl~c:t~
flow, i. c., t l ~ o r eoxist volocit,y components in tllc racli:ll dircction, r, t h e ciro~rm- (:om pared with the m s n l b of the prccoding c x a m ~ ~ l cl'ttc
s . ecrl tri fugnl li)rc:c per 11 ",it
rrrrtttial clircct,ion, 4, anti the axial direction, z, which we shall denote rcspcctively volrtmo which a o b on a fluit1 p:~rticlcin tho rolatirlg Inyor a t a tlisf.anco r l o n ~(.It(:
1 ) s 7s. 7). and tt,. An axorlornct,ric: rcprcsent.:~t.ion nT this flow field is shown in I'ig. A. 12. axis is cq11:~1t,o p r (3. lrencc for a volt~mcof : m a clr . tls arltl I~cight,,(1, t.11~rcntri-
At. first. t . 1 calcnl:xt,ion
~ will 1)c perlometi for thc case o f :tn infinite r o t . a t i r ~p~l a ~ ~ c . fllgnl forcc I)ocomr,s: p r cuz 6 tlr c1.v. The same olcrnc:t~tof f l ~ t i ( l is act.ctl I I ~ ) O I I I)y :I
11, will t,11e11I)o easy t o extend t l ~ e ~ r c s ~t ot linc:lndc
t :t disk or finit.o cli:trnct.cr I1 -- 2 11, sl1c:tring stress t,, pointing in thc dircction in which the flrtitl is slipping, and forming
on contlition thatf tfhe ctlge rlTcc:t is ncglcctctl. a n angle, say 0, with the circumfcrcnt.ial velocity. T h e radial comportent of t,ltc
sl~carirtgstress must now be cqual t o thc centrifugal forco, ant1 hrncc
'raking int,o accorlnt rotational symmetry a s wcll : ~ st.t~ctiot.at,ion for i.ho prol)lcnl
\vr car1 write down the Navicr-Stokes cq~lations(3.36) a s : T~ sin 0 d r (1.7 = p r co2 6 d r (1s
or
T, sin 0 -- e r (oZfi .
On the other hand tho circumfemrttial componcnt of t h e sltcarir~gstress must I)c
p r o p ~ r t ~ i o nto
a l thc vclocit,y gradicnt o r tho circrlrnfcrct~tialvc1ocit.y a t tltc wall. This
condition givos
T, eos 0 N (14 r co/O .

Rlinlinating twfrom these two eqnat,ions we obtain

I f i t is assumed t h a t t h c dircction of slip in the flow near tllc wall is indcpenclent of

tJtc rndius, tho thickness of tllc layer carried by the disk bccomcs

which is idcnticiil with tho rrsult obt,iinctl in tltc case of tho oscillating wall on 1). 94.
l'rtrt,her, we ran write for the s h a r i n g stros.9 a t the wall
-
t,-eru~~d-erw fvw.

'rho l,orquc, whicll is equal to thc prcnlucl of shearing strcss a t tllc ~1111,arva :LIIO
arm 1)ccomcs
Fig. 5.12. Flow in I,ho nnigllbolrr-
h o d of s disk rotating in s fluid
s t rest R dcnot,ing t h e rnclius of t h e disk.
Velocity c o m p o n ~ n k :u-radial, s-rircllrn-
lereilinl, ro-axial. A lngar nf flllirl in rar-
ricd h y the disk nwing Lo the ncliun of
viscnlla lorcrs. Tho eenlrilupal lorccs in 111C
t h i n layer givs ria. lo ~cconrtnryflow wllicll
a dimensionlrm distance from t h e wall, 5 -
I n order to integrate t h e system of eqr~ntions(5.48) i t is convcnicnt t o introtlrlco
z/d, thus putting

i s dircelcd rndinlly oalw*rrl

 b. Othrr rxnct, solutions I05

I'rrrtl~er, t h e follo\\rilig assun~ptionsarc rnntle for t , l ~ rvrloc:ity romporrents nntl prcs- Tnlilc 5.2. Vnloos of t8hefunctions nerdetl for the drsc*riptionor tllr flow of n clisk rotntirlg in n
Il~lictnt rest, cnlc~rlatrrlnt. tlrc wnll ant1 rrt n Inrgc rlistn~~cv
fro111Ilrr ~ v n l l ,11s rnlcl~ln(ctlIIJ' 15. A].
Sl)nrroa nnd .I. I,. Grcgg 1321

Itlscrting tllcse cq~laLior~s

into eqns. (5.48) we obtnir~n syst,rln of four sinir~ltanrous
for t h e f~lnotionsF, G, 11, ant1 P:
ordinary difTerrnttial eq~lat~ions

I t is sccti I'rom Fig. 6.13 t , l ~ ntho t tli~tntic:~ lioln t>lrnw:ill ovcr wl1ic.11t . 1 1 ~~)c'ril~l~c.r:rl
\,elocit.y is rctlucecl t.o half tJlc rlislr vclocity is do., = d&/(o . I t is t o I)c r~ot-cdI'I.OIII
t.l~esolrltion t h a t when h = J v / i j is sm:lll, t-lie velocit,y components 11, ant1 v l ~ n v c
'I'l~eboundary rontlit.iotis earl be calculat,rtl from cqn. (5.49) ant1 are: ;~.pprecint)lc values only in a t(11inlayer of t , h i ( : k ~ l rl/;/0)
s ~ . 7'11~v ~ l o c i co~n[)otl(:t~t
t~~ 1~1,

norlntil t.o t.11~ t l i s l c is, nl. :illy ral,r, srnnll a1111or the or(1cr 1/1~, I ) . 'l'11(: i t ~ ( ! I i r ~ r ~ t . i o ~ ~
of l,l~crc%lat.ivcst.rc:rmlincs rlc:lr the wnll \rril.llrcspcct tto Ll~ccircutnlcrc~~t.i:\l clirc.c:(.iott,
i f t l ~ c\\,all is imnginctl :it rest. nntl t8hc fluid is Inlten t,o rot,nt.e at, a I : l r ~ ctlist:~t~c,c:
frotn t , l ~ s\\,all, berolnes
r
1Ilr first solution of t,hc systerli of eqns. (5.53) by a n approxi~nnt~c
7
methotl was given
I ) J ~ a m c t l ~ o dof numerical intcgmtiont. They are plotted in Fig. 5.13. The starting
values of t,he solut,iori indicated in Table 5.2 were given by E. RZ. Sparrow and
J. 1, Gregg 1321.

Alt.l~o~tpl~ the calcnlat~ion is, strictly spcalting, npl)lic.able t.o a n infi nitc disk o r ~ l y ,
I v r nlay ut.ilize t,l-~c
same rcsults fbr a finit.e tlislc, provitled tllat, its ratfirls R is largo
cotnl>arccl wil.l~the thiclrness Yt of t,hc layer carried wit11 ttlc disk. We sllall now
evnlnnlo t,llc turning momelit of such a disk. The corlt.ribnt.ior1 of a n annular disk
c l c n ~ r t ~oft . widt,h d r on mdius r is d M = - 2 n r tlr r t,+,arid llcncc the moment
for a dislr wet,t.ed on one side becon~es

Fig. 5.13. VolociLy t l i n l r i l ) ~ ~ l i o n

nvar n disk rot.nt,irlgin n fluid at rrsl,
l l c r r tr+ / ~ ( a v / a z ) tlcr~otcs
, the rircumfercntial comporlrt~tof t l ~ nshqarir~gstress
Iirom rcln ( 5 5 2 ) we obtain

111t,hn cnsc nntlnr discussior~,just ns iti td\c exn.mple involvir~gR stlagtlatrion I l ( ~ t ~ nt,l~c
o mornonl. for :\ tlislc wellt.ctl or1 I)oI.ll sitlrs I ) C C ~ I I I ~ S
[)oinl,, t,lte vclocit,y Geld is t,hc first, t,o I)o evnlllatcd frorn tho cqnnt.ioli of corll,inr~it~y
ant1 tlhe ccluat,ions of motion parallel t o the wnll. 'J'lfc prcssurc distribution is for~nd
s ~ ~ l ) s r r ~ ~ t efrom
n t . l y the equat.ion of motion perpendicular t.o the wall.

.-

t '1.llis ~oltlt,ionwns ohlninvd in t,ho form of n power series near 1 = 0 and nn anymplotic uories
for largo values of C which were then joined toget,her for moderato values of 1.
106 V. JCxact solutions of Ll~eNavicr-Stokm cq~~ntiona b. Othrr exact, solr~tiona 107

This gives

,I Ihe q11nnf.ity of flnitl flowing towartls l.hc dislr in the axial dircct,iorl is of cqrlsl
or, tlcfining a Reynolds nllmbcr based or1 thc radius ancl tip vclocity, ~napnitutlc.J t is, filrther, wortlly or no(,(>t,ltat t,hc pressure tlini:rrt~ccovcr t,hn 1:~yrr
R = -R'o - cnrrietl by the (lislr is of the orrior e r1 a), i. c., vcry srnt~11for s ~ u n l lv i ~ c o ~ i l ~ i' c~ sI I. c
prcssnm (Jist,ril)~~t~ion t l c ~ ~ c n t only
ls o n l,ho clist,nrlc:o F r o t ~t,11c1
~ wnll, i i r ~ r l (.I~(~rt,
is r ~ o
rittli:r,l ~~rcssrtrc
grntlicwt,.
nnrl int.ro~lttcingt h c nnmerical vnlllc - 2 zG'(0) = 3.87, wc obtain finally A generalisctl fnrnl of t l ~ eprccetling prok~lcmhas becn stutlictl 11y M.G , Itogers
ancl G . N . Lance [28] who a s s ~ ~ m et dh a t the f l ~ ~ moves
id wit11 an nnnllIar Vl,IO(*i(,V

Fig. 6.14 shows n plot of this equat,ion, curve (I), a n d compares i t with mcasure-
mcnta 1391. For RcYnolcls numbcrs u p t o about R = 3 x LOS there is cxcellcnt t l sccontl boilntlnry contlit,ion for tho function G(() mttat, Ito rrplnc-ctl t)y
~ ~ n thc
agreement hnt,vecn tltoory nnd exporimcnt. A t highor Raynolds numbers the flow C(m) = s . In this conncxion a comparison should hc mndo with the, cast! ofrotnting
flow ovrr n fixrd tlislr given in Scc. XTn. Nnmcrical ~ o l r ~ t , i o nfor
s roLntio11 ilk t.11~
bccorncs torbulent, an11 tho respective casc i s considered in Chap. XXI.
s:nnc srnsc (s > 0) can be found in [20]. Wllcn the rotations arc in oppositc scnsps
Curves (2) nncl (1)i n Fig. 6.14 arc ohttainnl from t h c turbulent flow thcory. Olllcr
(s< 0). physically tncnningfi~lsolr~tionscan bc obtained for s < - 0 2 only iT1tnifc)rrn
mcasuremcnts, carried o u t hy G. Kernpf [lG] and W. Schmidb [31], show tolerable
sr~ctiotl:it right, :LII~ICS to lII1e dislr is n(ltnitLc(1.
u g r r w n r t ~ trvitll tlirorctirnl resalts. Prior t n Lrsr a o l ~ t ~ i o nI).
s , Riahoachinsky [2Gj.
1271 estal~lial~cd cmpiricnl fonnulac for the turnir~gm o ~ t ~ c of e t mtnting disks wllich The prol~lemof a rotnting disk i r ~a ho~lsingis discr~sscdit1 Chap. X X l .
werc hmcd on vcry carcful mcasurrments. Those formslae showed very good It, is part,ic:~~larly
tlotcwor(,hy l3hat,the solutior~for tlrc rotatir~gdislr a s wcll a s
sorrcmcnt with the t h ~ o r c t ~ i c aequations
-0--
l discovcred suhscqucntly. 1.llc solutions obtainctl for the flow with stngnntion are, in the first plnco, exact
T l ~ equantity of liquid which is p ~ l m p c do ~ t w a r d sN a result of t11c centrifuging solr~l~ior~s of the Navicr-Stolces cquations a~rtl,in t h e sccontl, t h a t t,llcy are of n
nctdon o n tho one sidc of a disk of rarlins R is houi~drcry-la?/rrL?yps, in f.hc scnsc discrlssrd in t11c prccctlirlg chapter. 111 t,l~cl i ~ r ~ i t i r ~ g
c.:l.se of vcry small viscosity t,hese solnt.ions show t h a t tho irrflnencc of viscosit.y
rxl.rt~tlsover n vcry small lnycr in tile ~ ~ c i g h l ) o t ~ r l ~of. o oLhc
t l solitl wnll, 1r.11c.t.c::~~
i l l 1,llc wl~olcof 1.l1c rcmnilling region t.hc flow is, j)rnct,ic;llly spcnlting, i(lrt~t.ic~:ll
t v i t , l ~ (.he corrcspontling itlcnl (pot,crlti:~I)casc. ' ~ h c s ccxarr~plcsshow I11.Lhor l . l ~ ; ~ t
t h e b ~ ~ n n i l n rIn.yer
y has a thickness of the ortler iv
. T l ~ cone-dirncnsiot~alexamplcs
of flow discussed previonsly display tho samc l~onntlnry-layercharact,cr. In this
conr~cx-ior~ the rcatlcr mny wish to c o n a ~ ~al t pnpcr by G . I<. 13ntcltclor 121 whii:l~
tliscnssrs the solution of t.11~ Navier-St,olrcs cqltations for t,lrc cast of two ro-axial,
rol,nt.irrg tlislrs placrtl at, n certain clistancc apart, ns well a s n paper by I<. Sl.cwnrt,sor~
1.741. A n cxt8ension oS the preceding solutsion to tllc cnsc ol' urtiforn~s r ~ c t , i ois~ tlnc ~
t,o J. T. Stttart. ([02] in Clln.11.X I V ) ant1 to 14;. M . S11nrr.o~ nr~tl.J. I,. (:t.cbgI: st^^^ 1). 3
Fig. 5.14. Ttlrning mo- in p 2 ] ) . 'rhe lallt8ercont.ains also an ani~lysisof t,llo c:tlsc \rii,l~Ilon~ogcr,c:o~~s I)lowil~g.
ment on a rohting clink; .
,I hi: litnit,i~~g cnsc of vrry vigorons I~lowingIVILS ( ~ ~ S C I I S S C ~1)y
I 11. I(. I < I I ~ ~ < CIlHj.
II
crlrvc (1) from eqn.
(T,.T,f,), h m i m r ; ellrvea
12. Flow in colivcrgcllt nrld divergent cl~nn~lrls.A f~rrlhrrclass of rxrrct solut.iot~sof l . 1 1 ~
(2) and (3) from eqns. Nnvicr-Stolrca eqrla1ion.s ran be ol~tni~leel i l l the ie>Ilo\\.il~g \ V ~ J ~ :LC(.it IPC R S R I I I I I C : ~ ~
t , I ~ i ~ t tilie
,
(21.30) and (21.33). 1 ~ - fitltlily of stri~ipl~t. lilies pnasil~gtllroclgl~n point, i n n l)l:i~)cconnt,it.~ltt.I l ~ st.rt:n~~~li~~rs
r o f :L Ilo~r..
bulenl Let, the vc1orit.y tlifrcr rro111lir~etn line, wl~icl~ tnrntls l.llnt it, is nsstll~~c~(l to I)c ;I ft111(.t.i011 ,)f t,lle
polar anglee. Tl~erngs along wllic-11 Lllo vc1ncil.y vvaislica call t,l~rr~ l ~ c * rcg;irtlctl ns tilt: soli(l
walls of n cor~vcrgerltor a. tlivcrgrnt rlinnt~rl.'I'hc cot~tir~rtity r s I)c~:~l,i~fiecl
~ t l ~ l n t i o l~.:III k)y : I S S I I I I I ~ ~ ~
1 . 1 1 ~rnt1i:rl vrlority 11, 1111stlm for111u -
t ~ ~ rvrr.~rLy is inversely ])ropnrl.ion:~lt,o 1 . 1 1 ~c l i a l : ~ l ~ ~fro111
t.l~:rt1.llr v c l ~ r i along
F'(g)/r,or, i f I: i.q 1.0 I)(* ~lii~rc~~~siot~lrnn,
. o t,l~rorigin. Ilc.tlrt.
 b. Other exact s o l ~ ~ t i o n s I on
In the paper referred to above, (:. Nanlel has set hin~selfthe problcrn of cnlcnlatir~gall
three-dimensionnl flows whose strean~lincsare identical with those of a potcntinl flow. The
solution consisted of ~treamlinesin the shnpe of logarithmic spirnln. Tho case of mciinl flow
The periphcrnl vclocit,y vanishes everywhcrc. Int,rodr~ring(his forn~ into the Navier-St,oltes ronsitlercd I~err,nnd the cnae of pol.cnIinl vorlnx-flow, tlisoussc~rli l l Srr. V 3, c.onsl.it.nlr ~ n r l i .
cqllntiolls ~vrit.lnl~ ill I~oln,rrc~ortlinnlcs,cqn. (:!.:Mi), nntl r l i n ~ i n ; ~ l . prrnsllrc
i~~g from 1 . 1 1 ~cql~nt,iollu rnlrrr cxa~nplosof t . l ~ gcrlcrnl
i~ sol~~tion.
ill t,llo r nlltl $ clirrrtions, we obtain t.hc following ortlinnry tlilhrrnl.i:ll cq11a1.io11 for I('(4): ,I,he prcccding oxnrr~ploof nn oxnrl, solnlion oxl~il)il.nonre n~orr?1.l1oI,~~~rrrrlrrr!,-br!~rr cl,n,rrr/rr
of 1,110 llo\v. 111 l)r~rl,i(!nl~~r,
in t11c erin(! vf 11 c~onver~(:111,
(:I~nnnt!l,1,110 I ~ x ~ ~ ofL 11 ~ I IInyvr
~ l11i11 ~ ~ I~I V~ :L~
1.Iln wnll is conlir~nctl kogcthrr wit.11 the fact thnt t,hc inllncnrc of viscosity is conccnlr:ltr(l in
In1rgrnt.it~gonrc, \re are Ictl to 1 . h rtlr~nt,ioll
~
F2 .t 4 F I F" -1. (/ = 0.
it. Further, the calculation confirn~sthat the boundary-layer t,hickness incrcasrs as 11r.re 4;
too. Tho divergent case exhibik an additionnl pl~enomcnor~, that of bnck-flow, and, r r s l ~ l t , i ~ ~ g
frorn it, sc[~nrntiol~. This in nn cn*cnt,inlpropcrty of all boundnry-layer flowu and we shall tlisr~~ss'
'I'lle co~~st,:rnt,
where \ve llave 17 0 fore- n nrltl+ -
,,.as givrn by (;. lInlncl [ll],'l'lle f111lrtio11
-
I( clrnotrs the rnclinl prrsstlrc gr:~.clic.nt,;tl, I.he \\,ails, Ii =- --(I/@)(i)l~/ar)(r"v2),
- a . ns wc:ll ns E" 0 ford) 0. Tile so111lio11
-7 ofrq11. (5.58)
1.' ran I)c cxprrssrtl cxplicit.ly ns an ellil)l.ic fnnct,ion of$.
it Intar in grcnler tlctnil on the hasis of t.11~
fnlly confir~nedby expcri~ncnt.
cqn:~l.ionnof houndnry-layer flo\v. I t s cxistrncr in

The cases of two-di~nensionnland axi-syn~mct.ricalflow t,l~rorlghchannels wit.11 un~i~ll n~~glrs

\Vc sllnll now briefly sltrt,ch 1.I1crh:~rnrt.cr,of the soll~tionrefrailling from cliscussi11g tllc of tlivergcnce have been investigated earlier by H. Blasius [T,] frorn first princil)les, i. c., wit,h
(let,nils of t.lre derivation. The grn.ph in Fig. 5.15 shows n fntnily of vclocit,y profiles for a coll- the aid of the Navier-Stokes equations. In this connexion i t was shown that laminar flow cnn
vcrgc111, ancl a clivrrgcnt chnnnrl for dilTerer~t.IZ.cynoltls nnn~bersl)lot,tcd on the Imsis of the snpport only a very ~ ~ r l nprOR.SIIT0
ll increase wit.hoot tho inridcncc of scpnrntion. The condition
Il~~r~lerinaI raIor~l:itionspcrrorrncd by I<. Millsaps anti I<. I'oI~lI~nl~scn [ 191.'l'hc velocity tIistrit)rttion
for t.llc convcrgcnl, ancl for the clivcrgcnt chnnnel tliKcr ~ ~ ~ : ~ r l t ef rt lolny~cacl~ot,her. I n the latt,er
rnac, t l ~ e yalso c1ifli.r n ~ n r l r c d for
l ~ different lteynolds nn~rlbrrs.111a cont~crgentchannel tho velocity
dR/dx < 12/R. (condition for sepnration), where R -
for the avo~dnnccof back-flow a t the wall in a divergent tnbe of r a d i u ~R ( z ) was fo1111t1tc) be
4 d/r tlcnotes the Itcynolds nr~~nl>(:r
referred 1.0 the nlcan velocity of flow through the chnrlncl antl to its dinrnctcr. In more n~odrrn
tlist.ril)llt:ion for the I~ighrstllrynoltls 11111nher( R = 5000) r e n i a i ~ ~11car1ys const,ant over a large t.in~csM. Abmmowitz [ l ] cxtended these cnlcnlations for divcrgcnt clmnncls, nnd (lisrovrrr(1
c e n t . r c - ~ ~ o r tand
i o ~ ~dccrenscs steeply Lo zrro near the walls; thus it exhibib in this case a clear that the point of sepnration rnoves downst,renn) from tho char~nclentprnnco as t,hc Itcynoltls
" - numlter is increased ant1 as the angle of divergence is dccremed.
Ill a di71CrgP711
r l l a ~ ~t~l ~ shape
cc l of t.11~\ ~ r l o ( . i lprofilm
.~ is tn:~rkrtll~ nffrct.c~(lI>yI lie l<r5.~1o1t1s
rn~mber.F:nclr of t,l~escvelocity dist.rih~~tions is Inore or~rvccl:tt t.11~ cenlcrline t.l~nn1,llr pnrnl~oln
t,llnt, rllnract~crizmflow through a channel wit11 parallel walls. The velocity rlist.~ibrttionfor the 13. Concluding remark. T h i s e x a m p l e r o n c l ~ ~ d t,he c s tlisc~lssiono f c x a c t s o l u t , i o ~oi f
lnrgrst Iteynolds nr~mbcr,curve 7, is disting~tisl~rd by t,lle fact that it shows two rrgiolls of bnck- 1.Ile Navier-St,okes e q n a t i o n s ant1 t h e n c x t t o p i c will d e a l wif,lt approximate s o l n t i o ~ r s .
flow. '~lllls,tllc velocity vanishes n t fotrr points. Sinro t.llc wnll could plr~rcitsell nt any one of 111 t h e previous tlescript,ion a n e x a c t solution m e a n t a solution of t h e Nnvicr-Sto-
tllese poinb, it, is to envisnge 1,his vclori1.y distrib~~tion at, nrl inrlnded angle of 10° wit))
two syrnmntric regions of bnck-flow or a t nn inclndetl nngle of 6.9" but, u.it,h a single, nsymnletric kes e q u a t i o n s i n w h i c h a l l its t e r m s were tn.ken i r ~ t oa c c o u n t , providetl t.11at t h e y
rcvion of I~ark-flow.Snch anyrnn~et~ric ve1oc:it.y tlint.rit~r~t~ionn nre act.~~nlly observed, nnd the bnrk- tlitl n o t vanis11 identically f o r t h c problem. I n t h e following c h a p t e r w e s l ~ a lconccrn l
o ~ l r s e l v e sw i t h a p p r o x i m a t e solutions of t h e N a v i e r - S t o k r s e q u a t i o n s , t,hat, is, wit11
solut.ions which a r c obtainetl w h e n s m a l l terrns a r e r ~ e g l c c l c di n t h e differerlti:~.letlrl:~,-
t,ions ttre~nselves. A s a l r e a d y mentionccl i n Chap. I V , t h e t w o limit.itrg cases of v c r y
large a n d v e r y s m a l l viscosit,y a r c o r p a r t i c u l a r ixnportance. I n v c r y slow, o r so-
called creeping m o t i o n , viscous forces a r e v e r y large cotnparctl w i t h inrrt.ia force-s,
ant1 i l l I ) o ~ ~ n t l a r y - l n y crnot,ion
r t.hcy a r e v c r y small. Wllcrcas ill t,llc lirsl, c:~sc: i t is
pc*rmissil)lc t o onlit tl~c: i r ~ e r l i at c r m s cornplcl,cly, n o s u c h siniplifia:~t.io~l is 11ossiblo
i t 1 b o r ~ n t l n r y - l a y e rt h e o r y , b e c a t ~ s rif t,hc viscous t e r m s arc: s i m p l y tlisrrg:lrtltxl 1 . 1 1 ~
~)l~ysic*nll,y rssen1,in.l rontliI.ion of' n o slip ILI.~.II(: ~ o l i t l1)ollncl:lr~yr n . ~ ~ r ~I)(- o l ,r r ~ t * I . .

r i g . 5.15. \:rlocily cIist,ril1111io11 in L: I<. W. Mnnglor[OJ davelopoda genernl theory for t,hesolution of the Navier-Stokes equations
convergonl antl a clivrrgr~~t rhnnnrl for the case of two-d~mensionnllaminar flow a t very high Reynolds numbers, t h a t is for flows in
aft,rr (:. Il:~nlrl [ l l ] nntl I<. Millsnps which t,heeffcct of visc:osity iu included, and whir11 pousess bonndnry-lnyrr chornrtrr. In I'rnntltl's
1)onndnry-layer theory (ace a l ~ oChnp. V11 for tlcl,nila) the contor~rof (.he adid body in the U I I ~ I I I I I
nntl I<. I ' o l ~ l l ~ n n s[19]
e~~
Iscl,~,ir~i
11~).nold~
R ~ C I C2 a 18 --
nurnbrr R 71. r i l ,
is pre~cribodn ~ the ~ delrect. of v i ~ r o ~ i is
t ynccon~~t,ed
for only in the thin lnyer ntljoining 1.11~
I5y cont,raat, t,he new procednre is a n indirect one. Instend of the cor11,ortrof t.lle rcnl hody, lhc
wnll.

theory prescribes an appropriate form for tho so-called displncrmrnt, contor~rwhich s~~rronncls
Convrrprnt cl,:~~lncl I l i v e r ~ e n t cllxnnrl
, the body. The displncement contonr makes nn allownnre for the tlisplacemcnt rKec1, cxrrtrd on
(:IITVP 1: A = 5000 CIITV 5 :~R = 684 the cxLernal flow nnd on the wake. This pern~itaus to detfirmine the ext,ernal, frictionlrss flow
(:,,TvP
c~~~~~
3. R
2 : R = 1342
- ~ 8 1
C ~ l r v e6: R = 1312
C N I ~7:
Y RC = 5000
8b011t the displnce~nentcontour; the next s t ~ consistsp in the c o m p ~ ~ t a t i of
o r t.he
~ flow ficltl in t,he
frictional lnyer with the aid of an asymptotic trent>mentof t,hc Navier-Stakes eqr~ntionsfor vcry
(:11rvr4 rrrrrs In R c l a ~ n n witln ~ l p ~ r ~ l l~rvl a l l s large Iteynolds number8 which yields, finnlly, the real uhn.pe of the l)ocly. T l ~ r~tnnrltnblee frnt,nrc
( P , > i s ~ ~ ~ i l l pc a' %
r o I ) o l i ~ % ~ r l n r i l vc l i ~ l r i l ~ ~ ~ l i n ~ l , of thiu new procedure consists in the fact thnt t.hc hon~ltlnry-lnycrmlrnlntion rnll hc rnrric>tl
? I . Fig. 5.I ) I)eyo~~tlt.11~
point. of scpnration. Thiu is in r o n t , r a ~with
t I'rantlt,lS~ho~~ntlnry-lnyrr t.l~rvry\vl~ivl~
cnll bo npplirtl nt mont, nn fnr RS 1.l1rpoint, of nrpnrnt.ion otrly. F~~rt.hormore, t.hc now t.hcory Rile- [23] Prn~rdt~l, I,. : Fiil~rertl~~rclr (lie Striin~i~t~p;nlcl~rr. 6 t,ll ed.. ROO, 1966; ICngl. trnt~nl.Illnrkir nntl
ccodn in nome canen evrn \vil,Ir tihe cvnI~~nt.itur of t,ho cotnplox flow pntterns wlric11 exist. in t h e Son, I,ondon, 1!)52.
rngior~of hnck-flow behintl t.l~rpoint, of srlmrntiotr ng woll RR t,l~ntin the r r g i o ~of~ re-ntl.arl~~netlt. [241 I'i~nnin,13.: Zur l l r r e c l ~ t r l ~tler
~ ~ Innritrnrrn
ji Ei~~ln.ufst,riirnt~t~g iln Kolrr. 1)iss. (:ijt.t.i~rgr~~ 1!l47.
12.51 Itnylciglr, Lord: OII t.lir ~notiotlof eolitl horlira t,Irror~gliviscor~nliqitid. I'hil. Rlng. 21, li!)7--
7 I I (I!){ I ) ; also Sci, 1'11pern L71, 2!t.
1261 Rial~orrclri~rsl~y. I).: 15ull. d r I'lr~nt.itutArrodyn. rlc l ~ o r ~ t n h i n5, r ~6. -34 M o n r ~ o(1!)14);
~ sro
nlno .I. Iloy. Acro. Sor:. .79, :l40- :!I8 nl~tl377- :17!) (I!):l6).
1.271 Il~inl)oirrl~i~lflIzy, 11.: Sur In r6sistanre tlo froLt.olno~~t. rlrs ~ l i s q ~ t~, or ~s ~ r n n ~:I.IIR
n t 1111 Ill~idcCL
Icn 6qnnl.iona iril~cgrnlcen]q)liqn6es b co prohli.tne. (?o~r~l~t,rn I l . c , ~ ~ t2.75.
l ~ ~ s!!!I!) - !)OI (I!)6I).
r27nl Itol)crta, S. M. ant1 Shipmnn, J. 8.: Computing of tho flow boLwcc~r a rot.ntiirji nud n
sl~nl,io~~nr:y tlink. .ll'M 73, 53 -63 1!)70).
111 Al,rnn~owitz,M.: 0 1 1 Iirirliflo\v of :I, v i s r n ~ ~l nl ~ ~ iin t l n tlivrrgi~~gc , l ~ n ~ ~ n.J.r lM;IIII.
. I'iiyn. 28, ,281 I t ~ g t : ~M.(:..
. nnil Innn.. (:.N.: rulrtl~iuni~lly ny~n~nnlrir: IIotv nf n r i r r , o ~ lli~irl
~ r in (I\:
9 2

I--21 (l!l4!)). prcnrnra r)f rill illfinite rot,nting disk. .JFM 7 , 017--fi3I (1960).
121 I3ntolrclor, (:.I<.: Note on n clnrts or aolnt,iona of thr Nnvirr-Stokrs rqllnl.ionn rr])rmci~t,ing [ZHx] ILot.t, N.: Unnt.mtly V ~ R C O I I Rflow in t.11~vii'init,y of n s~,ngn~it.iot~ poil~t.qtlnrt.. A p ~ hl l i ~ t l ~ .
atandy ~~on.rotat,ionr~lly sy nllnet,rir: Ilo\v. (aut~rt,.J . k11:r:h. Appl. h11blir. 4, 2!) -- 41 (1!)51 ). 13, 444--461 (I!lB6/6C,).
I31 l3t:rkor. 15.: Eine einf~icllcVrmllgenlritiorut~gder Hnylriglr.(:rc~rzscI~i~!l~t. ZAMP 11. 148 -- I291 Sclliller, I,.: Unterniich~ingcniiher Inn~innre11nd t~lrbuleriteSt,riirn~~ng. VI>I-l'ornrlu~~~gs-
L ,
152 ( ~ ! i ~ o ) . [left 248 (1922).
141 I!orker, It.: IntCgrntion tlcs i.qnntionn r111 ~nouvcrnent(1'1111 f l ~ ~ i dV e~ S ~ I I I C I IiX~ ~ c o ~ ~ ~ p r r s s i h l ~ . [2!):r] Srl~obriri,M.T.: N i i l ~ r r n t ~ g ~ l i i e n n~gl cr ~Nnvicr-Stoltr~'acl~o~~
r~ 1)ifl'crc11l.ir1.lgIt:ir~l11111g I'iir cbi~~o
(,ontribution to: Hnndbuclr dcr Plrysilc (8.I'liigge, ed.) 1'11//2, 1-384, Rcrlin, 1!)C,:). zaeitlirnensionnlc st,ntionii.re IJa~riinarstrii~nur,g k o n u t n ~ ~ t eViakoniLiit
r in konvaxcn 111111
koriknvrn J)iff~~noren11nd 1)iisen. ZAMP 27, 9-21 (1976).
. . Rlani~iu,11. : I,nrni~rnro St.riimr~njiin K~l.nA\enwecl~nelnr\erI5reile. Z. Mnth. 11. I'l~ysili 6 8 ,
[51
226 (1!)10). [30] Scl~lichtitlg,11.: 1,nmirrnre lCnnalci1rlni1~qt~r61nung. ZAMM 14. 368-373 (1934).
(61 (:nt,lrernII, I)., nntl hltinglrr, l<. W.: The intrgration oft.lio two-di~ne~r~iocrd I n ~ n i ~hor~ntlnry-
~nr [31] Srlimirlt. W.: Ein cir~fnrl~cs Mcenvnrf~~liro~r fiir I ) r o l r ~ n o ~ n o ~X. . G5, 441 ---444 (1!)21).
~ t nVJII
layer oqnntionn pas( f.l~epoint. of vnninlri~~g skin friction. .JFhl 26, 10:1-182 (I!)IiO). [32] Sparrow. E.M., nnd Crcgg, .J.L.: Mms transfer, flow and heat transfer nhoiit, a rotat.irrg
171 ~ c l r m nW , . (:. : 'l'lrc flow due to a rotnI.ing rlisk. I'roc. (:n~rrl)r.l'hil. Sor. .YO.306- 375 (1934). d i ~ k Tra~rnact~io~rn
. ASM E, J. Hent 'rmrrsfrr 82, 294-302 (I!)(;O).
1701 1llorc11t,,1'. n ~ r dl'r111)r. .I. I,.: l ? r ~ o ~ ~ l c nIn.n~innirc
l n ~ ~ t tl'rr~~ fl~iitlovinq~lrnxit~ro~nprcnsihle [33] S b i n h e ~ t e r .,I . : Kine cxnkte J,iisnng tlrr instat,ion:iron Co~~ot,t,e-St,riinr~~~~g. Proo. Srirnt.ilio
r ~ ~ t , rtlrr~x
c, rlincl~~rn I)orrrtx ,I. Rli.t,n~iicl~~r
14. 433fi 459 (1!)75).
-
h e . of Ilrn~~nnrl~rvcig X I'll, lh4-164 (l!l(ih).
[34] Stewnrtaon, K.: 011 the flow bet,rveen taro rotating conxinl diskn. Proc. CnInbr. Plril. Sot.
[HI Yriianling, N.: Verrlrtn~t,ung,\Yiir~iiaiibert~rngu~~g nnd (;earlrwit~digkeit,svort~ilung hni zwei- 49, 333-341 (1!)53). ~,
r.l..i.t..~ ~.n~.
n n i o ~ ~uncl
t ~ l crot,nt~ioussvn~~r~c~~~isr~l~er
r I:i~ninnrer C(Irc~~zscl~irllt.st~riin~~~~~g. Lunds. Utiiv. 1351 Stokes, G. G . : On the e h r t of the interrial friction of fluids on t,he r~lotionof j)endr~lurn~.
Araskr. N. I'. Afrl. 2, 6 5 , N;: 4 (1940). Cambr. Phil. Trene. I X , 8 (1861); Mntll. and Pliye. Papers, Cambridge, 111. 1-141 (1901).
[9l Gerbcm, W.: Znr ir~nLnLioriiiren,Inminnrrn Strom~ingcinor inlcon~prmsiblrnziilirn Fliissig- [38] St,rlart, J.T.: A uolut,ion of the Navier-St,okes nnd energy oqr~ntionsillustrnting t l ~ erespotlso
keit in krci~zylindrircho~r ltoliron. Z. strye\v. I'hysik 3, 267 -27 1 (1951). of akin fricbion nnd temperature of a n infinite plnte thortnon~cter t o f l ~ ~ c t r ~ a t i oi lnl st l ~ e
1101 Hnpen, G . : Uber dio I3cncgr1np rlrs \\'nsncrn in erlgcli zylindrischeti Rohron. Pngy. Ann. 46, stream velocity. Proc. Roy. Soc. London A 231.. 116-1x1 lIQ55I
[37] Szytnnnski, F.: ~ u e l ~ u e ~ o l u t i ocxnctes na
--
den Qqrrations do ,-.'.'- .
l'h;drodynntniquc de f l ~ ~ i t l e
. . visqi~euxdnns le ens d'un tube cylindriq~ie.J. d e ~ n o t h .puree ot appliqu0e8, Serirn 9, 11,
~orcinigllng25, 34- (i0 (1916). 67 (11132); nee nlso Proc. Intern. Congr. Ap )I Mecli. Rtockholm 1, 240 (1930).
[12] Elienletlz. I(.: [lie (:rcnznr.hicht, nn oinern in dcirr glnicl~fiirlnigen I~liinsipkritnst.ro~n rillgo- 1381 Tao, L.N., end Donovati, W.P.: T11rougl1-lloiv in concet~tricand excent,ric anrrr~liof fill0
t n ~ ~ r l ~ gcrndc~i
tcrl TCroi~zylindcr.'I'lrccria ( i i i t t i n g e ~I~I t I I . I)ingI. J'olyt.rr11. J.,726,:l2l (1111 1 ) . clenrnnre wit11 arid withont relat,ive motion of t l ~ oboundaries. 'I'rnns. AShfR 77, 12!)1-- 1301
1131 l l n ~ ~ ~ n tF.:l n ,Her JCiatlnns grower Ziilligkoit Imi [lor Slrvnrnng urn (1c11Zyli~rrlrruntl IIIII (lie iIOFiK\.
\ - - ,-
K ~ ~ g eXAMhl
l. 16, 153- l(i4 (1S:Jf); I'orsclig. T1rg.-Wes. 7 , 1 -- 10 (19:50). [39] Theodorsen, TI)., ant1 Regier, A.: Experiment8 on drag of revolving diacs, cylinders, nnd
r141 I[ownrth. I,.: On tlro calcitltltio~~
L ,
of the stailtlp flow in the houndnry lnyer near tho surfnce streamline rods nt high speeds. NACA Rep. 793 (1044).
of n cylinrlor in n a t r r a n ~ .AltC lthl 1032 (1!)35). (401 Timine, A.: Uber die Ue~cl~windigkeitRvcrteili~n~: in Wirholn. Trig.-Arcli. 2.5, 208-226(1%7).
i151
, von 8
I<brmfirr. 'rh.: 0l)cr Inniinnrc ur~rlL ~ ~ r l ~ r ~ l oRrihi~ng.
nto ZAMM I. 238-252 (1921); [41] W I ~ ~ R OJ.: I I ,A solution of t l l ~Navier-Stokes equntior~eilltintrntinp the roaponao of n Inlninttr
NACA 'I'M l0!)2 (1940); nee also: (h11. \Yorks 11, 70 -97. bonnrinry layer to n given cl~angoin tlio extcr~rnlalrcanr velocit.y. Ounrt. J . Mool~.Ap11l.
(101 I<on~pf,G.: Ubor Itcil~~~ngswitlcrst~~i~~ltl roI.irrc~i(lerScht:il)c~~. Vort,riigr I L I I dr111
~ (:r:I)iot. d r r Mat,l~.If, 3302-325 (1958). ~,
Hvclro- 11r1r1Aerodvr~n~nik, Innsl)rrlr:k (.!ot~gr. 1!)22; IJerlin. 1!)24, I(;!!. [42] Wnteon, J.: Tho two-dimc~isionnllarni~rnrflow rlenr tlie utngnntio~~oint of n r y l i ~ ~ t l\rhicll rr
1171 ~ i r d o ,I<.: ~ntern;1clrr1n~o11 iibor dio znil.lirhe M'c:itcrent~n~irklr~ng e i ~ ~ eWa i r b c l ~init vor- I r u nn nrbitrnry trnnaverno n ~ o l i o s .~ I I I L ~.I. ~ .MooL. App1. ~ f 1 1 1 ~ 1 . 11, 176.- llHl ( IIfiII).
gcgobrr~erAnfn~lgnverlailung.Ing.-Art:\\. .?1,:185 - 404 (\!)W).
[l8n] hfkllor, C. L.. Clinpl)le, P. J . nnd Stokcn, V. K.: On Lllo flow botwecn n r o t , n t i ~ ~agn d a
stntionnry dicrk. JI'M 31, 95-112 (1968).
I181 Kuikon. H. I<.: I ' l ~ eo f i c t of nornrnl h l o n . i ~ ~on g t,ho Row rlcnr n rotnt.ing dink of illfinite
extrnt,. Jl'hl 47, 789--798 (1971).
hlillnnpn, I<., nnrl I'ol~ll~nnaen.I<.: Thrrri~nldislril~~ttiorr in .Teffrey-llnn~clflows I)ntn.eol~
n o n l ~ ~ r n l l eplano
l wnIIn. ,lAS 20, 187- I!lli (195.7).
hliiller, \Y.: Zunr I'rol,lo~n d r r A r r l a u f s l r i i r ~ ~ cir~or
u ~ ~ I'liisuigkr-it
~ im gerntle~iR,ohr rnit. ICrcin-
ring- untl I<roinqr~rrnel~~~it,t~. ZAhlhl 16, 227-238 (1!)3(i).
Oncr,~),(:.\V.: /Irk. f. Mnt,l~.~at,roll.o c l ~ Vys. . 7 (l!)ll); l l y r l r o ~ i ~ r c ~ Jjripzig. ~ n ~ ~ i l l!l27.
~, p. 82.
l1t>i3t*~~iIlt-. ,I.: l<~rt!l~rvcl~rn c x ~ ~ f i r i ~ ~ ~sixr
r ~ ~lct IcI ~
I ~iI iI ~
V ~~I sI I C(Jt:u
I I ~ Iiqnirlon tl~innIra 111I)enrlr
11.i.n ~wt,i!.q~ l i a ~ ~ ~ i . t(,'t)~ril)lsx
.rrs. Hcntl~t!,I I , !)ti1 --OC,7 nntl 1U4i - 104%(IX40); 12, 112 (1841 );
i l l 111orrdrlr~il:Mr~noircstlcs Snvnnls IClrnngorn B (1840).
 b. I'arallcl flow I),w(,a slll~ere I 13
This systern of eqrlatiotis must be supplemcntcd with the same bo~rrltlarycotltlit,io,ls
:IS the fill1 Navier-Strokes equations, namely those exprcssirlg the abscr~ccof slip i r ~
the fluit1 a t the walls, i. e. the vanishing of t l ~ enormal ant1 t a n g ~ n t ~ i ac lo n ~ p o n c n t , ~
of velocity :
ll,, = 0 , ,?! = -- 0 :I t< \v:1 I Is . (6.5)

Art irnportnrlt c:l~n.ractcrist,icof crccpitlg motion can bc ol~tairtctla t once f'ro~~t ~:(III.
(6.1), when the divergence of both sidcs is formet1 and when i t is ~ ~ o t ~ i ct,lratc t l t,lle
Very slow motion oper:tt8ions tliv and V 2 011 t,110 right-l~n.r~(l
side may 1jc pc:rforr~irtlin t,hc rcvt5rso ortl(%t;.
,.
I l~tts,wit,Ir cqn. (0.2) we have

a . The clifirential equntiono for the case of very elow motion

'I'llc pressure fioltl in crccping motion s:~tisficsthe pot,o~t,ialcqrlatior~: t r l t l the 1)rcssurc
l I l {,lliq 1 ~ ~ 1 ~ 1 1 jvl. 10~ 1list*11ss
1 ~ , l, l~r ~, l ~ l l ~ p SOIII(- :1~1~~roxit11:11.(? so111I.ionso f t , l ~ (xavier-
, p(x,?/,z) is a poLent.ia1 function.
~ : I I S O \ ~ I I C I I 1.111, \,~S~:OIIS
r i l ~ , l t a O~I ~~I I I L I , I O I I H \ v I I I ~ I I I t~rtj\ * t t I i t i 111 1,111,li111lt.111g furccs re
'rhc equations for two-dimensionc~lcrceping motion become parl,ic~tIn.rly sirn~jlcin
consiclerably grcatcr tl~n,nthe incrtia forrps. Since tltr incrt,ia forces arc proportional
form urit,ll the introtlnction of t h e stream f~tnction 71) tlnfirictl Ity ?L = ar/~/if!/at111
t o tho square of the velocity whercas thc viscot~sforces are only proportio~ialto its ?I = - ay~/r3x.As cxplair~ctlin Cl1n.p. I V, :trttl as sccrl from cqns. ((i.:%), wllcr~Ijrt,sstlt.c:
first power, i t is easy t o appreciat,e t h a t a flow for which viscorts forcrs arc dominant.
is t:Ii~ninl~I~t!~I
l ' r o ~ tl~, l ~ t ?lil.sl, I,\vo o t l t ~ t ~ t ~ i o1,111? J ' I I I I c I . ~III,IS(,
t l ~ ,stret~111 ~ ~ ~ s:~l.isl:~ (.It(!
is obtained when t,ltc vclocit.y is very stnnll, or, sl~rnlringtttorr g c ~ l c n ~ l\VIIPII
l ~ ~ , trhtr
rcluation
Reyrtolds number is very small. Wllcn t,hc inertia terms are simply omitted from the
equations of motion the resulting solut,ions are valid approximately for R 6 1. This V",l =1 0 .
fact can also be deduced from the dimensionless form of t.11~ Navier-Stoltes equations,
eqns. (4.2). whcrc the inertia terms arc secn t o be mtrlt,iplied by a factor R = e V 1/p
.,I lle strratn f~lnct,iot~of plar~ccreeping rnot.ion is t,hus a bipot,rnt.inl (Ijil~nrlllollic,)
fttnction.
compared with the viscous terms. I n t,liis connexion we may rcmarlr t h a t in each
pnrtictilar case i t is necessary t o examine in detail the quantities with wt~ichthis In t,lic remaining scct,ions of this eltapt,er we propose t,o discuss tllrcc ex:~tn~)lcs
Reynolds number is t o be formed. However, apart from some special cases, motions of creeping motion: 1 . Parallel flow past a sphere; 2. 'I'l~e l~ydrotlynnmict,lleory of
a t very low Reynolds nllmbers, sometrimes also called oeepittg motiotl,.~,(lo not I~tt~rirnt,ion;3. Thc Iiele-Shaw flow.
occur too often in practical applicationsi
I t is seen from eqns. (3 34) t h a t when the inert,ia terms are ncglrrtctl tile incom-
b. I'arnllel flow past a spl~ere
pressible Navirr-St,oltrs equations assume the form --- - . -. -

'I'hc oltlcst known solrlLion for a creeping nrot.io11 was given by (:. (:. St.olrcs
who in~csl~igatctl l,hc? case of pamllol flow past, a splrcre [17]. Wc shall tlo\v tl(~sc-ril)t~
div 111 =0 , (6.2) t,hc rcsnlt of his calrltlations witl~otltgoing into t<lre~n:~l,llcrnat~icnI tlct,:~.ils01' t.lto
tl1cor.y. Wc shall I)nsc our tlcscription nn l.hnt given Ijy 1,. 1'rrtntlt.l (121. '1'11t. sol~~t.ion
or, in cxtnrttlrd fortn of ( ~ [ I I H . (6.3) ~ , I I ( I(0.4) f111, 1.110 (.II.XI> 01' $1, sl)ltvr~!01' rtl,(Iit~sI ( , t , l ~ ( : ( , I % I I ~ , ~ 01'
( * i v I ~ i t , l lt . 0 .

az I inc:itlcs wit11 tltc origin, ant1 w11icl1is 11l:~cctli l l a pamllcl st.ro;r~nof ~tnili)t.rt~
I/,, Fig. 6.1, alortg the 3:-axis can t)c rcprcsrntctl by t,ltc following rqrlat ions for t,llc.
pressttre arlcl vcloc:it,y cornl)orrcnl,s:
VCIOC~L~

t
-
In t.110 cnnc oC R ~pltcrefalling in air ( v
when t.11~
160 x 10 ft2/soc)wc obtaitl C. g. R = l i d / v -- 1,
1-

dinlnetet d 0.04 in :( 0.00333 ft.) and t8hevelocity V = 0.048 ft/sec.

114 VI. Vcry slow motion b. Parallel flow pnst 8 spl~rrc 116
+
where r2 = z2 y2 4- z2 has been introdr~ccrlfor the sake of brcvit,y. Tt, is easy t o A coniparisot~ het~ween Stolzcs's erjl~ation nntl rxpcritncnt was givan in Vig. 1.6
verify t,hnt these expressions satisfy eqns. (6.3) and (6.4) and t h a t t.ho velocity va- from which it is seen t h a t is applics only t o rases w l ~ c rR~ < 1 . The pnt,tern of
nin11esa t all pointa on the surfnco of t,ho sphere. The pressure on t,he s11rfnc.ebecomes strcamlinos in front of anti behind the sphere must be the snrnc, as by rcvc,rsing
t,he tlirectiou of frce flow, i. e., by changing the sign of vclocity c o n ~ p o r ~ e rin ~ t cqns.
s
(6.3) and (6.4) t.11~s y s t o n ~is transformet1 into it,self. The st,reamlincs in viscons
flow past. a sphcro are s l ~ o w nin Fig. 0.2. Tltcy were tlrnwn ns they woultl nl)pear
'rho mnximrl~nant1 n ~ i n i m r ~ rofn prrssrlrc occurs nt points P, nntl I'2, respectively, to a n observer in front of w l ~ o mthe sphere is dragged with n constant, vclocity U,.
thrir valnrs bring 'I'he sltrt,ch contains also velocit,y prolilcs a t scvcral cross-s~ct~ions. I t is seen f,l~nt
3 11 uw tho sphere drags with i t a vrry witlr layer of flnitl w l ~ i v lr~x t , r ~ ~ tover
I s : i l ) o ~ ~otn, e
1)1.2- pcn - -1- (G 7 1)) tliitrnclor on I)ot,l~sitlns. At, vory high Itryrtoltls nurnl)ors t l ~ i s 1~orln~l:iryl:~y(:r
--ji -
L)ccornes very thin.
Tile prcssrlrc distribr~t,ionalong a 1ncridin.11of t,hr sl)hcre as well as alor~gthe axis
of al)scissar, r , is S ~ I O W I Iin Fig. 6.1. '1'11e: shrnring-stress di~t~ributiotlover the spllere
can also be cnln~l~,Lctl from t h e n.l,ovo formr~lac.If, is for~ntlt h a t t,he sllenring st,ress
has it,s largoat value nt poirll /I wl~crct = ij ,IL fJ,/I1 :LII(I is r~(11nlto t,hc pressrlre
riso nt PI or prrssurc tlccrrase nt /',. Tntrgmting t,ho pressure distribr~t.ionant1 the
sttraring sl,rrss over the surfacr of tho sphrre we obt,nin t,ho t,ot,nl tlrng

Ipig. 6.2. Sl.rcanilincs nnd vrloci1.y di.st.ri- [Pig. 6 . 3 . S1.rc:itnlir1rs i l l llir flow
brttinr~ it1 Stokm' snlt1t.ior1 for n spllcrr i l l
pa r;lllc.l flo\v

ORCVII'.~inraprovcrnt-~~t:AII ~ I T I I ) ~ ~ V I ! I T I ( - I of'
I ~ , St,ol<c:s'ss<,It~t,iot~
W I I S giv(!t~ 1j.y
C. Mr.Oseen [l I], who took the incrt,ia terms in the Navicr-Sf.okcs equations pa.rt,ly
info :~cconnt. I l r a.ssr~n~ctl t11n.t talle vrlocit,y c o m p o r ~ r t ~ t s Ita t~c~l,rrsc~trt,c~tl
( 3 ; ~ ~ ~ :IS t.11,:
'This is f,ltc vcry wcll known rTloko.~ cr/uation for thc: tlrag of n sl)l~rrt:.I t , can I 1 v shown :III(I $1, p ( * r l ~ ~ r l ) ~~~, Ot ,~iIoI 'l'l~!tx
S I I I I I o f :L (~onsI,;~nl I~. ~
t,Ilat. o l ~ ct.llirtl of f.hc t1r:t.g is tlrro t,o t,he prossure ,list,ril)litio~~ n ~ ~.II:L~,
~ d t.11~ ron~:~i~~ir~g
t.wo t,l~irtlsnrr t111ot.o t.11~ cxistctico of shcnr. I t is fr~rl,llarrcrnnrk:~l)lct,11:lt t,l~cctr:~g
is ~ x o ~ ) ~ r t , itoo ~t.hc
~ n lfirst, powcr of vclocity. If a t1ra.g cocfficiet~tis fornled i)y
a
rc*krrillg f,llc tlr;la 1.0 t,lrc tlyrl:~mic l~c:t.rl Q 11,2,nritl t.11~rront.:~l arca., :IS is dotlc: a;hc,rc*i s ' , 11' all(\ 711' nrr t,l~o~)crl,rirl):l
(.ion i.c.~.nls,: r r l t l :IS s11~l1, l l 1r.it 11 ~ . c ~ st.0l ~ ~ ~ (
stn;~
in tllc c.:rsct of Iligl~cr I ~ C ~ I I O I ( I Sr ~ n ~ n I ) ( ~orr s ,if we pr~t. ( . l ~ f'rcr
e st,rca~nvclocity (1,. I t is to rlotecl, I~owevcr,tllat, t,l~isis r~ot,t r ~ irl l 1,11c
irnnlrrliatr neighl~onrhootlof t,hc spherr. With t.hc n s s r ~ r ~ l ~ ~(0.1 i ~ i oI )t ~1.111- illrrt.ia
1) - C,)x RZ ( ;@ Up?) , t.crms i t 1 t,hr Na,vier-Stdokt>s rqns. (3.32) nro tlrc.o~nl)osedin two ,pro~~l)s, r. g . :
24
R= Umd allr av' a~' ,avr
c, = R- ; (loo , U, -- , . . . and , IL --, ...
v ax "Iaz
ax
116 VI. Vrry slo\v t~lotion
,
I 11c sccontl group is ~lrglnctrtla s it, is small ot' the sccorltl ortlrr rornparcll wit.ll the
3
are very large ill a tmnsverse direction with rcspoct. t,o the mot,ion so tllat, t,hr problem
first group. 'l'hrls we obt,nin t.llo following cqllat.iot~sof rnot,ion fro111 the Nxvier- is one in two tlinlensionst. In ortlcr t,o ol)t,ain a stready-st.atseproblern Ict 11s assrime
St,oltcs cq~rat.io~ls
: t,hat t,lle hlork is a t rest and t,liat thc plarlc gi~icleis forrctl t,o nlovc witSlta ronstal~t.
vctloci0y lI wit,l~rctspoct i,o it.. 'l'hc x-nxis is nssllinrtl i l l I.II(: tlirccl,io~iol' n ~ o l i o t :111tl ~,
tho y-axis is at, right. anglns t,o t . 1 1 ~plane of t.l~ogrlitlo. 'l'llr: I~rigllt~ h(n:) of t , l ~ wrclgr r
I)c~l,wcc-~~t , l ~ t a l)Io(:lt I L I I ~ I I 1 l 1 t * ~ ~ l i ( l ti~: I I H H I I I I I I : ~ ~1.0 IN: vt!~.yH I I I I I I I I . O I I I I ) I I I . ( Y ~ \ v i l l i 1111.
lrngtll 1 of t l ~ r1)lork.

r
I I I C 1101111tla.ry
1
c,o~~rlit.iol~s
arc t.110 sarrlc as for t.llo Navir~.-Si~olirs
t.11~Osccrl rclu;ltions are linear as wn.s t.llc caso ~rrit.l~
ncll~;ltiot~s,
t.hr Stoltrs rqua.t.ions.
1)1t(,
Fig. 0.4. I.t~I~ric:~tiot~ in n 1)raring:a) lilo\v it)
I
h~
rvctlgc hrt.\vcrr~~ l i t l r .I)loclc nncl planr. grlido
P
I he pat,t,c,rn of st,rr:~rrllir~rs
1
is now 1 1 0 lo~lgc:rt.11~sanlcx i l l f r o ~ ~ol't , : L I I ( ~ I ~ c l ~ i ~ ~ l l sr~rf:tcr;I)) 1'rcsstlt.t: tlinLril)~ll.io~~ovcr blovk,
t , l ~ c -sphere. 'I'l~iscan be recognized if' rcfcrerlcc is tnatle t o rclns. ((i.12),I)rm.r~st:if w r 011 71.67
(:II:III~C 1 . 1 1 ~sign of t,llr vclorit.ios and of the: pressilre, t,h(: cq~~nt,ions do not t,mns-
fortl~i111,otrl~crnsclves,wl~crcast,l~t: St,olics cclr~:~t.iorls(6.3) tlitl. 'l'hc st.rc:a.inlitlt:s ol'
t.lln Osrcn cqrtat,ions arc plot,tcd in Fig. 6.3, and t,llo observer is again assun~ctlt o
I)c a,t rrst wit,ll respect. t,o Clle flow a t a large disttance frorn t,lle sphere; it is itrlagi~~rtl
l'llis lnoLion is a ~ n o r cgcnernl cxarnple of that, corlsiclrrrtl in Sv.c:t.iol~\I 1 , i. (,. o f
tO~at,f,l~cs p l ~ c r cis dra.ggctl wiLh a constant, vclocit,y 11,. 'rhc Row in front of tall(:
t,lle illot,ion betwceu two parallel flat walls wit.11 a pressure grarlirtlt,. 'l'hc rsscnt,i:tl
sl)ltrrc>is vcry silnilxr t,o t h a t given by St,okcs, but, beltintl the sphere the st.rearnli~~cls
tliffcrcnre consist,^ in t,hc fact t h a t herc the two walls arc inclined at. :LII nnglc t,o
arc closer t,ogc?t,llcrwhicll mc:llis t h a t tJlo vclocit,y is larger t,han irl t.he forrncr case.
each otJ~er.For this rcasorl the convective accelcration 7~ au/ax is evidcllt~l,ytliffcrcnt.
I'~rrt.ltcrrnorc~,I)ohilltl t , l ~ csphere sornc ~)nrticlcsfollow it.s mot.iorl as is, in Ik(-l.,
ol)srrvc:tl rxpr*rilnrnt,ally at, large T<.cynoltls rliimbers. from zero. An est.imat,ion of t h c viscous and inertria l'orcns shows immctli;~t.clyt,l~at,,
in spite of t,hat, in all cases of pract,ical importancs, tile viscous forces arc prctlo-
minant.. Tllc largest viscor~stcrm in the equatpionof nlot,ion for t,llc x-direc:t,ior~is rc111nl
t o / L i)2u/r7y2.JIencc we can make the following cst.imat,c:
Inertia force
Viocous force
u au/ar -
- p -----
- ~ i a ~ u / a y-
' C, U[h2 -
p U2/l - Q Ul
18
.( ):
The inertia forces can b r r~eglcctcdwith rcspcct t o the viscolts forrrs if t11(,r ( ~ I r r ( ~ ( 1
Ttry noltls nutnl)rr
c. Tile hyclrodynnniic tl~eoryof Itrbricntior~ R*= r' ( : ) ' a 1 , (6 14)

I llc p l ~ r n o l n r n : whicll
. I
~ t,akc place in oil I~ll)ricat,ctlbcnrir~gs nffortl nnot.l~:r or, by way of nrlr~lericalexample:
rs:~ntplcof flow in \vhicll viscous forces are predoininnnt,. I'ronl t.11~ pmct.ical point
of virw tllrsr phcr~orncna are vcry iml)ort,nnt. At, high velocit.ics t,llc rlcaranc.r
I)ct.\vrc-rl t.wo mncllinc elcrnmta wllicll : ~ r cit1 rrlat,ive mot.io~l (r. g . journal :~rld
1)rnring) is fillcltl 11y all oil st,rcarn i r ~which cxt:l-cmcly large pl,essnrc dill'crcnccs
may I)r crcnt,rtl. As ;L collscqrrcllcr, t , l ~ rrc!volvirlg jourr1a.l is lift.rtl somcwhat 1)jr tl~c.
oil fi1n1 ant1 n~ct,allic:cont.ac:l, Itct.\vcrn t,hc moving part.s is pmvent,ctl. 'l'l~cessent,iaI
Ic;lt.hrr~sof 1,llis t.ypr of mot,iorl can be rrr~clrrst,ooclon t,l~c.cxanil)lr of a s l i t l t I)loclc
This 1r;ltls t o a value of the Reynolds nunibcr reftrrcd t o tllr I t n g t l ~of tlic blorlt
of I T / / I , =- 25,000, whtreas t h e reduced Reynol(1s rtumbrr R* 0 1. -
or slil)l)rr rnovit~go n :I plan(. g ~ ~ i r srlrlkrc, lc Fig. 6.4, it, ])ring iln1)ortnnt. illat t.llry t The trvo-dimcnsionnl tl~cory \rrns first forn~r~lnkd hy 0. Ilrynoltls, r/. l'l~il. 'Sr:~nslxog.
:IW i t ~ v I i t ~ ( :it. 0 , Lo r:1(:11ot,l~t-r.
~ ( l ;I srn:~ll:~r~glt~, l l ' ~ ~ s l ~ ~ l l : that,
~ s s t~l ~~ s~r Ini (rl i r ~ g s ~ ~ ~ ~ l ' a r r s Sor. (18bC,),1'1. I , urr nlso OuLwnl~lsI<lnosikrrNo. 218, p. 3'3.
1 I8 VT. Very slow tnotion r. 'l'llo Ilytlrorlynn~~~in
tllmry of I~~brivntiot~ I I!)

The tliffrrcnt,ial cq~tnt.iot~s of (:rrrpit~gmotmion, cqns. (6.1),can be fitrl,hrr simplifier1 'I'IIIIS tllc mass flow is known JVIICII t.11~
shn.po of the wctlgc is given as I.llo f~lnrl.iol~
It ( : t : ) .
for the case ~ttttlcrconsitlcration. T11c cqu:~tionfor tllc y-tlireclion can be ornittctl Eqn. (0.19) gives t l l ~prcssnrc gmdient., ant1 eqtl. (6.20) i v e s tllc prcssurc tlist,ril~~tt,iol~
altoget.llcr bccn~lscthe component v is very small with respect t o u . 1711rt,hcr,irr t l ~ c ovrr t Ilc slipl~cr.
cqltnt.io~ll'nr 1,110 x-(lirrct.ion i)21c/a3:2 ca.11 I)c r~cglcct,ctlwith rcspocl, 1.0 a21~/r??/2, be+
c:alrsc the formrr is sn~nllcrt.ll;l.rltllc lnt,t,cr by n h e t o r o l t,lle ortlcr (h/1)2.' 1 ' 1 1 ~ prcssnrc
tlist,ribution t n ~ ~ ssnl.isfy
t, 1,llo contlition t,hnt p .r= I),, a t bot.lt etrtls of tjllc slipl~cr.
Comp:trc>rl wil.lt 1,hc rase or flow bct,weo~l~)nmllolslitling walls, t l ~ cpressure gr:~rlienl~
in l,llc tlirrc:I.ion of ~ n o l ~ i o ap/ax,
n, is no longer const,ant, but the very small prcssurc
grntlic-nt, in t . 1 1 ~?/-diroc:t.ioncan I)c nrglrrt.rt1. Wit,ll t.11cscsitnplificntions the tliffrrrr~t,inl wllit:Ir n.ppcar in cqn. (0.20) tlcpcntl otlly on t,l~cg~ornct~ricnl
s l ~ a l ) of'I,l~e
c gt1.1)I > r l . \ v r ~ t ~
rq~tnI,ions(6.3) rt:tlucc t.o t,ltc slitlrr nntl I'Itn plane. 'l'llc-ir rn.l,io

c (2) = hl (x)/b2(x) (6.23)

wllicl~ I l n s t,llc tlimcnsiorl of n 1cngl.lr plnys ntl imporl,a~~t,
pnrt in l,lrc bllrory of
nntl i,hc ccl\~:~t.inn
of cont.innii.y in tliffcro~l~ial
form can bc rcplnccd by t l ~ econtlit,ion I~~bricnt,ion; it.8 value for the wholc cl~ntrncl,
tll:~tt.11~volntnc of flow in evcry scct,iot~mrtst be constnnt:

is sometimes callctl thc cknrrrclerislic. 1hick)lesa. IVit.11 it.% ni(l, t,llc crl~latiot~
of' c.r)rl-
tinuity (0.21) cnn I>c contractccl t o
q =; U l I , ((;.25)
f r o t ~~vllich
~ it,s ~)llysirnlint,crprct.i~t,ionis cvitlctlt. Tlre prcssrlrc can now be n.ril.t.ctl

nntl the pressarc gratlictlt. I)econ~cs

wl~c-re71' = tlp/(lx dcnotcs t.l\r I,rcssllrt' gmclir,nt,, wlrinh must I)c tlet,crn~incclin s11n11 wl~icllsllows t h a t tOie prcssnre llns :I mnximllm or n ntiniln~itn nt n 1)lncn ~vlloro
n wn.y as 1.0 s ~ l ~ i a tllc
f y con1.inuit.y crll~nlion(6.16), ntltl t,Ilc l ~ o l ~ n t l a rc*orltlil
y ions for t,llc cha.nnel t,llic:ltncss is cq~lnlt o its cl~nrnoLorist.icvalrtt:, Ir. = 11.
prrsslcrc. I ttsc,rt irlg (6.18) int,o (6.10) we lirst ok)t,ait~ Oft,cn i t is tlrsir:~blcto mnintn.it~n 11osit~ivccscrss of' prcssore p - pO, R.II~Il l ~ c
prcccding cqunt.ion can be 11scr1 t,o tlrrivc the co~ltlition fhr it,. Ass~tntitlg 1.h:~t
p - po = 0 at, 3: -- 0 nntl l.llni, the l . l ~ i t : l z ~I1~is
~ splncctl
~ aL z -- z,,, we nl~tsl.Ilnvo
or, s o l v i ~ ~Cot.
g 71': It (z) > II for 0 < z < x,,, itnplyillg 2)' >0
(6.28)
h(r)<IIforx,,<x<l,irn~~lyingp'<O. \
r ,
I l ~ r s crot~(lit,iot~s lrn(1 I,(> a. wc(lgc.lil~(;sl1:111(:wlti(.l~is twttv(*rg~~nI.
i t 1 l , l ~ r *tIirt~~~t.iot~
or flow :~ntlwl~i(:Itnclnrits lo(:nl I~nt,lt1)11sil,ivcat)({ ncg;~t,ivcgr1111it~nI~ tl/t/~l.r.S ~ I I I - f ;
II t l c p r n ~ l s o nttIlc shnpe of tile wl~olcch;rnncl, t.l~ctlirccl'ion of I.llc prcssttrr gr:~tlit,t~l,
a t n scct,ion cannot bc tlct,crmir~ctlfrom tlhltlz nL tllc sc>ct,iott:~loncunlilzc: in pot,cnti:iI
flow.
In lrl1ecase of n wetlge will1 Ilat fnccs for wllich IL(z) -- O(n ---:P), I V I I ~ I ./L~ an(l rY
are cor~sl,n.tlt.s, RCC Fig. 6.4, we obl.nin finnlly
120 VI. Vcry ulow motion

I f we compare t,his rcslllt with t . l ~ afor t crccpitlg nlotioll p:lst, n sphcro in cclt~.(6.71)),
and for the pressure distribution
2 (I-z)
we l~ot,icet h a t in the case of t.lle slipper the pressure tlifTcretlec is grcatrr I I n~ f:rct,or
p ( x ) = po + G,LL~-----.
h2(2a-1) (6.29) ( l l l ~ , , , )Since
~. Ilh,,, is of thc order of 500 t.o 1000 (1 = 4, A,, =x 0.004 to 0.00s i l l ) .
t,lle prevailing prt:ss~~rcs are seen to assume vcry large v a l ~ ~ e s -'l'hc 1 . occll~.l.c?tlc~c: of
The relations hecome somewhat simpler if the shape of the channel is described s ~ ~ high c l ~pressnrcs it1 slo\v viscous motion is a ~)oc.~~linr prol)crt,y of 1.110 t,,yl)(: of flo\v
by t,he gap widths hl and h, a t inlet and exit, respect,ively, see Fig. 6.4. 'The cll:ir:lc- ( * ~ ~ r o t ~ t ~i lIl ~l~~ ~ rl )ortil( : : ~ tAt,
~ i ot , l~~ (~>H:uno
. ~ ~ I I I Ii t:f is t~t*(!op~ix~!(l
I II:II,l,Itc: : I I I ~ C I Ii~~.ttt<xl
~~
t,erist,ic witlt,h now becomes equal t o the harmonic mean I)c4,wccn Lhc two solitl snrfhccs is a n esscnt,inl feature of t llc flo\v.
The prcsstlrc nrirl velocit,y tlistriltlltiorl, ant1 t,lle shape of st roamlir~rsfor t.hc c:lsr
occ:lll.s i l l t,Ilc
slipper arc give11i t 1 Fig. 6.4. It, will I)c nol,icc:tl (.II:L~. I~:~c:k-llow
or a ~)ln,tlc
rcgion of prcssllrc rise ncnr t h c wall a t rest,, just, a s w:is t.11~case wiI.11 t.11~ r:h:~r~nel
and the condition for positive pressure excess, eqn. (6.28), now requires t h a t t,lle in Pig. 5.2, wllen t,Ilc prcs.rr~rcincrcasc~din Lllc tlircct,io~~ of \vall nlot.io11. \V. Il'rocsscl
channel should be convergent. I n this notation, t h e pressure tlistribution is given by 151 calcl~lat~etlt,hc pressure distribution ant1 t,hrrlst. srlpport.rtl hy a slipl)rr of fil~ile
width as well as by a spherical slipper and cor~firmcdt,hcsc calculat,iorls by c x p c r i m r ~ ~ t , .
111 many cases whcn the wiclt,h of t,he slipper is finil,c, t,11cnssulnpt,iorl mntlc earlier
that, the flow is one-dimensional is iri~ufficicnt~, atltl t,hc cxist,cncc of n. con~l)one~lt,
and the result.ant of the pressure forces can be con~puteclby int,egration, when we 111 ill the z-tlirec:l,ion must, bc t.altcn into a ~ c o ~ l nIlcrc
t ; z is pnrprntlio~rlnr1.0 t I I O plnr~c
ol)t,ain of the sltct,ch i l l Fig. 6.4. 'l'hc etlrrat,iot~~)rcccdir~g cqn. ((i.19) n u ~ s trlow \ I ~ Lsl~l>ljlr-
rncnt,etl by
h

with k .= h,/h,. The resr~lt~ant

of the sllczring stresses can be c a l c ~ ~ l a t ~inc tal similar
manner: and the cquat,ion of continuity beco~ncs
1

[el t h a t the resultant pressure force possesses a maximunl

It is int,erestirlg to note
for k = 2.2 approximately, when its valrle is

In Lhc cnsc of a jo11rr1a1ant1 1tc:lrirlg l.lloro n11ls1Ito oc:c:t~~~l,ricil.y I)cl,wt:c~~~ (.II(:III i t 1

T l ~ ccorfficicnt of frict,ion F / P is propor16onal to hz/Z and can be mado very small.
The coordi~lat,esof the centre of pressure, x,, can be shown t,o be equal to
For srnall angles of inclirlat.ion between block and .klidc (k w I ) , tile pressure distri-
h ~ ~ t i ofrom
rl cqn. (6.29) is nearly parabolic, the charact,erist.ic thic:ltness ant1 cent,re
of prcsssnre k)cirljT.very nearly a t z = 1 t . Pni,t,ing hm = h(4 1) we cnn find t h a t t h e
prcssllrc tli[l:ronce 1)ccomcs
ortlt:r 1.0 c r c : ~ ta~ ~
wctlgc of vnri:rl)lc hoigllt, whic:h is c s ~ c ~ ~ I if
, i :II~ lt l l r ~ ~ sisl . t,o
createtl. l'hc rclcvant t l ~ c o r g I)ascd
, on t h e prccctlitlg principles, as well ns oil exnct,
two-dimensional t,l~eory,was developed in great, dct,ail by A. Somrnerfelcl [lG],
L. Guembel [6] and G. Vogelpolil 1-20,211. Figure 6.5 shoivs Lhe prcssnrc distribut.io11
in the narrow gap between jonrnal and bearing; it possesses a vcry pronounced
maximum nen,r t o the narrowest section of the I~lbricntioriwctlgc. Jlenoc, a signif r:~nt,
cont.ribntion to thc loatl-bearing capncity is made by t h a t portion of tOle gap wllic:h
is co~l,~iergentin the direct,ion of rotation of t,he journal. Thc rcsnlt,nnt of the
pressure forces in t,his dist,ribntion balances t,hc load on t . 1 1 ~bearing. I t has also been
t Nrlmrritaal rxnmplr: U = 10 mlscc; ,r = 0 04 kg/m ser: 1 = 0 1 m ; a = 2 1 = 0 2 m;
h, = 0.2 mm. FI~rlrrjc (1/(2a-1) = 1 30 N/1n2; p , = 1.33 x 5002 0 30 Ml'n ( = :1 3 hnr). -
122 VI. Very low tnotion d. The Hrle-Shnw flow 12.7

ext.endc(l t,o i n c l ~ ~ dt hce case of bearings witah finite width [ I , $1, when it. was f o u n d Here R, and Uc donote, respectively, the radit~sand the peripheral relocit,y of the concentric
journal (e = 0 ) and d ia the width of the gap.
t h a t t h e decrease in t,llrust s r ~ p p o r t e dby sllrh a hearing is very corlsidernble d u e t o
After the onset of instability, the flow in tho gap developn rrgulnrly spaced, ccll~llnrvortices
t h e sitlewisc decrease in t,he pressure. Most theoretical calculations have been con- which n.ltcrnnhly rotat,e in opposite dirertion~.'l'l~e axes of t,hesc vortireu coincide \\sit11 the
duct,cd under t,Ile xssumpt,ion of const,ant viscosity. Tn reality h e a t is evolved tshroogh circumferential direction, ns shown achemat.irnlly in Pigu. 17.32 nnd in tlle photograp11 of Fig.
friction a n d t,he t e m p e r a t u r e of t , l ~ cluhricating oil is increased. Since t h e viscosit,y 17.30. In n certain rnnge of Taylor nr~nibers,the flow in the Taylor vortice~remainn Iaminnr.
of oil tlccreascs ral)itlly wit,h incrri~singt,c:tnpcrat,nre (Tal)lc 1.2), t h e t,hrust also l'rnnuition t,o tr~rbr~lent flow ocrnrs a t value^ of the Taylor nuntbcr wl~icllc,onrriderahly oxrcrcl
the lilnit, of rrt,ahility. Tho tl~rcorcgi~ncwof (low (ns will be rrprnl.rrl in See. XVIIf n ~ ~ irti l I'ig.
d r c r m s r s grc:nt,ly. 111 rnorr rcc:c.lit. t,ilncs 1'. N a h m e [I01 extcr~tlcrlt,hc I ~ ~ d r o t l y n n r n i c 17.04) nre characterized as follo\i.s:
tltrory of' lubrication t.o inclrltfe t , l ~ ccffrct, of t.ltc varint.ion of viscosit,y wit,ll t,?rnpera-
t.rlrc ( c f . Chap. XI1). T < 41.3 Inlninar Cor~ot,toflow;
41.3 < T < 400 Inininnr flow witahi:nll~~lnr
'l'nylor vort.irm;
T > 400 t,nrb~~lcr~LIlow.
\Vllcli the flow becomea nnat,ablc, the torqne arli11g On tho rot,at.ing cylinder inrrrancu s I . r r ~ ~ l y ,
t~rca~tsc?the kinetic energy nhrerl in tl~t.uccontlnry flow ~ t r t ~he
s t c.on~pen~at.etl by work.
The sanie flow phenomena, generally speaking, oocrlr when t l ~ ehearing is londed nnd 1,l1c
gap wiclt,h vnrie~circl~mferentinlly,bnt, t.11~dct.nila of t . 1 flow
~ bcro~ncmore ronlplrx. At,tr~npts
Ilnvc lwon rnndc t,o cnlct~lnt,ctho tttrbl~lcntllow in a gap of n bonril~gwit,l~t.hr rritl of I'r1111tlt,l'~
mixing lengtl~[Chap. XIX, eqn. (19.7)1. 'rho set of t,hese prol)lelns hnu at,t.mckeda wide circle of
invr,stigntorn, utlch a8 I). P. Wilrork [19]. V. N. Co~i~l~nntirleuc~~ 12, 3, 41. E. A . Sait)el nntl N. A.
hlnckrn 114. 151 have writton two gcncr~ila.cror~ntet,hat ront.nin ntlrnwotls litcrnt,ttrr rrfrrcnrr~.

d. Tllc Ilcle-Shnw flow

A t ~ o t ~ h crr~nnrkn.l)lc
r sollti.ion of t.ho t f l ~ r c c - t l i ~ n c n s i oc~i~l ln~ln l ~ i o nof
s crrrping
moI.ion, eqns. (0.3) a n d (6.4), can b c obt,ninctl for (.lie t:nsc of flow botr\vcc~lt w o
parnllrl f l a t walls separated b y a small tlist,ance 2h. I f a cylintlrical body of n.rbit,r:~ry
cross-sect,ion is inserted brtwccn t h e t w o plates a t rigllt, angles s o t.hat i t conlplclcly
r r s viscosit,y). t . 1 1 ~r c ( l ~ ~ c e1X.eynoltls
M'ith largo velocities n.ntl higli l . r ~ n p c r n t ~ t ~(low tl fills t.11~space bctwecn t l l c ~ n ,t h e resulting pilttcrn of st,rc::~~nlinesis idcnticnl wit811
r~r~mlR ~ *c rfrom cqn. (fi.14) en11 ansllmo vnlum ncnr o r cxc:ceding 11nity. 'Vlii~means 1,ltnt in potential flow a b o u t t,he anme sllapu. 11. S. Jlclo-Shnw [7] nrrc:tl t.l~iutrlct;lloil
t , l ~ n ittcr1.i:~
t forccs bccornc c o m p n m ~ l ~ lwitrll
c viscous forccs i ~ n t lt l ~ cv:~litlil.y of t.hc t o o b t a i n e x p ~ r i m c n t ~ npla t t e r n s of strenn~lirlcs in p o t c l ~ t i a lflow about. : ~ r l ~ i t , r a r y
t,l~cxorytnny h c q ~ l c s t i o l ~ e t [l L. is possil~lct.o irnprovo t.hc t,llcory, nntl t o c:xtrlitl i t botlies. It is easy t o prove t h a t t h e solr~t~ion for crccpirig rnot.ion f r o ~ n~ ( ~ I I(6.3) s.
t,o I~igllcr1teynol:ls rlnmbrrs, 1)y n st,cp-l)y-st,cp procctlnre. 'I'llo neglncLc:tl i r ~ c r t ~ i n nntl (6.4) possosscs t h e salnc st,rrn.mlincs n.s t h e corrt:sporltling ~)ot.crtt~ial flow.
t,crnis c:n.n Gc cxlcula.tctl f r o n ~t,llc first npproximatiort anti i ~ l t ~ r o t l ~ its ~ c ci:xl.rrr)nl
~l W e select a syst.cm o f coortlinntcs wit,It its origin in 1,111: ccrtt,rc: I)t:t\vc:c~lt t,ltc? t,wo
forcrs s o t.Ilat, R secon(1 :~pproxi~nnt,ioll is obt.nine11. 'l'l~is ~ ~ r o c c d n rcorrt:spon(ls
c t,o plnt.cs, a n d m a k e t h e x, y-plnnc pnrallcl t o tltc pli~t,cs,t.lle z-axis I)cing p c r p o n ( l i r ~ ~ l : ~ r
Osrc~n'simprovctl solut,ioll for t , l ~ rllow ~tnst,n sp11rl.c. SIICIIc : ~ l r . ~ ~ l a t ~ iI oI n~ sV O1)(x:11 Lo t,l~c:m. T h e body is i~sstlmctlt o I)e plncc(l in a strcnrn of volocil,y (J,, ~):II.:III(:I 1.0
prrfnrrnctl by W. l(~hlcr1. 181, w11o fonnrl L I I ; L ~ t.hc iltc?rtSi;tcorrcct.ions in t,hr cn.sr l,l~ox-axis. A t a lnrgc dist,:~nccf'rotn t h e I)otly tllc vrlocil.y t l i s t . r i l , ~ ~ t . iiso ~~x~r:~l,olic:, ~

-
of n ~)ln,tlnslipper o r rirc.t~larI)rnrit~gd o n o t exccctl 10 per cent,. of I.11c: s o l ~ ~ t . i o~nr n t l r r
t*onsitlrrn.tjon f i x values of I I t,o ~ R* 5, n11proxim:~Ccly.A c:omr)nrison bot.wocn
t,l~corct.icalnntl cxprrirncttt.n,lrcst11t.sis c:or~t,ninctlin :I boolc I)y (>. Vogrlpohl [22J, nntl irr
ns in 1,110 ntot,iotl in a rct~f,:~.ngnl:~r
I Irncc
t:l~:~nrtclw l ~ i a lw:ls
~ c:otisitlcc.ocl in St:c:t io11 V.I .

a n rnrlier pn.pcr 1211.

A s o l ~ ~ t . i oofr ~cclrls. (6.3) nntl (6.4) c:ntt [I(: wril,t,c:~~

~LS:
Tllrblllrnre. 'l'lrr tno~lri'nt.cnilcnry to incrrnsc~1l1r lonrls nnd I11~rlc.ralso t l ~ i ?[~rripl~rsnl
,rrl~)vitic,s rjf
l l l r I~ll,~.icilLi~g
Lllis
l ~ a sIr(1 10 n si1,11nI,ir)11in \ v l ~ i r , l l~l ~ rinrrti:~forrrs that, no\vntI:ty!i occur in
fill11 I,cgin to 1)lny n r l in11)ortnnI pnrt i n t.l~r1)so(!t~ss.
t11e \ : I I I I ~ I ~ I (yo~lt~t,l,t!
I~ lIr)\v t,o ~li!rolllc!I I I I U ~ :pllf! I ~ ~ lrtltln
Ulldcr rcrtnin r~oti(litions,
~ C , 1.0 ~lll'~~ll~t'11i'r.
u = 7 1 t l y ( n:)
- ; , , I ) , ,, I
As rnrly n u 1!)2.7, G . I. 'l'nylos I I R I in\.rslip:rtrrl t.hr rnsr of n brnring in \ r l ~ i r lIIlc ~ jo~~rnnl
rol,nt.cs~ co~~rctlt.rir:~lly in t.ltr I~r~slting so that 1 l ~ lrut)ricnt.ing gal) in one of ronrit:tnt I I ~ i r l i ~ ~ r s s .
'rllr i l ~ s ~ n 0 i l"nil
i ~ y 1I1c1rnnsiIio11to t I I ~ I I I I I I ~ ia I C govcr~~r(l
~ ~ ~ l r s snt~rnI>er.
by t l ~ (r l i ~ n r ~ ~ s i o 'l'nylor
124 VI. Very slow motion

potential flow p a s t t h e g i v r n body. Tl111s ?I,, v , a n d p , satisfy

of tlto t,wo-tli~nt~~tsionnl t o I:~rger Reynolds numbers b y succcssivo approximnt,ion, a s mentioned prcvionsly.
t h o equat.ions IIowevcr, in all cases t h e calculations become s o complicated t h a t i t is n o t practicable
t o carry o u t more t h a n one s t e p i n t h e approximation. F o r this reason i t is n o t
possil)lo t o reach tltc rc:gion of motlcrntc Reynolds nr~lrrbcrsf r o m this tlircctiol~.
,.lo, all int,cnts a n d purposes t h e region of moderate R e ~ n o l d sn i l m h e r ~in whic:h
1,110 in(:rl,i:~tincl viscoi~sfor(:(:s I L ~ Oof t ~ o r ~ t p ~ ~ ~I rI :I ~J II ~~~l ~( I! ~ I ~l IlI lI I~~ r o ~ ~I,II(!
~ l lia:l~l
~o~~l~
of flow 11a.sn o t been cxtcnsivcly investigntcd b y analytic means.
I t is, t.hercforc, t h e more useful t o h a v e t h e possibility of integrating t h c
Navicr-Stokes c q t ~ a t i o nfor t,he other limiting casc of very large Rcynolds numbers. ,
'1'11~swe a r c lctl t o tlre boltntlary-layer thco1.y which will form t h e subjcc.1 of t h o
J'irst we not,ioc all OIICO from 1.11~ s o I u t , i ~ n(6.39) t l ~ a 1.11~
t c q r ~ a t ~ i oofn c o n t i n ~ l i t ya n d lollowing chapters.
t,he cquntion of motion in l l ~ z-tlircction
e a r e ~at~infietf. T h e fact, t-hat t h e cqnat,ions of
~not.ionin t h e z - a n d ?/-directions a r e also satisfied follows frorn tllc p o t e r ~ t i a character l
of ?I,, a n d v,,. T h e functions ?I,, a n d v , satisfy t h e condition of irrotationality

s o tlrat t h e pot.cntin1 cqrlnt,ions V 27 1 , = 0 and V 2v , = 0, where V 2 = a2/i3z2 +

iI2/B?p2,a r e sa1,isfied.
'I'lte first t\vo cqnnt.ions (6.3) r e d ~ ~ t,o
c e ap/az -
/ L a2u/az2ancl ap/a?j = /L a 2 v / a z 2 ;
Fig. 6.6. IJcle-Shew flo~v
past circ~~lnrcylinder nt
t.11r.y nrc, howcvt:r, sat,isfied, a s seen fro111 C(]IIS.(0.39). T h u s C ~ I I S(0.39)
. reprosent
a solt~t.ionof t.hn ccluations for creoping mol.ion. 0 1 1 t h e ot,l~crItantl Llte flow rcprcsentctl
R* - 4, s f k r Itic.gcln [I:$]
1)y rclns. (6.39) has t h e s a m e streamlines a s potential flow al)out tlte botly, n.11~1t h e
st.rcamlir~csfor all parnllcl layers z = const a r c congruent. 'The condition of n o Referencer
slip at. t h e pla.1.c~z = f h is seen t,o b e satisfied b y e q n . (6.39), b u t t h e contlition
of n o slip a t t h e sr~rfacc:of t,he body is n o t sat,isfied. [I] Bauer, K.: Einfluss der endlichen Breite des (:leitlngcrs nr~fTrngfiihigkeit uncl IIeibr~ng.
Forschg. 1ng.-Wes. 14, 48-02 (1943).
'I'ltr ml.io of incrt,i:~t,o viscorls forces ill JTele-Shaw motion, just a s i n t h e casc 121 Constnntinescu. V.N.:Analynia of bearings oprmting in trtrl)ulrnt rcgin~e.'l'rn~~s. i\SI\lE,
of t,ltc n~ot.ionof Irtl)ricat,ing oil, is g i v c : ~1)y
~ t.11~rctlucctl Itcyr~oldsn u m b e r Seriaq D, J. Ilnsic Eng. 84, 130-151 (l!)(i2).
[3] Constnntinescu, V.N.: On the influence of inertin forces in tnrbulent and Inn~innrxelf-
acting films. Trans. ASME, Series F, J. 1,llbricntion Technolo~y92, 47:1--481 (1970).
[4] Constantinescu, V.N.: On gaa lubricatio~lin turbulent regin~e.Trans. ASMI':, Series 11,
J. Basic Eng. 86, 475-482 (1964).
[ R ] Frossel, U'.:lteibl~ngs~videratnltd r~nrlTrngkrnft c i n ~ Gleitncli1111es
s encllichrr Brrile. Po~.scIig.
wl~c-re1, tlcnot,rs a n11amat.c:ristit: l i r ~ c a rtlilr~c.nsio~~
of l.ltc hotly in t.l~cR., ?/-1tlatlc. 111g.-Wcs.13, 65--75 (1042).
If R * c:sc~ettls unit,y t,hc inertia terms I)cc:o~neconsidcmlilc nntl t h e motion tlcvint.rs [GI Giintbel, L., and Everling, 13.: Ileibur~guttd Sclin~ierut~g in1 Mnscl~incnbnu.13crli11,1025.
[7] flole-Shnw, H.S.: Invest,igntio~tof thc nntr~rcof surfncc renist.nncc of wntar nntl of st,ron~n
frorn 1 . 1 1 ~sinrplc s o l t ~ l ~ i o(6.39).
n m o t i o ~nndcr
~ ccrtnin ex~ierir~tcntnl
contlitions. ' ~ ' ~ o I IIA
I I.R ~Nnv.
. Arch. X I , 25 (IA!)H); aco
'1'11~ solt~t.iorlgiven b y cqn. (6.30) can b c itnprovctl in t h e s a m e mnnncr a s also Nnture 58, 34 (1898) tint1 Proc. Roy. Innl. 16. 40 (1899).
(81 Knhlert, W.: Dcr Einllusx cler l'rlgl~eit.~ltrlflebei der Irydrotly~~a~~~iscl~etl Schtniertnittol-
Stolcc~s'ssolu~,iorrf o r a sphere o r t.hc solut,ion for very slow flow. T h e inertia t,crtns a r c thcorie. Uius. Brnunschweig 1947; 1ng.-Arc.11.16, 321 -342 (1948).
cnlcnl:t.l.otl from t11c first approsimni.ion ant1 introdtlce;l i n t o t h e cq~lat,ionsns [9] Michell, A.G.M.: Z. Mnth. 11. Phys. 52, S. 123 (1905); seealso Ostwald's IClnssiker No. 218.
c!xt,rrn:rl forcrs, : ~ n t la n improved solutiort results. ?'his was carricd o u t I)y F. Riegels (101 Nnltt~~e, F.: Beitrrigc zur I~ydrodynnn~iuclte~t l'hcorio der I,agcrrcibrn~g. 1ng.-Arch. 11,
1181 for t-11c casc of Tfclc-Sl~nwflow past, a circrllar rylindsr. 191-200- 11940).
\ - --r-
[I I] Oseen, C. W.: Uber die Stokcs'sche Forrnel und iiher einc verwnndte Aufgnbc in der Hydro-
F o r R * > 1 t l ~ cst.rt:nmlinos in t.11~various layers pnrallcl t o t.l~c~ v a l l scease dynamik. Ark. f. Math. Astron. och Fys. 6, No. 29 (1!110).
t o l)c c o n g n ~ c n l . .T l ~ cslow p;~rt,iclesnear t,l~ct ~ v oplat,cs a r e tlefleclcd m o r e b y [I21 Pmndtl, I,.: The mechnnics of viscous fluids. In W. F. Ilurand: Aerodynnn~icTheory I l l ,
34-208 (1035).
t , l ~ o1)l.csrnc:r of (.he hotly t11n.n i,llc fast,cr particlcfi near tllc ccnt.rc. T h i s causes t'hc [I31 R,iegels, F.: Zltr Kritilc des Hele-Shnw-Vcrsucl~es.Diss. Gnttingen 1038; ZAMM 18, 05- 106
s t ~ r c a n ~ l i ~t.o
t r s n.pprn.r s o m c w l ~ n tblurrrtl a.rltl t,hc phcnomcnon is m o r e pronounced (1933).
at, t.ltr rcnr of l f l ~ cbotly t h a n in fronl, of it,, Fig. G.6. 1141 $nib&, E.A., and Mncken, N.A.: The fluid mecl~anicsof Inbricntion. Annual Review of
Fluid Mech. (M. Van Dyke, ed.) 5, 185-212 (1973).
Solt~tiol~ins tlrr case of cnrccping motion a r e inherently restricted t o very small [IR] Snibel, E.A., nnd Mnoken. N.A.: Non-lnmirmr bchnvior in bcnrings. Critic-nl review of tlte
Rryrtoltls 1~1tni1)rrs111 prineiplr i t is possiblr t o extend t h e ficltl of applicat,ion li(.rrnt,~~rr.l'mnx. ASMI(:, Scric~F, .I. I,~lliricntinn'I'ccl~r~oloay 96, 174---I81 (1974).
[I01 Snll~lnPrfclil,11.: Z r ~ rl ~ ~ d r o r l ~ ~ ~ ; t l n i s'l'ltcorio
r . h e , ~ (lor Scbnliern~itt~clrcib~~t~g. Z. Met.11.. U .
I'hYsilr $0,!)7 (1!)04); also 0sta.nltl's l i l i r ~ ~ i No. k ~ r21R, 11. 108, nntl: ~ u r T I l r o r i c d c rSchmlcr-
n~iit.c!lrribrl~)R Z. Tochn. Pl~ycl2. 58 (1!)21): also Onl~valtl'~ I<l:tss~ker No. 218. p. 181.
1171 stokes, (:.(:.: ()I\ Lhe elrcct of int,ernnl frict.io~lof l l ~ ~ i tOII l s t l ~ niotion
r of prlldlllrlln~1"nn~.
cnttllir, l>l~il,Snc. 9, l'nrt, I I, 8 - lO(\ (1851) i>r (:011. J'nllr~fl1 1 1 , 55.
(181 : ~ r l o r .(2.1.: StnLilit.y of n viscous l i q ~ ~ in>nlainrrl
I rnnn. 2223, 281)-2!)3 (1923).
(l bct,wcctl two r o t , n t i ~ ~ rylil~(lclr.
g Phil. Part B. Lanlinar bounclary layers
[lo] wilcock, 1). Y.: 'l'llrl)rllcncr ill high-spcrd jot~rnnl bmriogs. 'I'rnt~s. rZSM15 72. 8% (l('50).
[20] Vogelpohl, G . : Ijcitrlige zor I<cnnt,tlistlrr Oleitlagerreibu~rg.V l ~ ~ - ~ o r s r l r ~ ~380 ~ l (1'337).
~slrdt
~ ~ ~(~: l~cci~t ll: ~ ~ r r r r i h r ~rind
(211 Vogel~>ohl,0.: ~ h t ~ l i r h k c i t n l ) o z i e I ) tlt!r ~ ~ g~lntoro1tril)llngsgVrnzc.
Z. \'I11 91, 370 (1949).
[22] \.ogelpolll, (:.: I3~t~irImsicl1rrc C:lcitlagcr. Ilcrrcl1111111~a\~rrInllrrn fiir l < o ~ ~ a t . r ~ ~ knnrl
t.io~~
Hetriel). Vol. I , Springer-\'erl;~g, 211tl. ~(1..I3crlit1, 1007.
Boundary-layer equations for t w o - d i ~ n e n s i o ~incon~l~rcssil,le
~d
flow; bounclary layer on a plate

n. I ) r r i v n t i o ~o~l I t o ~ ~ ~ ~ t l n r ~ -r lt la~yt rn rt i o l ~for

u t \ v ~ - d i ~ ~ t t - ~flow
~si~~~nl

IVc tlow ]wot:t:rtl Lo c:x:~rnir~e1.11~ sccorltl 1itnit.ing c n s r , tr:~tnclyt.l1:1I, of v e r y stnnll

visc:osil.y o r vcr.y l a r g e I t e y r ~ o l t l snrlm1)cr. A n i n ~ l ) o r l n . corrt~ril)ut~ion~~t t o (.Ire scit:ncc:
of llrritl rnotion w a s ~ n n ~ by l c I,. 1'mrrtlt.l [21] in 1904 w l ~ c rIrc ~ clnrifit:tl t,l~t:csst~tll.i:tl
i ~ i l l r ~ r ~of~ rvci s ~ o s i t ~itr
y f I o \ v ~8r.L Iriglr Ibc~rnoltls r ~ r ~ n ~ b nr rr~st l slrowrtl I~o\r,t l r r
N:~vicr-St,oltrs cclrtn(iorrs col~lcl bo siml~lifictl 1.0 yinltl npproxitrint,r s o l ~ r t , i o n sfor
(I~is r n s c . \Ye s h a l l c x p l n i n t h r s c sirnplilicat.ions wit,h t , l ~ onit1 of a n :crgn~llcnt.w l ~ i r l r
[ w r s r r v e s tlrc: p l ~ y s i c a lp i c t , r ~ r co f t . 1 1 ~p l ~ r n o r n c r r o n ,nntl it, will b e rccnllctl t , l ~ : ~i ltl
Ilrc 1)11ll<o f t.llr flui(l ir~c?rt.i;tf o r r r s prctloniirr:~t.r, tlrn i ~ i f l ~ l c . ~of ~ t v: oi s e o ~ l sforc(>s b e i n g
V;I11is11iri~Iy st~inll.

I . 7.1. Ilo~~r~tlnry-I;~yc.r
Ilow along n wall

Il'or I,Ir(: S;II<Cof sit~rl)liciI.y w e s l ~ n l lc.o~isitloc.I,a~n-tli~~lc~r~sio~l:rI flo~r,01' :I, l l ~ ~ i t l

\villr v r r y SIII~LII viseosil,y t ~ l ) o ~ :Lt l ,(~ylit~(It.it~;r,l Llo(ly of sl(~rt(It*r~ (~ross-sct:li o t ~ J, t 3 i K . 7. I .
\Vit.h t,hc excel)l.ion of tsl~cimmctlial.c ~ ~ c ~ i g l r l ~ o ~ l rofl ~t,Ir(: o o t ls r ~ r f ; l c ~(.Ire
r , vc:lot.ilic:s
ilro of l , l ~ cortlcr o f t.lto frcn-st.rcnrn vclorit.y, V , ;l,nd t,lrc p n t . l o r t ~of st,rc:~n~litrc.s n~~tl
t,llc vcloc:itjy tlisl~ribr~t.ior~ tlcvinl.c o r ~ l yslig11t.l~h o r n t , l ~ o s ci t 1 frict.ionlrss ( ~ l o l , r t ~ t , i : ~ l )
flow. Jlo\vcvc:r, tlct,nilrtl invt~sI,ign.t.iotrs n vl .111(: f l t r i t l
r c v r n l I,llrlL, r ~ r ~ l i l itlrl ~ l o t , c ~ ~ ~Ill.oi ~
tloc?s 1106 slitlc o v e r t,hc wall, i)nt, : t d l ~ e r r s1.0 it. 'l'l~c t,rnnsil.iotr liom z e r o vt.loc~il.\. tit.
I.II(* I\,ILII 1.0 t r l ~ cf ~ t l lt ~ r ~ ~ g t r i I . ~111,
t ( l (SOIIIC
: tIisl,nrr(-~- fro111 it, t,:~l{tssl)lt~t!ci t 1 ;L v r r J r t,11i11
128 V I I . I3011nclnry-layerrq~tnt,ionsfor t\vo.ditnrnuiot~nIflow; ho~lndarylnyer on n plate a. Drrivnliot~of bo~tnclnry-lnyc,rrq~tnlionsfor flow along n Il:~tplntr 129
layer, t.hc so-cnllctl borrnclary layer. 111Lllis manncr there are two regions t o consitlcr,
r v r n if 1,llo tlivision t)ct,wc.cn t,hcm is not very sharp:

1. A vcry tllir~ lnyrr i r ~the itnmct1i:~tencighbourl~oodof the body in which t,lrc

vrlocit,y grn.tlicnt normal t,o t.hc wall, a?~/r?y,is very largc (hni~nrlrr~?/ Lqer).
111 t.11isrrgiol~t,llr vrry small viscosiLy /L of 131~c f l r ~ i t lcxcr1,s :rtl rssc:trI,i:~linfl~rcnc.(:
i l l so f:~.r:LS 1 . 1 1 ~sI~c:aring sI.rcss t l ~ ( i ) ~ / i )I yI I) : L:ISSIIIIIO
- 7 ~ I:~rgt:V:LIIICH.
2. l u t.l~orctn:l.initlg rrgiorl no s~tclr1:tt.g~vc:locity gratlict~koccur nrltl 1.l1ci~~flrrrrlcc
~f viscosil,,v is tlnitnporL:tt~t,. I n t.l~isrrgion t.Irc flow is frict,ior~lossarrtl pot.ont,iaI.
.I .It(: 11onr1cI;rry (:ol~tIit,iol~s
a r c : :tl)s(~~r(:c 111~: fl~rici :III(I t . 1 1 ~ \v:tIl,
of slip 11et,~(:r11 ~
111 gcncml it, is possible t,o st,at.c {.hat the Ll~icltnessof tlrc bonndary layer in- i . c. rc : 11 -_ 0 for =- 0, ;lntl 11, -- (1 Ihr ?J ->m.
t,rr;tscs wit.11viseosit,y, or, more generally, Lhat, it decreases as the Reynolds rrrimbcr
Wit.l~ t,hc :~ssrnnl~t~iol~s ~ n n d o ~~rc:viouslyt.llc: tlirnrt~siot~lrssl ) o ~ ~ t ~ ~ l : ~ r y - l ; ~ ~
incrensrs. It. W:LS SCCII fronl scvcrnl cx:lct sol~lt~ions of t,lle Navicr-St,olzcs cqrrnt3iorls
t,hicltr~css,dll,, for w l ~ i r l\vc
~ sl\a.ll retain t,hc syml)ol (\, is vr:ry small wit,ll rrsprct.
I)r(*ser~tcd in C11n.p.V t h a t t,ltc bonntlary-lnycr thickness is proportional to the sqriarc
rool, ol' Iti~ic:tn:tl,icvisoosit,y :
1,o 1111it,,y, (0 <I).
JVr SII:III now c:st~itr~:~t~r t t (<::I(,II
l,l~t:ortl(:r of r ~ ~ : t ~ ~ ~ i t ~of l ( : 1,c\r111 i l l or(I(*t, 1.0 11c: ;111lt*
6-fi.
1.0 tlrop stnall tcrrns n.tltl t.ll~tst80ar:l~iovr1.11~:clrsirotl sitnl)lific::ct.iort of 1.hc: rclt~:~,Iiol~s.
Sitlcc iJis/ar is of t,llc order 1 , wo sec from 1 . 1 1 ~cqr~:~l,ion of c.or~t,intlit,yl . l ~ : ~ tr(lu:111~
.
\ \ ' l l c r ~malcir~gt.l~csi~n~)lific:~Lions
t,o I)c inl.rodrrcrti into I.lre Nnvicr-St.ol;ns eqnnt.ior~s i'v/i)?/ is of Lhc: ortlcr I, xntl Ilenco, sinc:~a t the wall v =- 0, t , l ~ ; ~ int 1,lte I)o~rlltl:r.ry
it, is nssrrtnrcl t.l~at,l,l~isLhickncss is vcsry srnall cornl)nretl wit11 a sl.ill ~~nsl)eciliotl lttyc:r 11 is of I.II(: orflcr 0. 'I'IIIIS tli)/tl:r :~n(li?2v/8x2 : ~ r c:LISO of l , l t t > or(l(:r 0. l ~ ~ ~ t . t , l ~ c . r
linrnr tlimc?nsiot~,T,, of thc k~otjy: ij2?r/iJ.rVsof l111corder 1 . (TIIc of11c:rs of rnn.gl~il,tltlcnrc s l ~ o w ri t~1 cqns. (7.1) 1.0 (7.:1)
0 1, .< 1111drrt.hc intlivid~ra.lt.crn~s.)
\\.'c sllall, fnrtller, assume t h a t tllc no11-stcndy :~ccclcr:~t,ion i ) ~ / a isl of t,hc! sn.tnct
In this way tI1(. solt~tiorlrrol)tnin~tlfrom t h r bonntlnry-layer ~ q n n t i o n sare xsymp- ordcr n.s l.lle convective term 11.au/a:r wl~ichrncnns 1.ltat vory srttltlcn nrcolcrnt.iot~s,
toflr :~rltl:tlq)ly t o vrry 1;~rgcRrynoltls 11um1)ers. s11cl1as occur in vcry lnrgc prcssltrc waves, arc cxclr~ctctl.Zn accort1:~rlcc wit,ll orlr
11rcviotrsn.rgtlrncnt sornc of the viscoris terms must be of tllr same ordcr of rnngnit,irtlr
\Va slrall now proccctl to disclrss the simplification of the Navicr-Stokes :IS t.hc irrcr1,i:t t,erms, a t lcnst i n t,l~cimmctlintc ncighl)ourl~oodof t l ~ cwall, nrltl i l l
rcl~tnt,ions,a l ~ t lin ortlcr t.o achieve it, we s l ~ a l lmake a n estimate of the order of s1)il.c of t,lle srn:~llt~css of (,he fact,or 1/R. JIcncc sornc of t,l~csccorld deriv:tt.ivcs of
rt~:~gnit,ntlc of c:~,cl~t n r n ~ . 111 tlrc two-tlimensional problem shown in Fig. 7.1 we vrloci1,y nus st t~ccornrvcry Ixrgo nnar t,llc wall. I n nt:cortl:tncc with w l ~ a tw:~ss:~itl
slr:l.li Itcgin I)y ~ s s r l t n i t ~t,11c
g wall tio be flat : ~ n dcoinciding witti tho x-dirc~t~ion,t,l~c Itrforc: this can only : ~ p p l yto az7r./r?y2ant1 i)2~~/ay2. Since t.11~ componnrrt of vc:loci~,~
1,-:txis 1,eing I~crl)cn(lic~llar to it,. Wo now rcwritc the Navier-Stokes cqoations ill p:~,rallrlt 8 0 l.11c w:dl increases frorn zero :tt. t,ltc wall 1x1 t,llt: vnl~rc: I in t211(. frc:rst.rc::~rrr
tli~rrr~lsionlrss I;)r.m by rchrring ;tll .;clonit,ies t o t l ~ cfree-st,rcnn~vclocit,y, V, ant1 arross 1.llr 1:lycr o f t,hic:lrr~csn(?, \ire 11;tvc:
I ) j r rcfrrrir~g:III li11r:tr tlitnnnsions 1.0 a rhar:~cterist.icIcr~gt,h,L, of t l ~ cI)otly, wltiol~
is so srlccl,cd n s t.o rnsnrc t h a t the tlimcnsionlcss rlcri~at~ive, au/i)z,clocs not, cxcocd
r r l ~ i t ,in
~ ~ tlrr rrgiotl rrntlcr cor~sitlcrat,ion.'rllc pressrlre is macle dirncnsionlnss wit11
[J 1 f 2 , nntl I i n ~ ris rrfcrrctl to r,/ If. lPr~rt,I~or, tlte cxprcssiorl
\vl~c~rens i)v/if?j ,- 016 - -
I ant1 i)2v/if?/2 l/d. If tltcsc v:tlrtes : ~ r oinscrLct1 ittt.o c:cll~s.
(7.2) atrd (7.3), it. follows from the first cq~~at,iolrof molion Il~at,the visco~lsf'orrrs i t 1
t,l~chontltl:~rylayer can bccotnc of t.hc same ortlcr of rnngl~i(,rrtl(::ts tllr il~c.rt,i:tii)rc.c:s
o t ~ l yif t<l~oItrynoltls nrrrnl)er is of tShe ortlcr 1/02:
tlel~~t,c:st,l~cI<~c:yrroltls~l~lnrl)orwhich is assurncd very large. Urlcier these nssilr~lp-
t,ions, n.ntl rt:t.;lirring 1.h~:same symbols for t.11~dirnensionlcss cltrant,iGics a s for l,lrcir
tlirnrtlsior~;rl c:orlnt,crpnrts, we lravc from t.11~PJnvicr-S1,okcs e q ~ ~ a t ~ i ofor
n s platlo
flow. rclrls. (3.32) or ( 4 . 4 ) :
.lllc
. first, cqrlat,ion, t11:lt. of cont,inuit,y, rcrnnins unnltcretl for vcry lnrgc Ilcy-
rloltls ntlmbcrs. T11e srcontl ccluat,ion can now be sirnj)Iifirtl Ily ttcgl(:ct.il~gi:Zi~/r?.c.2
wit,h respect t o a2i~/ay2. From t,he t,hirtl eqrtation wc rnay infrr t,hnt i)p/al/ iu of t,I~e
ordcr d. The pressure incrcnse ncross the bonndnry Inycr w l ~ i c lwoultl ~ t)c ot~t,:r,ined
I)y int.cgrn,t,iny!l . 1 1 ~t.llird c~clnirt,ion,is of 1.11cot,tlrr 02, i. t-. very st~rn.ll.'l'lllls 1 . 1 1 ~I ) I . ~ . S S I I I . ~ \
130 VII. Boundary-layor cquntionzl for two-dinlcnsional flow: 1)orlntlnrylnyer o n a pint0
In tho cast: of stently /lolo t , l ~ enl)ove syst,cm of cqr~nt~ions
sim~tlifirsto
in a diroct,ion normal to t , l ~ boundary
e layer is pra.ct,ically c o n ~ t ~ a n it
t . ;mo.y hc assum-
ed equal t,o Lhat a t t.he ont,er tdge of the I~oundarylayer whore its value is determined
by L11e frict,ionlcss flow. 'Vho pressure is snit1 t,o be "impressetl" on the borlndary layer
by the out.er flow. It, may, therefore, be regarded a s a ltnown futlction a s far as
boundary-layer flow is concerned, and it dcper~dsonly on the coordinate z,and on
time t.
--
At the oi~t,crctlge of the bountlary layer the parallel component 7r becomes
cc111n.ll o t h a t in t,lle outer flow, U(x,t). Sinco there is no large velocity gradient witslt 1.11~I~onntlnrycontli1,ion.s
Itore, tile viscous t.rrms in eqn. (7.2) vanish for largo vn.luca of R, and ronserlnent,ly, !/-=0: u--0, a--.O; ?I:-m: 71:-(J(:r).
for the o ~ l t ~ flow
rr we obtain (7.121
11, is necessary t,o presoril)c, in ntltiit.io~l,n vr1ocit.y prolilo nt t l ~ rit~it.ialsc,cl.iot~,
1 : J,, say, I)y i~ltlicnt~ing t , l ~ efi~nct~ion ?r(a,,,y). Tho problcrrl is t,I~ltsscbrtl t,o ~.t~tll~c-r
it,sclf tto the cn1t:ulstion of tho f u r t l ~ e rchange of a giver1 vc1ocil.y profile wit.11n ~ i v c , ~ ~
whore again tho symbols denote dimensional quat~t,ities. ~)ot~cnt~ial motion.
.
1,Ite mat,llemnt,ical simplificntion acltievod on llto prccctling i)n,Aosis col~sitl~:v:~l,lc :
I n the case of stently flow the eqr~ationis simplifictl still f ~ ~ r l h ci t 1r t h n l the
it, is I,rno t,lint,,as distinct from the rase of oreoping inot,ior~,t . 1 1 ~t1011-Iit1rarc:l~nmrtrr
pressure dopentis only on s. We shall rlnphasize this cirrumstnnrc by writing t h r
of t,ho Nnvirr-Stoltrs oqttatio~l11n.sbeen prrsctrvetl, hut of t,hc t.11rreorigir~nlt~cl~rnt~io~ts
tlrrivntivc ns d p / t l ~ ,so that,
li)r 11, I,, nntl p of t . 1 1 ~lwo-tlirnrnsiot~iLIIlow problrtrl, ono, I,l~ccclurlt,iot~01' rnot,iott
[J-
d (J = - -
1 dp
..- nor~nalLo tho wall, 11n.s been clroppctl con~plct,ely.Thns tho number of 11rllinc)wrrs
tlx p dz llns I)c,rn r c d ~ ~ r c Ijy t l orlo. l ' l ~ c r r rcrnnirls n s?jst,cni of t.wo s i ~ r t ~ t l l ~ : ~ .t.tll~:~.l.io~~s
~~col~s
Sor t j I l ( * t.\vo I I ~ ~ ~ I I O W I I&I S ~ , I I ( I 11. 'Iqh<:pr(:ssIlro <;c:~sotll,o IN- : I I I 11111<tto\v1t
1'11t1rtiolt
:111tl (:an now be oval~~nt,etl from t.l~cpol,cnI,inl flow solr~tiotlfor 1,11(? botlw n.it.11 t l ~ c
nit1 of the Rcrnonlli cqunt.ion. I?r~l.t,hcr,onn viscor~st.r.r~l~ in the rrr~~:sir~iny rtlr~ntiott
of mot.ion has also b c r t ~tlroppcd.
r
I IIC ho11ttcl:u.y oontli(.ions for t . 1 1 ~rxt.rrnnl flow :Ire nrnrly tho snnic
3
:LS for frict.ionlrss I'innlly, wc shall no1.c t.hn1, t h e rst.irnnt,ion of (.It(: I ~ o l ~ t ~ t l n r y - l :~ ~I I y~ (r. ~I <~I I ( ~ si lsl

-
flow. 'l'llo I~ontitlnry-lnycrt.11icIzncss is very stnnll :tntl t.hr trrtnsvrrsc velocif,y cotn-
1)otwt1tv is very small at, tho cdgo of t,l~cboilntlarg Ia.yer ( a / I' cT/L). 'i'1111spotcnt,ia.l
t~on-\risconsflow ahont Ll~cI ~ o d ynndcr considerntion i n wl~icllthe prrpcntlirl~lar
t't111. (7.4) sl~owcdt.ltnt

d 1 (7.13)

vrlocit,y component, is vanishingly smnll nrnr t.he wall offers n vrry gootl npproxin~nt~ion
1.0 tho nct,nnl cxtcrnnl flow. The pressure gmdicnt, in t.he 2-tlire~t~ion in t.he boundnry
I:~ycrcan I)c oht.ninod by siii11)lg npplyirlg t,llo Bcrnor~llierjl~at.iorl(7.5%)t o tho st,ronni-
'I'l~c lirct, l h n t 0 - 11; , infcrrntl frorn t . 1 1 ~t:xnnt sol~t~.iotts
tv!~l:~tiorls,is t . l ~ c r r l ~conlirn~ctl.
y The r~cin~rricxl
of ~ 1 1 t - N~~\:it.~'-SIolit*s
rocffic:irtrt., sl.ill tr~issil~g i l l c . c l t ~ . (7.I:{),

line a t t , l ~ cwall i t 1 t.hc Itnown po(.ent,inl flow. will t,llrn onl. l o br cc1un.l t205 for t11r rasr of n flnt, plate a t zrro it~(.i(l('~~t.(,. \ \ . I I ~ * I I 1,
will nionn t . I ~ t : tlislancc front ills Icntling ctlgn.
Slltntnirlg I I ~ ,\vr nrt- now in ;I ~ ) o s i t i ot.0 ~ ~writ.(: r l o w ~t.l~o
~ sitnl)lifir~tlN:~vicr- ,.
I 11r prcc:rtling tlcrivnlions wnro rrl:~l.c:tll,o a flat. ~ ) l n l t . . 11111. l,l~t~l.o is 1 1 0 t l i l l i c : ~ ~ l l ~
Stoltrs rc,r~ntions,Irtlowrl :IS I'vrotd/l'.s br:711i~rlro~/-lrr?lrr ~r~tctrtio~ts. \Vc r n l . l ~ rng:l,it~
~~
t,o ( l i ~ ~ ~ e t ~ s iqoirt ~: ~n~l ~ ~ t . i:tl tilr( Is , o l ) t : ~ i:t ~ it1 c:xt.t:t~tli~~g t21~cntl o 1,llr casc of 81. c:l~rvr:tl w:~ll [2(q. \\!II(.II Illis is tlot~t-,i t , is ~ I I I I I I I
I.llat, eqr~nt~ions (7.10) t,o (7.12) cont.it~r~c t.o Ilc apj)licnl)lr 011 c:ot~tlitiot~t,lt:~l.t . i ~ t %
t>~~rvnl.nrr tlors no(, C I I R I I ~ C ~ I ) r i ~ p t , ns
I y \vo~tItl1)o t,11o C:I.S~ \ v i l , l ~sI1:1.r1)( ~ l g , ' ~ .
.
,1 11(* j)rcscnt n r g ~ ~ r n c nats s ~ ~ r n catt t l f,hc ont8set, 0l1:~t. 1.110 v i s t ' o ~ i l .:I~1liv.l~1 I I ~ ,
flow ~sscnt~inlly only in n vory lllirl I:t.ycr. 1 L sltor~ltl Ijc rc-c*orrlt.tl.I~owc~vc.r, I.II:II.
;~t,lcn~pt,s
hnvo been mntle Lo dcrivc the bonr~rlnry-1:tyort ~ t l ~ ~ a t , if'rorn
or~s N:tvirl.-
St,okos ocltlnl.ions it1 a purely n~:at<hrrnnt.it-nlway, t , l ~ x is
l \vit,l10111. IIbr :rtlol)tior~ol'
pltysicnlly ~ ) I : ~ i ~ s i(:or~ccpts
l~lc 1241.

'I'll? pot,c~nli:~l flow I r ( . r . l ) is to I)(. t ~ r ) ~ ~ s i t l rI<tto\vtl:

tlistril)tll iol~t v i l l t tI1t3 :lit1 ol' r:t111. ( 7 5 ) . 1 1 1 :~tltliIion,:I snit:~l)lrI ) o ~ ~ ~ ~ t l r ? r y - IIOW lnyrr
n~ttsfl)r ~)rrsrril)t*tl
rrd i f . t l t ~ l r r n ~ i ~1.l1t:
r t ~ sI)rc,ssilrc
I t . is alrcbntly possible t,o clrnw sonlo i r n p o r t : ~ ~r~o t~, ~ c , l l ~ s i fro111 o r ~ s t11r l ) r t ~ t ' t . t l i ~ ~ ~
ovvr Ihr- \vI~oIt..r. !/ t.c.gic~l~ 1111(1tsr
(-ot~sitl(-r:lt iotl lor illsli~nt.
t . l ~ ( b 1 .- 0. ~ l ~ ~ l i l ~ o r n t i .ov.
n swil~l~ol~t,
, o l ' t l ~ ItI~I I ~ I I I O ~ I So l ' i ~ l t t y r n f i o ~ ~ .
first!~ ~ S ( : I I S S ~t ,IlI~~q11t>st,in11
r
2 VII. Horl~~rl;~r,v-l;~~er
t~clr~:tt.iotls
for t,\\o-tli~ll~~rsiol~nI
flow: bonntlnry Inyrr 011 ;I plr1t.c c. A remark on the inBgrat.ion of the boundary-layer equntions 133
,I .I)(: fi~.stin~l)orl,;l~lt, tJrtrst,ion ;lns\vt;r is t,n t l t - l , r r n ~ i ~I,ltc
~ c c i r ( : ~ ~ ~ n s t n n 1111c1cr
rrs r q u a t i o n s F r o m eqn. (7 11) wit.11 t h e bolrnclary contlitiorls 71 T v =- 0 wc 11;lvr a t
w h i c l ~snlnc 01' 1I1r rc>t.;rrtlrtl llrritl in 1,Itt: I ) o l ~ ~ l t l n rlaycr y (,an I)c t,r:lnsportctl in1.o ?/ = 0
t h e rnnin st.rc>:lln o r , ill ot,llcr wortls. !)I, fir?(! w l ~ c ! ~~.p ~ I ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ - t ~ f I I ~ ~ ~ l ~ C C ~ ~ ~ \ \ l I f ~ ~ l l l f , l ~ ~
\ y l l I I I : IO~ C ( . I I\~V. I I ~ IxI rc-gioll wit.11 :HI :rtlvrrsc: prcssrlrc gratlionl, cxist.s nlotrg t h c
w;:ll, l h r rc,t.nrtlt.tl llr~irl~)nrt.icIt\s (.annot., in gcncrill, pcnct,mt.c t,oo far ii1t.o t.ht, rcgion
o f inc:rrnsotl I)r.cssllrc n\ving 1.0 t,llrir srn:tll I t i ~ ~ c t energy. ic 'l'llns t.11~:I)oltntl:lry Iaycr
is tlvllct.t.rtl sitl(.\v;~ysI'ronr t l ~ cwall, scparat,cs from il, nrrd moves int.0 t.hr 1nnil1
sl.rc.;1111,Fig. 7.2. 111gonc*r:~ltho flllitl pxrl,irlt:s I)c:l~intlt,hi: point of srpnrat,ion follow
thc. Ilrcbssl1rr gt.:ltlirt~l,; t t r t l nlovc, in a tlirrt:liorl opposi1,c: t o t.11t: r x t r r n a l s11,ram.
111 t h e irulnediat,e r~cigllbourhoodof t h e wall t h e c n r v a t n r e of t,he volocit,y profile
depentls only o n t h e pressure gradient, a n d t.he c u r v a t u r e of t h e velocit.y profile
a t t h e wnll changes its sign with t h e pressure gradient. P o r flow with dccrcasing
pressure (acceleratetl flow, d p l d x < 0 ) we h a v e from eqn. (7.15) t h a t (a2u/ay2),,,, 0 :
T

a n d , therefore, a2u/ay2 < 0 o v e r t h e whole width of t h e lpoundary layer, Fig. 7.3.

JII t h e region of pressure incroase (dccelcrntctl flow, d p / d x > 0) we fi n d (a2u/ay2) 1 0.
Since, however, in a n y case a2u./ay2 < 0 at, a largc distance from t h e wall, Lllerc
2 0. l?his is a point of inflexiont of t,he v ~ l o c i t ~ y
m u s t exist a point for which a 2 f ~ / a y =
1)rofilc in t h e bollntl:lry layer, Fig. 7.4.
Fig. 7.2. Sepnration of tlin 11ot111d;trylayer.
;I) l'low past :i Imdy wit11 soparnt,ion (S = point
of s~pnrat~ion).t ) ) Shape of st.rmr~llines near
11oitltof sepnrat.ion. r) \'elorit.y tlist.ril)ittio~~
near
('"1
3~ o ' O i ( ( y )O;~($1'' ') tile point of separation (PI point of in"cxin11)
7;

r
i:; tlofit~ctl:IS 1,I1r litnit I)et,wecrl forwar(l rind reverse flow in
I l ~ r . ~ i o i n lof sc.lt:~r:~.tio~~
7

t.lrc. I:Iyvr in t,I~t,i~nt~~c:tli:lt.c ncigl~l)o~lrllootl of t,lre wall, o r

1

I
o i r of : ai n: ()
ay v = o
=o . ) Fig. 7.0. Velocity distribut,ion in a borrndnry
layer \vit,h pressure decrease layer wit.11 pressrtrc increase; 1'1
inflexion
-
Fig. 7.4. Vclocit,y dislribtltion in a b o r l t ~ d a r ~
point, of

In order t.o nnswc:r t h e qr~cst~ion of whether a n d where scpnrat,ion _c$r!!_rg,-i t

is nc~ccssn.iy,in g c ~ l c r ; ~first l, t o intcgratc t h o bounclary-lnycr eqrtntions: C~cncmlly It follows t.hat in Llie region of ret.nrtlct1 pol,crltial flow t.hc vclocity prolilo ill
sl)c:tlting, t.llc I)orlntl;~ry-layrr cqllntions a r e only valid a s f a r a s t11c point of scl)arnt.ion. t,Ile bonntlary l n y r r always displays a point of inflexion. Sincc Lhc vcloc:it,y prolilt.
A s h o r t (list,:~ncctlownst,rcarn from t,hc poinl, of scpnmtion l h c t)ountlnry-l:lyrr be- ; ~ t ,t,ho point of sny)nmt.ion : ~ n dwith n 'rro l,:tngc!nt rnnst, I1:lvo r~ point. of i t ~ l l t ~ u i o t ~ ,
c:otnt,s s o 1,llic:lc t.l~:lt,I , l ~nc s s ~ ~ r n p t , iwl~ic:ll
o ~ ~ s wrrc tn:~tlcin t . I ~ t !clt:riv;l.l,ion of t,11c*1)o1111t1- it, follows l.l~;iI.sc.l);ll:tl,ion (.:it1 only oc:c:ur wl~c:nt . l ~ c ? pol,cr~l,iitlIlow is r.c*l.:~~.tIt!tI.
ary-ln.ynr rclu:lt,ior~sno longer apply. 111 t!l~c c?sc of 1,otlies wit,lr blunt. sl.crns_t,l~o
sopnr;~.(.etlI)or~ntl:~ry Ia.yt:r displaces t,hc p o t c r ~ t ~ i aHow
l from tllo body b y a n npprcci-
;tt)lr tlist,;~rit:o ant1 t,llt: prrssnro disteribrtt,ion in~pressctlo n t h c bountlary laycr ~ n ~ t s t c. A r e m a r k on tlic integration of tlic bnundnry-lnyer rquntinns
I)c tlc~t,crmi~~ctl I)y c>xpcrirncnt,, I)eonrrsc t h e cxt,crnn.l flow tlcpcntls or1 t h e phcnomcn:~
c~ottncc:l.c:tl wibh scp:lratiotr. In order to integr:lto t . 1 1 ~boondary-layer eq~zations,whet,l~crit1 thc r~on-st.oadycase, cqns.
sepamt,iorl in st,catly flow occnrs o r l y in tlccclcratcd flow (tlp/tl.~:
'I'hc fact t,l~at, > 0) (7.7) and (7.8), or in the shady case, cqna. (7.10) and (7.11), it is olkn convenirnl to int,rotl~lcr
n stream fi~nolionyt(x, y, 1) defined by
can I)(? rnsily irlft:rrctl from a. c o n ~ i t l e m t ~ i oof
n t h e relxt.ion t ~ e t ~ w e ctnh e prcssllrc
gr:ltlic~rlt,tlp/tl.r nntl lfhc vcloci1,y tlisl.ril)nl,ion II.(?J) with t.llc nit1 of t h e bonntlxry-layer U = av
ay '
. = - aax~ ' (7.17)

t 'I'll~velonit,y profile n.t, the point, of ~rpnrnt,iorris seen to Ilave a perpendicrllnr t.nngent a t the
wall. 'Cho ve1ocit.y profiles clownutrennl fro111tllo point of ~eparatiorlwill sllow regions of revers- t Tho exisknce of a poi111of irlllcxion in tlic vclocil,y profiln in tllr bollt~diiryIxyer i4 inll)ort.atlt
otl flow near tho wall, l'ig. 7 . 2 ~ . from lanlinar to turhtllent. flow), Reo Chap. XVI.
Tor its stability (trnr~eitiot~
 r. The bol~ndarylnyrr along a flnt plnte 3 36
134 V J I . I%o~tnt~nry-~nycr
cr(~~at.iorrs
for ~wo-t~i~r~et~sio~lnI
flo\v; 1rn111ldary
layer or1 R pI:it,(:
l,o know the velocit,y gmdicnt i ~ tllc
t \v;lll, which cat1 be ncllicved only t.lirolrg11
inf,rgr:~tio~r of tJ1e clifTcrclrt.in1cqclat.iot~sof bltc bourltlnry layer. I f ' scp:~rnl.iol~ occllrs
I)c,forc tlrc: tmiling erigo, cqn. (7.20) is vn.litl only ns far as 1,llc poilrt of srl)nrnt.io~r.
I~~~rt.Irrrrnoro, if 1 . 1 1 ~Intninnr bor~lltlaryI:~,yrrt,rnnsForms inlo n f,rlrl~rtlcllt,onc, cqn.
(7.20) applies oldy as far ns t.lle point of tmnsitiorl. Rchinrl tllc poir~tof t,r:~nsit,iorl
wllicllis portin](jifirc~l(i:llrr(lla1,ion of I.lic 1.l1ircl order 101.111~ strc::~n~fi~nc:lion.'Thr bo~~ncl:lry t 1 t r r . c - is 1,11rl111lcr1t, fric1.io11,1,o I)c tlis(:t~ssc:tli t 1 (!11:1.p.X X 11.
c:olltlit,ionRrc.clllirn t.llo nl,n(.ll(,co r slip 111 1,Ilr \1~1111,o r Rv~/i)!/ -= iJ~lr/i):r
=: 0 111. 1,Itctvltll. I c l ~ r11c.1..
l I IIO
illit,inl GOtlllitiOll nt 1 = 0 ~)rr~~:ril)(:s Lllc ve10cit.y (liuLrihl~l.io~~ ZI = i)y~/i!!/o v ~ r1.l1c\v11olcrrgiotr. If srl)aml,iorr cxists, 1.11~1)rcssurc tlisttribuLioti tliffcrs coltsit1cr;tbly fronl t , l ~ : ~ t
i f t,ilin eqnntiollfor t]lc ~(,rcanrfl~nctionin con~pnrccl\viI.lr t . 1 1 ~cornplet~cNnviel.-St.okesequations in 1,llc i(leal ca.so of frictionless, pot~enLi;tlflo\v arltl pressure, or form tlmg, rcsrllt,~.
(4.\0), it, i8Reen tljat, Lllc: bonncloty-layer R . R S I ~ ~ I P ~ ~ IOI I~ ~V SO retlrlccd t . 1 1 ~orclrr ol tlrc cqunt,ion ,I ,llrts t,llc l)o~~r~tlary-lnycr tllcory cxpl;tir~st.hc facl tll:~t,in atltlit,iot~t,o sltitl fric~f,iotr,
from foltr to Llrrco. (:;LIIIIO~, l)c (::LI(~III;~Lc:(I \vit,Il l,11(: nil1 01' ~ I I ( .
llrrrr is :tiso fort11 (lr:~g,I ) I I L ils ningrlit,t~(l(:
l)o~lntlnry-layert,llcory in n simple nlnnncr. A rouglr cst,in~ntcwill, however, I,c given
1
' . Skin friction in (:ltn,p. XXV.

t . 1 1 ~~ r l o c : i l .tlislribut.ion
\VlIat1 1 . 1 1 ~I)ollntl;lry-Iayer rqust,ions arc int~rgrnt~ctl, ~ e. T l ~ cbo1111dnrylayer nlong n flnt lrlnte
(:an I)c tledr~ood,ant1 t,lrr position of t,hr point of srpnmt.ion cat1 be dctcrrninotl. 'I'lris,
in t,urn, perrnit,s us t.o m.lculxt,c 1.hc visro~lstlrng (skin frirt.ion) nrorlrltl t,llo st~rfnce TI] Ollc R I I C C ~ C ( ~ ~cl~nj)t,cr
I I ~ wo sllnll ~lctlllcca n11n11)crof gcncrnl ~lrol~rrt.ies of
Iry a silnplc process of int,carnt,itrg tlrr sllmring st,rrss nt t.hc ~ r n l lover t h r sllrfaco 1,Ilctliffcrcntial oq~lntionsof tJrc bourltlar.y layor. Ilowcvrr, I)cforo cloitig ~ , I I : I ~ ,it, srrtrrs
of t.llo 1)otly. 'I'l~csllrnring st.rrss at, t.he \v:lll is ol)l)ort~n~ t oc c:onsitl(:r n o w n spocifio cxnrnl)lc anti so 1.0 gain grcnlcr I;trnili;tril.g
will1 (,he eq~lahiolrs.'l'hc simplest. cxarnplc of tAc npplication of t , l ~ cbountlnry-ln.ycr
rq11nIions is snhrrlntl try t,hc flow nlorrg n very tJlirl flat p1:il.c. 1Ti.st~oricnll.yl,Ilis \v;is
111(: lirsl, oxnrnl)lc illl~sLr~it.it~g 1110 ~ i t ~ l ) l i ( ~ : ~of
(.io
I'r:ti~(lt.I's
~l O O I I I I ( ~ ~ L ~ ~ - ~I.l1(-01.y;
:I~V(~I~
I

L), = 1) to cos 4 ds ,
1-0

I'ig. 7.6. Tllr I)ol~ntlnryInyrr 1iIo11ga Il:~t.

1rlnt.c at zrro i~~ci~lr?nce

il. was clisc~rssetl t)y 11. B l i ~ s i ~ t[2]

s i l l Itis (Ioclor's t,llcsis at, (~oct.t.ingrtl.llrt 1.11~
lentling edge of t.he plate L)c a t x -=0, the ~ ) l n t ebeing ~>arnllclt o the r-nxis ant1
infinit.cly long tlownst,ream, Fig. 7.6. Wc shall corlsidrr sleatly flow wit,h ;I frcc-
st,ron.m volocitty, [I,, wlliclr is pnmllrl to the x-axis. Tlrc vclooity of p0t~cr11,inlflow
is corlst,xnt in this case, and, thcrcforc, dp/dx z 0. Tho bo~lndary-lnperoclnnliorls
(7.10) t,o (7.12) I)cco~nc

ovc,r (.Ilc \vllol(: srtrfntrt~.f r o n ~t.lrn st.:~gnationpoinl, :rl, t.11(:Ir;~,tlingctlgo Lo I.llc t,l.:~iling
(:tlge, nssll,nillg (,lr:~t.t h r c is no sspn.rnt.ion. Since cos 4 (1s .= (IT, whrrc x is rnrns~lrrtl
p:~rn.lI(~I 1,o I.11r f~.c~c-sl~rc~:~.~r,
v(?loril.y, \v(' i1.1~0' \vril.(:

I I

Since tJle syst,c~n111ltlcr consitl(:mtioli l1:rs no prcfrrrc~l Icngt,l~il, is ronsotrnhlo t,o

arrtl tile illt.cgrn.t,iolr,r7.s Iprforr, is 1.0 I)c ~ x ~ c I I ( I c ( Iovrr t,lr(\ WIIOIC \vt:l.t.r(l s11rfac:c frotn suppose t h a t tJle velocil.y profiles a t vnrying tlisI,:~ncc.sfrom the Icntliltg ctlgc n.rc
1.11(: Icntlitlg t,o 1,Irc: (,r:~ililigrtlgr. In ortlrr 1.0 c:r.l(:ulnLc t,llc! skin frict.ion it, is ncccss:lry sirnilnr 1.0 eac:I~ohher, which Incntrs LllnL Ll~cvoloc:il,y c:rrrt7c\s? L ( ! / ) for vnryillg tlisl,tul-
136 VII. lloundnry-layer erluations for two-dimensionnl flow; boundary laycr on n plnte
ces x can be made identiral by selectling suitable scale factors for u and yt. The
scale fact,ors for u and y appear quite naturally a s t h e free-stream velocity, U,
ant1 the bountlary-layer thickness, S(x), rcspcct~ivcly.It will be noted t h a t t h e latter
increases with tho current distance x. Ilcnce t h e principle of similarity of velocity
profil~sin t h e bo~rndarylayer can be written a s u/lJw = 4(?//6), where t h e func-
t,ioll 6) must be thc same a t all clistanccs x from the lcatling rtlgc.
We can now estimatc the thickness of the boundary layer. From the exact
solnt,ior~sof the Navier-Stokes equations considered previously (Chap. V) i t was
-
foand, c. g. in t,hc case of a suddenly accelerated plat2c, t h a t (1 I/yE , where t
clcnotctl tho time from t h e s t a r t of the motion. I n relation t o t h e problem under
consicleration wc may s u b ~ t ~ i t ufor
t e 1 the time which a fluid particle consumes while
layer this is t -
x/lJ,, so t h a t we may p u t S
new tlimcnsionless coordinate 77 -y/S so t h a t
-1/
travelling from the leading edge to t h e point x. For a partficlc outeide the boundary
v x/lJ, . We now introcluce t h e
'I'hc cqlration of continuity, a s already tliscusscd in S ~ LVIId,
. can be integratetl
by int,rod~~c:ing a stream function y~(x,y). We p u t
where J ( 7 ) tlcnotcs t h e dimensionless stream function. Thus the velocity com-
poncr~Ls become :
the primc clcnoting rliffercntiation with respect to q . Similarly, the transverse
vclocitv com t ~ o n e n tis
Writing down t.hc f~lrtherterms of eqn. (7.22), and inserting, we have
Afl.cr simplification, t h e following ordinary differential equation is obtained:
J J" + 2 /"' = 0 (Blaains's equation). (7.28)
As seen from eqns. (7.23), as well ns (7.26) ant1 (7,.27), the boundary conditions a r e :
t Tho prohlem of a//inity or similarit!/ of velocity p r o f l r ~will be considered from n more general
po~ntof view in Chnp. VJII. The more exnct theory sllowa that the region immediately behind
tlio lending eclgo m i t ~ bo
t excluded; RM? p. 141.
e. Tlir houndnry layrr along a flat, p1at.r 137
In this cxamplc both partial clifferential equations (7.21) anct (7.22) have bcctl
transformed into a n ordinary different,ial cqr~ationfor t,hc stream funclrion by the
~ i m i l a r i t ~transformation,
y eqns. (7.24) and (7.25). The resulting diffcrcnhial equation
is non-lincar and of the third ordcr. Tllc Llrrce 1)orrnd:try conditions (7.29) arc,
I.hcrcl'orc, suffic:icnt t,o ~Iet~crminc the so111tion complctcly.
'1'110 nnihlyl,ic: c:vrlllr:kl,ioll of I,ho sol:rl,iort of OIIO tlifi:ro~lLinl c!tllrr~l,ior~
(7.28) is
c111itc t,cdiorrs. 11. Ulssius obtained this solution in thc form OK a series expansion
:~rountl71 = 0 and a n asymptotic expansion for 71 very large, t h e two forms being
matched a t a soitablc valric of 7. The resulting proccdurc was described in detail,
1)y 1,. Prandtl [22]. Subscqucnt to t,hal,, I,. Bairstow [ I ] and S. Coldstcin [1:3] solvc~l
thc same ccl~retionbut with the aid of a slightly modifietl procedure. Somewhat,
rarlicr, C. Tocpfer [27] solvcd t h e Rlasir~s equation (7.28) numerically by thc
:ipplic:at,ion of t.hr mcthod of R ~ r n g eand I < ~ r t t a .!rho snmc equation was solvcd
again, this time with an increased accuracy, by I,. Howarth 1161; t h e numerical
valncs of I , / ' and /" quoted in Table 7.1 have been taken from his paper. In t,his
conr~rxion, t h e reader may also consult a new mcthod of integration dcvised by
I). Rlcltsyri [In].
'I'llc variation of the longiIf~rdinnlc o m p o l ~ c ~ ~~/ti l --
, / ' ( q ) is sccn plott,otl in
Fig. 7.7. (:omparing i t with the profilc near a stagnation point, Fig. 5.10, wc sce t h a t
I.llc vvlocit,y profile on a flat pla18cpossrsscs a vcr-y small t:~lrvnf.~~rc a t t J ~ cw:dl anql
t.t~rl~ r;~ll~c:r
s nbrr~pI.lyf~rrLlinrf r o n ~iL in ortlcr t,o rcnt:h t,hc :lsyrnpt,otic valtrc. At, tltc:
wall il.sclf the curve has a point of inllcxion, since for y = 0 : a2~r/a?/2 = 0.
Fig. 7.7. Velocit,y distribrltion Fig. 7.8. The transverse velocity corn-
in the boundary layer along n ponent in the boundary layer nlong a flat
flat plate, after Blasius [2] ~>ht#2
'The t,ra~nsvcrsccomponent of t,hc vclocity in thc boundary layer, given by eqn.
(7.27), is rrprcscntc:d in Fig. 7.8. I t is worth t~ot~ing
here t h a t a t the outer edge of
t.he bountlary layrr, i. c. for 11 +oo this romponcnt tliffers from zero; we have
,---
138 VII. no~~ndnry-layer
cqnntions for two-dirncnaionnl no\\,; houndary layer on a pink
c. The bountlnry laycr along n nnt, plat0 1 3!)
This means t h a t a t the outcr edge there is a flow outward which is due t o the fact
t h a t the increasing boundary-layer thickness causes tho fluid t o be displaced from Tahle 7.1. Tlle function / ( v ) for tho boundary layer along a flnt plate at zero incidence, after
tohe wnll a s i t flows along it. There is no boundary-layer separation in tho present J,. Mowarth 1101
case, a s t,he pressure grndient is equal t o zero.
J . St,cinllcner [25] pr~hlisllctla syst,ctnat.ic rcvicw of t,l~csoll~t.ionsfro TJln.sius's
equation. 111 part,ic:~llnr,hc providcd a tli~nl~ssion of t~llcchnrnct.cr of the sol~rt-ionsi l l
the intcgrntion rnngc where r] < 0 in the presence of a varict,y of bountlnry conditions.
I t turns out. t.hnt t,llcrc exist, three set* of so111t.ionswhich differ from each other by
r 7 + -m. Apart from t01r larninnr hountlnry layer on
their nsyrnpt.otio l ~ e l ~ n v i oatf
a flat platme,the solutions which can I I givcn ~ a pl~ysit:allymcaningrtll irlt,crprct.nt,ion
include Inminar flour between t,wo parallel streams of which the two-dimensional
hnlf-jet. is a special ca.se (scc See. IXII), larninnr flow with suction or I~lowingnt right
angles (see Src. X I V b ) , as well ns tho laminar bonntla.ry Iaycr formed over a wn.ll
moving parallel to thc stream in the same or in the opposite direction.

Skin friction: Thcskin friction can be easily clctertninrtl from the precotling t1nt.a.
From q n . (7.19) we obtain for one side of t h e plate

wllcrr 1) is t,hc witlth and 1 is the Icngt,h of t h e ~)lat,e.Now tho local shearing stress
a t the wall is given by

wiLh /" (0) -- a

1)ccornra:
- 0.332 from Table 7.1. llence the ditncnsio~~lrss
shearing st,rcss

(:o~~sccjrlcrttly,from cqn. (7.30), t,llr sliil~friction of one sitlc 1)ct:olnc.s

1

nntl for a. plnt,r irrttrd on I)of.h sitlrs:

It, is rrtr~:l~~l<n.l)lr tI1:tt. f h n slti11 l'ric~t.iotlis 111.oport.ionnlt.o t11(. powrr # of velocit,y

whcrcns in rrc?c?l)ingrnot.io~lt.llcrc urns ~)roport,ionnli(.yt,o f,he first, Ilowrr of vclocit,y.
I ~ i ~ r t ~ lf,llr:
~ r rt1m.g
, incrca.sos wil,Il I.llo sclrt;l.rc roof, of t,l~cIcngt.l~of t8hc 1,la.t,e. This
(.:I.II l)c i~~t.c~rl)rot,c-tl
:IS sl1ou7irlgt,lla.t.~,II(, (lownst.re:~rrl1)orf.ions of the pI:~t.(:col~t.ril)~~Le
11rol)ort.io11:1t.c-ly Irss too t . 1 1 ~t,ot,:~Itlr:lp t01:~n1 . 1 1 ~portio~ls noa.r t.11~Irntling rtlgr,
140 VJ1. Bo~~nclnry-layrr
rquat.inns for t,~rn-tli~iic.~ixio~~nl
flow; I~oi~ndnry
layer oli n plnte e. Thc boundary lnyer nlong n flat, plate 141

because they lie in tlic region where t h c boundary laycr is thicker a n d where, conse- where q, denotes a point outside t h e boundary layer. Using tlic value f ( q ) from
quently, the shearing sttress a t t h c wall is smnllcr. Introtlurinp, a s usual, a dimen- Tablc 7.1 we o b h i n q, - / (Q) = 1-7208 and liencc
sionless tlrng coefficient by the defiriiCion
2 1)
C
r ---l a ; l u , F ,

whrrr A = 2 1) 1 clsnolcs tllc wcttccl surf:~ce aroa, we o b t a i ~ lfrom cqn. (7.33) thc
..
l l t c clislnncc y =; dl is sl~owrli n K g . 7.7. '1'11is is t11c distnncc by wlucl~l,l~cstrcarli-
forrnula :
-- lines of t h e external potential flow are displaced owing to t h e effect of friction near
the wall. T h e boundary-layer thickness, 6, givcn in eqn. (7.36), over which t h e
potential velocity is attained to within 1 pcr ccnt. is, i n round figures, three times '
larger t h a n t h e displacement thickness.
I 1
Ircrc R, = 11, I/v d c r i o l ~ sthe RcynoItIs nurn1)er forrnctl wit,lr the Icngth of the
W c may a t this point cvaluate t h e momcitli~mthickntss a2
which will be used
latcr. T h e loss of morncntum in t h e boundary layer, a s comparcd wilh potential flow,
platc: and tile frcc-strcnm velocity. This law of friction on a p1at.e first dcdnccd by m
I T . f2lasius, is valicl only in tlie region of laminar flow, i. e. for R, = IJ, l / v < 5 x 10" is givcn by ,g J IL(TJ, - u ) dy, so t h a t a new thickness can be defined by
to I 0 6 . I t is rcprcscntctl in Fig. 21.2 as cltrvc ( I ) . 111 t,lic region of t.~~rl>~llcrit,
mot.ion, 0
R, > loG, t . 1 1 ~drag bccomcs considerably grcatcr than t i , i ~ tgivcn in cqrt. (7.34). m

e~ ~ ~ b , = ~ ~ u ( ~ ~ - - ~ ) d y ,
l301111dnry-lnyerthickness: 11, is impossible to int1ic:~t.ca I~or~ntlary-1;rycr
l.l~ic:lzncss u-0
it1 all ~lnarnhigt~ous way, b c c a ~ ~ st,lic
c influence of vi~cosit~yin the bonndary laycr
clccrcascs asyrnptot,ically out,wards. 7'110 parallel colnponcnt,, u,tetitls asymptotically
t o the value [Im of t,hc potcnLia1 flow (thc function / ' ( ? I ) tends asymptotically t o 1).
If i t is tlcsircd t o define thc hollndary-lnycr thickricss a s thnt distance for which
aZ =I&
Y-0
(1 - &) d y .
IL --- 0.99 [I,, t.licn, a s scon from l':r1)lc 7.1, q 5.0. ITcr~cc t01c bont~tl:~ry-laycr
t,lliclrness, a s tlcfinctl Ilcrc, bccornes Nulncrical evaluation for t h e plate a t zero incidence gives:

A p1iysic:ally ~ne:~ningful rrlcnsurc for t.l~c1)orlnd:~rylayer t.hiclc~iessis t.11~rlisplnrx-

1hicklzes.s (TI, whit:li was n.lren.tly i~~trotlucntl
mp.?t,t in ecln. (2.0), JTig. 2.3. 'l'llc tlis-
placcr~lcnt,thickncss is t h a t distance by which t h e external p o h n t i a l field of flow 4 =0.664 1 / ~
-
(momentum thickncss). (7.39)
is displaced ouLwards a s a conscquencc of thc decrease in vclocily in tho 1)ountlxry
m
layer. Tlic dccrcasc it1 volumc flow d u e to tlie influence or fricl.ion is j ((I,, --I&) cly, It is necessary to remark hcre t h a t near t h e leading edge of t h e plnte t b c bound-
so t,hnt for 0, wc havc thc definition
l, - 0 1
my-layor theory acascs t o apply, sincc thcrc t h c assumption a 2 ~ ~ / 8 x 2 a2u/8y2/1<I
is not satisfied. Tho boundary-laycr theory applics only from a ccrlain value of
the Rrynoltls numbcr R = lJ, x / v onwards. Thc rclntiorlship near tho I c a t l i ~ ~ g
edge can only be found from t h e full Navier-Stokes equations becnusc i t involves
a singularity a t t h e leading edge itself. An a t t e m p t t o carry o u t such a ~ a l c u l a t ~ i o n
was made by G. F. Carrier and C. C. Lin [5] a s well a s by B. A. Bolcy and M. B.
Fricdman [3].

Experimental inveatigationa: Measuremenla to test the theory given on t h e

Willl 1r./17, from cqn. (7.26) we obtain preceding pagcs were carried out first by J. M. Burgers [4] and B. G. van dcr lleggc
Zijnen [16], and subsequently by M. H a m e n [14]. Particularly carcful and corn-
prehensive measurements were reported later by J. Nikuradse [20]. It was found
t h a t t h e formation of t h e boundary layer is greatly influenccd by t h c shape of tho
leading edgc na well as by t h c very small prcssrlre gradient which m a y exist in tho
142 V I I . Hor~nclnry-lnyrrr q ~ ~ n t i ifor
~ t ~t\vo-di~i~rr~nio~l~~l
s Inyrr on n plelo
Ilon.; I)o~~nilrrr,y

ext.rrn:d flow. .J. Niltur;~tlsci ~ ~ t , r o ~ l ucar(!f111 for ~.IICSC possi1)lc c ~ e c t s ,

r c ( ~ corrf:~1~ions tlisr~~ssrtl in Chap. XVI, Itavc tlemnr~slmt.ctlt . l ~ atllc
t vn.llic of this 'c.rit.ic:bl' Itcynolds
when he carrintl o ~ t t his
. ~nnnsrlrcntcnt,son a ~)ln,t,c in a sLroatn of air. 'f?Ite velocity n1t111l)rrcan 1~c(.ontcconsidnml~lyInrgor in a n sir st.rcaltt whicll is rnatlc very free
tlistribl~t,iot~in thc larr~iltnr I~ounrlnry I:t):rr 11n.s I)ecn plotl.ctl frotn Niltr~ratlsc's rroln tlisl.url)anc:c!. 111 tltis way it is ~)ossil)lct,o rr:~c.l~v:ilr~c~sof I l l ) 1.0 n,l)o~lt.
meast~rrmontsin Fig. 7.9 for scvc:ml tlist,:tnc:rs from t,l~cIcatling ctlgr. 'l'hc? siinil:l.rit,y i',., .r/v - x loG,

Cf'

I:ij!. 7.10. Loral rocffiricc~t

of 6Izi11 frivtio~~ 011 n flnt,

])l:iln at ZPIV iriri(lr~rcoi l l

i11con1l1rcssi blo fln\rp, dclcr-
minr~lfrom tlirrcl tnrnnnrc-
t~lrntof shearillg strcss by
1,irp111atln ancl Dl~nwan
(0. 181
0 0 0 ~-

0.0WZ
I 0 /nd/rect skin friction measuremen!
fmm velocity profile
Direct skin fiction measuremen/, x - 28.6cm .~ -

0 t r ,x-56cm
Tl~cory:Inmlnnr From cqn. (7.:11);
Lllrlr!llrnl fronl eqn. (21.12)
00001 . ! - . I - - \ 1 1 1 1 1 1 . . I 1. 1 . 1 - + .

,.
I ltc I a n ~ i n : ~law
r of fricl.ion on
:L flat pl:ttc was also stlbjectctl to careful ex-
p(:rintcntaI verification. The local sllearing stress a t the wall can be determinccl
Fig. 7.9. Vclocity rlisf.ril)~~lio~r
in tlio Inn~i~inr
h o ~ ~ ~ ~ rlnyrr
l n r y o n n IlnL pl:rt,r nt, xrrn i~~rirlrncr.
nn ~ricasr~rcd
by Nikr~rndso[20] intiirectJg from t h e slope of the velocit,y profilc a t the wall together with eqrt. (7.31).
In rccrnt t,imcs IT. W. 1,iepmann and S. Dhawan [18] measured the shearing stdress
tlirocI.ly frotn t,hc forco acting on a small porl,ion of t,ho plnto which wns nrrnngctl
so t , l ~ a it
t could move slightly with respect t o the main plate. The results of t l ~ e i r
of Lho velocil,y prolil(:s :it v:triows tlistanccs z from t.Irc Ir:~rling ctlge prrtliclotl 11.y
t,he t l ~ e o r yis confirmotl by t.ltcse mcn.snrcmc~~t~s. T l ~ cshapc of the vclocit,~.~)rofilc
a.grees eql~allywall with t(11at calcr~lat.ctlwit.11 l.lxc :~itlof the tltcory. 'rhc rrlat.ion
~ -
of the local coefficient of skin frictior~ cf'
number R, = 11, z / v . In the range of R, = 2 x 10"o
--
w r y careful measurements arc seen reprotluccd in Fig. 7.10, which shows a plot
t o / k Q 1Jm2, against, t h e R.cynolds
6 x 10"both laminar and
l>ct,mrcn t.hc dinirnsiortlcss h o ~ ~ r t t l n . r y - l :t,ltit:knoss
i~r 1/
6 U,/v z and the Iteynolds t,ltrbrrlcnt, flows arc possible. I t can be sccn t,hat direct and ir~dircctm c a s ~ ~ r c n ~ c r t t ~ s
n r ~ n ~ l forrnctl
~rr wit.h t.hc cnrrcnt Icngt.lt, z, wns alrcntly l)lot,t,ctl in I'ig. 2.19. '1'11is nrc in oxcrllont, agrt:erncnt, with each ol,l~or.Mcr~st~rcrnot~l,~ in t,ho lnntinnr rnnga give
tlirncl~siotllcsst.ltiok~t~:ss rrnt:~insco~tst.attI,:IS long ns 1,110 1)0111i(l:~ry 111.yrris l:tn~in:rr,
a sI,ril~ittg(!o11fit311:kt,io11
of l%lttsius's oqn. ( 7 . X ) frn111 wIti(:h cff .?: 0 . f ~ f b i / ~
111~ ~ .
nrttl il,s nll~noric:nl v:~,lr~ois 11oar1y 1.It:r.L givcn i l l ccln. (7.35). A1 I:~rxc: Ilcyrtoltls
the t.tlrl)r~lcnf~range l,hcrc is a l ~ ogoo(1 ngrecmcnl wit.11 I'rnttdt.1'~ tjh~:orctlif:nlforrrtr~l:~
l~t~rnl)ers I / , ziv 1,110I)onrttl;~ryI:ryc:r c:r:l.sc:s to bc' Inrninar arltl tr:ir~sit.io~t
1.0 t~r1)ltlrtrL
~ bc tladr~ccdin Cltap. X X I , cqn. (21.12).
u l ~ i c l~rrill
motlion takes place. 7'11is fact, m n I)c rccogrtizct\'ilr Fig. 2.1!) Itg nol.ic:ir:g l,hc tnnrkrtl
r 7
ir~creascin 1,ho Lhi~kncssof t.110 b o ~ ~ n ( l : ~In.ycr . r y n.s f,he tlisl.:~lice from l,l~c!lratling Jllc conlplctc ngrccmcnt bctflwcen t,hrorcl.icnl antl ex~)crintcnt,n,l r c s r ~ l t .wllioll
~
etlao is increased. Arcortling t,o t . l ~ rm r a s l ~ r c m c n t ,porf'orrnctl
~ l)y 1%.C. van tlrr existas for t>he velocity dist,ribnt.ion nncl t,hc shcn.ring stxcss in a 1aniinn.r I)onndn.ry
ITcgge- Zijnen anti M. Ilanscn t.rnnsil.iort from 1;~rninart,o tl~rl)r~lcnt, flow t:rltes 1)lacc lnyer on s flat plate a t zero incidence that, has heen hrougl~tinta evidcncr in Figs.
7.9 ant1 7.10 for the r m g e R, > lo5 nneqrlivocally dcmot~strat~rs
f,o (.he tlisplnccment t,l~irltnrss,I f , cll/v -
n.t l7& z / v = 300.000. 'rltis rorrcspotttls t,o a vn.llic of t , l ~ cI<oynolcls ntlrnl)cr rc:fcrrrtl
950. klorr rcccnt; ~nr:~sltrcmcnt,s, t.o IN:
the valitlity of t,he
boutttlnry-ln.yer n.l~proximnt,ionsfrom the ~)hysicnlpoint, of vicw. TII spit.(! t,Itis,
144 VTI. Bonndary lnycr eqr~ationsfor two-dimensional flow; boundary layer on a plate f. Ronndary layer of higher order 146

cartrain ~ n a t l ~ e m n t , i c j n h
n as v e axpenclod m u c h effort t o c r e a t . ~R. "mnthemnf,icel proof" I f 1 ( r , 11). 1'1(x,y), for t,he sccond-order ~ollltionlJz(z, y), Yz(z, 1'2(r, y). ctc. tJpto ~ o l u l i o t r ~
f o r t,ho valiclity of t h e s o simplifications; i n thiw c o n r ~ e x i o nc o n s ~ l l tt h e work of of t,l~eR C C O I I ~order, t,erms proport,ional 10 E*, t.l~at.in t . 1 ~ fric:t.io~ialtc-rtn~in t.lic>Nnvicr-Stoltrs
~ql~at,ions, ren1:rin ~ ~ n a c c o t ~ ~for.
~ tT
, e~dI I Isolc~tions
R, or first and sccciticl orclcr (:orr~npo~~tI1.0 inviscid
11. S c l i m i d t ant1 I<. S c h r o e d e r 1.241. (lows or cveti t,o pot.entinl flows when only field8 wit.li n ~rtiifnr~n onronring vclorit:y nt-c: nl.~~tliril.
Ylrc solntiotis of /frat order sntisfy llic 0011ntlnryrontliI,ionn
f. Boundary layer of higher ordert
Tire boundary-layer e q ~ ~ a t i o nhave
a bccrr obt,aitierl in See. V1I a of t.liis chapter I,y a process
of cstiniating ordcra of magriit,ndc of individual terrns in the colnplete equations of motion. The
boondary-layer equations can, however, also be derivctl with the aid of a more general theory.
In order to obbain asymptotic expansions of tlic sollrtions of the Navier-Stokes cquat.iorrn for large Tho solntion of thc potent.ial-flow c q ~ ~ a t i o n111 s (2, y), 1'1 (1, !I) gives 1 . 1 1 ~vclooit,y 111(n.,0) at, t.hc
Reynolds nnn~bers,i t is possible to establinh n pertrtrbnt,ion scheme in which \vall, nnrl I ~ c ~ ~ n o ~c~ql ~
l i~' un t i olcnrls
n to the wall prnss\~ro
1 1
& =-=

VR 1/?
is cl~onenas t,lie perturbation parameter. This leads to a so-called singular perturbation sclrenre
(7.40)
The solutions of seco,til order satisfy t l ~ c1)outitlnry conditions

and renulta in tlie neparat,ion of the required auymptotic expansion of tlie nolution into an out,er
expansion (external flow) and an inner expansion (boundary-layer flow). With t,l~eaid of the
method of rnntcl~edasymptotic expansions it thus becomes possible to derive an asyrnpto-
tic expnnsion of tho completc solr~tion.
y-t w: 11%t VZj = 0 , J
The first term of such an asymptotic expansion is preciuely the noll~tionof the I,o~cndnry- wlrcrc d l ( r ) tleriotes tlrr~displ~rccnienttliiclznc~sdcfiticd in an an:iIogo~~s
way nu l,l~al,in i:r111.
layer oqr~ations.Moreover, the continnation of the pertnrbation calcr~lationallows 11s to comprrt,e (7.36); see alno eqn. (7.51).
further ternis of the expansion and ao t o extend the classical tlieory of hor~ndarylaycrs duc to Thc solntion of tllc potcnt,inl equation leails ngnin to tlic rlistrib~~tion
of t.he pnrnllcl vrlnc:il.y
Pmndtl. We thus create a boundary-layer tlieory of higher order. l'lre second t,erms of tlic ex- coniponcnts a t the wall, Uz(z, 0). and to tlie pressure
pansion are of particnlar practical importance because we can look upon them as correct,ions to
the clrrrrsical tl~eorywhich represent boundary-layer effecb of second order. 1'2 (x, 0) = - CJr ( r , 0) . 112 ( r , 0). (7.41;)
Extensive presentations of boundnry-layel. tticory of higher order were prtblisl~edby M. Van
Dyke [Dl, K. Gcrstcn [lo], and K. Gcrsten and J. F. Gross [12]. In addition, reference [8] con- The resnlt.it~gsolotions do not, gcncrally speaking, satisfy tlrc no-slip condition a t the wnll arid
tains a detailed exposition of t,he metliod of n~atchcdasymptotic expansions. The basic ideas of for this reason they are not valid near it; they are given tlie name "outer solntions" or "outer
this metliod can bc txaced to I,. l'randtl; they have bcen made plausible with reference to a n8ymptot.i~expansions".
sirnplc mathematical example in Scc. 1Vf. Inner expansions: In order to obtain solntions valid near the wnll, it is necessary to apply a
I n what follows, we'give a brief descript,ion of tlre theory of asymptotic soll~tionsfor large special procednre. Instead of tlie distance, y, from thc wall, wc ititrodnce a new, strctclird co-
Reynolds numbers as it applies to a two-di~nensional,incompressible flow. The main purpose of ordinate
thin argrrment is to find an exknsion of Prandtl's boundary-layer thcory and to derive the bonnd- N = yls. (7.47)
ary-layer eqnntions of higher order. Details of the derivations can be found in the treatise of
M. Van Dyke 171. This so-called inner variable was so selected as to prevent tlic disappearnnce of some of the
viscor~sterms in the equations of first order in the coordinate system z, N.
The starting point is constituted by the Navicr-Stoker, equations written with reference to
a curvilinear, rectangular system pf cooidinakn in See. IJIg, Fig. 3.9.AI1 lcngths are measrtred in For the sotnbions licar tlrc wall (in the bor~lrtlarylayer), we ngnin nnslllnc nsympt,ot,ic rx-
utrita of a convenient length R", for cxarnplc the rndills of c u r v n t ~ ~ ar ct the stagnation point. pnnaionu, viz.

I
Velocities arc referred to U, and the overpressnrcs are referred t o e I/&. The gconiet,ricnl sliapc ...,
is describetl by t,lic local radius of c u r v a t ~ ~ r eR,( z ) , nntl the tlitncnnionlcns c~~rvnt.nrc
of thc 16(2, y, F) = UI(X,N) t F UZ(T,N) 4
~ ~ ~ r f is
nce ~ ( 7 . y . ~- ~) 7 ~ 1 ( 7 , N 1) / 2 1 ~ 2 ( ~ , 1N...,
) (7.4H)
K ( x ) = Ro/ll(z). (7.41)
p ( z , y, 4 = p ~ ( zN)
, + e pz(z, N) t . ...
Outer expansions: In order t,o solve thc systcm of equations (3.38), we assume the following
asymptotic expanniotis: S~~bstitutioti
into the systcrn of equations (3.38) and ordering according to powers of s, yicltls the
following systems of eqr~ations.
u ( r , y, e ) = U l ( r , y) -t F

v(z, y, F) = Vl(r, y) 4- s Yz(z, y) -t

p ( r , y, s) = PI(Z, ?I) + E
Ua(x, y) i- ...

~ 2 ( 5y,) -1-
. ..
.... J
I (7.42)
l3ounAary-layer ~ q u n l z o m01 firat order:

l'hesc forms arc subsLit,llkd into eqns. (3.38) and the torms arc ordered hy the powers of s. I n
this manner, we olbt,nitl a ncquencc of syst,erns of cqn~tioiisfor Lire first-ortlcr solrtt,ion 711 ( r , y),

t I owr thin srction In I'rofcnnor K. Ccrstcrn.

146 V I I . 1{0111itlnrjI n y r r c q ~ ~ n t i o nfor
s t ~ v o - t l i ~ ~ ~ r ~ flow;
i s i o ~l )~on~l~ n d n rl ?
n g r r o n n plnt,e f. B o ~ ~ n c l a lnyer
ry o f I ~ i g l ~ oc rrt l r r 147
T h c distribution of the locnl shcnring strew t o second order is

T h e b o ~ l n d n r ylnyer o f nccond order also rencta o n the out,cr flow. T h e pnpar b y I(. Ccmt,rn [I 1 1
cont,nin~a c n l c ~ ~ l a t i oonf the dinplncemcr~t,t , h i c k t l e ~t ~
o second ortlrr.
Examples Flnt plate n l zero incidence. 111 the cnso o f n n i ~ n p r r ~ n r n bflnt
l o platc nt. z r r o inei-
dance, the rlisplncement t h i c l t n e ~ s61 in cnlct~lntedwil.11 the n i d of cqn. (7.37). A c c o r t l i ~ i gt o rclll.
(7.45). t,he b o r ~ r ~ t l n rcondition
y for t,he otlt,cr flow is

' S l ~ r r c l ~ ~ n t i o of
~ i sfirst o r d r r , rclnR (7.4!)), tlo riot r o n t n i n 111r H t * y t i o l c l ~11111i1l)rr
exlrlic.itly. I t of t . l ~ aplnt,r hns I)cen e l ~ o s r nnn n rc~frrrncc.'I'l~c. 8ol11tionof IIIPI . \ v o - t l i t i ~ t ~ ~ ~ n i n t ~ t ~ I
whcrcr I l ~Irr n g t l ~
f o l l ~ \ v n11111110 (.r, 8 ) nnc! cl(.r, ,V) 1111lstnlso IN: indrl)en(lrnt of l l ~ eI ~ c ~ IIo
I~IIIII~I~~. ~~~s
'I'liis potent.inl c q ~ ~ n t , i oan~ ~ h j e tcot thin 11011nd1iry~ o n t l i l i o nyields
1)rvvrs thnt t l ~1ot.nt r ion o f t IIPpoint of l n ~ n i n n sepnrnt.ion
r is inrlepe~ldcnto f t Ilr I l r y ~ i o l r l snrl1111)er.
/Joii~irlnr?l-ln!~rr
cqurr1io)in o/ nrco?rrl orrlcr:

'rhc nsnocint,ed st,rmnilinm nre pnrabolnr W ~ ~ O Rfoci R nre n t the o r i g i t ~n n d wliose v r r t i r e s l i e o n

tile r-nxis. I t follows t,hnt in t,his particulnr cnne t,lic velocity Uz(x; 0) a t t.he wall vnnislics, n n d
the solution o f the nyst,ern of eqnntions (7.52) a n d (7.83) ie t h e t.rivinl solrttion. \Ye r o n r l u d r ,
therefore, t.Iint i n the cnne of t , l ~ eflat plnt,e t h e second-order correctior~t o nkin f r i c t i o r ~vanishes.
N o v e r t l ~ e l e ~ swe
, muat n o t drnw the co~tclrrsion t h a t the second-order drag coefficient also
vanishes. This is dne t o the fact t h a t tl~esecontl-ortlerexternal flow described b y cqn. (7.57) cont,ri-
h u b s a rnoment,um term. This can be identified b y c a l c ~ ~ l a t i nthe g integml o f ~ ~ ~ o r n e n tover ~uln
the whole p l a t e when i t w i l l be discovered that, t,liis c o n t r i b ~ ~ t . i oisn eqnivnlent t o a n incrrnsc i n
drng. SII~II cnlct~latlonnhave l ~ e c n r n r r i c d o u t b y I . l l n n i 1171 w l ~ of o ~ ~ n t,lint
d t . l ~ etlrng rocfficient.
p2 = I'z (a. 0) 4 /i
rJ; (x,O) h' . ] of n f l i ~ t plate
, is given b y
'Sl~ro11t.rrI ) o ~ ~ r ) t I n rorirlitionn
ry (i. r. for h' -+ m ) of t l i r inner solt~tionnnn u.cll ns the inner h o ~ ~ n d -
n r y c.onclitio~~s of the outer s o l ~ ~ t i o r (c. l s g. cqn. (7.45) for l ' ~ ( r ,0)) follo\v fro111 t.he m a t r l r i l ~ gof
t.hc inner nncl orlt.nr so111t.ions;ner nlso 171.
'I'hr s y s t c ~ i iof r c l r ~ l ~ t i o n(7.52).
s (7.53) for l l ~ r !~ e r o ~ ~ d - ~1)01111dnry rdrr lny(*r l o o doru not, !r2l~orr2,32(i = x X (0.RtiO.1)2. 'J'l~ororrec>tion ( I l ~ csrrond I r r n ~ )i n r t l n . (7.59) n ~ i i o ~ ~to n l 5.5%,
s
t * ~ ~ ) l i ( * i l I~o\I.Pv~~~.
ronI,nin t.l~c:Ilt~ynolclsn111110t.r ly.
V ~ . I.!IcIirsb-order ~ysIt.111.b u t it r o ~ ~ s i s o
t ~ ~ t ( . l l ~ iI.hcln
rcnson, it. is ~~ossil)le,
it ( : o n I ~ ~ i nso1111io11s
fl of lil.st, o r ~ I r rnrlcl is nlort-
t nf l i n r n r tli~li!rcllIinl r t ~ t l l l t i o l l ~1'.01. I l l i s
i n t,~lrn,In srpnrntc the \vl~olt!so111tio11i n t o 11sltln of p i ~ r t i nfioltltions. l 11.
nl,
.. :-- Ill3, (Itwrrnui~igt o 0.2y0 nt, RI = 106, ( : o ~ i ~ [ ~ t~o~t rl ~ r (tfirst
l% I~I.III.
1 11c fnot t , l ~ ntt l ~ cscrond tern1 i n eqn. (7.5!1) tlocs n o t raprrscnt skin friction is oxplninctl I l y
tl~e observntion t h n t the singnlnr chnracter of the f l o ~ va t tlic lending rclgc i n d ~ ~ r ne u prrssnrt: tltng.
hi18 l~cv:o~iic r11slo11111ry 1.0 s p l i t t,l~esoll~t,ioni l l t o rr r ~ ~ r v n t ,t~. c~r n r~en n d i n t o n tliul~lnc*e~nent tern), Presulnnbly, n t the lending edge t,here nrises n n infinite ovrrlrrrssrlrr ~ v l ~ i cr loi n t r i l ~ ~ t t p11sfirtile
IIIII \vtBs l ~ n l nol,
l IIII~RII~ t,l~isrlinc~~ssiotl a n y f ~ ~ r t . h eI ~r e r e .
force i n spite of the vanishingly s ~ n s lp1nt.c l t,liirlrness. 111 t , l ~ i sconnexion n rornpnrison w i t h tlie
Utlr t n t . l ~ eIn(-t t , l ~ n tho
t 011rvnt,11reof t . 1 wnll ~ is nrr01111tcdfor i n t,llc sroontl-order theory, case of t , l ~ epnrnboln of See. IXj uhortld be ~ n n t l r .
t h r r r npl)cnrs n I)rrssIIrc g r n t l i c n l i n I h c t l i r r r t i o n norm111l o I l ~xvnll. r F o r this rrnson, the prmsrlrr
Sl,rict.ly ~ l ~ r n l t i n g1,Iit:
, 1)rorrtling ~ i ~ ~ n l yof n i n(Ion. ~IIHI, n 1111l. p111t0 is r c ~ t r i c l t * cll o II SVIII~.
111. I l ~ \~IIII
r I ~ t x - o ~clilli.t.ont
~~vn fro111 t,lrnt. \ \ - l ~ i t . l ~is ~IIIII~PSS~~I 011 t . 1 1 1)011nd11ry
~ I ~ i y r Ir l y tlie o ~ ~ t r r i n l i n i l r p l n t r . 111 111ts t-nsci ol' IL l i n i l o I t ~ n f i t l ~t l, ~ t ~* 1 1 t . 1 t r iS(I.~*PH
n~ II~.(.OIII(YI
~ ~ i o t l i l i t .111,
( l II I.I'I(II~II
flow. I n I r g r ~ ~ t i nnt!ross
g I.l)<* b o ~ ~ t i d n lrnyy r r , wt! o11Inin t,lir prc!sst~rec o r f f i r i e n t nt, IIIC wnll i n t.11e
rlist.nnre 11psLren111of t , l ~ etrailing edge. Ilotvcvcr, I'rendl.l'n I ) o t ~ n t l n r y - l n y r req~tntionu, b r i n g
for~n
pnrnbolic, cannot. n c c o ~ r n for t t h i "trailing-edge
~ rlrrot.".
According t o K. Stemnrtaon [25n], it is pousil~lct o ninstcr SIICII trniling-edge r f f r r t s , or,
generally speaking, t.he elTects which arc exprrssctl ns ~ingrtlnrit.irs(r. g. lencling rtlpr, trailinfi
edge, nrpnrnt.ion) I)y I'rnntlt,l'n c q ~ ~ n t . i o r ~ t lni ,r o ~ ~ ng lgrnornlizntion
~ of I'rnr~tlll'nront,cl)l of l h r
I ) o ~ ~ n t l n Inyer.
ry This is dono b y t,l~c:int,rodr~clionof 1.11~i t l r n of " I I I I I ~ ~ ~ R I ~ I I ~ ~ I I1)011nt111ry I~~~I"
Inyers o r the "triple-tleck" c o ~ l c r p t .
F o r t.110 case of a flnt plnt,r, ngnin, I<. S t r \ v n r f s o ~(25n.1 ~ nncl A. T'. .hlrssittv ( I X I ) ] fintl that
'I'l~t, prrssllrr 31. llir \r:~ll
c x r r r d s t11r i ~ n p r r s s r r prrssrlrr
l w l ~ c rt.hc
~ wall is ronvex ( K > 0). t.hc ultin-frict,ion r o r f f i c i c ~ nis t given b y
148 VTI. Bo~lndnrylnycr eqnations for two-dimensionnl flow; boundary layer on n plate
[lo] Geraten, K.: Grenzuchichteflkkte hiiherer Ordnung. Anniversnry volume corn~ncmorati~~g
Professor H. Schlichting's 05th anniveranry (Sept. 30, 1972). l b p . 7215 Inst. f. Stromungu-
Cf mech. Techn. Univ. a t Brnunschweig, 29--53 (1972).
1111 Gersten, I<.: Die Verdriingungsdirlro bci Granzuchiclibn Iiiihemr Ordnnng. ZAhlM 51,
.
105-171 119741. ,
[I21 (ierst.cn, J<., nnd GrOfIfI,J.F.: Iiighcr-orclcr bonndnry lnyor t.l~c?ory.Flnid Dyrinrnic.~'I'l.nnn-
~~c!l.ic)nfl(I 1176).
[I31 Oolclntcin, S.: C:onccrtring some aolulions of tho boundnry lnycr equntions in hydrodyrinrnics.
Proc. Cnmbr. Phil. Soc. 26, 1-30 (1030); 8f30~180:Modern developme~~ts in fluid dynamics,
Vol. I, 135, Oxford, 1938.
[I41 Hsnsen, M.: Die Ceschwindigkeibverteilung in der Grenzschicht an ciner cingctnucliten.
I'lnttc. ZAMM 8 , 385-199 (1928); NACA 'I'M 685 (1930).
[I51 Van der Hegge-Zijnen, B. G.: Mcnsnrcn~entaof the velocity distribntion in tho 1)oundary
Fig. 7.1 1. Skin-friction coeffi- layer along n plnne surface. Tl~eaia,1)elft 1924.
cicnt, of n flat, plat^ of finite [IF,] Hownrth. I..: 0 1 1 the sol~ltionof the Inminar l>ortlidnrylnycr eqnntionu. Proc. Itoy. Soc.
lcngtl~a t zero incitlcrlco lmndon A 164, 647-570 (1038).
( I ) 'f'llroryaftrr 11. Illnsius,oqn.(7.34) 1171 Imni. I.: Second approxirnntion to tho lnrninnr b o ~ ~ n d n rlayery flow over IL flnt. plate. ,JAS
(2) l'l~cnrynncr A . 1''. Mrlrsitrr I 1 R I ) I . 24, 155- 1Bti (1957).
rqn. (7.00) [I81 I,iopmon, 1%.W., and J>l~nwlm,S.: Direct n~enauren~enta of local akin friction in low-spcccl
A Tlirnry nrter I)r~lain(m~lulior~ of and 11igl1-speedflow. I'roc. First US Nnt. Congr. Appl. Meoli. 809 (1951).
Nnvier-Stnkrsc~loaLio~~a)
10 m LO m roo m 600 1000 0 ICxnc-ritrte~~Ia nI.lvr 7,. . I ~ I B1301
~II~ [18a] Mclnik, 1t.E.. and Chow, R.: Anympt,otic theory of t,wo-rlin~on~io~inl trniling eclgc flows.
(irumnlnn ltescarch L)epartnlent itep. Rl3-510 (1976).
[18b] Memitcr, A.J'.: Uo1111darylnyor Ilow ncnr the t,railing edgc of n flnt plntc. SLAM J . Appl.
Mntl~.18, 241 -257 (1970).
[In] Mcksyn, I).: New ~nel.lioclsin lnn~ir~nr bouncl~rrylnyer tlieory. I ~ n d o n ,1961.
120J Nik~lrndnc,.J.: I,nn~inarcRcibungnncliio~~lcr~ nn (lor liingnnngr~trii~nlcn 1'lnI.b. Monogrrrl)h.
Zcntrnle f. wiea. 13crichbwese11, Berlin, 1042.
1211 I F d t l , L.: Uber Fliissigkeitsbeweg~~ng bci selir kleiner Steibnng. Proc. Third Intern. Mnth.
Here, tlio trailing edge has been ncco~rntedfor, bnt not the displacerncnt effect. Congr. Heidolberg 1904. Itoprinted in: Vier Al)l~andlttngcnzur Hydro- und Aerodynnniik.
Tlic diirgrnrn in trig. 7.11, rcprotlnccd from tllc work of It. E. Mclnik nnd It. Chow [18a], Giit,tingcn, 1927; NACA TM 452 (1928); s m also: CmII. Workn I I , 575-584 (191iI).
shows t,l~att.11~v:l.lucs of c, computed wibh t,hc aid of eqn. (7.60) ngrec very well witlr the resrrlts 1221 l'rnndtl, I,: The mechanics of viscotls fluids. 111W.F. Uurnnd: Aerodynamic Theory I l l ,
obtained frorn the complck: Navicr-Stokes equntions as well as with those of ~neasnrerner~ts down 34-208 (1935).
to RI = 10. At Rl = 40 eqn. (7.60) leads to c, = 0.:316 which is less than 2% in excess of the exact [23] l b t t a , J.C.: Grenzschichtt,heorie zweibr O r d n ~ t r ~fiir
g cl)ene und nchsensymmetri~chr
vnlnc cl = 0.31 1. llyperscliallstromung. ZFW 15, 329k334 (1907).
[24] y h m i d t , H., and Schriider, K.: Laminnre Grcnzsct~icl~ten. 15in kritischor Literatnrberirht.
Sertion 1Xj will ret.r~rnto the discnssion of exact soltltions of houndnry-layer equations of 1 a r t I : Gruncil~gendcr firenzschichttl~oorie. Loftfnhrtforscl~r~ng 19, 65-97 (1942).
srcoritl order. [25] Steinheuer, J . : Die Liisnngen dcr Blnsiosschcn (~rcnzsrl~icl~t~iiffercntinlgleicl~nng. Proc.
Wias. Oes. Braunscliweig X X , 96-125 (1968).
[25a] Skwnrbon, K . : Milltistrnctored borrndnry layers on flnt platen and rclnbd hodit*. Adv.
Appl. Mech. 14, 140-23!3, ,2cndcn1ic J'reau, Now York, 1074.
1201 'J'oll~nien, W.: (:re~~z~ct~icl~ttlieoric.Ilandbt~chdcr 1Cxpcr.-l'ltyuik I I', Pnrt 1. 241-287
References
(1931).
[27] 'riil>fcr, C.: 1~cr11crk1111g~:n
zn dcni ,411f~nb~ vnn 11. 1111mi11s:~~r,:r~~.s~!l~i(!l~l~~~~
in l~liin~iglc~~il~-n
111 13airstow, I,.: Skin friction. J. ltoy. Acro. Soc. 19, 3 (1025). tnit klcincr J<ciI)nng.Z. M~rt,li.1'11yn. 60. :1!)7-:I98 (1!)12).
121 I%lnsios,M.: Grenzucl~ichtct~ in Fliimigkeiten nit kleiner JEcibnng. Z. Mtrlh. J'hyn. .SF, 1-37 12XJ WoyI. It. : Cono~:rning t,l~cclillirrentinl eq~rnt,ionnoi sor~lcborlntl~~ry 11ryr.rI ) ~ ~ I ) I c I II'roc.
IH.
(1008). Engl. transl. in NACA TM 1256. Nnt. Acatl. Sci. Washington 27, 578-583 (1941).
131 Bolcy, B.A., and Friedn~an,M.B.: On the viscons flow aro~rndthe lcnding edge of a flat [29] U'cyl, [I.: On the differential eq~lationsof tllr nirnplcnt 1)oundnry layer problrrns. i\nn.
plntc. J A S S 26, 453-454 (1059). Mnt.11. 4.3, 381 4 0 7 (1942).
141 Ihrgcrs, J.M.: The motion of n fluid in the borlndnry lnyer along a plane smooth surface. [:go] .Innour, Z.: lZenista~iceof a flat plate a t low Jleynoldci nrln~bcrs.NACA TM 131(i (1951).
l'roc. First Intcrn. Congr. of Appl. Meell., Delft 1924 (C.B. Biezeno and J. M. Burgers, ed.)
I)olft, 1925, pp. 113--128.
[R] Carrier, (;. I?., and I,in, C.C.: On t,tie nnturc of t,ll&bonndnry layor near t,lic leading edge
of a fllrt plate. Qnnrt. Appl. Mnth. V I , 63-68 (lp48).
[ti] I)linwnn, S.: Direct n~crcqurcmentaof skin friction. NACA Rep. 1121 (1953).
[7] Van Dyke, M.: Higher npproxi~nntionain boundary layer theory. Pnrt 1: General analysis.
JI'M I4, lti1- 177 (1962). I'nrt 2: Application tm leerling edges. JFM 14, 481-495 (I!)62).
I'nrt 3: I1nrrrl)oln in uniforrn streani. JI'M 1.7, 145-IR!) (1964).
[R] Van Dyke, M.: I'crtnrbntion rnet,hodu in fluid mnchanicu. ~\cncle~nic Pre-%,New York, 1964.
I91 Van 1)ykc. M.: Higher-order 0o11ndar.y Inyer theory. Annonl Iteview of F'l~~icl Mech. I,
2tiR 2!)2 (I!)(;!)).
 a. Drpel~denrcof the rhnmcteristicn of n. boundary lnyer on tllr llry~~oldn
IIIIOIIIPT 151

tlinler~sionlcssquantities were used; all velocities were referred to t,hc free-strcnrn

velocity IT,,, all lengths having been retfuced with t,hr aitl of n cl~aractcristiclength
of t h r botly, 11. 1)enoting all tlirner~sionlcssmagnitutfes I I n~ prime, thus ?r/fJm,= u ' ,
. . . , x / L = z', . . . , wc obtain the following equations for the steady, two-tlimrr~sionnl
CRSR :
CIIAFTER VIII

Gencral propertiee of the boundary-layer equatione

12cforc: pnssi~lgt,o t.11~cn.lcr~l:lt,io~~ of furtl~crcxarnplcs of bountlnry-layer llow scc nlso cqs. (7.10) t,o (7.12).IIerc R dcllotcs t.lrc ltcynolds n11rnbc.r forlnt>tl \vit.h t,)lc
i I I t.lla next, chnpt,rr, we prol)ost: first, t.o tliscrlss some grncral propertics of tJlc bound- nit1 of 1 . 1 1 ~rcfcrencc qunnt,itics
:~ry-l:rycr t:qr~atiorls. 111 tloing so we sl~nllronfinc our ntttlention t o steady, two-
tlirr~ension:~l, ant1 i r ~ c - o ~ r ~ ~ ) r t ~l s) soi ~I )~l (n~( l I:lyt!rs.
nr~
Alt,hougl~t . 1 1 ~~)o~~ntl;trj--l:i.yt~r rclr~:ttionsllnvc h e n simplified t o n great axt,crlt.,
a s colr~l):wctl\vit.l~t,hr Nnvir~.-St.oltcsrclr~xt,ions.t,hoy arc still so tlifficrllt from t ' l ~ e I t is seen from eqns. ( 8 . 1 ) and (8.2) that, the bountlnry-layer solut,ior~dcpcnds on
mat31ren~nt.ical~)oinlof vie\\, t.l~:lt.trot, vdry marly gcncml s t , a t c n ~ r r ~:rborrt ts tlicrn onc parameter, the Iteynolds nrrrnber R, if the shape of the botly, and, hcnc:c, t,llc
ran I,c n~atle. 'I'o I,c:gin wit.ll, it. is import-antft o not.ice t h a t t,he Nnvier-Slolrcs potential motion U 1 ( x ' )are given. By t h e use of a further trxnsformation i t is
aqlla.t,io1ls:trc or t , I ~ t ?c,llil)t.ic.typa \vit,h rrspcct t,o tllc c:oorclin:~l,c.s,n ~ h c r m sPrnnrlt.l's possible to c1irninnt.c tllc Rcyrloltls number also from crlns. (8.1) nnd (8.2). If wt: p111.
l ~ o ~ ~ t ~ t I : ~ . r y~- lt ;~t ~ ~ t:~~r,:LI-O t~s I t , is :L c o ~ ~ s t ~ t ~or~ ~1-IIC
l , i o~~:ir;ti)olic, t ~ sin~plifyit~g
r~(~r
nss~rrnpt,iol~s i t 1 I)ountl;rry-layc?r t,l~coryt h a t t,he pressure can be assr~mcticonstant
ill R clircction n.t right :~nglcst o t h e hountl:lry Inycr, whereas along t h e wall the
1wess1rrc can I,c r c p r d e t l a s being "imprcsscd" I)g t l ~ cexternal flow so t h a t it bc-
c.otncs a givrn I'rlnc:l.iorl. 'rhr rcsr~lt~ing omission of t,hc arlnntion of motion perpen-
tlicr~l:irt.o t l ~ etlirccLiotl of flow can be i ~ ~ t c r p r c t cpl~ysicnllytl I)y stat,ing t h a t a fluit1
~);trt.ic.lain tha l)our~tl:lryIaycr has zcro mass, nntl s~~lTers 110 frietionnl tlrag, as far eqns. ( 8 . 1 )and ( 8 . 2 )transform into:
;rs it,s motlion in t.11r t.mnsvcrsc ctiroct,ior~is conccrnccl. I t is, tl~crcforc,clear t,l~a.t~
with sr~t:lrfrlntl;trnc~t~t,al cl~nngcsi n t r o t l ~ ~ c cint,o
d the cqtlat,ions of motion we mnsb u1 a?!
ax'
:+ ,,It
ac - U' dU'
ay" -
dz' + -
32 u.'-
...
ay'j2 '
:~nt.ic.ipatc t.ll:~t, t,llcir solrlt,iot~s will exhibit certain n~:ltl~cmaticalsingnlarities,
:111(1 t.ll:lt, :tgrrrrncr~t I,c:t,wrcr~ol)scrved :t11(1 ~illt:~~lat,ed phrrlon~onncannot always

with the boundary conditions: v' = O and v" = O a t ?/'I - 0 and 71' .= U' a t y'' =a.
,J ,hese equatdons (lo not now contain the R.cynolrls numl)cr, so t h a t t l ~ esolrrtions
a. Ueprrltlrrlcc of tllr cl~nrnctrriuticsof n bo~lrlclnrylnycr or1 t l ~ rIlcynoltls rltlml~rrt y") and v" ( s fy"),
of this system, i. e. t.he functions u1(z', , are also indeperltlent of t h e
Reynolds number. A variation in the Rcynoltls number cnnscs a n nffinc t,rnns-
'I'ho assu~npt~ions w l ~ i c l warc
~ rn;~tlcirt t l ~ ntlt:riv:lt.ion of t,hc t)ouritlnry-lnycr formation of tho boundary lnynr during which t.110ordinn.t,o nntl the vclonily in 1,11(.
rqrtnt.ions are s:~tisfictlwith a n increasing tlcgrce of accurncy as the Itaynoltls number transverse direction arc mult,iplictl by R-'I2. I n othcr wortls, for n given botly tho
ir~c:rrnses.,,
l hrls hountl:~ry-lnycr thcory can bc regardcd a s n process of nsymplolic tlimcn~ionless velocity componcnt,s M / U , ant1 ( v / ( l , ) . ( l J , L / V ) ' / n.ro
~ f~~r~cl.iorls
i~itrgmtiol~ o f t,llr Nn.vier-Bt,olrrs rqnn.t,ions nt 11cl.y In.rge Itcyrloltls nr~rnl,c~.s*. 'rhis o f the dimensionless coortlinates z / L and (?//I,). ( ( I , I , / V ) ' ~the
~ ; frlnctions, marc,.
sl.:~tc~mrnt,Irntls 11s 11ow to R tlisc~ission of the yclntiortship bet.wcen t(11c Itcynoltls over, d o not depend on t,hc Rcy~loldsn ~ i m b c ra n y longer.
nirmhcr anrl t . 1 ) ~chn.rnctt~rist.icsof R t,orindnry 1h.yer on our individrlal body-under The practical importance of this principle o/ nim.ilat.il?y~ o i f respo-1
l~ lo Ilr!/nold.~
consitlcrat,iorl. I t , will 1)a reanllctl t,hat in tfllctlcrivst~ion of the boundary-lnyer equations nirmher consists in thc fact t h a t for a given body shape it suffir:cs t o fir~tlthe solrtt,iot~
to the l~oundary-layerproblem only once in terms of the above tlimcnsionless varia1)lcs.
 VIII. General properties of the boundary-layer equations b. 'Sin~ilnr'solutions or the boundnry-lnycr cqunt,ions 163
162

Such a solution is valid for a n y Reynolds number, provided t h a t the boundary I t will be recallad t h a t with the similarity transformution T ] = y r,cqn. 1 / ~
-- --
-/v
layer is laminar. I n particular, i t follows further t h a t the position of t h e point of (7.24), we ohtained a n ordinary differcntial cquation, eqn. (7.28), for tho s t r c a n ~
separation is independent of the Reynolds number. The angle wl~ichis formed between function /(q),instead of t h e original partial diKercntial eclnatior~s.
t h e streamline through the point of separation and the body, Fig. 7.2, simply de- We shall now concern ourselves with the t y ~ ~ oof s potential flows for
creases in t h e ratio 1/R1I2a s t,he Reynolds number increases. wl~ich . s ~ ~ c'similar'
t~ sol~~l.ions exist. l'l~is prol)lom WILH (I~N(:IIHH(:~Ii t , ~ r o n (t ,I ( , ( . l ~ . i l
srpar:ll ion tlors t:~ltcpl:lcr i?i prcsrrvrtl wl~c*ntlic- process
Rforrovrr, t,l~cfar!, l,l~:~t, ~ ~ w ~ t l lr~l,orby W. Mt~nglcr [!)J. ,'1'11(: poi11t or d(:pt~r!,~~rt>
~ S.( : o l t l ~ l , o i1.4j,
f i t . ~ tby is
of passing t o t h e limit R + co is carried out. T l ~ n s in, t h e case of body shapes wl~iclt t o consider t h e boundary-layer equations for plane stdady flow, cqns. (7.10) and
cxhibit separation, t h e boundary-layer theory presents a totally different picture (7.11) together with eqn. (7.5s), which can be written as
of the flow pattern than t h e frictionlcss potential theory, even in the limit of R 400. au
T h i s argument confirms t h e conclusion which was already emphatically stressecl & -t av
-=o, I

ay
in Chap TV, namely t h a t the proccss of passing t o t h e limit of frictionlcss flow must
not be pei-formed in the differential cq~tat~ioris themselves; it may only be under-
talren in t h e integral solution, if physically meaningful rcsrllts are t o be obtained.

t h e boundary conditions 1)cirig ?r. a -- O for = 0, :hr~tlu - I/ for ?/ --.oo. 'l'ho

=-7

11. 'Similnr* soletions o f the boundary-lnyer cquntions cc~n:lt,ion of c:or~t~ir~uit~y

is it~tc:gratctl by t,l~ointroc111c:l.ion of t l ~ etilrc:rrn ftrnc:l,ior~
y ( x , 11) wibh
A sccond, ancl very important, question arising o u t of the s o l ~ ~ t ~of
i oboundary-
n
layer equations, is the investigation of the conditions untlcr which two solr~tior~s
arc 'similar'. We shall define here 'similar' solutions a s those for which the com-
ponent u of t h e velocity has the propcrty t h a t two velocity profiles u ( z , y) locat.ecl T h u s t h e equation of motion bccon~cs
a t tfifferent coordinates x differ only by a scale factor in u a n d y. Therefore, in t h e
rase of such 'similar' solutions t h e velocity profiles u ( x , y) a t all values of x can
1)e m a d r congrnent if they are plotted in coordinates which have been made dimen-
sionless wit11 reference t o the scale factors. Such velocity profiles will also sometimes
with the boundary conditions ay/az = 0 and ap/ay = 0 for y = 0, and ay/ay = IJ
be e:llled mifine. The local potential velocity U(x) a t section x is a n obvious scale
for y = oo. I n order t o discuss the question of 'similarity', dimensionless quantities
factor for u, because t h e dimensionless u ( x ) varies with y from zero t o unity a t all
are introduced, a s was done in See. V I I I a . All lengths are reduced with the aici
sections. The scalc factor for y denoted by g(x), must be made proportional t o the
of a suitable reference length, L, a n d all velocities arc made dimcnsionlcss wit11
local boundary-layer tl~ickncss.The requirement of 'similarity' is seen t o reduce
rdference t o a suitable velocity, I / , . As a result the Reynolds number
itself t o the requirement; t h a t for two arbitrary sections, x, and x,, the componer~ta
~ ( xy) , mustf satisfy the following equation

appears iri the cqn;ition. S i m u l t a n e o ~ ~ sthe

l y y-coordinate is reforred t o tlte ~limonsion-
les~
scale factor q(x), so t h a t we p u t
't'hc! bountlary layer nlong a flat plate a t zero incidence considered in the preceding
r11apt.er possessed this property of 'similarity'. The free-streani velocity U, was
1/
the scalc factor for u, and the scale factor Sol y was equal t o the quantity g = v x/U,
which was proport,ionnl t o the boundary-layer thickness. All velocity profiles became
- -

it1ent.ica.l in a ~ l o tof u/IJ,, against y/g = y )/ U,/v x = T ] , IFig. 7.7. Similarly,

the rases of t,wo- and threc-clirnerisiorlal stagnation flow, Chap. V, afforded examples
of solutions whic:l~ proved t o be 'similar' in the present sense.
r 3
I he quest, for 'similar' sol~it~ions
is particulyly irnporbant with respect to
t.he mnthen~nt.icnlcl~trrnct~cr of the solut.iorl. I n cnses when 'similar' soluiions exist proposed by F. Sc11uIt.z-Grunow[Gn, 15a], ninkes it poasiblc to rcduce uevcrnl problems in-
volving self-similar solutiolis to that of bl~eflnt plate at zero incidence. If A = 612 R is cl~oscl~
it. is pwsil)lr, 11s we sl~nllsre in ~norc?ctrtnil later, to reducc the system of partial as the curvature parametor, the trnnaformntions can be npplicd to flows nlong longitudinnlly
dilTrrent.inl eqrlnt,ions t o onc involving ordinary differential equations, which, evi- curved walls with bl~lntor shnrp lending edges as well ns wit,h blowing or s~lctior~ (Cl~npt.XIV).
dcntly, cot-~st,it.ntcsa considerable mathematical simplification of the problem. The preceding trnnsfnrmation is exnct to second ordcr in cnrvnt,~~rc which men118tbnt all t,crms
of the ordcr A hrivr been incl~~ded.
'i'he h o ~ ~ n c l a rlayer
y along a flat p1at.c can serve a s a n example in this respect also.
164 VIII. Ccnernl propertic8 of Lhe bo~~ndnry-layer
eq~lntiotis b. 'similar' solution of the boundary-lnycrequntioris 155
T h e fact,or I / ~ - f o t,he
r ortlinabe already appcarod in cqn. (8.4). 'rho stream fnnct,iorl This cquat,iorl was first given by V. M. Falkner and S. W. S k n r ~[2], and its solutions
is m ~ t l edi~ncrisionlossby t.ho suhst,it,~lt~ior~ were lat,er studied in tlctail by I). R. 1l:trtrce 101. We sllall revert t o this poi11t; i r ~
the surceeding c h a p t ~ r .
10 remains riow t,o dctarlnino from nclti. (8.14) Cllc nondit.iorls for l J ( z ) ancl
~ ( z )From
. (8.14) we oht,nin first

where the prirne in /' clenot.cs difircnt,iat,iort wit,ll respect, to 71, and wit,h rf:spc?ot, l"rl~rt~l~rr
from (8.14) we llavc
t o z in g'. It. is now seer1 directly from cqn. (8.12) tlhat the vc1ocit.y [)rofilc-s ~ s ( x11) ,
nre similar in t.lro previonsly tlcfincd scnso, when t,llc st,rc:lm firnc:l.iot~/ tlel)t:ntls only
a - D r . L 99' u
ant1 I t n ~ ~ c c
on tllc O I I C vnri:tblc 7 , ecln. (8.10), so t,I~:it, t.ho clcl)ct~tlcnc:co f j on [ i~ c.anccllctl.
Iri t l r i ~(:we, moreover, the p:~rti:tl tliffcre11li:~lecl~l:lt,ior~For I,llc st,ream Functioir,
eqn. (s.!)), mtl.sL retlrlce itsclf 1.0 nrr orc1in:~rytliffcrcr~li:rlccluntion for j(?). If we rlow
proceed to investigate the corlrljt,ions untlcr whiclr this retlllctiorl~oieqn. (8.9) takes
placr, we slli~llobtlnin t,ltc condition wliic;l~must be snt,isfictl 1)y tlie potont.ial flow
IJ (2) for s r ~ c 'similar'
l~ solut,iot~st o exist..
If we intfroducc now t.llc tlimcnsiorllcss variables from eqris. (8.10) a n d (8.1 1)
int,o cqn. (8.9), we obt,n.in tile following tliffcrenlial ccluation for /((, q): where I< is a constal~t.The elin~inationof g froin cqnc (8.17) ant1 (8.18) yic,l(ls t.lle
velority dist,ributiotl of the potcnt,ial flow

:~tltl w l ~ r r rI" -- tll'ltlr 'I'll(, 1no11ntl:~ryrontlitions for rcln. ( 8 13) :I,(. / 0 :~ntl I t will 1 ) rc.r:lllcd
~ (,hat the case 2 a - P - 0 11:~sl)(-t.ll rsc.l~rtlrtl.
1' -- 0 lor ?I - - 0 and 1' -- I for 11 = r-a.
As srcn from cqn. (8.14) tJle result, is intlrpentlrnt of a n y comnloll f:lct,or of
'Sitni1:tr' soIt~t.ionst . ~ i s lonly IVIIOII / :i11(1/' (lo not, (Ic:p(:n(l on 6, i. (:. ~ I I c ! IJIV ~ a nntl p, ns i t ran I)c ittcludcd in g. Therefore ns long a s a +
0 it is perrnissiblc t,o
rigl~l,-l~:~rlrl ~ i t l vo f ocln. (8.13) vanish(:s. Sitr~~rll,:~.ttro~~sIy 111c cocffi~i(:nt,sa ant1 P pnt a =- -1- 1 wit.llorlt, loss of gcneralit,y. I t is, furthcrrnorc, c.onvrrlient t,o irlt.rot1t1c.c
01; t.hc Irft,-ltnncl sitlo of cyn (4.13) rn~tst*11,. itrtlo~,cntlcn~ of x, i. c., l.lrcy must, I)(: :I. trow c.or~st.:~.r~t~
111 t.o roplacc p l)y pr~I,t.ing
(~otist,;~tit.. 'l'l~isl:il,l,cr (:o~~tIit,ion, rotnk)it~(xiwit11 cqn. (8.14), frtrnisl~csl,wo (~tlrl~:~t,ions
for ( l i t ? ~)ol.cnl,i:l~l vc,loc-il.~.I : ( R - ) ant1 t , l ~ cscnlo f:tc:t,or q ( z ) for t.11o ortlinal.r, so t.11:11,
t l t ~ y(>:III I)<*I~\*:LIII:~I,C<I. ll(:r~cx:, il' si1nil:~r s o l t ~ t , i o ~ or~ sl ) o ~ r t ~ ~ I : ~ r y - lflow
: ~ y carc
r lo
(,xis1 , t I t ( * s t . r ( ~ ~ nf ~i t n ( . l , i o/ (~? I~) I I I I I S ~ , s:~l,isfy t,ll(: fnllo~ving or(lin:try (lilTcrcnt~i:~l

so t11:1l., wiI.11 a = 1, the vc1orit.y clisf.ril)~lt~iott

of t.llc%~)otc,t~l.inl
flow : ~ l ~ t.11~:
r l sc::tltr
I:lc:bor !/ for t.llc ordinnt,c 1)ccomc
 VI11. Gcncrnl properttiesof the boundary-layer cqrrations cl. Trnnsformation of the boundary-layer equations into the hcat-conduction equntion 157

and t.hc tmnsformation rcluation (8.10) for the ordinatc is
I t is Ll111s concludccl l.h:rt, siniil:~r solul.ior~sof Lhc bou~ttlary-layer ccli~nt.ionsarc
ol)taincd when t h c vclocit,y tiistriI)i~t.ior~ of thc potcnt.ial flow is proportional to a
power of thc lcngth of arc, rncnsurcd along 1.11~wall from the stagnation point.
S u r l ~pot.cntial flows occur, in fact, in the ncighbourhood of thc stagnation point
of a wedge whose inclutfcd anglc is cqnal t o n /?,as shown in Fig. 8.1. I t is easy t o
verify with thc aid of potcr~tialtheory t.liat we havc hcrc
whcrc C is a constant. The rclnt.ionsllil) k)rtwccn t,hc wedge angle factor /? ant1 t h r
rxpor~rrit,m is cxactly t h a t givcn in cqn. (8.21).
The case a = 0 : The case a = 0 which has, so far, bcen left o u t of account,
leads, a s is easily inferred from eqn. (8.19), t o potentinl flows U ( z ) which arc pro-
portional t o l / z for a11 values of /?.Depending on the sign of U this is the case of
a two-climensional sink or source, and can also be intarprctcd ns flow in a divcrgrnt,
or convorgcnt c.hanncl with flat walls. This type of flow will also be consitlcretl in
grratcr tlctiiil in Chap. 1X.
Thc second casc excluded earlier, namely t h a t when 2 a - /? -. 0, leads t o
'similar' solutions with U ( x ) proportional t o ep2, where p is a positivc or negativc
constant.. We shall, howcver, rcfrain from discussing this casc.
.
,Lhc problem of the cxist,cncc of similar solutions i~lvolvingnon-stcatly bonntlary
layers was discussed l)y 11. Schuh [l!j]; thc same problcm in rclation t o c o n ~ ~ ~ r c s s i l ~ l o
boundary layers will I)c tlisc~rsscdin Scc. X I I I d .
d. Transformation of the boundary-layer cquations into the heat-conduction equation
It. von Miscs [lo] published in 1927 a rcmarkablc transfornation of t.hc
boundary-layer cquations. This transformation cxhibita thc mathematical chnract.cr
of t h e equations even more clcarly than the original form. Inslcad of tho C:~rtasi:rn
coordinates z and y, von Miscs introcluced the stream function y ~ ,together with the
lcngth coordinate z a s indcpcntlcnt variables. Substituting

into eqns. (7.10) and (7.11), a s wcll a s introducing t h e ricw coordinatcs [ = x anti
r ] = tp instcad of z a n d y, we obtain
Fig. 8.1. Flow pas1 a \vcdge. I n t l ~ cneighhour-
I~r~orl
-
of tho leading cdgc Ilm pobn1i:d vrlocit,y
rli~l.rib~~l.ion
is lJ(z) C r m

Particular case8 for n =: I: ( a ) For =- I we have n = I, ant1 cqn. (8.22) hccorncs J-Ience, from eqn. (7.10), i t follows t h n t
U ( z ) = rc 2. 'l'liis is thc case of two-din~rnsionalstrqn.nl~:on /loin, which was considered
i r l Snc. Vl) 9, and which locl t,o an cx:~ct,solut.ion of thc: Navier-Sl.oltcs cclu:rt,ior~s.
WiI,ll a -- I, nncl /? =-: I , the tli&:rcnt,i:ll eclrlation (8.15) transforms irlt,o c q r i (5.39)
\rvhich was already considcrcd carlicr. 'l'hc transformat,iori equation for thc ordinate, Introducing, Furthcr, t h e 'total head'
ccln. (8.24). hccorncs idcr~t~ical with thc alrcaciy familiar oquation (5.38), if we put,
IJ/z -- a.
(b) For /? =- 0 wc have nh -- 0, hrncc IJ(z) is const,ant and c q ~ l a tl o U,. This is
t.licc:ascof :~/lccl 1/
p l d e d zero incirhnce. ltfollowsfrop cqn. (8.24)t h a t r ] =y U,/2 v z .
wherc t h e small quantity 4 p v2 can bc ncglcctcd, wc obtain, reverting t o Lllc s y m l ~ o l
z for l :
'I'his val~rctlifli:rs only by a faclor 1/2 from t h a t i~it,roduccdin cqn. (7.24). Correspond-
ingly t,hc clifTc:rcntial c q ~ ~ a t i o/"'n $-//" = 0 which follows from cqn. (8.15) differs by
a fiu:t.or 2 in Ohc snconcl term from nqn. (7.28) whic11 was solved cerlier. The two
We m a y also p o t
ecl~lat,ionshrcomo idc~ll~ical whnn tsransformcd t o identical dcfinit.ions of r ] .
Soli~t,ionfor diiTcrer~t,valuos of m will be corisiclercd latcr in Chap. IX.
158 VIII. General ppropcrtics of t,llc boundary-layer cqr~nLions r. Tlrc rno~nenlrlrnant1 rrrrrgy-irrfrgrnl cqr~rilionsfor IIrr I)o~lt~tlnry
I;ryt-r 159
I'ltl~tation (8.27) is a tliffrrrnt,ial equation for f8ho t o t d prrssuro g ( x , vi), and its ror~tlit.ions,togct.l~erwith crrt,air~cornpnt.ibilit,y ~ontlit~iotrs.
In t.ho remaining rc-gion
I)orrtrtlary rontlit.ions arc of flrtitl in the boundary layer only a mean over the tliffcrcrrlial ~qunt~iotr
is satisfictl,
g = p ( x ) for rl, = 0 and g = .p ( 2 ) -1- 2 Q U 2 -- const for )I) = co . tlic nIcnn heing t:~kenover the wlrole tlliclrncss of t h e boundary layer. Such :I nre:trr
vnl~rcis oht.airret1 from t,he ~nonientumequation wlticl~is, in t,nrn, tlerivrtl l'rorn t , l ~ e
t > q ~ t : i t i oof~ ~niol.iorr I ) j r it~t~rgmt~ion over tlrc bor~ndary-1:~ycrt.hicknc:ss. Sirrrr (.Iris
111 ortlrr I,o rrl)t.rst?tiI,1,Irc flow in 1 . 1 1 ~
l)l~ysirn.l~,l:tnon', ?I,it, is ncct~ss:r.ryl o t.r;~nsli)rtn
t-tlrt:~,tiottwill Ipc oll,t.rr 11s(*t1 i t r t.110 ~ ~ l ) ~ ~ r o x i t r~r ~t ri lt .~( :~ . I ~
too tIN>
I ~~, I ~ H ~ : I IIN
: IS~(I ~jvt.
I .I.
l'ron~ill l,o ?/ \viI,lt t,he :r,itI ol' IJICct111:~tiotr
slr~IItIe(Iucc it now, writing i t tlowt~in it,s tnotlcrtr fnrtn. T l ~ eqrt:it3ion c is ktrow~l:LS t,Ir(:
nlo~ttentunt-integwlequation of boundary-laycr theory, o r a s v o r ~l<iir~n;in'sirrtc~gr:rl
c q ~ ~ n t i o(7 t rJ
\\'c sltnll rcsl,rict ourselves 1.0 t,lrc cnsc of slc~:ttly,t.\vo-tlitnct~sit~tti~l,
: ~ r ~ ti rl ~ t - o ~ n -
JSq~mtion (8.27) is relat,ed t o t,hc Ircat-conduction e q ~ ~ a t ~ i oTile
n . tliffercnt,ial ~)ressiblcflow, i. c., we sliall refer t o cqns. (7.10) tso (7.12). Upon intcgr:ttit~gt,lle
rt~nn.t.ionfor t,ho one-dimct~sionalcase, e. g. for a bar, is given by rqu:it.ion of motion (7.10) with respect t o 11, from ?/ = 0 (wall) t,o ?I =- 11, wllcrc
1.11~I:~ycr?/ 1- IL is c?verywhLrc out,sitle t.lrc b o ~ ~ n t l n rIaycr,
y we obtain:
h

whrrc 7' tlenot,cs t h e t.cmpernl.t~rr,t tlcnoLcs 1.11~ t,in~c,n.ntl rc is t,ho t,llrrmal tliKr~siviLy,
scc Chap. X I I . Jlowevcr, the transformed I)o~~ndary-layer cqnat,ion, unlike eqn. (8.28),
is non-linear, ~ C C S I I S tlro
~ thermal tliffilsivity is rr1)laced by v .IL, which tlopentls on 'rhr slrenrittg stress a t tho wall, T,, has l~rcrtsr~bstitutctlfor p(au/ay),, so t l t : ~ t
the indcpentlent variable x, a s well a s on the tlepcndent, varinl~leg. rqrr (8 21)) is sern t o br valid both for laminar and t u r b ~ ~ l e nflows,
t on cot~clition
that, in t l ~ elatter case u a n d 7~ deuotr the time averages of tlre respechive velocity
At tblrewall, VJ = 0, 14 = 0, q -- I), eqn. (8.27) exllibit,~a n unpleasant si11gularit.y.
+
Ttrr Irft.-t)n.ntl side becomes ag/ax = tlp/tlx 0. On the right,-hand side we have v , can be rcplacrd by v -. - J (iI~/r?z)d
rotnponents. The normal velocity ron~ponrr~t,, y,
Y

16 = 0, nntl, therefore, azg/avi2 = oo.This circumst,xnce is dist.r~rbing whrn numerical

methods are used, and is inl;imat,nly conncct,ctl with the singt~larbelraviortr of t.11e as srcn from the c q u a t . i o ~of~ continuity, antl, conscq~~cttt.ly,
we have
velocity profilc near tho wall. A detailed tlisoussiorr of eqn. (8.27) was given by I,.
I'mndt,l [I I], who had dt:tlnccd the tmnsfornration a long time before t,he paper by
It. von Misen appcnmd, wit.hout,, however, publishing it?, c I . [ I , 12, 161.
11. ,J. 1,11oltcrt [8] npplictl cqn. (8.27) t o tire example of t.lle borlrtdary laycr
on a flat plat>ein order t o test its pmct.icnbilit,y. 1,. Rosenhead and H. Simpson [I31 1nt.rgrxting hy part,s, we obt,airi for the second t,erln
ga.vc a. c:rit.icnl cliscnssior~of t,hc preceding pul)lic*nt,iotr.

e. T l ~ cnio~ncnttlman11 energy-integral eqrrntions for the boundary layer

so t h a t
A complete calculation o l the hountlary laycr for a given body with the nit1
of tlre differ~rit~ial eql~at~ions is, in Inany cases, a s will 60 seen in more detail in t h e
next chapter, so cunihersomc and time-consuming t h a t it can only be carried o u t
with t.ho a.itl of :Ln clcct,ronic computer (sec also See. 1X i). I t is, tlicreforc, desirable
1.0 possess nt Im,st approxi~natcmrtllotls of solnt.ion, to be applied in cases w11en a n
exact so111I.ionof t , t ~ cbo~lntjnry-l:~ycr et111at.ionscanrrot I)c obtained wit11 a rcasor~ablc h
an~oltnt,of work, cvctl if thoir :iccumcy is only limited. Strcl~approximate ~not,Irotls dz? J (1u
j ~ ~ u w - ~ ) ~ (1- 1(Ir' - U ) C I Y-= zn
e . (8 29:l)
can he tlevisctl if we d o not insist on satisfying t.11~tlifferential equations for every
0 0
fluitl part.icle. Irtst~catl,t.he b o ~ ~ n d a r y - l a yeqr~ation
er is ~at~isfietl
in a st,ratrtm near the
wall nntl n m r t11e region of transitior~1.0 t,he external flow by satisfying the boundary Since in both intcgmls the ir~t~egrnrld vanishes outsitle 1,lic boundary Inyrr, i t is
prrn~issiblct o p u t h + oo .
- We now introduce t h e displacement thicknrss, a,, and the momcrrtr~nltlricl~tr~ss,
1 Srr foot,no(r on 1). 79 or rci. ( I 11 and t l ~ Irtlrr
r of I,. rrandtl t,o ZAMhl 8.249 ((1028). d,, which have nlrcady brcn lirtrd in Chap. VIJ. They arc dc,fincd I)y
?
 VITT. General propertirs of the boundary-layer equations d. The rnolncnti~rnand energy-inkgrnl equations for the bounclary layer 161
160
m sidc rcpresenta the loss in mechanical encrgy (kinetic and pressure encrgy) taking
9, U = 1( U - ~ ) d y (displacement thickness) , (8.30) place in the boundary layer as compared with the potential flow. IIcnce the tcrm
m

and
y=o 4 p n/ u ( U 2 -u2) dy T C I ) T O S C ~ the
~~ flux of clissipntcd encrgy, ant1 tho Icfl.-l~r~~ltl
sitie
a,

6, U2 = u(U-U) d y (morncntum thickness) . (8.3 1) rrprescnts the rate of chnngc of thc flux of tlissipatctl cnrrgy p r r i~nit,1c:ngt.11 i l l I.ht.
x-(1irectpion.
If, in acldition to the displacement, and momentum thickncss from eqns. (8.30)
It will be not& t,llat in the first tcrm of the eqn. (8.29a), differentiation with respect and (8.31) ,.espeotjivcly, we introduce the r1issip.ation-energy thickness, d,, from the
to x , and integration with respect to y, may bo interchanged as the upper limit h definition
is independcnt of z.IIence m

U3 a3 = [u(U2-u2) d y (energy tlricltness), (8.34)

0

This is t,hc momenlum-integml eq&ion lor two-dime~~ional, incompressible boundary
ln?yers. As long m no statement is madc concerning T ~ eqn. , (8.32) applies to laminar
and t ~ ~ r b u l c nboundary
t layers nlike. This form of the momentum inhegral equation
was first given by 11. Gruscl~wita[5].It finds its application in the approximate
thcories for laminar and turb~rlentboundary layers (Chaps. X , X I and X X I I ) .
Using a sirnilnr approach, K . Wicghnrtlt [17] dcduced a n energy-inlcgral e q d i o n
for laminar boundary layers. This cqrlation is obtained by multiplying the equation
of motion by u and then inkgrating from y = 0 to y = h > a(%). Substituting,
again, v from thc equation of continuity we obtain
The second term can bc trarlsformcd by integrating b y parts:
wlrercas by combining tlrc first with the thircl tcrm we have
h
we can rewrite thc crtcrgy-inbgral equation (8.33) in the following sirnplifictl form:
which rcpresents the energy-integral eqmtion for two-dimnsionnl, lnminnr boundary
lu yers i n ineom.pre.~sibleflmu t.
I n onlcr to visualize thc displacement thickness, the momentum thickness,
and the cncrgy-dissipation thickness, i t is convenient to calculate thcm for thc
simplc case of linear velocity distribution, as shown in Fig. 8.2. I n this casc we find:
displacement thickness dl = )6
momentum thickness 6,=+d
cncrgy thickncss d, -= 1 d .
The extension of the preceding approximatc method to axially symmetrical
boundary layers will be discussed in Chap. XI. Approximate mot hod^ for thermal
boundary layers are trcatcd in Sec. X I I g ; those for compressible and non-steady
bountlary Iaycrs will bc given in SCC.X I I I ~ 1and Chap. XV, rcspcctivcly.

Fig. 8.2. Boundary layer wit11 lineor vclo-

0 city distribution
d - boanrlary-lnycr tl~ickncss
Finally, upon integrating tlrc right-hand side by pnrts, we obtain
6, - clisplaccment thickness
d, - momentsm thickness
4. - Energy lhicknesa

'l'lic upper linrit of ir~tegrat~ion

coultl here, too, be rcplaced b y y = oo, becausc the t In the case of turbulont flowtr, the energy-irtbgral equation wsurnes tho form
intcgrantls become cqual to zero outaide the boundary layer. The quantity p (&I*)'
represent8 the energy, per unit volumc and time, which is transformed into heat
by frictiorr (tlissipation, cf. Chap. XTI). Tho term & e (U2-u2) on the 1~"-Ilant1
162 VIII. General propertien of the boundary-layer equations

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- ~

Exact solutions of the stmdy-stntc i~nau(1ory-

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g
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- .~
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fiir St~riinrrt~rgs- nn~ ~longitudinnl
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tr~~ Crrt~zxc~l~icIrt.rr,.
l11g.-
Arclt. I/;, 231 - 242 (l!l48).

y =0: u=o, " =o; y = w -. IL =U(x) . (9.3)

111 :~tltIit~inn, I)? g i v r t ~:I!,
a vdooit,y profile ~ ( 0y), IIIIIS~, :III i t t i t , i : ~ I s v ( * l , i o ~s :~~, y :,t t
164 I X . Icxact solutions of the shady-state boundary-layer equations a. Flow past n wedge 165

with t,l~obollnt1:try rontlit,ior~s = 0 and ify~/i)z== 0 : ~ the

t w:tII, y = 0 , and the velocity profiles have no point of inflexion, whereas in tho case of decolcrat.rti
r?y~/i)ll-- !I (r)a t = oo . flow (m < 0 , p < 0 ) t l ~ c yexhibit a point of inflexion. Sepxrat,ion occurs for
= - 0.199, i. e. for nt = - 0.091. This rcs~lltsl~o\vst.llnt t l ~ claminar hor~l\tlnry
layer is able t.o s r ~ p p o r only
t a very small dccelcration w i t l ~ o ~separat,iorl
lt occurir~n.
a. I;lo~v paat a wedge I<. St,nwart,son [64] gave x tlct,ailctl analysis of tho rn:~riifoltl of sol~lt,i~rls of
ryn. (9.8). A(:oor(littg Lo 1-Itis ~ ~ ~ t t ~ ~i tl1y1,Ite:
s i s rt~rtgc!
, prousllrc!s ( 0. I!)!) . ,
of' in(:rc~~sit~g
Thc: 'sirnilar' solutions discussed in Chap. V l I l consLiI.ntc a particnlarly sitnplo < p ( 0) t l ~ e r cexists a further solution, t h a t is, in addition t o the one discovered
class of solutions u ( x , y) which have the property t h a t the velocity profiles a t different by IJxrt.rer. The additional solution leads t o a velocity profile with baclz-flow (cl.
distnnccs, x, can be made congruent wiLh suitablc scale factors for u and y. The systcr.~ Chap. X f ) .
of p;xrt,ial differential equations (9.1) and (9.2) is now rcdnced t o onc orclinary
T l ~ cpotential flow given by U(Z) = 1 ~ xm, exists in thc ricigllbourllootl of t . 1 1 ~
rliffcrcnt,ialcq~lation.It was proved in Chap. V l I l t l ~ a such
t similar solutions exist
stngtiation p o i l ~ ton a wedge, Fig. 8.1, wl~oscinclr~tlcdanglc 8, is given by eqn.
when t,he velocity of t,hc potential flow is proportional t o a power of tllo length
(0.7). Two-dimensional stagnation flow, as well a s t,hc boundary layer on n llat.
coor(linat.c, 2, rneasurcd from the stagnetiot~point,, i. e. for
plate a t zero incidencc, constitut,~particular cases of the preserit solutions, the former
for p = 1 and in = 1, t l ~ elatter for = 0 ant1 m = 0.

Jrrorn cqn. (8.24) it rollows t h a t t,hc trar~sformal.ior~ of tllc intfol)endcr~t.v;l.rial)lc ?I,

which lends t o a n ortlinary tlifl'crcnt,inl tcl~lat,ion,is:

Fig. 9. I. Velocit.y distri-

'J'l~rr ~ l ~ a t i oofr ~o o n t i n ~ ~ i tis~ yintrgratcd by tile introduction of a stream function, brrtion in tlie 1:~tninar
bor~ndary layer in tile
flow past a wedge given
by U (x) = a , zm. Tllc
exponent m and the
wedge anglc P (Fig. 8.1)
as S ( ~ P I I from cqrls. (8.1 I ) ant1 (8.23). 'l'hns t h e vrlocity romponel~tsbecome arc connecbd tlirorlgll
cqn. (9.7)
u = u1 2" / ' ( r ] ) = u /'(r]), 1

1 tit.rotl~tc:ingt,l~c?scvnlrtos into t t ~ ce q l ~ a t ~ i of
o r ~motion (9.l),dividing by ni. I L ~zZ"'--I, ,l ,h c o:~.scfl &,m
:- 2- .j is worL11y of at~l.c~nt.io~r.
111 (,Itis cnac 1.l1o elillrc!t~l,i:~l
nnrl put,t,ing, as in cqn. (8.21),
cquat.ion for /(q) hccomcs: /"' .I- / /" 1- 4 (1 = 0; it, t,rnnsforn~s irlt,o ~ . I I ( *
tlifi:rcnl.inl c!clrtitl.iorl ofroL:~(.ior~:~IIy
sytnrnct.ric~~l
flow with slng~l:~l.io~t
poit~l,,
ocltl. (5.47),
i. e., 4"' -1- 2 4 4" + 1 - 4" = 0 for $(C), if we put r ] = 5 1 / 2 and d//dsj = d+/d<.
we ol)tnir~tllc following differential eqr~at~ion
for / ( I ) ) .
,l h i s means t h a t the calculation of the boundary layer in t h e rotationally symlnctricnl
case can be reduced to the cal~ulat~ion of two-din~ensionalflow past a wedge whoso
/"' -t / /" -1- p ( 1 -1 ' 2 ) = 0 included angle is n = n/2.

I t . will IN: roc::tllrtl 1.Ii:tt it, was ;~lrcadygivcr~as eilrl. (8.15), ant1 t h a t itti I ) O I I I I ( I R ~ Y The rriationsllip between the two-dimensional ant1 rotfatiot~allybymrnetric:~l
contlil ions a.re f I)oun(lary layers will be f u r t l ~ c rtliscussctl, in s morc gerrcral lor~rt,in Chap. XI.
0 : / = 0 , 1' --= 0 ; /l=1.
-
Y] 7
If the similarity variable r ] defined in ccp. (9.5) were rcplaccd by t,he indcpendcnt

I':q~>:ltio~~(0.8) was first clrduccd 1))' \'. 31. Fnllrner anrl S. \\'. Skan, ant1 its solutions
variable i j = y 1/
U ( x ) / v z , the difirenl-in1 equatiot~for Lhc fut~clion/ I ( ? ) u/fJ
woltld change its forrn to
lvrrr latrr invrstip:~trdin detail by 1). It. Ilart,rce (see Erferences to Chap. VIII).
'I'11r solnt.iol~is rrprcsr~ltrtlin Vig. 0.1. In tlic case o l ar.cclcrat,ec\ flow (IILb 0 . P >0)
'I'his c.cluat,ion Lrarlsforms i n t o tI1n.L Tor :I flat plat^, c q n . (7.28), i n (.he special cnse
wllcn m = 0. T h e so111t.ions of t , l ~ cFalltncr-Slran rclrln.tion (9.8) h a v e been discussed
i n t l e t + ~ iin
l 1611.
According t,o J. Sl,cinl~cr~cr [631, nn interesting c x t e ~ ~ s iof
o t 6hr
~ solr~t.ir~t~ of t,l~rr'nlltner-Sltnn
n whiclr in vnlid for ret.nrded flows (P < 0)in cases when velocity dintrihtct.ions posses8-
e q ~ ~ n t i o(9.8)
ing n velocity cxccns (I'(i1) > 1) with n ~ n a x i n ~ l near r ~ n the wall arc ndrnittcd. In R I I C ~ Icnscs, tlle
linlit /'('I) = 1 for 11 -+ 00 is nttnincd nsympLot,icnlly "from abovr" rnthcr thnn "from hclow",
as was t,l~e cn8c RO far. SIICIIuoIt11.ions can he interpreted pl~ysirnllyas corrrspo~~ding to a laminar
wall-jet prodlrcctl in nn cxtnrnal strcnrn wit.11n positive ]~ressu~.e grndient,. dplda: > 0. Ileferenro
[ G 3 ] drrnonnt,rntn~t,hnt t.lle limiting cnne of Lllmc uolt~t,ions,o I ) t n i r ~ ~Wd~ I ~ I,IIc
I I ~nnxirnltn~ velocity .
,I ltr I ) O I I I I I ~ * L ~
~ . o~ t ~ ~ l i I ,rollow I . nilti nrc?: /' : 0 nl. o,
i o n ~ Pronl C ( ~ I(V.3) 0 I / I
cxccns tcntlu 10 infinit,~,trnl~nformsi t ~ l r )1.l1r \\,I-ll-known~rll-sitnilnrnolttl.ion of n J > I I ~ Cwnll-jet in
t,l~cabsence of nn cxtrrnnl vclociLy -- n cnnc trcr~tcclhy R I . 11. (:lartt:rl (ucc 1401 in (Il~r~p. XI)-~-
.
nnt1 /" = 0 a(* 17 == w 'I'lris i s nlso :I j)nrl,ierrlnr caso of ~ l clasa ~ o 01' 'sirnilat.' s o l ~ r t ~ i ~ t ~ ~
mhen we put, p = -2.
A pnrt,irulnrly drt,niletl n~onogrnpllon exnrt., self-nirnilnr solt~t.ionsfor lnminnr I~orlndary
lnyeru in two-din~ensionalnnd rot,ntionnlly symnletric nrrangemcnt,~,inrl~lsiveof the nssocintrtl
tial equation (8.15) f o r t.11~ case of 'similar' boutldnry layers, if we p u t a -
consitlcred in C h a p . V111. ISqr~atiorl(9.12) is o b t n i n c d f r o m I.11c m o r e g c n r r a l t l i f l i ~ r c ~ ~ l -
0, nlrd
4- 1. l'lie e x a m p l e u n d e r considerattion is o n e of t,hc rare cases w h e n tSi1cs o l l ~ t ~ i oof'r ~
.-.
thcrtnnl bout~dnrylnycrn (acn Chnp. XTl),wns prlhlinl~cdh y C . 1'. J>cwey nntl *I. F. Grosn [141. tllc botrndary-layer e q u a t i o n c a n b e ol)t,aincd a n a l y t i c a l l y i n closrd f o r m .
Their consitlcrnt.io11~ inelntle t,l~eelTt:ct.s of con~presaibilit~(sen Chnp. XIJI) wil.11 ant1 rnitl~o~lt, hcn,t
tmnnfer, relate Lo vnryitlg vnlnes of t.he Prar~tlt,lnumber, and inc,l~tdesome rases of suction nrrd k'irst,, u p o n mult,iplying c q n . (9.12) b y 1" a n d i n t e g r a t i n g ollce, \vc? I1:lvc
blowing.
K. 1(. Cl~ennnd P. A. Libby 191 cnrriecl out nn cxtx?nsivc invcst,ignlion of bo~~llrlnry lnycrs
wl~ichare el~ornctorizcdby ~ m n l lclcpnrtnrcs from t.11~nelf-ui~nilnr\\.ctlge-flow boltt~tlnrylnycrs
of t.110 I'nlknrr-Sltan type. Rvidcnt,ly, R I I ~ I I1)ounrlnry Inyerrr nre no longer nolf-uin1iln.r. u ~ h e r cn is a r o n s t n n t of i n t r g m t i o u . 1t.s v a l u e is zero, a s /' .- 1 ant1 /" -- 0 lor
f] f 00. '1'1111s

b. Flow in n convergent channel

'J'l~e r a s e of potcnt,ial flow giver1 I,y t h e e q ~ r n t ~ i o n

U ( s ) = -2L
x

is related to flows pmt a wedge, ant1 also l e a d s to 'similar' sollitions. W i t h >0
it r c p r e s o ~ t , atwo-dimengional mot,ion in n c o n v e r g e n t c h n r ~ n c lw i t h flat, walls (sink).
T h e v o l u m e o f flow for a fill1 o p e n i n g a n g l e 2 n a n d for a s t r n t , l ~ n iof rtnit
Ilcigllt is ($ = 2 n ?I,, (Fig. 9.2). I n t , r o d r ~ o i n gt.he simi1nrit.y t,ransfortnat.ion
w h r r e t h e atlditive const.ant of intrgrnt,ion is s e e n t o b e c q l ~ n lt o z e r o it1 v i r w of
t h e I ) o ~ t n d a r ycondition /' = I at 17 = oo . T h e int,egral r a n b e rxprcssctl itt closetl
f o r m a s follows:

o r , solving f o r 1' = w/11:

(9.13)

fi
H e r e wo l ~ a v sr r l l ~ s t , i t ~ ~ rlfat~lr-'
tcd -1 1.14G. Tnt.roclr~oitlgI,ho 1,oln.r n t ~ g l c0 .: !,/.,.,
as wcll as Q -- 2 n r I1 ( r -= ratlinl rlistnncr f r o m t h e s i n k ) , wo (*at1 rrplnco 11 fro111
c q n . (9.10) 1,y

,I ,h o vclocilPjr tlist,ribr~tiorlgivcn b y r q n . (9.13) is rcprescnt.cci in Fig. 9.:1. /\I, 1, 7. :{,

approxima.t,cly, t h e b o u n d a r y l a y e r m e r g e s w i t h tJre potent6rtl flow. JTcncc. t,llr

.-
rss J = 3 z 140 r ; it, tlc~crmscs,n.s i t ot.Ilrr
I~otlndary-ln.yrt.t ~ l ~ i r k t ~I)oc-o~nrs ~ rxnml,lcs,
Fig. 9.2. 1"low in n ronvrrgrnt rhnnt~rl as IIJR.
 IX. Exnot, sol~rt,ionn
of tlic ntrady-strateboundary-layer equations
168
Fig. 9.3. V~loc*itydistribr~tion in t h~
laminar Iio~~ndnry layer of t.110 flow i l l a
convcrgcrlt cllanncl
The prrcetling solutiol~was first obtained by I<. l'ol~lhausen 1501 It will bc
recalled. from Scc. V b 12 on p. 107 t h a t t h e flow through a divergent channel dis-
cussed by C. llamel constitutes a n cxact solution of the Nevier-Stokcs cqnations.
The diagram in Fig. 5.15 contained some nr~mericalresults pertaining t o this solutiorl.
Tn this connexion, a paprr by B. 1,. IZrevrs ancl C. d . ICipprr~han [52] may n s e f ~ ~ l l y
bc consrllt,rcl.
c. Flow pnnt a cylinder; ~ ~ r n r n e t r i c ncase
i (nlasius S~ries)
Tlrc cli~ssof 'sin~ilar'solutions of the boundary-la.ycr cqnations considered so
far is comparat,ively narrow. Apart from t,hc c x a m p ~ c sof t h e flat plate, stagnation
flow, flow past a wc(lgo, and flow in a convergent channel which havc already been
dcscribcd, few adtliLiona1 solat,ions can be obtained. Wa s l ~ a lnow l corlsider t,he general
case of tho bo~lndarylaycr on a cylindrical body in a stream which is pcrperl-
tlicrllnr to its axis. The method of solut,ion was first given by IT. l3lasius [4]; it was
clcvelopetl further h y I<. Hiemenz [39] and I,. 1Iowarth [40]. It is necessary t o
dist,inpuis1r here two cascs depcntling on whctlrcr the cylinder is symmetrical nbou:
an ,?.xis which is pamilel t,o the stream a t a large distance from the body or not,.
\?'e shall rrfcr t,o tlrcse two cascs a s t,o the symmetrical and asymlnetrical case,
rc~pect~ivc1.y.
In cithcr ciisc tllc vclocit,y of the p o t c n t . i ~flow i i,q ?ssunrctl t o have,+ f 2 ~ 1 n
of a powcrpcr/ci in 2, where s denotes Ure clistanc? -{rorn t,lre. st.agrrnt,iotr .poirrt,
r n c a s ~ ~ r calong
d t,hc conLonr. 'rlrc vclocit,y profile irr t,hc l~or~rldary layor is :~1so
rcpre~c:nt,e~~ as a sinrilw power series in r , wlrerc tho cocfficicrrts arc i~ssarnnlW )I(:
n s t,he c ~ o r t l i n a t ~y,e lacas~lretla t right angles t o the wall (Blasius series).
f n ~ ~ c t , t oof
I,. Howart,ll succectlcd in finding n ~ u b s t i t u t ~ i ofor n the velocity profile which confers
universal validitmyon the y-dependent coefficients. I n ot,her words, by a suitable
asslllnption r c ~ r d i ~t.11~ ~ gpower series, it.s coefficients have been made independent
of t,llc partPicr~lo,rs of t,he cylindrical body, so thpt the resulting functions could be
evnlunt,etl and prcsrntarl in t,he form of t,nl)lcs. Thus the calculation of t,he boundary
layer for a sllnpc becomes vcry sinrplo if IISC is lnntle of tslt~t~nl)lcs.providld
t,lrit the t,nbuln.tlion cxt,ends over a sufficiently large number of terms of tfhe series.
'I'lto t~scfnlnrssof Rln.sins's inet,hotl is, Irowcvcr, sevorely rest,ricted kty t'hc fact.
tllnl., Iwcrisrly in 1.11~rnost, i m p o r l , a ~ ~case
t of vcry slender I)orly-sl~ages,a l:rrg(:
c. Flow past a cylinder; syrnrnet,ricol case ( nle~iusnerie~)
169
r111mbc:r of tcrms is rcq~rirctl;in fact,, 1.l1eirnr~rnbcris so 1:~t-g~ t h a t i t oeagcs t ~ obe
~mct,iral)loto t,al)ulaf,c Ohem all with a reasonnl,lo itnlollnt, of rrrtmcdcnl worl<.'131~is
IS C ~ I I S O ( I Iby t,hc ( : i r e ~ ~ m s l , : tlrat
~ ~ ~ cint t,llo casc or slorltlrr botly-srcliot~s,o . g , i t r t4It(:
onse of 1111 rllipsc, pl:rc:c:tl in a st,rcari~1)nrallcl t,o i t s rlrnjor axis, or itl tlte cnso of ntl
acrofoil, t'llc pot.cntial vclocity near the st,agn:~t.iorlpoirlt i l l t . 1 1 ~rloialll)ot~rlloo~l of
t.l~cIm.tling otlgc: inorca~csn1,c:r:l)ly it(; first, :trlcl l.ltc?n vi1rit:s vcSl.y~ l o w l ovc:r . ~ :i c:ollsi-
tloml)lo tlislS:~rrce tlowns1.rcn.lrl. A fur~ct,ior~ of this t~ypccarrnot bc well representetl
by :L power .icrics with a small nrrml)er of t c r ~ n s .I n spite of t.llis limitsat.iorrB l : t s i ~ ~ ~ ' ~
~nct,llodis nl gmitt f ~ ~ r n l a n ~ c nimporta~rcc tal brcausc, irr cirscs wlrctl its collvcrgcll(:c:
is irrsufficirnt to rcacll the! poir~t,of separation, i t can I)c rlscrl t,o a~lcttlateannlytirillly
ant1 \ v i t . l ~great accuracy tllc initial portion of t,l~cI)onntlary I:~.ycrnen.r t,hc ~ t , a ~ n : ~ t . i o ~ ~
~)oillt,.'l'hc cn.lonln.t.iorrcan t.lrrn l)c cont.in~rctl\rril.lr 1,llc aicl of a s ~ ~ i t n b lnltlncric::~l
o
inl,egrat,ion mct.hod, such as, for exa~nplc,t,llc ollc dcscribrrl in Src. IXi.
We shall now very briefly dcscribe the proccdurc t h a t is followetl for the ralcu-
lation of a boundary layer wit.h the nit1 of a Blasius series. A more dct,ailrtl acco~lrlt,
can bc found in the earlier editions of tiris book [57a]. llowevcr, t,hc nllrrlcrical rt~srr1t.s
for the circular cylinder are given more f~rlly.
We consider thc symnrelric case and i~ssurnct.hat, tllc pol~c~rt.ial
flow is give11 i l l
tile form of the series
Tlle coefficicnt,~ul,u s , . . . depend only on t,l~eallape of the body and me t,o be con-
sidered Irnown. Tlle contilruit,yequatio!~is sat,inficcl by elre inl,~~odllction of a stream-
function
.. . .
p (x, y). In Llinlogy wiL11 cqn. (9.15) it is I)la~~sil)le also t,o adoitt n powcr
scrics in a,its coefficient,^ being trcatcd as fiinct.ions of !I. Thc choice of t,hc par(,irular
form of the power scrics is governed by (,he tlcsire to render t.hc firnct.ions of ?/ corl-
Lainerl in it independent of the cocfficicnta 14,113, us, . . . which tlcsrri1)e t,lrc potc1rt.in.l
flow. I n this manner, the functions of y becornc universal ant1 can be calc~llat,etlolxcc
and for all.
The distance from t,lre wall is made dirncnsionlcss by assuming?
(9.16)
for t'he st'ream-function with the aid of which it now bccorr~espossiblc t o det,crrninc
the appropriate serics for t,he velocity compo~rerltsu = a v l a y and v = -awlax.
t,hese expressions into the equation of inot.iol1 (0.2) we compare cocxfli-
Srll)st,it,nt,ir~~
t form in oht,aincrl from t h e IIlasir~seqn. (7.24) 11y nnhstitt~tir~g
'rllis in it. t h c first.term (!).IT,), i. r.
for Urn.This brings wit.11 if, t.11~
111 J tlisactvnntngc. t.llitt it, does not r~lnltrn n nlloanrlrr lor (Ilr
i~~rrmnein the Imr~ntlnry-layer tllioltness i r ~tllr tlownstrenln dirertiorl.
170 TX. 1Sxact uol~~tions
of t.ho steady-state bout~dary-layereqrrntionu c. Flow past n cylinder; syrn~nrtricalcase (the Rlnsius series) 171
cirnts nnd LIIIIS obt,ain n s y s t c ~ nof ordinary t l i ~ ~ r e n l ~equat,ions
inl for t.he funct,ions
/3, . . . . 'l'he first two e q ~ ~ n t i o n
turn
s out to be

J I I t,lirsc, ~lill'(;rc:~il~inl~ior~ I)y 1)ritnrs. 'I'IIC* ~~.sso(;i~~t,(:cl

\vil,l~ rrs~)c(:l,l,o r1 is cIrt~ol.r~l
bol~ntlnrycolltlit.ions are

All difTcrcntinl cquatsions for the fiinctionnl coefficients arc of the third orrlcr, nnd
only the first, one, t,haI, for f r , is non-linear; i t is itlct~ticalwith the eq~lstionfor two-
dirnensional stagnnt,ion flow, eqn. (5.3!)),tliscrlsscd in Chap. V. All rcmnining equn-
tions arc linenr ant1 their cocfficientpsnrc cxprcssetl in t,crms of the f ~ ~ r ~ c t , iasso- ons
ciat,etl wil)h the preceding t,crms. The frtrlctions ant1 hnvc been ralcrllstctl already
by I<. llicmerlz [39J, i ~ n dtheir first tlcl.ivnt,ivrs nrc rcpresent,ccl grnplrically it1 Fig.
9.4. The frlnrl,ion 1; for t,hc vclocit,y tlist.rihntion was rcprocl~~cccl rarlicr ill l'ig. 5.10
nnrl l'nhle 5.1 (when it was tlcnot,rtl Oy 4'). T11e higher-order funat,ions (:an Ilc found
i l l the earlier rtlil.ions [57n].

Fig. 9.5. \'clocity distribution

in the boundary layer on n
circ\rlnr cylinder

Fig. 0.4. Thr fr~iict.ionsIt' and 1,' which nppmr

in t,lir nlnsills power series.

The velocit,y profiles for diffrrcnt values of 4 are seen plottecl in Fig. 9.5 whicll is
I)nscd on a series for t.hc velocity, u , carried as far as the tcrrn in x l l . The velocity
1)rofiies for > (30" possess a point of inflexion because they lie i n t h e region of
E x o t ~ ~ l ~Circr~lnr
le: cyli~ider.Wn sli~11nn\v apply tthe met,liotl o~~l.lincd in t , l ~ r increasing pressure.
lwrcc?cling pnrngrnplis t,o t h r cn,se of s circular cylindrr. In order t o ljc clrfinit,~,we
The di~tribut~ion of shearing stress ro = / r ( 0 ~ 1 y)o
8 is plotted in Fig. 9.6. The
hnse t,hc? ca.lculat~iol~ or1 (.he prcssrirr tlistri1)rttion ol~tninrtlfrom pot>cnt,ialthrory,
position of t,l~epoint of separation rcslilts from the condition that. TO = 0, nnd is
t t l t l i o ~ ~ gi lll ~I111c lif8rrn.l.~~retllic ~ ~ O ~ ) I C I T ulns
I frc(111cnt.lys01Iv~dwith 1 . 1 1 ~:lid of all
given by
rxprrimrrrt~n.llyrlotarrnirlc.tl prrssllrc clist.ril)~rt.ion.'I'l~r itlrdl ,vrlocit.jr tlist.vii)rlt.ion i l l
n o n - v i s r o ~ ~il.rof.n.t,iol~n.l
s, f l r ~ \ vpn,st. n c~ir.c:rlln.rrylitltlr:r of ratli~ls I2 ant1 f~.(\r-st.rcnn~ # s = 108.8"
\jc.loc:il.y (1, 1):~rn11(.1(.I) t , l ~ c : :,-asis is givrn Ijy .
4

Fig. 9.6. Variation of sllearilig strew nt

the wall over the circumference of a cir-
cular cylindor for a lnrnirinr boundary 0
lnycr

wcrc t,erminatetl a t ~ 9 t1hepoint of separat,ion would tllrn ollt LO
If. t,Jle power ,
be at, +s .-= Ion.oo. Iktt,er accllracy can rrowndays ltc obtainetl with nrimericnl
mct.l~ods,sco Sccs. JXi ant1 Xc3.
'rhc nccllracy of t,his r.ale~~lnt.ion I)nsod on 11 powcr scrirs can I)n t,cst,od for spced
of cotlvcrgcncc of t,l~comit,t,ctl I)ortlion of t,l~cserics by ittvolcing t01c co?adilions o/
com.pnbiOility at, t,hc wnll. I\ccortling 1.0 (>tin.(7.15), wc ~ n t ~ sIlnvc:
t,
Fig. 0.7. Verification of I.l~efirst coni-
pntibility condition froin eqn. (9.21)
for the laminar boundary layer on a
circular cylintlcr f r o n ~ Pig. 9.5. Thn
first compatibility conclition is satis-
fied approxitnntely as far as some point
beyond separation
Figlrrc 9.7 cornpal,es t,l~cc~rrvat,urcof the velocit,y profiles mcasuretl at. t,he wall wit.11
its exact value rcpresct~t,edby UcllJ/tlx. 'rllc agrrcment is gootl for a clistance fi'
lIryond t,llc poillt sep~.rat,ion.We may, Lherrforc, conrlutlc t.11at t,l~t,J3lxsi11sseries
terminnt,ir~ga t tlrc t,crtn ~ 1 satisfies
1 t,l~ccompatibiiit,y co~lclit,ionon a circ~tlarcylin-
dcr up t,o n point. \vltich lies bryolltl t.ltc point of scparat,ion. I t does not,, howover,
~~ccessnriljr (ollo\v t,hat. 1,lrc: Ir11ncnlrtl srrics t.rprrsc~lt.st.11~velocity profile n.it.11good
nc,rltrl\c*y.
As nlrently mcnt.ionetl, in t . 1 ~case of Inore slender botly-sltnp~scor~siclernbly
morc t.rrrns of t,he J3lasins serics are roqnircd, if it is tlcsirctl t,o o l ~ t a i nt,l~cvelonit,y
profiles as fn.r as t,l~cpoint of scparat,ior~.Ilowcver, t,he cvalunt.io~lof furl,hcr f n n c ~ i o n ; ~ l
roefficic~ltsis hinclerctl by considerable difficult.ies. Tltese are tluc not orily t o t,lle
f.:~ctt,l~at,for every atltlit,ional t,crrn in t,he scries the ntrmbcr of cliffercr~t,inlequations
l o I)& solvetl incrcnscs, b u t also, ant1 even morc forcibly, t h e difficult,ics are tlnc t,o
t,l>cincrtl t o r.va.lnnt,e t,l\e funct-ions for the lower power ternts with ever increasing
nrcltrary, if l.l~cf ~ ~ n c t ~ i for
o n stCllehigher power terms are t o be s~ifficicr~t~ly n.ccnrat,e.
1,. Ilownrtlr 1401 rxtentlrtl t.hc prrscnt nuet,l~odt,o irtclrldc t l ~ casymmet,~.ical
casts, l)nt t.11~t,n.ttr~Int,ion of t , l ~ cfi~nct,ionalcoefficients was not carried bcyo~lclthose
c.orrcspontlin~t,o t,hc power z2. N. 1Proessli1tg (231 carrictl o l ~ at n estension of this
rnt:t,liotl lrn llrc rot.nt,ionally symlnt>t,ricnl cnsc which will be consitlered in Chap. X I .
illrnsrtrc~nrnt~s of t.hc prcssnrc dist.ril)~~tion nro~lntl a cirrrllnr cylind?r wcrr
rcport,rd I)y I<. Tlinnrnz in his t.l~tsisprcsrnf.cd t.o (2octt.ingnn Univrrsit,y [R9l. 'I'llcy
d. Ronndnry layer for the potential flow given hy U(x) = Uo - ax"
173
were Inado the bitsis of his Itoandary-lnyer calculations. f l i s rne:~snrcment~s sl1ow6tl
s ~ p a m t ~ i oa nt 4, == 81°, whereas t,he calculation intlicnted!(bs = 82O. 1,ater 0. l~lnelts-
ItnrL p[~l)lislrcdext,ensive expcrimcr~t,nlt1nt.a on t,hc l~rcsinrrdistsil~~~t,iort, l'ig. 1 . 1 0 ,
~vl~icll poirtt t o :I l:~.rgcinfl~tenccof tahc Itrytrolrls nrlrnl~cr.'l'or vnlrtrs of t.l~t,Itc:~~t~oltls
r ~ ~ t r n b chcloto
r Me crilicr~ltJtc j)rcssIlrc r r ~ i t ~ i t r o(;t:tIrs
~ r t ~ ~ ~i ~ . I r . t - : ~ t nrnr
l~ ~ (b - T o 0 , 41,11tl
tho prr'ssI".c is r~t-n.rl.ycortsI,:~.t~l,over t.110\vlrolo I I O I V I I S I , ~ 11ot.l~iot1
~ ! : / I I I 01. t,11t* (:ylitl~lt,l..
]?or 1tt:ynoltls nnrnbers ahove the critical t.11~pressure rni~tiln~rtn shifts t,o (b -- no0
al~~roxirnat.t ly, in agreement with t h e potential-flow thcory and, on the wl~olc,t,l~e
prrsslire distribution tleparts less from t h a t giver1 by the potcttbial theory t,llnr~in tho
provio~rscase. nct,wcen t,l~escvaltlcs, i. e. n m r a critical Rcynoltls n ~ ~ t n bof e rn,l>pro.ui-
-
~nnt.clyTJ, I ) / v = 3 x 10" t , l ~ edrag cocflicict~t,of l . l ~ ct:irc~tl:~rcylintlcr tlrt~rt~ascs
nhr111)t'ly(Fig. 1.4-), and this phcnorncnon ir~tlicat~cs tOtat t,l~cbor~ntlary In,ycr I ~ n s
I)ccon~ctrtrbuler~t (see Sec. X V [ r I f ) .
T l ~ elaminar hountlnry layer on a circt~lnrcylirldcr was rllso ir~vcst,ignI.c~rl I)y
A. ~l~lrotn [G7], a t a Iteynoltls ~trrmbcrZ J , I l / v = 28,000 a r ~ t l11g A. F:~gc[lOlit1 t,l~c
mngc U , L)/v = 1.0 t o 3.3 x 10% A ppncr by L. Sclrillcr nntl W. 1,irtkc [54]
cont,ains some considcrat,ior~scot~ccrr~ing prrssrlrc tlrng nt~tl sliir~ f.ricl,io~~ in t.110
rc~gionof Iteynoltls n~lmhcrsb r l o n ~the cril.icnl. 111 t l ~ cr:lngc of l t c y r ~ o l t l1111t111)(:rs ~
from about GO t o about 5000 there exists bcllirrd the cylintlcr a vortex stxcct w l ~ i c l ~
sl~owsa regular, periodic strrlcturc (Figs. 2.7 nnd 2.8). Tllc frcqucr~cya t w l ~ i c lvor- ~
tices arc s l ~ e din tllis so-callcd von I<ilrn~:invortex strcct has been i~lvcst.igatctlby
11. Dlenk, D. Puchs and IT. Liebers, and, more recently by A. Roslllro (see C l ~ a p 11). .
d. Boundary layer for the potential flow given by (1(.r) = (Io - a x n
A further family of solutions of the boundary-layer equations was found by L. EIowartl~
[dl] nnd I. Tnni [OF]. Tl~csesolutions relate to t01r potential tlow given by
whirll, evidently, constitutes n generalized form of the flow nlong a flat plate (see Ser. VIIe),
arrd becomes identical with it when we put a = 0. ln tho fiirr~plc~t rnse \ v i t l ~n -s 1, \ v h ~ r wn3
l~
trcnted by L. Ilowarth, tl~oflow can bo interpreircl n.9 t l ~ a twllirl~orcuts in a clrnt~r~el wl~icll
consi~tsof a portiot~wit11 pnr~llolwnlls (velocity (I,) followed by rither a convcrp;rr~t(a .= 0)
or n divergent (a > 0) section?. This is another rxan~plcof a borrndnry layer for wlrich the vrloclty
profiles nre not sirmlar. L. Ilowarth introd~lccdt l ~ onrw indrpc~rclentvnrinblo
~vhirl~
is identical wit11 tlrnt used in tho flat platc solution at zero inridcncc. IIc asxumctl f~trther
(x* < 0, accclerntcd flow; x* > 0, dcceleratacl flow). 16 is now t,o stipulate a powcr srries
.-
~ -- -
t \Vhen cqnatiot~(0.22) is written in the forn~U ( T ) -- l J , ( l -x/L) for 71 = 1 , it can also be
R ~ I I I ~on
~ S to anothrr illfinite wnll a t right nnglcs In it at, r -
intarprctad as represcnt,ing bhc potcntinl flow along a flat wall wl~ich~tn.rt.qat x = 0 and nrhich
L.Jt is of the snnlc ~JIIIC RR t.11~
cnsc of tlecelcratrtl stngnat,ior~flo\v sl~ownin Fig. 2.17, thc stngnnt,ion ]mint bring nt z .-: L.
174 TX. Exnct ~olut,ionuof tlio stondy-state boundnry-lnyrr eq~lat.ioris e. Flow in tho wakc of flat plxtc nt zero incidoicc 175
in r* for t l ~ e~ t r c n mfimctiori in n mariner ~irr~ilnr
to thc enao of the cylinder, Scc. TXr, the cocf- n t ~ dtlorolcrnt~edflow are uenn plot8t~cd in Fig. 9.8. 11. ~hotrldbe noted t,Iint.nll p r o f i l ~in~ tlccclcrntcd
ficirnta being fnnctions of y:
ngrcemc~lt,wit11 L. H o ~ n r t ~ l The
l.
1). C.F. Ileigil 1441 wlio ~ 8 nn~ clecl.ronic
d
-
flow have n, point of inRexion. D. It. IInrtroo [38] repcntcd tl~csocalo~~lntior~s

digit.al cotnpr~terfor t,l~cp ~ ~ r p o snnd

nrid obtninctl good
case for a / i J , 0.125 wns rnloolnted more ncc~tvnt.clyhy
c w l ~ opnitl ~llccial
nL,telltio~~ to tlic region of scpnrntio~i.TIICvallto of t.11~for111fnctor a t l.110 point of sepnrat,io~til.srlf
1 I ~ n c cthe vrlocit,y of flow hcco~nes wns founrl t,o ho x* = 0.1198.

u = 1 U O{l,'(q) - (8 z*)/,'(?I) -1- ( 8 z*)' l;(q) - + . ..) . (9.25) .

,llic nictliod ornploycd by L. JIownrtl~\rns cxkt~tlnrlby I. 'l'ntli 1001 t.o it~cluclcI.lw caws
corrcspotitling to n 2 1 (witli a > 0). tio\vcvcr, I. 'l'nni did 11ot publisl~nny t.nbles of the f~rrlc-
t.ionnl roeflicicnts but confined liitnsclf to reporling lho 1i11:~l ros111Lfor n = 2. 4 ntid 8. 111 Iiis
Tnl.rotl~lringt,I~rsevnlnes i n h t.ho oq11nt.ionsof motlion (9.2) and comparing coefficients we obtain cnsc, (no, MIC poor ronvcrgcnro of tlic ~ e r i c sdid not pcr~nitllim 1.0 dotcr~niticthe poitit of sc:li:lrit-
a ~yutcni01 ordinary diITrronlda1 equ:tt.ionu for t.110 F I I I I C ~ ~ O I IfRg ( r l ) , lI(11), . . . . Tho first threo tion wil,l~unfficic:r~t,ncrllril.cy ant1 110 fortnrl I~it~inrlirot~~ltell~clLo I I U C I,. Il(~wnrl.l~'s I I I I I I I ( T ~ ~ : L ~,
of t,I~cuctire:
lof"-1- I0 10 " 0 , - ro~~li~~~~ R(!II<:III~~.
tilion

/['" -1- 1, - 2 lo' -k 3 /,>" = - 1 ,

fz"' -1- 1, 12"- 4 1,' 1', -1- 5 1,'' 1, = - 4 + 2 1,'" 3 I, I,",
e. Flow in the wakc of flat plate nt zero i~~cidence

The application of the boundary-layer equations is not rcstrict,cd t o rcgions

Only tho first cqnnt,io~~ is lion-linmr, nntl i t in identical wit.11 tlint for n flat plats nt zero inci-
dence:. All rornnining equations are lincnr nnrl contain only t,he function f, in the homogeneotls
portion, wlierons t,he non-liomogeneous tern18 itre for~nrdwit,lt t,Iie nid of the remaining funct~ions
1.. I,. flowarlll solved trho first. scven tliKcrcntinl eqnations (11p tO and including I,), and cal-
ctllatocl t,zblcs for Llic~n.
'rim ucricn (9.25) cotivcrges \voll witah t.hcso valnrs of I,, in t.he rango - 0.1 _< x* 5 -1- 0.1.
Jti tllc casc of decclorntctl flow (x* > 0) t,l~cpoint. of scpcration is a t z* = 0.12 npproxi~nntrly,
I)ut for thc sliglit.ly cxhndetl rangc of valnns t.110 convcrgor1r:o of the scries (9.25) is no lo~iger
wsrlrec!. 111ordor to ronclt t.lrc poinL of sepnrnt.ion,-1,. 1Iownrll1 used a nninericnl proccdum for
tho ronl.innnt.ior~of t,l~cno111t.ion.V ~ 1 ~ r i t .profilrs
y for sevcrnl vn111csof r* for hot,h acc~lerntrd
npnr a solitl wall. They can also he applied when a stratum in which thc irrfltlcncc
of frict,ion is rlominating cxists in the interior of a fluid. Such a case occurs, among
ot.llcrs, w h c n two laycrs of fluid with tliffcrcnt vclocitics mcct, for instnricc, iri tho
wake bcliind a body, or when a fluid is tlischarged through a n orifice. We shall
consider three examplcs of t,his typo in the prcserit ant1 in t h e succccdirig scctions,
and wc s l ~ a l lrctllrn to thein when considcririg tl~rbulcrrtflow.
As our first example we shall discuss the case of flow in the wake of a flat plate
a t zero incidence, Fig. 9.9. Behind the trailing edge the two vclocity profiles coalesce
int,o one profilc in t h e walte. I t s widt,h increases with increasing distancc, and its
mean velocity decreases. Tlie magnitude of the dcprcssion in t h e vclocity curvc is
dircctly conncct,cd with tho drag on tjhc bocty. On thc wholc, howcvcr, a.s wc shall
see later, the velocity profile in t h e wake, a t a large distancc from t h c body, is
intlrpenrlent of thc sllape of the body, cxccpt for a scale factor. On the otlicr hand
thc vclocit,y profile very closc t o thc body is, evidently, detcr~niricctby t h e bonirdnry
layer on tho I ~ o d y and
, its slrapc dcpct~dson whcther or not t l ~ cflow has ~ c p a r a t ~ c d .
The momcntu~lle q r ~ a t i o rcall
~ be used to c.alculatc thc drag from the vclocit,y
~wofilcin t.11~ c draw a rcrtarigr~larcontrol snrfacc AA, 13113,
wnlre. For this j ~ u r l ~ o swc

Fig. 9.9. ~\lq)lirnt.ionof the niomcn-

Fig. 9.R. Vr1ot.iI.y r l i s l v i l , ~ ~ l iino ~t ~ I ~ ~ COI. I,II? p o I r ~ ~ l . iflo\v
l ~ r . I : ~ I I I ~ I I> :oII ~I I I ~ ~ ; I:~yrr ;~l by
~ ~ V C ' I I

( I ( ? ) ~ - -/\,, - . rlx, :~llcr l l o \ ~ ; ~ r141 l l ~1 tun1 equation in tho calcr~latiouof the

drag on a flat p l a k nt zero ir~cidenco
froni the velocit,y profilo in the wake
t
J ho in(lr11cntlrnt \~arinl)lo in t.hr nhovc rqr~nt.innsdifTcrs from tlint i r ~Chap. VIT by
r .
R factor 1.
 e. Flow ill l l ~ ewalte of flnt plntc nt zcro incitlrncc 177

as shown in Fig. 9.9. The bonndary AIBl, parallel to the plate, is placed a t such
e distancc from the body t h a t i t lies ovcrywhere in the region of undisturbed velocity,
Cross-~ection I Rnte of flow I Dlot~ient~~ni
it, dircclior~r

I/,. Purthorrnorc, t,llc pressnrc is constant over the whole of t,he cor~trolsurface,
so t01at j~rcssurc forces (lo not contrit~utet o the mornenturn. When calculat~ing
the flux of mornontunl across the cont,rol surface i t is necessary t o remcmber that,
owing t o ront,innity, fl~rid~ n u s loxvc t l ~ hor~ntlaryA I B l ; tho q ~ t a n t i t ~of
t , l ~ r o n gtho y
f l r l i t l leaving I.l~rongl~A 1 l l l is ccll~;rlt.o t,ho t1iffcrent:o I)elwccn t,l~atot~tcringLhro~rglt
A I A and loaving t,hrorigh BIR. 'rho boundary AT3 contribntcs no term t o t.hc
nom men tam in the x-diraction becanso, owing t o symmetry, t h e transverse velocity
vanisllcs along it,. The momentnm balancc is given in tabular form on the next page,
and in i t the convc~tt,ionis followetl t.11:bt inflowing masscs are considcrcd positive,
and ontgoing masscs arc talten t,o bc negative. The width of the platje is denoted
l)y b. l'hc tot,al flux or morncntntn is cqnal to t h e drag D on a flat ~ ) l a t cwetted on
orlc sitlc. 'l'hrls we have
03
C -- (:o~ltrolsrlrfnrc
I 2 Rnte of flow = 0 Momctit~~~n
flus -= Drrig

D =be/u(~,-u)dy.
v-0 is stnall rotnl)arctl wit.11Urn,so t.hnt q~~n.tlrn,t
ic nntl hig111,r~ , C I . ~ Iill
IZ~ 711 IIIIIY l)r 11t~gltv~t.rt1.
,I ,l ~ cp r o c c ~ l ~ ~lnnltrs n. Iznowtl sol~tl.ioti.'l'ltc~ (:ILI(:II-
t ' ( ~ 11xc o f n nict,l~otlol' c:o~~l,inr~ir~g
I n t r g r a t , i o ~may
~ bo prrfomlctl from ?/ = 0 t o y = oo instcad of t,o 2/ = It, t)ccausc Int,ion st,arts with t.11~ p~,oiilea t the t.miling ctlge, calt:r~lnt.ctlwith t.11(: aid ol' Jllnsius's
for ?/ > h tllc intcgrantl in eqn. (9.26) vanishes Ilrnce thc drag on a plate wetted ~nct,l~otl,and we sha.11 refrain from fitrt.hrr disrussing it hrre. 'I'hc asympt,ot,ic ex-
0x1 both sitlcs bcromrs p:~nsionin t.he ~ll)st,rraln direction was calcnlat~cd by W. To1lrnic:n 1091. Sinrt: i t , is
+
2D =be
-m
/
u(u,-u) t ~ .y (9 27)
t,ypical for problems o F flow in t,hc walte, ant1 since we shall mi~ltense of it in t,l~cmore
itnport,nnt, t,urbulcnt case, we propose t o devot,c some t,itnc t,o an account, of it.
As t h r prrssnre trrm is rclrlal to zero, the t)onntlary-layrr cynntiot~(9 2)rombinetl
This cc~uat,ionapplies t o a n y symrnet,rical cylintlrical body ant1 not only t o a flat wit11 rqn (9 29) gives
plat,o. Tt is t,o bo rcrncmbcrctl t h a t in t h e more general case thc integral over the
profile in t,he wake must be t,aken a t a sufficiently distant sect.ion, and one across
n~hirllt,l~ost.at.ic pressure has it.s undisturbed value. Since near a plate there are
no pressure tlill'crrnccs cit,l~crin t,l~elorlgitrldinnl or in t h e transverse direction, \vliere t . l ~ clrlatlrntic:
r t r r ~ n sin it, nn(1 vI I1:lvc I)rc:n ornit.tt~tl.'l'l~cItn~lntlnrycontlit,ions
ccln. (9.27) npplins t,o any tlist.ancc brhintl the platc. Furthermore, eqn. (9.27) may arc :
11c: nl)pltc(i t.n a n y scct.ion x of tlhc 1)oltntlary layer, when i t gives t h e drag on t h e
portion of t-l~c plate between the leatlirig ctlgc ant1 tlltat sect,ion. The physical meaning
y =0: aU!
ay
=O; yroo: 'L1=O.
of tho ir~t~cgml in eqn. (9.20) or (9.27) is t h a t i t rcprcscnts tho loss of momentum
due t o frict,ion. I t is itlcntical with the intcgral in eqn. (8.31) which dcfirled the 'I'he 1):wtial tlilli:~~r~~t.inl
cqunt,ion call, here 1.00, be tmnsfortnctl into a n or(li11iir.y
mome?ltum thickness a,, so t h a t eqn. (9.26) can he givcn tllc alternative fbrm by n snit,n,blc?t,mnsrormnt,ion. Sirl~ilnrlyto 1 . 1 1 ~ass~lml)tiot~
tliffcrcnlinl ecl~~nt,ion (7.24)
in 13lnsirrs's mct.l~o(lfor t,l~c11x1 ~ ) l a t cwr ~ ) I I ( .

Wc shall now proccrd to calcolatc tthc velocity profile in the walte, in particular,
9.1, n.large dist.ance x t)ehintl the trailing edge of t,he flat plate. The calculation must
bn p(:rfonnc(l in two sLcps: 1. Through an expansion in thc downstream direction antl, in adtlit.iot~,wr assnme t.hxt( 71, is of' the forin
fro111 I.he Irntling t.o I,llr t,r:tiling ctlgr, i . c. I)y n ~ : ~ l c r ~ l a t ,which
i o n inv?lvt:s tehc con-
t.inr~:~.t.ionof t11o Illilsills j)rofilc 011 thc plalo near d.hc t,rniling cclgo, anti 2. Through a n tl1 = U-c (-;)-kg(,]),
expansion in t , l ~ cnl)st,rrarn direction. 'fhe latt,er'is a kind of asymptot,ic'int,egration
for x Inrgc tlistancc bchintl t h r plate and is valid irrespective of the sha,pe of the whc.ro 1 is the Irrlgt,ll of tlrr platc, Fig. 9.9.
1)orlp. It. \ \ r i l l 1)c nrrrssnry h r r r 1.0 makc Lhc nssrrmpt,ion t,llat t.lle vc1orit.y difference
it1 t.11~IV:I kc T l ~ opower -- .j for 1:i n eqn. (9.31) is just.ifiet1 on the ground t h a t the ~no~nent.urn
711 (", !/) 'U , - - u ( z , y) (0.29) int,cgrnl whicll givrs t,hc drag on tho plnt,c i l l oqn. (!1.27) I ~ I I I S ~I)r
, intlrpondrnk of r .
178 IX, Exact solutions of tlrc steady-statc boi~ndary-layercqunt.ions

Hence, omit,t.ing quadm.t.io terms in 1 5 , the drag oil a plate wctzted on hot,h sidca, clifferencr in t l ~ cwakc of a flat platc a t zero incidonrr becomes
a s givrtr in eqn. (9.27), is transformed t.o
+m
2n=beCJ,/u,dy.
y--m
.
,I Ito volocit.y clist.ril)~tt.ior~
give11 1b.y t.11isn.syrnplotio cclllnLiort is rr:prrsc:nt,otl i t t I'ig. !). 10.
I t is remnrkablo t,llat the vclocitty dist8ril)nt.ionis identical wit11 (::~t~ss'.sc:rror-tlistri-
bntion function. As assulncrl a t the bogin~ling,cqn. (9.35) is valitl only a t grcnt,
distnnces from the platc. W. Tollmicrl verified that. i t Inny bo nscd a t about z -- 1 .
]pig. 9.1 1 corlt,nins n plot, frotn wllirll t . 1 1 ~wliolr vc:locit,y.lit*ltlrnn I,(! ittliv.r.t~tl.
Tho flow in tllc \valto of' n platc as wc-ll a s ill tllat bc:l~intl any ot611rr body is,
lntrodurir~g,furt.llcr, t . 1 1 ~assr~rnpt~iorl
(9.31) i11t.o (9.30), ant1 tlividing tthrough by in most cases, turbulcrit J5ve11in tllc case of small Itcynoltls n i ~ n ~ h r rsny s , R, < 106,
C 11,z . (2/1)--112z-1, we obt,nin the following tliffcrerrt~i:\lcquation for g(t1): w11en the bol~ntlnrylaycr rcrnnins laminar a s far a s tho txailing cdgc, tllc flow iri
t , l ~ ewaltc still bccomes f u r b ~ ~ l c rbecause
~t, the vclocity j)rolilcs in tile wnltr, all of
JI" 1- 4 71 JI' -1- hq =7 0 (9.33)
which posscss n point of inflcxioll, nrc c ~ t ~ r c m c l1111stnI)lc.
y 111otllrr wortls, cvcn
with ~ o m p a r a t ~ i v esmall
ly Rcynolds numbers tho wnkc 1)ecomes tnrbulellt.. 'l'ur\)lllent
wakes will be discussed in Chap. XXIV.

f. The two-dirnensio~~nl
larnir~nrjet
\ The efflux of a jot from nn orifice affords a frlrtllrr example of motion in tho
where flrc rorlstnnt of integration vanrshes on ncrount of tho t ~ o l ~ n d n rcondition
y
a t q = 0. Rcpcatcd integration gives the solrltion abscnco of solid boundaries to wliiclr it is possible t o apply the boundary-layer
theory. We proposc t o discuss the two-dimensional problem so t h a t we shall assume
g = exp ( - '1 ?12). (9.34)

l l r r c t . 1 1 ~constn.nt of int.cgrnt,ion n.ppcnw in Lllc form of a cocffcicnt and can be

mntlc cqr~nlt o nnit,y without loss of gerleralit,y, a s t,hc veloc:ity dist,riblltion function u ,
frorn eqn. (9.31) st.ill contains n free coefficient G . This constant C is determineti
from the condition t . l ~ at,l~c t drag calcr~latedfrom the loss of morncr~t~r~m, eqn. (9.32),
rnrrst, hc equal 1.0 t.ha.t o n t,he pIat$e, q n . (7.33).
First wr notivc t,ilnt

Fig. 9.10. Anyn~pLot.ic

vclocitydistribrttion
I~nntl,from cqn. (7.33) we ann w h c tlown tho sltirl fric+t,ionon n. plntc
011t.11r: ot.llnr in t11c lan~inarwake bol~inds flat plate,
I from erln. (9.35)
wat,t,otl o n I)oll~sitlcs in kllc form:

Fig. 9.11. Velorily (listribittion in t l ~ cla- t

minar wakc 1)cllintl a flat platc at zcro
innidenco
180 I X . Exact solrltions of tllc sbntly-stato boundary-layer equal~ions

t h a t t,lle jet cmcrgcs from a long, narrow slit and mixes with the surrollntling fluid. 'I'l~c tlwo 1111ltnownoxj)o~lrntap and q will I)c tlet.crnlitirt1 f r o n ~ttlle follo\vir~gco~ltli-
This 1rol)lom was solvctl by 11. Scl~lichl.ing[60] and W. Biclrley [3]. I n practicn, t iotls :
in this case, ns in t h e previous ones, tho flow becomes t r ~ r l ~ r ~ l cWe
n t , . slinll, llowevcr,
discnss hero the laminar c:we in some tlct,nil, since the turbulent jet, wllicll will be
oonsidrretl later, can be analyzed mntllcmatically in arl identical way.
Thc rmerging jet carries with i L solno of the s~trrorltltlitlg Iluitl wl~icli wns
originally a t rest beenuso of the fricl.ion developetl on its periphery. ' r t ~ eresulting
patt.ern of sLrcarnlines is shown in Fig. 9.12. We shall adopt a system of ~oorctinat~es ..I his g i v r ; t,u~or q ~ ~ a t ~ i oforn s p and q :
wit.11 i1.s origin in Lhe slit and wit,l~it,s axis of absrissno eoincitling with the jet axis.
2p .- f/ -0 a11tI 21) -- 2q - I 7)
~- :jq ,
ant1 hrnc.c,
p -. A ; q - ? ?.I '

tllc assumptions for td~ciritlrpcr~tlcr~t~

(!or~sr:cl~~c~rt.ly, vari:ll)lt: a t ~ t l for 1.11~st,rcntn
frtnc.t,ion can be writtcri as

if s ~ ~ i t ; ~ lc:onstxtlt
)lc fa,c:tors arc itrc:lr~~lr~l.
'I'l~r.rrlnrc,, t,It(. vc,l1)c.it.3rc S o ~ ~ ~ l ~a1.r
o~~t~r~t
given I)y t,l~cfi)llowi~)gexpressions:

The jet spreads o~~twa.rtls in t.hc tlowr~st.reamdiroct.ion owing t,o the influence of l ~ ~ t , r o t l ~ ~t,llcsc
c * i t ~valrles
g (9.2), arltl r(lu:~t,i~lg
into tllc difTcrcnt,ia.lccjr~at~ion I . 1 1 ~I ) ~ O S S I I T O
frict,ion, wl~crc:~s it,s vc?locit,y in t , l ~ ecetrt,rc decrcascs in t h e same direction. For tlre t,crm t.o zero, we obtain t h e following difTercnt.ial eq~int.ionfor t h e stream fnnc1,ion 1 (TI) :
snltc of simplicit.y we sllall assume t h a t the slit is infinitely small, but in order t o
rt!t.:lin a finite volnrnc of flow as well as a finite m o t n o ~ t ~ ~itmis, necessary t o nssumo
a n i n f i r ~ i t fl~ritl
,~ vel6oil.y it1 t l ~ cslit. 'l'lrc pressure gratlicnt tlpltlx in tjho 2-tlirect,ion
can Iicrc, as in t.11~prcvior~scxan~plc,be neglcctctl, because the constnrtt pressure
i r ~t.he surro~rntlingflr~itlirnl~rcsscsitsrlfon t.l~cjet Consequel~tly,tlrc total n i o m e ~ ~ t ~ r m
in t . 1 1 ~r-tlircct,iotl, clcno1,c:tl I)y J, nus st, remain const8ant arid i r ~ t l c p o ~ ~ d nofn l 1,lle
tlistancc r from tlrc orifice. Ilcnco

is ~)ossil)lct,o n~nlzca snit.;~l)leassltmpt,ion regnr(ling blic velocity distxil)ution if 'I'I1e c o n s t a ~ ~oft integration is zero bcc:a~~sc co~rtlit.iotls:l.t$ 11 - 0,
o f t,llc I)o~rlltl:~~.y
is ror~sitlcrctlt,h:~Lt,l~evrlociLy profiles ~ i ( r , y )jnst
, :IS in tlie case of a flat plate arltl the resulting tliKerentia.l equation of 1,lle sccotid ortlcr coultl bo i~ll,c:gral.ctl
zrro ir~aitlcnce,arc I Y I O S prol)al)ly
~ sinli1n.r. 1)ecause the problem as a wllole possesses immediately if the first term containrtl t;llc fn.ctor 2. 'l'his ran bc! nc:hirvrtl I)y t,lrr
tlo ch:~mct,nrist,ic!l i ~ ~ e ntlitncr~sion.
r \Yo sl~nllass~!mc:, t,hercfore, t h a t tho velocity u following t.m.nsformat.ion:
is a fi~tlnt,iot~ of ylh, wlrrrc h is t,hc \vitlt,h of t,he jet, suitably tlefined. We sllall also t == aq;
f=2aF(t),1
assume t,l~:~t. h is proportional 1.0 x*. Aacortlingly we can write the strcam fut~ction I
i t 1 t,hr lor111 \vIlcrc OI is n lice constant,, l,o be clot,er~nittctlIat.rr. 'l'1111s
t01c n.l)ovcc q ~ ~ : ~ t t,r:lnsfol~lns
.iot~
182 TX. Exact fiolrtt.ionsof t,l~cstmtly-s1.ntn Iior~r~<lar~l-layer
eq~~at,ion.s K. Pnrnllcl ~t,rcarn.s
in l~lrninarflow

nntl t,llt?clnslr now cletrotos tlilTrrcnt,ia.tion wit11 rcspcct, t o (. T h c bol~nrlarycontlit.ions and, hencc, for tlio volocit,y di~tribrlt~ion
art?
( ~ 0 F: = O ; t=oo: r=O (0.41)

ant1 tltt- cq~t:rt.iorr cnn Iir- inlvprnI.ctl on(-o moro l.o give

whcro t.ltr cotlsl;~rtl~ of inl.rgr:it,iotr was ~n:itle cclttnl 1.0 I. 'l'llis li)llo\vs if we p ~ i t
Ff(0)- 1 , wlticlt is prrnlissihlr wil.ltottt loss ol'gc~lcrnlil,yItacnnsc (if I,llo frcc cotlst.:inl.
rrlnt.icin Iictwoen f R I I ~P. ICq~~atiorr
a in t,l~c (9.42) is n clill:rrrrt.ial cqn:tt,ion of 1tit:t::~t.i'~ r
type ancl can Iir int.rgral.ctl in closctl t,rrms. \Ye oliI.nilr
7
of L I I ~ . jet is
I h c transvcrsc: vclooil,y a t t,hc l~or~ntlnry
F

-1 00

ant1 tlrc volltme-mtc of disclrxrgc per unit Ircight of slit bocomcs Q = e J v (I!/, or
-m
I ~ r v rtling this etlnnt ion wr ol)l.airl
Q = 3.3010 (I< V X ) " ~ . (!).48)
1 - exp(-BE)
I. =t,arth E= - - -
1 4- cxp (--Z$) '
Tlic volrlmc-rate of tliscliargo increases in Urc tlownstrcam direction, bccai~sc:flnid
Since, furt,llcr, tlP/tlE - I - 1:in1r2E, t l ~ evt:locit.y ( l i ~ l r i l ~ ~ t l(:all
~ i o nI I tloclr~cctl
~ from particles are carried away with t h e jet owing Lo friction on its botlndnrics. I t also
q n . (9.37) and is increases with increasing momcrit,nm.
1 - r (I t . a n 1 16)
~ . (9.44) The corre,sponcling rotationally symrnct.rica1 casc in which tlie jet cmcrgcs from
. I n small circr~larorificc will be tliscussed in Chap. XI. The problem of t,hc two-
Ilre vrlorily tlisI.ril)ntiorl from crln. (9.37) is soon plott.ctl i r l Pig. !).Is. dime~lsionallaminar compressible jet cmcrging from narrow slit was solvctl Iiy
1L tiow rcnr:rins t,o dct.crtnirrc. t811cconst,:tnt. a , :LII(I tllis ~ i l nbe (lone wit.11 tlre S. 1. P.zi [4!)] nrrtl M. Z. J<rzywol)lor:ki [42].
nit1 of contlition (!).:3R) wl~iclrst,atcs t h a t t,l~crnonrcnI,unl in t.llo x-tlirrcl iorl is ronst,nnt..
(:ornbinirlg rqns. (9.44) :111(1 (0.36)we obl.nirl Moasl~rcrncntsporformctl I)y TI:. N. Antlrntlo [I] for tho t,wo-tli~ncnsiotr:~I 1n.rnina.r

w e slrall assume tllxt tho flux of momonturn, J, for thc jet is given. It is proportional
t o t>hrexcess in pressure with which the jet leaves t h e slit. lrrtrodricing t h e kinematic
mo~nenlltnt.I/@ = K, we have from eqn. (9.45)
Fig. 9.13. ,VrIcirit,yciist,ril~~~lio~~ i n x t,\\o-rJi~~~rt~.
sio11111 RINJ ~ i r e ~ t lfrcc
~ i ~ j.cL frot~~ cqt~s.(9.44)
:~nd (11.1~5) icspect~ivcly.For tlio two-tlirnerr-
n p t,o R -
jct ronfirn~t.lre preceding tlrcorct~ic;ilargurncnt vory well. 'l'llo jct rcr~railrslaminar
30 a p p r o ~ i m a t ~ r l wlrcrc
y, t,he Ibynoltls number is rcfcrrctl t.o tltc cfflrlx
vc1ooit.y and t o t.he widL11 ol' tho slit. Tho casc of a Lwo-tlinlensional ant1 t.llat of .z
circular t8rtrl)ulentjct is discusscd in Clrap. X X I V . A comprclrensivc review of all
probloms involving jets can be f o ~ ~ nind S. I. Pai's book [49].
g. Pnrnllel stren~nni r ~laminnr llow
Wo shall now 1)rirfly cxnrninc the lnycr 1)ctwccn two pnrallcl, Inminnr sI,rcnms
which move a t tlifTercrrt vclocitics, ant1 so provitlc a htrt.lrcr cxnrnplc of the nppli-
cability of the bountlnry-laycr equations. Thc forrn~~liif.ion of the ~)roblt:rn is scot1
iI111sLraLctlin Fig. !).14: Two it~il~ially I ~ I I ~ ~HI,~~!ILIIIS
st:p:ir:~Lc(l,I I ~ I ~ I ~ s O I1i:irnlIcl ~I, \vlti(!lt
move witz!\ t h e vcloc~it.icsTJ1 nncl (I,, rcspccCivcly, 11cgin t,o intcrc\ct t,lrror~gIrfrit:t.iorr.
I t is possil)lo t,o assrlmc t h n t l,hc transition from t,hc vclociLy U , t o vclocity ( I , talccs
place in n narrow zone of mixing ant1 t h a t t h e transvcrsc v c ~ " c i t ,componcl~t, ~ v , is
everywhere smalc oomp,zrcd with t h e longitudinal velocity, 11. Consequently, t h e

-
xionnl jct [ = 0.275 K113y / ( v ~ ) ~and
circnlar jct. C 0.244
/ ~ for
, the
y/vz. I< and K'
t1t.not.c: Ilir kir~crnat.icrnon~rnt.umJ / e
boundnry-layer equation (9.1) can be usctl to describe the flow in t,hc zoncs I and 11,
and tlie pressure t1crrn may be omitted.
I n n manner analogous t o tlrat employetl for tllc boundary layer on a flnt platme
(Scc. VIIe), i t is possible t o obtain t h e ordinary tliff~rent~inl
cq11ation
 184 IX. Exact solutions of the steady-skate boundary-layer equations 11. Flow in the irlet lengt.l~of n strnigl~tc h n n ~ ~ r l 185

Accortling t,o t h e investigation carried o u t by J. St,cinhcuer [63], as ment.ionetl

i n C h a p . VIJ, these solnt~ionsbelong to a sprcial g r o u p of solut,ions of Rlasiu8's
by int'rodaring t,hc dimensionless t r a n s v e r s e coordinat,e 9 = y lJl/v z a n d tlte 1/ e q u a t i o n (9.49). T h e values of / ' ( 0 ) a n d /"(0) recent,ly cnlculat,ctl for various vn.lurs
strean1 f~lrrct.iosy~ = 1/
V 1z /. A s s u m i n g t , l ~ nIL/U
t = ure a r c led t o t,Iic b o u n d n r y
/ I ,
of t . 1 1 ~vclocit,y r a t i o I c a n b e fou~iclill t,lrnt, rcfcrr.trcc. I n t~.tltlition,t.hr c l i s p l n c ~ c ~ n r t ~ l
contlit ions
-
of (.he zero s t , r c a ~ n l i n cIras also bcc11 cnlcnlatctl. 'l'ljis occrrrs ss a r r s n l t of I , l ~ c , i ~ . r u ~ ~ l -
st,a.nae t,l~nt,t,hc n o r t n ~ l lvrlocit,y c o t n p o n o n l , ~ 1,1 = - a i / ~ / r ? x ( I ) / ' - /) for 7, L I
111.c:not, rclual 111. t,lrc, t,wo c ~ l g c bof~ t.ltc! bottntl~t.t.yIily('~..
R. C. J.oclr [45l s t n d i e d , i n atltlit.ion, t h e case w l ~ e l rt,hr t.wo Iralf-jets tliffcr in
t h e i r clensit.ics ancl viscosit,ies, ar~driot o n l y i r t tllcir velocities. A n e x a n i p l c of stlclr :I
case is t,lrc flow of a i r o v e r a wnt,cr srlrf:r.cc. T l ~ cs o l l ~ t i o nn o w tlrpcntls o n t , l ~ c1):lr:L-
tnctcr x -- I,, p2/p1p1 it1 atltlit.ion 1.0 I. I,oclc provirletl sevcrnl c x n c t solut.iotls n s well
a s solutions which were l)ascd 0 1 1 t h e r n o m e n t . u ~ ni ~ ~ t . c g rrclilat,ion.
al An a ~ ~ ~ r r o s i m ; ~ l c
IICC~IISC Y) =- 0 t,lrcre. T h e s o l ~ l t ~ i oofn t h e dilTercntial e q u a t i o n (9.49) s u b j e c t to t h e mc.t.ltotl w a s also conccivc.tl 1)y 0 . I<. l'ott(rr 151).
borlntlary contlit,iorrs (9.50) a n d (9.51) c a n n o t b e o b t a i n e d i n closed f o r m , a n d a T1rc probleln of tltc rotnpressi1,lc h:rlf-jet, w a s st,rltlirtl I)y I). It.. C l ~ : ~ p t n a171. n
rrurncrical ~ n c t ~ h ondi c ~ s tb e employed. It is possible t o o b t a i n e x a c t n u m e r i c a l solu- (!or~iprc~ssiblc flows of t h i s t,ype play 1% ccrt.air~p a r t in t , I ~ e a l ( : ~ ~ l n t i oorsrl~:rralc>cl,
n
t,io~tsI)y tlrc IISC of asyniptot,ic e x p a n s i o n s f o r 77 + - co a n d 17 -+ -1- cro togetfher l i c e s l ~ r a layers
r in wnkcs 18, 131.
wit.11 a series cxpatisiori a b o u t r] = 0 ; s e v e r a l s u c h solutions were p r o v i d ~ dby R. C.
1,oc:Iz 1451. 'f'hc prol)lcm w a s first, solved by n ~ l m e r i c a li n t e g r a t i o n by M . 1,essen [44a]
st,al.t.ing wit.11 at1 n s y ~ n p t o 1 . iexpansion
~ for r] -+ -00. h. Flow in the inlet lengtl~or n s ~ r n i g l ~rlsnnnrl
t
. tlin.gr:~rn in
.J11n Pig. 9 . 1 4 prc.scnt,s v e l o ~ i t ~profiles
y for I = U , / U 1 = 0 a n d 0.5.
A n irnprovcd tlumerical solution w a s p ~ t k ~ l i s h cbt ly W. J. Christian [lo]. Tliis special
As i t furl.11rr oxn1n1)loof t . \ v o - t l i ~ ~ ~ r ~ ~fsI ioo\ ~i l~l : ItIII C 1101111tlilt.yli~yrt.,\ \ r sl1:1111 1 0 \ \ , ( ~ 1 1 1 -
sitlcr tho case of flow in the i t ~ l r tlength of n str:tight CIIRIIIICI \\.ill1 lliiL 11:11.;1llrl~vi~lls. / \ I :I I::rg(:
cnsc of t h e int.eract,ion l ~ e t ~ w e enn wide, l~olnogericousj e t a n d an adjoining m a s s of t~pstrenrndistnnce from the inlet the velocity dist.ribution is n s s r ~ ~ n rto d be ~ ~ n i f o rant1 ~ n llam-
quiescent, a i r is oft,eti tlescribcd b y tlio t e r m "plane half-jet". holic over thr witlt.11 of t.he chnnnel, ns indicnt.cd in Chnp. V. \\'e shall nssnrne tlrnt t.11~ vrlocit,y
in the inlct s e c t i o ~is~ uniforn~lydistrib~tt,cdover it8 u~idt,h,2 0 , nnd t,hnt it.8 tnng~~it.r~clr is (!".
Owing to visrorts frict,ion, hor~ndarylayers \\.ill be formed on t~ot.l~ u.nlls, nntl thrir asitltl~\\-ill
incrensr in the dow~~st.rcn~n clircct,ion. At the beginning, i. e. at small tlist,nnccs fro~nt I ~ cinld
section, the houndary layers urill grow in t,hc same nny as t,hey \vol~ltlnlong n flat plntr : ~ zrro t
incidence. The resulting velocit,y prolile will consist of taro bor~nd:rry-lnyerprofiles on thr two
walls joined in the cent,re hy n line of const~rntvclocity. Since the v o l ~ ~ nof~ flo\v c Inlist 1)r t,l~r
same for every section, the tlecrrasr in t,he ratc of Row near the walls whicl~is clue to frirtion ~nrtst
t)c.compensated by n corresponding increase near t,l~caxis. 'l'hr~stho boundnry Inyrr is formctl
~rr~rler t,Ile influence of an nccelernt,etl ext.crnnl flow, ns cliutinct froin thr cnse of the fl&t.1)I:tlc. At,
larger distnncecr from the inlet section the two b o ~ ~ n d n rInyers y grncl~ixllymerge into e n r l ~other,
nr~tlfinally the velocity profile is trnnsforrned asyml)toticnlly into t.11r pnrnbolir d i s t r i l ) ~ i I i ~ofn
I'oiseuille flow.
, .
I his process can I x : ~ n a l ~ w x~nnt,lrc~nc~ticnlly
l in one of two \ v i y s . I'irsL, the i111cgrat.io11
can he l,c~rf~)rniccl in (.he t l t , \ v t ~ s L r r tlircction
: ~ ~ ~ ~ so t.l~nLthe I~onncl:~ry-lnycr gro\rt.ll is cal(:~~lntt~tl
lor :III:~crc.lrrnt,c~l cxtcr~lnlsl.rr:ri~~. Srco~~clly. i b is ~~ossil)lr 1.0 :ln:~I~st!tho ~~rogrrssivt. (l(?vi:~l.io~l
o l 1I1c. ~)rolilcf r o ~ nits :1y11111toti(: I)it~.:~l~oli~'
clis(ril)t~t.io~~. i. r . inI('~t.~~l.i(ln
( Y I I I ~>ro(.(.t.tl ill I l ~ t '
~rpstrra~tn tlircction. Ilaving rrhtainerl bot.h solr~lions,Ray in t.hc for111of scric.s cxp:tl~siorls,\vo c:lll
rrl.nir~n suffiricnt, nur~~lx-r of t.rrlns in either of t.llcn~and join Lhe Lwo solr~tions:tt, n sccl.ion wlrcro
I)oLh arc still npplicnble. 111t.lris way the flow for t.11~ ~ v l ~ oilrc~ l r Ict~gtlr
t is obt,ninctl. 'rhc ~ncl.l~otl
\vhiclr \\as first used by H. Scl~lichling[67], will now hc ontlir~rdin brief.
I\-r nssutne a systcni of coorrlinat,es \vhose axis of nhscissnc roinritlcs \vitll t,hnL of the c11n11-
r~cl.Fig. 9.15. For the cxpu~eionin the ~~l)strcnln tlirrctior~n-r slrnll rncnsltre the ordinate !I from
t.11~ ccnt.re-line of the cl~nnnel,wl~crcnsfor the c.xpnnsiot~in t.11~tlo\vnstrcnt~~ direction t,hr or-
tlin:ltc !/' will be n~rns~trrtl fro111one of the walls. 'l'l~r inlct vclocit.y \\.ill I)r (lrnoted I)y (1,. nntl
that in Llir ccnt,ral st,rean~hy TI(r).
Fig. 9.14. Velocity distrihut,ion in the
I\'(: brain I I \vriting
~ t.hr rcll~at.iono r cont.inr~it).:
zone hetrvecn two int,crnct.ing parallel
streams, after R . C. Loclc [45]
j u d Y = (ion.
y'=O
1 81; I X . Exact, aolrrt,ionn of t l ~ cnt.rn<ly-stsate
boundnry-layer eqnnt.ionn

An npproxilnntcr tnetlrod of calcnlnl.ion for tho L\ro-tlimenaionnlcnsc wltich is bnsed on the

10 momontunr equation (see Chap. X), as wcll as t\u~nerousexpcrin~e~ltnl resulta which rcac11
0.8 into the t ~ t r h ~ ~ lregion,
ent have been reportctl in two papers by H. Jlnh~~cmnnn and L. Ehret
0.6 [36] ant1 [37]. The flow in the entrance of n pipe I I ~ Rbeen studietl by 1.. Rol~illcr[55].
0.4 The details of a ~alculnt~ion \vhicl~dcvclops the .solution from tlic downs(,rcam
0.2 directtion t~l)wxrtlscnn bc found in [57].
0
-0.2 T11e problem of' t,l~edeveloprncnt of t l ~ eflow pxt,t.ern in t.lic inlet IctlKt,j~ of a
clrnnnel was cxnrnined crit.ically by M. Van l)ykc 1711 when he for~nulnt~cd his sccond-
-0.4
order t,lieory, see Sees. VIIf and 1Xm. I l e drew nt,l,cntion t o the fact, tllnt tlic soluLion
-0.6
tlisplnyctl in Fig. 9. IT, ~ . t : l ) ~ . t ~IL~ cIir~I.-or(Ic~.
~~l,s ~ o l ~ ~ l , Ii o I ~in~ vt~liclonly for VC:I.J'
L It r 111.t.p:
- 0.8 Itcynoltls n ~ ~ n ~ l ~I'v
orr s lhis
. rcnson it i* f'ortntl t.o s l ~ o wccr(,nirr tlcvinl.ions nt. low
- 1.0 Itcyr~oltlstrt~tnbcrsfrom t,hc corrcspontling t~rtlncricnlsolrtl.ior~of tJlc full N ~ ~ v i c r -
SLokcs erllrntions.
Y
uo
I ? .9 . 5 Vr1ocit.y dintribntion for lamir~nrflow in 1.llo inlet section of n channel i. Thc n~clhodof fi~ritcdiRccrencest
Modern n~cthods(digitnlcnmpulers). I n recent years a large number ofnl~melical
lntrotlnring t.he displ:~t:rn~c~~t
iI~irl<~~rss
0 , rr0r11 ~ Y I I(8.30)
I. we ran write mct11od.s has been developed for solving t h e ln~nirlar boundary-layer e(~lrat,ions.
of implicit finite-diffcrcr~ceprocctlrlrcs
Tlicse rnct,liods fall mainly under the 11ead111g
nrirl represent a developrncnt of a numerical procctlure first forn~nlat,cdby Fluegge-
Lotz and Blottner [21]. The metl~odsrefcrrcd t o are accurate and fast but reqt~ire
atid wit.11 tilo aid of cqn. (9.62) wo can \vrit.o access t,o a digital computer. The choice of m e t l ~ o din a given case depotlcls on t I ~ e
nature of the prohlrm co~rsitlered,but is also a matter of personal prefcrence. For a
review of existing methods tllc render is rcfcrrcd to a Rnrvey article hy Blott,ner [6].
The metllotl proposed Ilcrcin is chosen for its simplicity and its wide range of
Near t.he inlet srrtion t . 1 1 ~I>n~rntlary
lnycr rlcvrlops in t l ~ esalnc \ray as on a flat plate at zero possil~leapp1ioat)ions; it differs from the early rnetl~odsin t h a t t.mnsforrncd (sirnilar-
inritlrnce it1 rrnnccrlcratad Ilow, so that fro111cqn. (7.37) we Iiavo it,y-typo) varinbles are uscd ancl t.11~ st,cp sizcs are allowcd t o vary in t,hc st,rcamwise
arid normal dirceCion. Some of the advantngcs of tising transformetl varinblcs n.re:
(a) t.he growt,11 in t l ~ edomain of c:alculntiotr n.ssocint,cd wit11 t11c ir~crcasingI ) o t ~ n t l n r ~ -
Inycr tdlickness is largrly eliminn,tctl; (1)) t.11~botindary-layer profiles are smoother
nrrtl vary more slowly in the tfmnsfnrmed plane allowing larger step sizcs t o be 11scd;
and (c) (.he finite-tliffcrencc fnrmulnt,iotl hcro~ncsvirttrally itlcnt,ical for cc~rnprcssible
nnd incornpressihlc plane and axially synirncl,ric bountlary-layer flnws. The nsc of
d i n i r n s i ~ ~ ~inlet
is tllr ('I~nriirlrri~tic. l r s ~Ic1ig111.1':qnntion (9.53) ran ~ l s oI)e written as vnrin1)le step size in the normal direction lnnltcs it, possittlc Lo calculnt.~ttrrlr~tlctrtns
U(x) = V, {I + Ir', a + I<,e Z i- ] (9.55) wcll a s Ixminr~rflows with only minor c:I~nrig~:n i r ~f o r r n ~ r l ~ ~ l . i r ~ t ~ .

-
~ v i t l r li,
i n powrrs or
1.73. I n tl~istnalltirr 1 . 1 1 ~ vrloc:it,y o~~tsitlc
4:
t l ~ r1)ountlary layer has hren developed
. 'i'lio vnlnr of K , is known fro111Hlnsins's solntin~~ for tho fiat plntc, but the
Special classes of larnit~arflow8 characttrizv(1 1)y I)e)un(l:lry I ~ ~ y e rwiLh
n
lengtll scales (e. g. large blowing rates), can also be ha~ldledwith greater accuracy.
cliflr*rt.r~t

rcn~nininproc-1lirir11l.aK 2 , Ii,. . . . arc ~ ~ ~ ~ l o ~ nso thry

n r t ~clrl~rncl
, on tlro 1)nnndnry layer wllich
l~nsno( yrl I)rrt~tl~.trrn~inc.el.
111 the serirs expansio~lfrorn the npstrcnm clirrction we asantno u = a o ( y ) -- TL' ( r ,y), 1v11ere
u,(!,) is t,lre pambolic vclorit,y dist.rihr~t.iun,i. e. u,(!/) = ) 11,(1 - y 2 / n 2 ) , and u' is n.n additionnl
vrloc.ity wl~oseliigl~crortlcr~Inny hc ncglrrtccl i l l t . 1 ~first npl~roxinlation.
Ir'ig~~re 9.15 gives nn inclie.ntion of Iho rl~nngoin t,l~ovclocit,y profile over t,ho inlet. Ir~igtlr.
It is srrn t.hnt, t,l~rl)nr~bolic~)rofile in fnr~nctlnt about v z/rc2 No = 0.10, SO tl~nttho a c t ~ ~inlot ni
Irr~gl,ltis ZE - O~llin(fJ,a/r)= 0.04(2rr) . R wl~nrcR tlcnotas t,l~cItoy~~oI(Is
to t.l~e~wi~lt.l~ of t,lio cl~nnncl.For exnriiplc nt. R
XI) to 200 rlint~rirl\vidt.l~s. COIIRPC~IIPIIIIY,
- nt~n~ber
2000 t.o 500n t.he inlet l o ~ ~ gexknds
(,he flow doc.s not h1~00111ef ~ ~ l tlovrloprtl
ly
tl~
referred
over
nt all if the t I n111indcht~tlto Professor T. K. Fnrinelorp o f t,he Tr~nt-itutr
of Trrl~rrolngyit1 Trontlliri~n,who
c.l~nnnrli~ sl~e)rtor il t.lw Il.cyt~e~ltls r~nn~hcr is rornpnml.ivcly lnrge. kintlly provided tuc with tlw following presentation.
 -
\\r)ltre j = 0 (plane flow) or j = 1 (flow with axial symmetry). The boundary con-
dit,ions arc 16 -- I ) = 0 a t !/ = 0 n.ntl 11. =- 11 (n.) a t ?/ 0 . For turbulent flows u - a n d v
a.rc t.he n,~)propl.in(,c lrlrnn vclocit,ics n,tltl ~1 rrprescnt.s a sllitably defined cdtly viscos-
In the absence of ~ r l c t ~ i oorr ~t)Io\ving t1he boundnry conditions nrr

it,y, scc for inst,:~ncr A . M . 0. Smit.11 n.nd 'l'. Ccl)coi [ D l ] . I'or Inminer flows € 1 .= 0. Nrar t,hc lending'ctlgo of a cuspctl botly anti in tell(:stngnat,ion region of a I)lnnt, I~otly,
7'11~l , r n l ~ s f ~ , ~ ~ r ~of
~ ar(ltls.
l , i o t ~(9.50) ancl (9.57) to d i t r l e ~ ~ s i o t ~vnria1)Ies
l~ss i~~corporaLes r q ~ ~ a t ' i o n(9.04)
s and (9.05) r c t l ~ ~ ctoe t,rnc similnrit,y form. 'l'l~ccorrrs1)ontling s i l n i l ~ ~ . ~ .
I~ot,Ilt11(, l$ln.sir~s ant1 l l ~ cMn~lglrrl.rnnsfot~tr~n.titr~~ ( s c ~ s:~lsoII. (:orrl.lcr I:13, 341) nl~tl ~ o I ~ ~ ( . i(:II.II 11s i t ~ i t . i ~V ~I \ .lI I I ~ * H (111. I . I I ~~~ ( ~ t ~ ~ ) - IOi l y~ i-I ~
o n sI)(* IIHIYI, I,II(~I.vI'III~I~, t( ~l i~
l l t~. ~ t. ~~. l ~~t . r( .
is tl(4itlrd n.s ft)llows : ~r~cl.ltc~tl. 'l'lto ~nc.l.l~otl prosentcd hcrc solves t l ~ c11art)ialtlill'crerit.ial cclllat,ion (!).(i4)
a ~ i t l(wit,li small modificabions) also t,he associated sirnilar eqnaLions re(~uirotln.s
init,ial val~lrs.Tllc method is tJlus self-st,art,ingand ~cclniresn o ndt1iLionn.l i t ~ p t ~ t . . 7

Finite-clilTereace q11otient8: The tlornain of c n l ~ u l a t ~ i oin~ lt,he (6, q)-l~ln,n(- rnn

I)(, re~~rescnt,rd by a scmi-infir~itcstrip borlnrlcrl by t.l~c-wall q = 0, t,llc rtlpr or t.llr
1)onncIary layer 11 = ye, wit,ll q, suit,nl)ly drfinrtl, n,ntl t , l ~ init,ial r linc [ -= lo\vl~c.~.r ~IIV
sol~tt,ionis p r c s ~ ~ r n et,o d I)c lcnown.
This strip is completely covered by a grid with lines drawn parallel to t,he ( and
coordinntes as illrlstro.t,ctl in Fig. 9.16. 'l'l~c s t q sizr A[ rcl)rcsc~~t.s t.11~
tlist,:tnrc.
bet,wcer~t,wo snr.crssivc grid lincs 5 = const,al~t;it is prost~~nctl i.o I)c stn:~ll I I I I ~ , is
ot,hcrwise rrnspccifictl. 'I'hc corres1)ontling step sizes in t.llc q-tlirrct.iou nrr spc:c.ilictt
t,o vary i r l geometric 1)rogrcssiorl. The rnl,io Octwecn t,wo s ~ ~ c c r s s i vgrid
e lincs, TI,,
and yn+l, is denoted by I< = I -1 k where 1 k J varies from 0 t,n 0.05 in l.ypical cases.
Rncll notlal point is itlcntified by a dor~l)lcintlcx m, ?L wllirl~tlclinrs it.s posit,ion
Fin, yn according tso

111 writing t>hefinite-tlilTerence quol.icnt,s it is corivcnlent t,o int.roclr~cet,he moan of

two successive Ay-values
nntl E , is t,llr rdtly visvosit,y from etln. (39.2). The s~~l)script,s
tlrnotx- part.inl ctilkrcti-
t.ia.liot~,anrl t,l~cclunnt,it,y
5
iJ' ( r ) In the step-by-step calculations the solution is considcretl I<nown a t 5,n arlcl ell
0( t ) = 2 1, (a)
t J(2,)d . ~ . preceding grid lines, and the variables F nntl / are sougl~tat. [,,,, 1.
0
to Iltr tlrrivalivc~sk',, nncl l~',,,, n t [,,, I I rltc
C t ~ t ~ I l ~ ~ l - t( l\ IiIl~TYrr~l,ptositnntio~~s
~~
olttainttl by expnntling 1",,,,1, nntl 1',,,+1, .-I, rr,sprctiv(~ly,in a ' I ' n ~ l o ~sc,tic~s
.
7 7 ~ 0 ;/ = O ; / =On.r~tlq=cm; I,-- I. (9.63)
cclnnt,ions of sccoiitl orcler call I>(: S O I V C ~ (by mnt,rix invel.sion
Fi~~it~e-tlifl'c?rcncc:
ront.inrs) r1111rhnlorc cfficicnt.ly trllan t.llirtl (or higher) ordcr equat,ions. I t is of inter-
?st,. t,lict.eforo, t,o rrclurc eclnat.ions (9.01) to sccond ordcr. To this erld the variable
I;' -= /, is int,l.otl~tcrtland ecln. (9.01) is rcwrit,ten a s

INF'v],l I / F I I --F~)-T-~((FE'~--~~F',~]. (9.64)

'J'llis rtlua(iotl now conlains two l ~ n k n o w rfunctions,
~ f and 1'1, I ~ u tllrse
t are relat,etl
by tlrr sirtlplr rxprc~ssior~ Fig. 9.16. \'ari.zble stcp size finit.c-rliffrroncegrid
for t.he rnlcr~lnt,ionof lat~iinnr and tr~rb~llctlt,
Iiotlnrlnry Inycrs
x k n o n . ~vnlllcs,
~
O rtnknn\vlr r n l l ~ r s
ccnt,rred at, (rn -1- 1, n ) . 1'110 two t,xpt~cssionsare t.hert:lipon cornt)ined in such a way
t h n t tcrnls of ortlcr A q 2 are elitnina1.rtl. The corrcsponclir~grliffrrerlce qnot,icnks can
I,c given t.tlc, form (index w e 1I omit,tcd):
aF,, 1
{ II I 2 T I I 1 7 I] I 0( A .1 ) (9 69)
il,l 2 /I 11,'
n~11rl.c proces.s t,lle tcrrns ( / S ) t can be licJ)t constnrlt. (ecll~nlt,o t . 1 1 ~ Gnluc n.t t . 1 1 ~prrvious
L I = \(--I, 14 = ( l i 2 - 1 ) C1, = -Ii; stration)unt,il initial convergence is ncllicved.
Metltod of nol~ltion:Equations (9.74) r c p r c ~ o n nt ~~ o oft N-1 si~ntlll.nnc:ousr1,lgc:-
w ~ ~ (n = 2, 3, . . ., N). At, c n c l ~levcl IL (.llrcc
I~raiceqt~ntiotirrfor the t ~ ~ i l r t i ok;ntl,n
unknown quat~t~ities appear, namely F n a j l ,.-I, Fm.kl,n ant1 Fniit,
,,+I, but sincc

-
where F , + I , ~ and F m + l , are
~ known from t h e boundary cot~ilitions,1.11~ totnl nnrnbcr of
I'~ 1l2 (I -+- K ) , rPz- L ~ , .-- 2 r1J ' ~ , I>,, -= I. ccl~~ations equals t J ~ enr~nlberof unlrnowns. The set of nlgcliraic cqrrnt,ions rnn be
wril,t.cn in so-callod tllrcc-tlingonnl matrix forrn. Mnhriccs of Illis ttypcwhcro oK-tlir~go~tnl
E(lltn.tions (9.69) nncl (9.70) rcrlr~cct.c-,t,l~cst.nntlartl form for cent,ral difl'crenccs when elements vanish o l ~ t ~ s i itdh e three-tliagonal band can bc invertotl b g a sirnplc: ant1
K = I. direct nlot.Iloc1 well s11it.cdfor digital co~nputcrs.l'oend tlriseqtla.tion (0.74) is rcwrit,toll
in "stantlard form" (snbscripts ( m -1I ) ornittcd)
For the (-tlcrivat,ivrs in cqnnt.inn (9.64) a siml~lcbaclrwnrtl tlini.rener forrnl~lnis
used
y - Fsr 1,. n -- Flit, n
-I ocnr). (9.7 I ) Thc botlnclary condit.ions arc
E - A t --
The 1nrgc.r I,rtlnc.at,ion error wlliclt alil,cn.t,s 11crc is balancctl liy 1,llc it.cral.ivc scltclne
proposc(1 for solving t l ~ tlillbrcr~cc
r c-qt~al,ion.'l'llo non-lit1cn.r t,ernis in r(lnnt,ion (9.04) c s wall and ?t = N the edge of tile bor~ntlarylayer. J1, is asst~tn-
wllerc IL = I t l r ~ ~ o ttbc
Ilavc t o be replaced by lincarizccl diflkrencc qnot,icnt.s. Tho tcrlns fFIlant1 FFg may etl now t,llat a solut,ion existst in tllc form
serve as exntnples and t,l\cy are writ,t,cn as
J' F g = Fi,(Ff)mI. 1 , n. and jt(Ft1)m+1, n , (9.72)
The boundary condit,ion F1 = 0 and t,hc rcyuirernent t,llnt rcll~ation (9.77) sl~orlld
\vhrrr (FE)lni ant1 (F,,),,,( 1 , . a r r given 1)y (9.71) n.ntl (9.69), res})cct,ivcly. The rcrnnin valitl indcpcntlcnt,ly of the s l , c size
~ /Iq leads to
unltnown coel'firictlt.~F'i ant1 / i a r r srl. rcltlnl t,o tllc Itr~ownvalurs PI,,,, ancl I,,, in
trllc: first it.cm.t,ion ( i -- 0) anti latar ulitl:~l.cdb y F" /Ji(i= 1, 2, 3 , . . .) in t,hc second
nntl fnrt,hcr successive it,crat,ions. lSxperic:ncc sl~ggestst,llnt the tc:t.rn F2 shot~lrlbe
~pproximat,rtlby
t I, n 2 rnl nL t I , ,l - Z%, n . (9.73)
When the precerling expressions are substitut,cd int20 oqn. (!).741,), 1.11~following
l'hc lincnrizrtl Iitii1,r-tlifl'ercnw c,not.icnts given ahove are su11st~it.ut~erl
into the relohion is obt.aincd
tlifl'crentinl t~q~~nl.iorl (9.G4) nrtd Llle result is rltultiplied througlt by A E t o give a
tlilYcrcnce ecllra.t,iotl. 'J'l~isis writden as follows 17n -
-
- C,I
J l t , 1- A,, Jtn-l
Fn + ,.I I),, -- A , , G n - .1
11,t 4. A,, ~c',,-I '
(!).SO)

- Gtl
En =
I{" -I A" E,,- I
, Q n = -1)" - A " Gn- I
n, -I A , , R, ,
By rncnns of cclr~alion(9.81) ant1 tlle condition (9.78), it bccorncs possil~lct.o cotnpot,~
 192 J X . 1Cxact sol~~Lion~
of tho st,rndy-state l~ountlary-layerequat,iona i. T h o method of f i r l i b diffcfcrr~~oes 103

R , and G',, for sucoessive values of n startling wit,h ?z = 2 for all grid point,s between guessing a solat,ior~whicl~salisfics the bonndary condit,ions), whereas those wit,ll
t,hc wall and the ctlge of the 1)onndary layer. index i arc t o be found in t-11c 1:-th or c n r r c t ~ titcmt,ion. 'L'lte t1ifTcrc:nc:c tjrlol,irnf,s
(9.69) and (0.70) are now srtl)sti(.ut,cd in1.o equa0ion (!).84). '1'1ie rrsnlt. is a t l i f l i - ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ c c
Sinco 17,,.,l for 12 = N - 1 is lznown from rqnat,ion (!).70), it 1,ccomrs possil~leto
ecluat,ion whicll can be writt,en in the standard form of eqnat,ion (9.74), wit.11 coeffi-
evaluate all nnlznowns F, I)y means of equation (9.77) wl~ilct,mvc,rsing td~ohountlary
layer from t,ho ctlgc t,o the wall t,lirongll (Icrreasing va111cs of ? b , i . O. for 17. -- N-l ,
N--2, . . ., 2. '1'11is corn~)lrl,rs l h r calc~llnl,ionof Il',,
(7.- F,, l l . n )in ono il.c~.nl,ion.On(:(:
I{',,,, 1111sI)c~vit l r I r ~ . n i i ~ ~t11r
( ~ ( lcot.~.c.sj)ondi~ig
. solnt.ion for /0141,n ca.n be found by
rlireot. nun~cvirnlinhcgrat,iort of e q ~ ~ a t ' i o(9.05). n The t,rapezoidal rule snfficcs for t,his
purpose.
The calculat.et1 vniues P7n4.1,n a.ntl /,,+l,. are used t,o dnt,crmine new and iniproved

, ,.
vn,lrtcs of t,l~ecot,fficients A,,, I?,,,C,, which in t , ~ ~leads
r n t,o new and improved values
of F,+I,,, ant1 f,, I,,. 111(?~wocessis t.~rtnin:~tcd whct~t,hc rcs111t,sof two s~~cccssive
it,rrnt,ions ngrco t,o within a specifietl t,olcrancc, typically of order 10-5. 'l'lio conver-
grlice is nsnallp rapitl, t01ree t,o four iterat,ions being atlecluate in most cases with A linear variation in F suffices as a n initia,l guess, Fo, and the corrcsl~ontlingvalr~e
st,rp sizrs A.r in l , l ~ erange 0.01 t,o 0.05. o f f is det,ermincd from equation (9.86). The coefficients A,, /I,,, C,, ant1 I),, nro c:~l-
oulatcd next, and tltc corresponcling valncs of h',, n.ntl (r,, arcb tlct~crrni~~ctl
ILCI.OSS t l ~ t *
111 crrt,t~in~)roLlc:nisit, I~ecomrst ~ ~ c c s s n
t,or ~nllow for b o ~ ~ n d a . r y - l ; ~growt,l~
y(~r
bonntlary layer. The recurrence rclnlion (9.77) and t,he bonlltlnrg contlit,iorls (!).78)
1)y inerc,asing N (or ve) as t,l~ecalc~~lat~ions procercl tlownst,reant. The houndary-
are t.llerl used t o determine t h e new it,crat.e, F I , across t,hr bounclnry Iagrr. 'Yhr
layer ctlgc is rlcfinctl by t,hc rcquirctncnt t,hat tho difference F N - F n r ~ l sltould be
process is repeated until the difference bct,wcen successive it,eratrs becomes slnallcr
Icss t,lian a sperificd valnc, t,.vpically of ordrr 10-4. 7'hc growth, in t,crrr~sof the pre-
t l ~ a rthe
~ specified t,olerance. The number of it.emtions required is typically of ortlcr
s r n t variablcs, is usrlally very rnotlcst even for cases involving separation.
8 to 12. The method is simpler t,lian t,he usl~al"s11ooting'' 111ctliod usc(1 for two-point
A v n r i a l ~ l (of~ primary int.crcst. in Lhc calcnlat,ion is the s1.rrs.s at, t,hc wall; it,s l~onntlary-vnlncproblem$ ant1 it converges in tnany eases wIlc:~.ct,lre In,t.tel.~ r ~ c t , l ~ o t l
vnlr~ocan bc tl~t~erminetl with gootl accuracy from the five point formula fails, for inst,ance for very large blowing mt.es.
Applications: The finite-tlifferencc methot1 prescnt.ctl Iirrc is in1,cntlctl a s n prnc-
tical engineering t,ool. Great,rr accuracy can be achicvcrl with a more elnl>orntr pro-
eednrc, 1,111,t,his in trtrrl learls t,o greater cotnplexit,y in forninlat,ion a.ntl progrntnrning
ant1 t o a n increascct tlemnrid for comput.er t,ime and cnpacit.y. The corii\~ntingtime
nnd accnmey tlel~cndfor all tlifTcrcncc ntet,lrotls on the st,rp sizr nsrtl in tht. r n l r ~ l -
Iatiorts. It, is of int.crest, to exa,mine the accuracy of the present, ~nct,l~otl in a few
cases for which very accurat3esolut,ionsare known. The cases considrretl are 11owa1.t.h'~
linrnrly retarcletl flow (cf. Scc. I X d ) a,nd the circular cylinder with a pressure clistri-
h ~ ~ t . i oncrortling
n 1,o l)ot.cnt,inl 1.11eory ant1 nccot,tling t,o t.11~
cspcritnenl,~of I[ic.li~r~~z
(c/. See. X o). '1'11~rrsult,s for n "norrnnl" step sizc nntl a "srn:i,ll" S ~ C size
[ I arc tal)nlntcd
11clow. l'rotn t.11~c:II(:III:L~.~(I rc~1111~sonly t,hc 1ocat.ion of t,ltc scl~n.rt~.l.ion
11oin1s:II.(!
111ilinlvnlr~cs: \Vlic~n sing hnl~~~l:rl.c.tl
similar solrrl.ions as s1,arling valrlcs, ex-
sl~own.
is rc.clnil,ecl wl~rncver variable st,cp sizes Ay,, are nsctl. I t is
t,c:nsivc int~c~t,j)olat,ioti
rnorcx conrcnirnt, antl rfficient also t,tr g o ~ e r a t et,hc sin~ilarit~y
solut.ion by finite
tlifi~rr-rcst.hroupl1 surcessivc iterat,ions. The equat,ion t>obe solved is oht,aincd from Cnse ('o~lsiderrd 1 Present res~~lts I 1Sxnct
.-

cclna,li~~ii (!).64).and can I)c writt,on in 1inoar.ized form as I,i~~enrly

set.artlrtl Ilow (1) x,' = 0.1227 r8* = 0.1I!)!) ( I l o \ \ . n r t l i )
(2) x,* = 0.1210
I
or r,*
or T,* - 0.1
= 198 (l,eig11)[44]
0.120:) (Sc~l~ortinrlcr)
Circular ryli~~tlcr
(l'okntinl flow)
(1) 4,
(2) 4 ,
=
=
106.13"
105.01 O
4a - 104.5' (Srl~ocnni~er)
( r f . Scc. X c )
-. --
Circrllnr cylit~tlrr ( I ) $, = 80.!)8" #. -= 80.0°(: (.lnlli: nnd Stnitl1)(.42/
(Ilic~ncneprms. tlntn) (2) 4, = 80.08" (intrrl)olntrd)
r 7
1 11c i~~(li(%cs
(I])'
( i . i--1) i~itli(,:it,(,Llic it,ct.nl,ioti for wl~icli t,lic varinl)jt; is ~ : v a ~ t ~ aafl(1
t1rnot.c.s tl/llq. \'nrial)lrs witdl in(lrs i-1 arc consitlcred lrnowrl (init.ially by
t,r~~
(1) "Norlnnl" step sizc: .,It - 0.01, ,,ItI = 0.05; (2) "S~nnll"strp size: A [ = 0,001. .,11/ -= 0.025
 j. Bor~ndaryl ~ y c rof second ordcr I95
194 IX. Jqxnct eolutions of t,hc stcwly-ntnto I)or~ntio.ry-layer
cqr~ntiorin
Ilere, the new variable is defined a s
The cornputing tirnc wit11 f . 1 1 ~"normnl" strep sizc is tyltically Ci t o 10 scconds on
t.hc UNIVIIC 1108 colnpntcr.'l'he accuracy wit,l~the slnnll step sizc is seen to Ire bet,tcr
11r1ta t t.11~
expense of a twcnt,y-foltl inert-nse in comtrut,c.r tirnc. For engirlenring calcn- Stll)st.it,ut.in,g t.licsc forrr~sinto t,hc J)onntlnry-lnycr er(~~nt.ions
of first nnti second ortlcr,
Iations Lhe conl.scr grid shor~ltlsrlflicc; il, rcclt~iresrunning times of t,lrc ortlcr 10 wc oi~l~nin
sccorltlrr in cr~scof pr:~otinnl int.c.rcst sr~cltas t.l~c1n.tnirlnr l)or~ntlnryInyrr ol' nn ncro-
foil. 11nl)rr)vc:tleconotny cnr1 bc nc:hit:vc:tl Iiy vnrying t.lrc step size ns t.hc cnlt:ulntion 1"' -1. f f" -11 - 1'" 0, (!).!)l)
proc,cetls, t h n t is using t h e fine mrsh only in t h e critical region near separation.
Fy' -1- f P;' - 2 f' F; -1- 1" F, = 11 ( J f" - 1'2 -1- 2) -1- 0.6470, (9.92)
A summary account of nurncricnl methods in fluid mccl~anicsis give11 in thc
- 2 1' F'd 4-/" IFd -- - 2 ,
,,I
lecture notes of Stnoldc,ren [G5]. Fd -1- f (!I.!):!) '
with t.11~btrllntln.ry condillions
j. Uot~i~dnry
layer of second order?
'l'he secontl-orclrr equntions, cqns. (7 52) nnd (7.53) for flow in n hol~ntlarylayer
were dcrivcd in Ser. V l l f . This system of linear partial differcnt,ial equations r a n be
solvcd if the first-order solntiorls ul(z, N ) nnti vl (x, N ) are Irnown, and if the func- The first, equation d c l ~ c r m i n cthe
~ first,-orclcr b o ~ ~ n t l n rInyc:r
y which in itlcnI.irn.l wiI.11
tions I < ( r ) , IJz(x, 0) nntl I'z(x, 0) nre suitably prescribed. eqn. (5.39) for ~ t n g n a t ~ i oflow
n nt a flat plnt.c. The two succeeding equn.t,ions deter-
I t follows t h a t the calculation of n second-order bo~lttclaryla.yer on a given body mine the second-ortler boundary layer. Thc solrlt~ionhns been split into t.wo part.s,
in a strcnm requires t h a t the following steps should be taken: the partin1 solution thle t.o curvature (srtbscript c) anti the partial solut,ion due to the
displacelnent effect (subscript, d). T h e latter is induced by the cxtcrnal flow of sccond
(a) Cnlculat~ionof t h e potential flow (external flow of first order) about the body order wit,h the velocil,y Uz(x, 0) = Uzl z , a s determined in step (c) above. For Fd
with the boundary conditions IT1 ( r , 0 ) = 0. The solution yields U l ( s , 0). we obtain the following simple solution
(b) Cnlculat,ion of t h e first-order boundary layer for given U l ( x , 0), t h a t is, deter-
minatfion of tlie sol~ltionof t h e oystem of equations (7.49). I n pn.rticular, from the
uolution i r l ( r , N), v l ( ~N, ) we calculate the fnllction Vz(x, 0) with the aid of equ.
(7.45). The skin-friction cocfficient follows frolri eqn (7.55) Inserting the numerical vnl~les
(c) Calculation of the second-order external flow for the boundary condit,ions Vz(x, 0) f"(0) == 1.2326; F:(O) = - 1.9133; F:(O) = 1.8489, (9.06)
and zero velocit,y a t large diotance from the body in accordance with eqn. (7.45). The
solution provides us with U z ( x , 0) and P z ( x , 0). we find I.hnt,
I n what follows, we shall assume t h a t t.hese steps have already been taken. We
shall concentrate on more detailed second-order calculation for several particular cases.

Symmetric atngnation flow: T11is type of flow wau analyzed in detail by M . Van
Dyke (see also Chap. VII, [7]). It is assumed that. the expressions for the external
flow of first ant1 second ordrr on a convex wall a t the stagllation point (K = 1 a t
x = 0) have bcen found and yield
U ( 2 , 0) = U l l x -t F UZ12 + 0 (c2),
whrrc IJu nntl TIzlnrr conslsr~tswhich dt,pentl on the shnpc of the lrody. Accortling
t o eqn. (7 48), wc make t h e following assu~nptionfor the inner solution:
t I iri~lnhtr~rl
~ I I I t,o Profcnsor I<. Grrntcn for 1,11enxpo~it.ionin thin ~rct-ion.
Thc formrllae for the pressure ant1 skin-friction cocfficiorlt are ul~ivcrsal.The missing
(9.87) numerical values of the constant,^ U11 and Uzl depend only on the shape of Lllc bociy.
In nll known examples, Clzl has turrletl orlt, t,o b~ nrgat,ivc. 'Yl~issignifies ttle
sltin-friction cocfficicnt, near the ~ t n g n s t ~ i opoint
n on a convex wall decreases dllc to
higher-orcter bonntlary-layer cfft:cC~ ((:urvl~tlIrcnll(1 (~i~~)ln(:crnt!l~t.); (.)I(! OI)IJOH~(.(! i~
true about the pressnrc coefficient a t the wall.
- -
t This eql~stior~ i8 seen to be idcntjical wit,h eqn. (9.16) of Scc. IXc if it is ~totedthat l l ~ e
coordi-
nates z,y in it derroto lengths, wlrersas Iicre t,licy have bccn rcferrerl to I.hc cli~ractcrinlicI C I I ~ I . I I
R, (radius of cnrvntt~rool t,llc hody at the nI~gni~t.ion point) nntl nrntlc dimcr~oior~lcs,s. Wllctt
cornparing the velocity distribution of the cxtcrnal flow8 from cqns. (9.87) nrtd (9.16), we have
Q = l/KN = !/ l/V" .
l!Ni I X . I3xnrt solr~tionrcof thc .stc*n(ly-stntr1)onndnry-layer e q r ~ n t i o ~ l ~ j. 15oundnry layer of second orclcr 1!)7

P n r r ~ l ~ n linn n ~ymt::etric strclnl::: 'r'l~csccond-o~.tlcrI)otrr~tlarylayer on a parabola I'ig. 8.17. 1,ocnl kin-friction coeffirior~tin
in n ~yrnrnr1.ric:st.rrn.tti was rnlrnlnt,cstl I)y M . Van I)yltc (sc!c c ~ l u o('ll~al).V I I , 171). 111
I~~(I w r II:LV(:
1.110I I C ~ ~ I I I ) I ) I I Iof. I st,n.g~i:~t,io~i,
t.hn rleipl~l)nurhootlof u ut.n&nnt.io~r
of ~x~.rnl~ol:$
11 i n t r r r l l d of
point
Lllo I<,cy~~olds
,
-
UI1 1 nntl lJzl = - 0.01. (9.00)
R -- l l mR/v
1111111l)cr
( I ) l'irst-urdrr I ~ n ~ ~ n < l n r y - l nIlicnr)'.R ycr
(2) Srt.o~ttl-orclcrI , o l l ~ ~ ~ l n r y - I ~ tIy, fl ~ ~
-coo:
r o r y ,I?IIII.
111t.hc rnsr of t l ~ cpnrnl~olnwc h a v r nt onr tlispos:l.l a r1111ncricn.lsol~lt,ior~ of t,hc co111-
(n.lol),n l l v r I < , ( ; V I H I V ~ I ( I 1111 01 ( ' I ~ ! # I L V l I )
pl('f r Nn.vit:r-St.okrs cc]llnt,ions drlc to It. '1'. I):Lv~s I I I I nntl c:Ln use it. for a tlirc!ck (3) Nnt~beric:~l I I I I I I I I O I I r , l 1.111: N:~vi(.r-XI~!kr'n rrllln-
cval~lnlion of t.11~irrrl~r.ovc:n~rnt mntlr by 1.l1csccontl-order t,l~oory.Pignre 0.17 slrows l.lo~tanIIc.r 11. 1'. Ilnvin 1 1 1 1
a plot. of t . l ~ csltin-frict.ior1 rocfficicnt from (9.!)7) a t a si,ngnat,ion point, of s parabola. (I) R - 0. Str.,:t.riall Ill,!v
0.1 I I I
in t,rrrns of 1.11~ Rcynnltls nurnl)cr forlnrtl wit.11 1.11~ratlius of cnrvature nt, 1.11~vertex. lo-' roo 10' 10' 10' toL 105 lo6
I t follows I'ron~c q n . .(9.!)7) Lhat - 'J7p

Cnrvc 2 in Fig. 9.17 is a plot, of t l ~ i srcl;l.t,ion, w l ~ c r c a sCurve 1 dcpictss t l ~ efirst-order

solr~t,ion.Cilrvc 3 11;~sIJCCII plo1,tctl with t.hc rcsrllt.~of It. 'I?. I)nvisls nr~mcricalsolu-
tion. 'l'11r ronsiclcrablc i ~ n l ) r o \ ~ c r n ccfli.ct,ctl
nt~ by t h e sccontl-order t l ~ c o r yin t h e lower
r:tngr of Jtcynolds n111nl)crsis clcnl.ly visil~lc.I n wtltlition, t,he clingrams give a n un-
sln1)ignous intlicnt,ion t,l~ni,t,lle sccontl-ordrr t.htory allows 11s t o itle11t.if.v t l ~ crange
of vn1itlit.y of first,-ortlcr l.lrc:ory. Jf a n c ~ . r o of r lrp t,o 2 % is t o t ~ tolcmtcd,
e it follows ( 2 ) c p for R -
(1) c p for I l o ~ l v i a c ~ n lflow,
lo
100; erln. (0.104)
R -r m, r ~ l n(8.102)
.

t l ~ a tfirst-ortlcr t,llcory applies a t J<.cynoltls nl~rnl)crsin cxcess of R = 1.5 x 105. eqn. (9.101); s -
(3) C ; A'/' = 3.486 x * ' / ' ; ~ ~ n g n n l i opoillt;
0
(4) C; R ' / ' = 2-63 x*'/';sl.nn~~nlion
r~ R --+ m:

Similar cornl)nrisons bnscd on I t . .'I 1):~vis's ~t~rnic~ricnl solnt,ions reveal l.l~a.ttlic point; R--t m:
eqo. (9.101); s = 0-1
lo\rrcr limit of vn.litlit,y for the scc:ontl-ortlcr t,hcory is at, R = 100 for a 2 % t,olcrnnce. (5) c j R1/'==0.601r* - ' I 1 ; flat,plitt,c
l'ig111.r 9.18 givos tlingrnnis of st,nbir prc~ssr~rc nntl sltiri-friction tlisl.ril)r~t,ionsalong
t,he cx~ntjourof a pn.rxl)ola at. zero incitlrncc, both cvaluat.ed with t,lle aid of secontl-
ortlrr t,l~cory.I'or purposcs of comparison, tthc tlia.gmrns contain dist.r.ibut.ions calcn- Ii'ig. 8. 18.n) St.nt,irpressure dinLril,r~tionand h ) disLribl~l,io~~
of sllc:~ring8Lrcsn nround 1 . h ~ronL011r
Iat,cd with t,hc aitl of first,-order bo~lntlary-laycrt,hrory (R -z GO). 13ot.11 ~ ) r c s s n r c p:rr~t[)olnat, zero i~~citlci~cc.
The curves for R = 100 corrm~)ontt1.0 ~econrl-orderl~o~tr~rl:iry-lnyc*r
dist,ribrlt.ions s t a r t a.it,l~c,, = 1 a t t.11~st,agnntiot~pciint,. F'rictionlcss flow (R + GO) tlleory ; the curves R -+ oo correspond to first-order l.l~cory
givcss
1
c,, = ----- (9.102)
I - 1 2 r* ' W l ~ r r c ntlic
~ prcssrlrc cocfficio~tis incrcasccl IIY higller-ordcr cfit:t,s, t h e slcin-
w l ~ c r c:I.* ---- : c l / l l otlcnot,c:s t , l ~ dirnc~isior~lcss
ant1 ~ n o a s r ~ r cnlorlg
tl
c
1,llc: ccntcrlinc; sot: n.lso Fig. 9.18. I'or R
(9.98) for t,11c r1t\igh1)orrrhoo(1of tfIlc st,ng~~nf,ior~ point Gllnk
-
tlist,;~nrcfrom t , l ~ vcrt,c:x
c of t.Ii(: 11nral)ola
100 w r find frorn ccln.
friction is rctlr~crtlt h c r c l ~ y I. t follows Urnt tl>cp r c s s ~ ~ tlrctg
whereas t,l~t?
J'or t,hc pressure d r a g ol' :L pnrabol:~of \vitll,li 1)
r c of n p n , r : ~ \ ~ )inc:l.cnsc~s,
sltiri frict.ion tlrcrcnscs for 1l.oynoltls 1111rn0cl.stl(:c:rc:nsit~gf r o ~ rR~ m.
ln

( C X C ~ I I S ~ V of
C I)ILSC ( I I Y I ~ ) .~
.
Y C li11t1
[I11 t h a t

1
C,, -- I I.:IH r*,'
(9.104)
T h u s , aL R = 100 t l ~ cpressurc d r a g cxccctls th:rt in nn inviscitl flow 1)y I(il)'/,.
wl~oroR: =: (231*)112near t11c st,n.gnat,ion point,. A4 expected, t,he higher-order correc-
t,ions dccren.sc in t,he downstrcarn direction, particuln.rly also tluc t o t h e decreasing T h e fact, t.llat t h e pressure d r a g incrca.scs n.s x rcsult of t h e opcrntion of socond-
in !.hat, tlircct,ion. At, z~1)olrta:* = 2, t . 1 1 ~higlrcr-order clfeetrs vanish t o all
t:urvc~t~rrrc order boundary-lnycr cfTects point,s t o t , l ~ epossibility t,lrat snr,Ii d m g s l ~ o ~ ~:Ipprnr
ltl
it~i.rnt.s
n,t~tl~)rrrposcs.Si1niln.r concl~isiorisapply t o l.llc slrin-friction coc:fficicntt which, in t , l ~ cfrarncworlr of a second-ortlcr theory also for- n flxt, j)lnl,c a t zcro inritlrrlor, a s
11on.c-vcr,clisl)lxys nl, t,lrc, st.n.gnnt,ion 11oir1t.t,lr(%Iargcst, sccor~tl-ortlrrcorrect,ion. alrcatly intimat,cd in Src. V l I f .
 O~l:cr ehnpw: Second-orcler (:ITcetls f i ~ r11n.lf-borlics h a v o I ~ c r n i n ~ r s t ~ i g n t e t1)y
l 1171 Page, A,, and Palkncr, V.M.: Frlrther o x ~ ~ r r i r n e non b t l ~ cflow nrountl n circular cylinder.
Id. 1)evan 1 1 21. 'I'hc ~OSIIIOS n r c similar t o t , l ~ o s cfor t.hc parnholn.. 'l'hc cocffi c i e n k for llh4 136!) (l0:Jl).
[IS] I~nlkncr,V . M.: A f~lrtlierir~veal.igat,ionof soll1l.io11of honndnry 1:iyrr AIt.(: R.M 1884 (19:{$)).
c q n s . (!).!)7) ant1 (!).!lX) a r c I I!)] J'allcner, V.M.: Sin~plifiedcnlcolntion of t,l~clalninar bount1:rry layer. A I t C llhl I H I ) ~(1941 1.
1.5;
1JI1 :- 1JZ1= r - - 0 . 0 2 . 1201 I'anneloep. T., nntl I'liiggc-lotz, I. : 'rho con~presnil~lc bo~tntl:lrylayer nlo11g 11 W I L ~ - C - S I I : L ~ I ~ ~ I
wall. 1rtg.-Arch. 33, 24--35 (1!)63).
(7.52) a r ~ t l(7.53)of scco11t1 ortlcr
or t . l ~ c : I)onntlary-lnyrr c*rlun.l,iol~s
l ~ u t . l . l ~sol~ll.iorls
rr (21 1 l~liig~r-I,otx,, I., nncl l5lol,t,11t*r,IP.G . : Vmn)l)r~t,titit)n of t.hr t!oi~~~)r~?asiI~lc 1ti111i11:br t)o1111(1:~ry
layer Ilow incltrtling diq)l:rccrnent I.l~icltnrsnintcr~~(:t,ion 11si11glinite diIlCrc~~cc III(!()~~~~~s.
a r c availitblc, as rnigl~l,11n.ve 1)cr.n cxl)ccl.c:tl, for oases which Ien.tl L o self-sin~ilitrsolu- Stnnford Llniv. Div. J<ng. Mccll. Tcah. Ilcl). 131 (lg(i2). Shortr:l~cclvcruiot~in .Jourl~:~l tlc

a r c of t h e f o r n ~ I J l ( x , 0 ) -
t i o n s in first o r d e r , See. VIII b. I n t h e c a s e of flows wllosc first-order e x t e r n a l flows
z m 1,11t: scc:ontl-ordcr t l ~ c w r yn.lso Irarls t o st3lf-similar
MCcaniq~~c 2, 307---423 (1963).
[22] Jt'liiggc-LoL7., I.: The cornl)ntnf.ion of 1.110 Innlinnr i : o ~ ~ ~ ~ ) r e sI~~iol ~
J5ng. St.anfort1 1Jniv.. I t c j ~11. :lV2---30--7 (11)54).
) llor ~ ( l ~: ~i r~yel)cl~.
r . Ill~~:ll.

- -
solut.ions if
[23] Friisnling. N.: Vcrd~~nst.nng, Wiirn~ciil)rrgnngrtncl (:cui:I~wi~~~li I ~ i ~ i t ~ v c r I ~ ? i l ~ tT.I~*I!~.
l ~ ( k i t~g
K(x) x(jn-l)Iz; tJ2(:x, 0) xn. (9. 101;) tlitr~cnsior~nlt:r uncl r o l . r ~ l i o ~ ~ ~ n y ~ ~ ~ ~I ~n n~ ~ iLnrnirs~(:re~~z~~l~itf~t~f.rii~n~~t~~.
cr I ~ c r I,II~I<~S.
(III~v.
Ars~lcr.N. I?. Avd. 2. 36, NO. 4 (1!)40); arc n l ~ oNACA TM 14:12.
li'~trt,l~cr tlc.t.:~ilsc o n c c r l ~ i n gl.lrc cfrefr.ot*sof srcontl o r t l r r call bo S o ~ ~ nin
t l CIhnlx V l I n.s [24] Gcrstcn, I<., ant1 Grons, J . IP.: Maw-Crnnsfor clfccta in l ~ i g l ~ordor cr bo~indaryl~iyersolnt.ionfl.
well 8.9 i r V1lI
~ [Gal, [IFia]. Tflc l&tlter r.or~t,ninintlicntaions a b o u t s c c o r ~ d - o r d c effects
r Tho leading edge of n swept cylintlcr. Int. J. ItcaL Mass Transfer I G , 05-79 (1072).
i n t4I1eprcscncc of srlct,ion, blowing, hcnt. t,m.nsfer a n d compressibility. Secot~cl-order [25] C:erskn, I<., Gross, .J. F., nntl 13orgcr. (:.: 1% Grcnzschicllt, hiil~crerOrtlnung at1 (lor S t e ~ t -
clfcct.s ncqniro inc:renuing impori.ance for I ~ i g hMach nnrnl)crs ant1 i n t h e presencc of linio cines ucl~icbcndrnZylindcrs tnit ut.nrkcn~I \ I I R ~ ~ I L%.RI~111gwiu~. P~. 20, 3:JO-:l41 (1fl72).
[21i] (:oltlslci~~, S.: Otr bhc t\ro-tlirncnsiot~nlnt~:ntly llow of a vincous ll~titlhcl~indt i solitl I)otly.
blowing. I n tllis connexion c o n s u l t [24, 25,47,48,59].
I'roc. Itoy. 601:. I.ondon A 142, R45-5(i2 (l!l3J).
[27] C:oldsLrin. S. (ctl.): hlodcrn tlcvclopmcnla in flrtid tlynnrnim, Val. I, 105. Clart:ndon l'rcxs,
Oxford. 1938.
[2R] (:ol(lstein, S.: On Inrninar honnrlnry layor flow near a posit.ion of ncpnrat.ion. Q~lart.,J.
Mcrh. Appl. Math. 1, 43- (i!) (1948).
[ I ] Anclrado, 15.N.: 'rhc \~nlocit.ydist.ribnt.ion in :i liqr~itl-illto-liq~~icl jet. l'l~eplnnr jet. Proc. [29J Giirtlcr, 11.: Ein I)illcre~~zet~veifnl~rer~ zur Jlerochnnng Inlninarcr Grcnzschichtcn. 1ng.-
Pl~ys.Soe. 1,on(lo1151. 784 - 7!)3 (I!):!9). Arch. 16, 173-187 (1048).
121 Ihxtcr, I).(>., nr~tlI'liiggc-1,ot.z. I.: 'l'hr sol~ltinnof rornprc~ssihlelanlir~xrb o ~ ~ n d n rlayer y [30] Giirtlcr, 11.: I':~II~~IISR cincr ~cliwaclrcnWat~clwclligkrita~rfdrn Vcrlnufclcr In11ri1rart:n Crcnz-
prol~lcninby a iinitr: tlilli?rcnc:c rnrtd~otl.i';ir~ 11: I~urkl~er dist:r~ssionof t l ~ crr~ct,l~od and schichten. I'arta 1 ant1 11. ZAMhl 25/27. 2:):i-244 (1947) :inel 28, 13-22 (1949).
con~y)nt;it.intiof exnn~l)lcs.Tccl~n.Jl.cp. 110, Iliv. 15ng. h1ec:h. Stanford Univ. (l!)57); short8 [31] C:iirt.ler, H.: Z I I A[)proxirnat,ion
~ st,ation$rer latninarcr Grenzncl~ichLsLro~nu~n mit Iiilfe
version: ZAh11' gh, 81 !IT, (1!)5X). dcr al)grbrochcnen I3lasiusschcn Reihc. Arch. Math. I , No. 3, 235 2 4 0 (1049).
[3] 13icklcy, Mr.: '1'11~pl:tno jrt.. I'hil. Mag. Scr. 7, 26. 7 2 7 7 3 1 (I!l30).
141 1)Iani~s.11.:. (:r(~~~zst-l~i(:l~(r~l in 1~liissigkcit.t~n n ~ i tltlcincr Itcibnng. Z. Mnt.11. u. T'l~ys. 56, [32] Giirt.lrr, 11.: Jtcibr~ngs\\riderstn~~d eincr schwacl~gcwclltcn Ilngsangcstriitntcn Plnttc. Arch.
I ~ - 3 7(1!)08); I311gl. t,r:insl. in NACA 'l'hl 1256. hlatli. 1. 450-453 ( 1940).
I5J I3lott,ncr. F.(:. : I"initc difli:rcncc n ~ r t l ~ o dof a solntioli of t.hr bor~l~dnry-lnyrr cqr~alions. 13.31 (:iirt.ler, H.: Kine n e w Jtcihcnc~itwic:klr~~~g fiir Inn~innreC:rcnzs(:hirhtcn. ZAMM 32, 270-
AlAA ,I. 8 , 19:) - 205 (1970). 271 (1!)52).
If,:&]13lott,ner, I?. ( 2 . : Invest,igat.ion of some 1init.t: rlifircn~:~ tcchniq~~cs for solving t,hc bour~dnry [94] (tiirtlcr, 11.: A nrw srrics for thr calc~rlnI.ionof steady lanlinnr hor~nflnrylnycr flows. J .
1nyi.r (~c{~~:~tions. ( ! O I I I hl:tl,l~.
~. Ajq11. bli!(!11. l4:11g. 6. I -- 30 (1075). M i ~ t l ~Mech.
. 6 , I -GC, (1957).
I(;] (;vOcri, 'r., Stnith, 11.M.0.: A Iinitc (lilTcrc~~(:c ~nct.I~oil for v : ~ l r ~ ~ l a ro~~i~)ressihle
ti~~g [35] (:iirt.lcr, I]., anti MriLLing, 11.: Zn den l'aniscl~en C.rcnzscl~icht,cn.Ostcrr. 1ng.-Archiv 11,
Iarnin:~rnnil t.r~rh~~lcnI bonr~dnryIayrru. 'l'r;ins. ASM 15, ,I. I3a.sic I':t~g. 92, 52:)--535 (1970). 11 1-- I22 (1!)57).
171 (>h:i11111nn, 11. It.: 1,antinnr nixing of n r t ~ n ~ ~ ~ r c s Ilni(1. s i l ~ l cNACA 'J'N 1800 (1049). [36] I ~ I I ~ I I I ~ I I(.,
I I ~ nn(l
I I I IIChret,
, L.: 1)cr I)n~cltvcrlust(lor lnn~ir~nrrr~ Striin~ungin dcr ,lnlnrtf-
181 C ~ I : I ~ I IJ). ~ IIt..:
~ I I'I'hc!on-t.ic:rl
, ;in:ilysis of I~c:i(.t.r:~nsfcrin regions of scparat,cd flow. NACA strerkc von gc:rntlcn, rbcncn Sl)alt.cn. .lb. (It. I,~rftf:~l~rLfornc:I~~~~g I, 21-36 (1041).
'YK 37\12 (1!l!it;). [:17] I ~ : L ~ I I I ~ I11..I I ~R~I II I~ICl~rrt,,
. I,.: Ilcr Strii~n~~~rgs\viclcrntn~~d in gcraden, cbenen Spaltcn
[!)I Chcn, I<. I<., tind I,il)l~y,1'. A,: Hor~ntlnryInyrrs with sn~nll~lcp:irt.~lrcn from Lhe Pnlkner- u n k r 13criicksicl1t.ig11ng tler 1Pinlnt1fvcrl11nt.c. JI). clt,. 1,11ftfahrtforscI11111g I, 186 --207 ( I 942).
Sknn profile. ,I I'M 36, 243 - 292 ( llI(i8). 1581 Hartrec, 1).R.: A solrttion of t l ~ cInn~inarb o ~ n ~ d n rInyrr y cqnation for rct.nrdetl Ilow. A1tC
1101 Chrisl,inn. \2'..J.: In~provcd n~~nlrricnl s o l ~ ~ t i oofn t.11~ J ~ l a s i ~problem
~s n.it,l~three poil~t. 1tM 2420 (1949).
hor~nclaryc!o~tclit,ion.,IASS Z Y , 91 1-912 (1901 ). [39] I l i r ~ t ~ e n I<.:
z , Die Grenxscl~irht,nn rir~cnlin tlcn glciehfiirn~igc~n I~liissigl~rit8st~ro111 ringe-
11 I ] I):~vis. I<.'l'.: h'11111rrira1solnt,i~nof 1.I1c Knvicr.St,ok~scquat,ions for sylnlnetric laminar t,cuchtcn grmtlen I<rriszylintlcr. 'I'hesis (:<it tingrn 1!)11 ; I)ingl. 1'olyt.rchn. .I. 326, 321 (I!)] 1).
i n r o ~ n ~ ~ r c s s illow
l ~ l c pnst, a 1111r1iI)oln. JVhl 51. 417 .433 (l!)72). 1401 lIo\vnrt.l~,I,.: O n Ll~crnlcrtliition of slcatly Ilon- i l l t l ~ rhorlntlnry lnycr ntrir t.hr s~~rfavc! of n
1121 I)n\,nn, I,.: Sccontl order incon~prcs~ibli> lnlni~~nr bonntlnry layer tlrvclopnicnt on n two- cyIin(lcr in IL ~ t r r ~ ,\It(! ~ n ~ItM. l(\:V2 (1O:ki).
ilintcnsic~~~:il ~rtni,infinit,chcn1,y. 1'11. I). 'rl~osis,Univ. of (!nIifornia at 1,os Angclcs, 1964. 1411 II01vart11, I,.: 011 LII(: nt~l~ltion of the I n ~ n i ~I~ot~n(I:irv
~ ~ i r " lnycr - r:q~lnt,iona.
. I'roc-. Iloy. Sor..
[I31 I)cnisor~, M. 12.. and J%anrn,15.: Conlprrssiblr free sjlcnr lnycr wit11 finite init,inl thicIt~icss. London 11 164, 517--57!) (1038).
AlAA ,I. 1, 342-340 (I!)F:$). 1421 ,Jnffc, N.A., and S n ~ i t l ~A.M.O.: . Cnlc~llr~tion ol' Ialninnr Oounclnry 1:iyern by Inrans of n
114) I)cwry, C.I'., and Gross, k'.: Exnrt siniilnr s o l ~ ~ t i o of n s the Ian~irlarhortndary Inyer eqna- dilferentinl-dinbrcnce 111ethotl.Progress in zlerospace Sciericm, Vol. 12 (1). I<iicl~crnnnt~,
t.ior~rr.t1dvnnc.r~in Ilcat 'I'rnnsfer Val. .I, ~\e!:ulrn~ic I'rcss, Ke\v York, 1967, 317-446. ed.), Pcrga~nonl'ress. 1972.
[If,]. 15rnns, II.l,.: I,:~ti~innr1)onnclnry Inyrr theory. Acltlison-Wrslry P~lblisl~ing Corrrpany, 42.21 Icrller, H . B.: Numerical mebhodn in bountlnry lnyer theory. Ann. Rev. Firlid Mech. (M. van
I~)ntlt)n,L!)(i8. Dvke. ed.) 10. 41 7-433 (1978).
I IT,] I't~gr,2 1 . : 'l'l~ctiirflo~r-nro~lndII c.irc.nl:~rc:ylintlc!r in 1 1 1 rrgion ~ ~vhrrnt.11~ bo~tndnrysrpnrntm 1431 I<rzywohlorki, M.Z.: On ~ t m d y .Inn~innr two-cli~~~rnsionnl jets in ron~~irrnsil)lc viscorls
fro111thr U I I ~ ~ II'ltil. I C , ~Mag.
. 7. 253 (l!P2!)). R:~FIOR fttr brhin(I tht: ulit. Qttttrl,. llpl~l.M I ~ I I I 7, . 313 (]!kt!)).
200 1X. Ixxnrt nolt~tionaof t.lin nt~ntly-nt-ah
bo~~nilnr~-ln
equations
~or

1441 Leigh, I).(!. IT.: 'I'll(. 111111innr honnclxry layer equation: A lnetl~orlof solnt,ion hy Innnnn of
an nlltot~lnticconlp~~tor. l'ron. Cnlnbr. I'hil. Son. ,51, 320-332 (1956).
r44nl 1,rsnen. M. : 0 1 1 (.11(. at.nl)ilit.y of t,he Inttlirl:tr frcc bnrlntln.ry layer hrt.wt!en pnm.llcl ntrcnmn.
NA(:I\ J<,c:p.!)7!t (I!t50); sc(: :tlso Sc. I), 'I'l~nsin,MI'I' (l!)48).
[46] I.ork, I<.(:.: '1'11~ vcloc.ily tlistril)ntio~~ i l l Lllo In~liitlnrI)or~~~(lary I:tycr I)rt1vr011p e r ~ ~ l l r l
stre:rtns. Qi~:~rt. ,I. Mc:(:l~.AppI. Mnt.11. .I, 42--6:l (1951).
[,lli] Rlills, Il.. 11.: A r~oloOII S ~ I I I Cnccc:lrrnl.c:fl I~ol~r~clnry 1nyt.r voloiril:y proli11's. .l AS 5. 3125 (1!):38). CIJAPTEIE X
[47] I ' ; I ~ I C : I I ~11. I II).:
~ ~ ,1liglic:r-ortlc:r sr~lrrl~io~~x for LIIC ~ I I ( : o I I I [ I ~ ( ~ ls isl~~IrI ~I ~: *~ ,: - ~ l i t ~ I~I (~ :I tI ~I I~~ i~o. ~ ~ ~ ~ l
nry-lnyrr Ilnw nt I.lle nt.ng~~nlion point, of n grtlernl t~ocly.Archiven of Mecl~arlics(Warsaw)
26, 46!) 478 (1!t74).
1481 I':tl~rt~ft~ss. H . I).: Mnss-t.rn~~sfer offrr1.s or1 t.11~ t.llrcr-din~rnsiot~nl seconcl ortlor I1o1111dary- Approximate methods for the solution
I:tycr flow nl. 1 . 1 1 ~st,:bg~~:tl.iol~ l~ointof I I I I I I I ~ bo~li(?n.
, Met:l~.Ilcs. (!OIIIIII. I , 286 - 2!)0 (1974).
[4!)] I'ai, S. I.: I'l~tid dy~lnl~li(:s of j r t , ~ .1). \'a11 Nost.rnntl ( ! O I I ~ ~ New I ~ I I York,
~, 1954. of the two-dimensional, steady boundary-layer equations
1601 I ' o l ~ l l ~ n ~ ~ I<.: s c n . Zr~rnWl~rr~~ngs\\~cisrr\ I111.egrat.iot1der l)in'crct~tinlgleicIi~~ng tler C:rcnz-
sclliclit. ZAh1M I, 252 208 (1!t21). -
Ivllrod~rctor?~ rem,nrk: 'rhc cxaniples of enact solt~t.ionsof Ll~e bot~ntlnry-I:~~yt.~.
[5l 1 I'ol.tcr, 0. IC.: I,n~ninarbol~lltlnry Inyors at. 1.11(* inferfncw of co-cl~rrr~lt. pnrnllrl sl,rmn~s.
()~r:irI~. -1. hlrrl~.1\11pl. h l : ~ l ~10, l ~ . :%W2(l!t67). ccluntions w h i c l ~h n v c b c r n d i s ~ t t s s ~ind t . 1 1 prcootling
~ clrnpt.crs llavc s h o w n l , l ~ n (.It(.
t
1621 Ilc~cvrs.1%. I,., : I J II<ilq,ci~l~i~t~,
~ C. .I.: A 1111rlicnlnrclnss of si~llilnrfiolr~tionn01'1 Ilr rrlllations mat,hemat,ical difficult.ics associated w i t h av~,cl,l?jtic. s c d ~ t l ~ i o for
i ~ s t h c m a r c consitlrr-
of lotion :~ntlenergy of a ~risconsIluifl. JASS 29. 38--47 (1!tG2). ablc. I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e general p r o b l e m involving trhc flow of fluid r o u n d a botly of
I6:ll I<irlrl.~l~(:yc.r. It. I).: I ) i f i r o ~ ~ cr~~ct.liodn
e for it~ilialvnllre ~ ~ r o b l eIr~tc~rscirt~rc, ~~~s. New Yorlr, a r b i t r a r y s l ~ a p ec a n n o t b c complet.ely solved w i t h t.hc aid of t h e allalyt,icnl n1el.hotls
l!t57.
1541 Scllillrr. I,., :~ntlI,i~~ltc, MI.: I)rr~ck-ntlcl Ht~il~~tt~gs\r.itlcrsI:~t~d dcn Zylindcrn hei 17.cy1101dn- prescnt,ctl t h u s f a r . T h e nuntericnl o r s t e p - b y - s t e p m e t h o d s (see Sec. I X i ) allow u s
n(:llotl % : I ~ I ~ROO C I II~io40000. ZIW 24. l!):)~ l!i8 (1!):33). ~
t o solve m o s t wit,l~a t,olcrablc ntnonitt. of worlc if n fnst, digil,nl co~nptttc.ris
1551 S(.l~ill(-r, I,.: I)ic 15nt~\vic.ltl1111g (lor I : ~ I I I ~ I I (: :~(~~ O s (I~I l ~ ~ v i ~ ~ ~ l i g l z ~ : i (ill1
t s v cI<r~isroI~r)
r I ~ ~ i l ~ ~ U~ ~I gI ~ availnblc. F o r t h i s rcnson, t.hc n p p r o x i m a l r rnct,l~otlsfor t . 1 1solution
~ of o u r 1)otrntlnl.y-
illl-c. Ikvl(:~tI.r~ng fiir clio %iil~iglztritfirnr.qnr~~r~g(:~~. ZAMM 2, !)ti IO(i (1022). layer eqnat.ions dovelopetl in cnrlicr t,imrs, thnt, is 1)cforr t , l ~ oncjvcnt, of rontl)~tt,c.rs.
[WiJ S ( ; l ~ l i c l ~ l i11.: ~ ~ gI. A ; ~ r ~ ~Sl,r:~l~In~~:i~rsl)r(:it,~~~~g.
i~~:~rr ZAMM I,?, 21;0--263 (l!):33).
1571 St!l~licl~li~~g, 11.: J A I I I ~ I I : ~ ~~<~~ : I I : ~ I ~ ~ I I I I L ~ I ~ S ~ ~ ~ %~\hlhl
I I I I ~ I I 14.
~ ~ . :1(i8--:17:$ (19:34). d o n o t e n j o y t h c sarrlc irnl)ort,ar~ccn o w nu t h e y tlitl I.hon. N c v c r t ~ l ~ r l c s nwc. , 1)1.11l)osc.
l57nl S ~ : l ~ l i c l ~ t11. i ~:~(:rr~~zscl~icl~t.t,l~eorin.
g. 1':11gl. t~.;~nsl. hy I<estin, J. : I3o1111tlnry -layer theory. t o g i v e h e r e a n o u t l i n e of t h e s e approximat,e rnethotls, bccntlsc t h e y a r e \r.ell-sr~itetl
(it.11ctl., MrCmw-Hill, New Yorlz, I!)(%. 6, t h e g e n e r a t i o n of a q u i c k orlt,line of a solutpion e v e n in l n o r r c o m p l e x cases; i n t l ~ i s
158j Scl~roodcr,I<.: Ein rinf:~cllrnI I I I I I I C ~ ~ S ~\ '~cIr~f Sn l ~ r ezur ~ ~ Rerocht~ntigtler 1:~nlinnrenCrenz- connexion t,he s u m m a r y b y E. T r u c k e n b r o d t [24] will h e fonntl I ~ e l p f u l .
scl~icl~t,. I'll 1741 (1!)4:3); Intnr cx~)nn(lril: I I I I ~ rrpritltrd in Math. Nnrhr. 4, 430--467 (1!351).
[ E l ] Scl~ult.z-Grunow,I'., atld Ilrnselcr, It.: ffht~licl~c C r r n z a c l ~ i c l ~ t l i xweitcr is~~~~ Ordtlr~ng
~ T h i s c h a p t e r deals wit11 a p p r o x i m a t e mctllotls for l a m i n n r b o n n d a r y Iaycrs otlly.
fiir Strii~nut~gs- I I I I ~' I ' r : ~ ~ ~ p c r e t , ~ t r g r n t ~ z ~111~ 1 ~longit,udinsl
l~ir.l~(n~ g c l z r i i n ~ ~ ~ Wander1
~ t n ~ ~ tnil
(:rc!~~zsrhicl~l.l~c.rit~fI~~s~~~~~g. \YKrlrlc- 11n6l St~oll'iil)crLm.gr~~~g 1, 214- 21!) (1968). Anslogous m e t h o d s for t u r b t ~ l e n tb o u n d a r y l a y e r s (c/ C h a ~ )X X I I ) h a v e retn~rbrtl
[(iO] St~litll.A . M . O., :111tlCllltkr, I). \?I.: S n l ~ c l i oof~ ~tile inron~prrssiblebor~ntlnrylnyrr equn- their speeial i m p o r t a n c e 111) t o t h i s d a y .
t.iot~s.,IIAII ,J. 1 , 2002--2071 (lOK3).
[GI] Snlit.ll, A. hl. O., nntl (!rbori. 'l'.: Nnlllericnl sollll.iol~of Llle turi)r~le~lt bor~~~rlnry-lnycr rqltn- A11 appro xi mat,^ m c t l l o d s a r e integral ~ n e t h o t l sw l ~ i c h(lo not, a t . t . e n ~ p t o sat,isfy
tinus. M c l ) o t ~ ~ ~ r l l - l ) o ~Jlcl). ~ ~ ; I :No.
~ s I)A(! :!:%7:%5 (1967). t,he b o u n d a r y - l a y e r e q u a t i o n s for e v e r y ~ t ~ r c a r n l i ~i lnes;b a d , t h e equat,iotis a r c s:~Lis-
[(i:%]S l . r i ~ ~ h c t ~.I.: r r .Si1nil;lr solrttiolls for Illr I:llnirl:lr ~ n l jet, l i l l a deoelernt,il~genter Ro11,. AIAA ficd o n l y o n a n a v e r a g e ext,endecl o v e r t h e t,lrickncss of t , l ~ ebounctnry Inyor. All
.I. s, 21ns 2200 ( 1nci8).
1 6 4 ) Str-\r.artso~~. I<.: I'l~rtllrr soll~tiorrsof t.11~ l~:illtr~c~r-SIzar~ cqrtnlion. I'roc. Cn~llhr.Phil. Soc. npproxirnat,c met.lrocls a r c based o n t h e m o r n c n t u t n a n d c n c r g y cqnat.ions of O o t ~ n d ~ r y -
.50, 454 4li5 (1!)54). layer t.hcory k n o w n t,o u s f r o m Sec. V I l I e . All t , l ~ c s eneth hods c a n b e t.m.ccd l o t w o
1G51 S ~ ~ ~ o I ( l r I<. r(~ :n X,~ ~ t ~ ~ c r itr~rtI~o(ls
c;nl i l l lIl:i<l(lyt~:~t~iivn. A(:/\ll,ll I,ecl,~treSer. No. 48 (1!)72). papers, o n c d a c t o T11. v o n ICArmQn [7], ancl t h e o t > l ~ rt ro 1C. P o l ~ l h a t t s e nI l 6 J . Re-
[Mi] 'J'nni, I.: 0 1 1 I.llr s o l r ~ l i oo ~f ~ t.11~ I:~lnill:lrI ~ o r ~ ~ ~ clrlycr l n r y cq~~at.ionn. .I. I'hyn. Snc. J o p n l ~4. forc p r o c c r d i t ~ gt o a p p l y t h c rnet,l~otlt o t.11~goncral c a s r s of t,wo-ditner~sion:rl n.utl
1 4 - 154 (l!b4!)). S(T :IISO:ITifty yr:ws of l ~ o ~ ~ ~ ~ i l : ~ r yr.rlsncyncrr~ ;(\\I.~ ~ 'l'oll~i~ic:~~ n11d 14.
(:iirIlcr. r ~ l . ) I%rr~~~~~sc.lia.c:ig.
, 10:1 2 0 0 ( I !)ST,). a x i a l l y - s y m ~ n c t , r i c n lbountlnry layers wit,h prcssttrc g r n ~ l i c ~ t ~wt .e~ ,sl~rtll ronsitlrl.
l(i7 1 '~'IIOIII. ,\.: 'I'll(: I X I I I ~ I I I I I . I ~ o ~ ~ ~ l clilyrr
l n r yof t 1 1 frol~t.
~ p:lrl. O ~ :~ylil~(lc.r.
I t\I<C I1hl I17(i (1!)2H); firsl, t , l ~ cessentinl fcn.t,urcs of l.he mct,hod a s npplicd t o tSht: flat, plat,c nl. zcro inci-
scr also ;Ill(! llhl I l!l4 (l!32!)). dcnoc. T h i s o x a ~ n p l cis ~)art,icttlnrlysimple in t.hat t l ~ cprc.sstlrc gratlic>nt v:l.t~isltcs
I0Xl 'l'iffortl. ,Z.N.: 11(.111. Ir:~~~sf(:r :inti frirliot~:~l cn'ccis in I.ztl~i~l:tr I ~ o ~ ~ n t l nI:~.yrrs.
ry l'nrt. 4: along t h e whole 1)lat.e. Morcovcr, w e sllnll h n v c t,hr o p ~ ) o r l , r ~ n i to, fy n s s r s s i ~ ~1ht: g
111irrs:1Ii s O I I i o . \ V \ ' I I I I . 53 288 (l!)54). -

((i!)] 'I'ollrl~ivl~. \\I.: (:rr~~zsc:l~ir.l~trn. lli111(ll)11(~11 (lrr ICxpcr. J'liysik 11'. I'art. I , 241 -287 (l!l:11). powcr of t l ~ ca p p r o x i m n t c rnctllotl, at. Icast i n a part,ict~larcase, a n d t o cornpnrc it
1701 IJlricll, ;\.: 1)it. r11(>11v I n ~ l ~ i ~ l In<rcr ~ i l ~ ~ t ~ ~ g s s canI ~ icci-lI~~ rt ,t ~
Z~llintlrr.
l Arch. hlnl.l~.2, 33 --41 with t h o exnet, solution which is a l r e a d y I t n o w r ~f r o m C h a p . V I I .
( I!),t!t). f
7 1 I I 1.: I t I I a I I I I I I . I 1 . 8 l 823 (1970). a. Application of t h e m o ~ n e n t u t nequation t o t h e flow pant a flat
(721 \\'i! I i t l k , I I . : ill)(.r x\wi I)iIfrrr~~scr~r~nt.T;I~r<~~~ rIvr (:rrl~zsr.I~irI~t~I.I~~-oric. Ar(:l~.Math. 4, 247-
2%; ( l!)5:3), a t zero inciclence
17:1-1 , \ I I O I I ~ S I I O l ~I I~S~: ~ ~ r l >: IoI Il ~:nllird ~ t , i itr111Ic-s.
~ ~ ~ i'rr[~:~rrcll ~ yFl.hl. NnnI,irnl ,\IIII~II:L(: Offirc.
11. hl. S l : ~ l i o ~ ~ Offir(:: ~ r y (l!l5(i).
Applying 1.11~m o m c n t u r n c q ~ ~ a t i o rLo i t h e f l t ~ i t lwi(.llirl t.h(: c:o~lIrol st~rf:tcc,
s h o w n i n Icig. 10.1, wc: c : ~ ntlcrive t,hc s l n t c n ~ c n tt,l~nt.t.11(: l l ~ t xo f I I ~ O I ~ ~ I I ~ ~I ,I lI~I rI oI n g ) ~
202 X. Approximate rncl.hoda for steady cqrlntionu n. Applicnt,ion of tile morncntilm rqr~nt~ion
to L ~ I Oflow pnut n flnt plnLo at zcro incidcr~cc203

the c:ont.rol s~lrfacc,consitlcrrd fixrd in spacr, is cqllal to the skin friction on the the exact vnlrle for tofrom eqn. (7.32). Putling t u / p Urnz=a iy/urn2with a =0.332,
plate D ( s ) from the leading cclge (s=0) to the current section a t x. The application we have
of tllc momentum equation to this particular case has already been cliscussecl in E
.-
See. I X t It was then found, cqn. (9.26), t h a t the drag of a plate wetted on one
side is given by
m

D(s) = b e / u(u,--u)dy, (10.1)

u-0

where the integral is to he taken a t scrtion s . On tho other hantl tho tlmg m n bo '
Wit11 rcfc:rcncc to cqn. (10.3) or (10.4) wc con now porforrn nn npproximnto
expresscd as an irltrgral of the shearing stpressto nt tllr wall, lnltrn nlong t l ~ cplntr: calcnlnt.ion of the I)o~~ntlnry lnycr nlong n Il:bt, plnlo a t zcro incitlcncc. '1'11t: CRH(?IICO
of the npproximatc neth hod consists in assuming a suitable expression for the v c l o ~ i t ~ y
1 r0(x) d x .
X

1) ( s ) = b tIist,ribr~t.ionu (y) in t,trc bou~ldarylayer, talting cnrc thnt i t sntisfics the importnnt,
0 bou~idaryconditions for u(y), and t h a t it contains, in addition, one free p:~ramct.er,
s11cl1ns a ~ n i t ~ n b lclloscn
y bountlary-layer thicltncss which is finnlly dctcrmincd wit.11
Upon comparing eqns. (10.1) and (10.2) we obtain t,lle aid of the momenlum equation (10.3).
I n the particular case of n flat plate a t zero incidenco now being considered
it is possible t o t,ake advantage of the fact. t h a t the velocity profiles arc similar.
IIencc we p u t

l'his equation cnn bc also dcclr~ccclin n purrly formal way from t,11c 11011ntlnr.y-layer
equntion (7.22) by first integrating the equation of motion in the x-direction with
respect t o y from y ---- 0 to ?/= m. Equation (10.3) is, finally, obtained without dif-
ficulty if the vclocit,y component v is eliminated with the aid of the equalion of
continuity, and if i t is noticed t.hat p(au/a~),,,~= t o .
where r] == 2/16(s) is the dimcnsio~llessdistance from the wall referred to the boundnry-
layer thicltness. The sin~ilarityof velocity profilcs is here acconnt.ed for by assu~ning
that / ( ? I ) is a function of 7 only, and contains no adtlitional free parameter. The
filnction / must vanish a t the wall ( 7 = 0) and tend to the value 1 for large values

&'l":--p m t m I surlace
of 17, in view of the boundary conditions for u. When using the approximate method,
it is expedient to plnce the point. a t which this transition occurs a t a finite distance
from the wall, or in olher words, t o assume a finitc boundary-layer thickness 6 ( x ) ,
in spit.c of the fact that all cxnct solut,ions of t.hc houndnry-layer equations t.cntl
Fig. 10.1. Application of tho momcrltun~equa- asympt~oticallyto the lwtential flow associated with the part,icular problcnl 'l'hc
-5 u (x.Y) tion to the flow pmt n ant plnto nt zero incidencc bo~ndnry-lnyert.liislrncss has no physical significance in this conncxion, being only
-x a quant.ity wl~ichi t is convenient to use in thc computation.
Having assrimcd tllc vclocity profilc in cqn. (10.0), we c:~11now proceed to
r v n l ~ ~ a tllo
t c momentum intcgml ( 1 0 3), arid we ol)l,;~in
a,, clefinctl by rqn. (8.31), wc have
Introcincing thc morncnl,nrn tl~iclir~css,

Tllc momcntom cqnn.tion in ils form (10.4) rcprosrnb n particular cnso of t,hc gcncrnl 7'11~
intt*g~.nl in cclrr. (10.7) rnll t ~ o wI)~'cy~llr~nl,t.tl
~)rovitl,vlIllr~lrt sl,rcsilic: c t r s r ~ ~ n ~ ~ l i o n
momentum eqnntion 01' bollntlary-laycr Lhcory ns given in eqn. (8.32), heing valitl is mntlc for / ( ? I ) . 1'11tti1ig
1
for the cnse of n llat plntc nt zcro ir~ciclcncc.1t.s pli~sicalmeaning expresses tllc fact
tfhatst.I~t!sl~earingst,rcss a t the wall is cqunl to thc loss of momentum in t l ~ obonntlary
I:lycr, because i n tho cxnrnple under consiclcrnlion t,hcre is no conl.ril~utionfrom t,llc
for short,, we have
prcss~lregmtliont.
'So far rqn. (10.4) int,roclucncl 110 ntlclit.iona1 :~ssnmpLions,as will be the case 2 a, 8
r u ( u W - u) d y = u m 2 ~ = urn2,
wit,l~t l ~ caj)proximnt8cmct,l~od,bul, 1)c:forc tliscrissing tlris matter it might be nscfrll v-0
to nolc x ~cI:LI.~oII I)C~WCCI\tonn(I S2, W I I ~ C I I is obtaincti from cqn. (10.4) by int,rotl~~cing or d, = a, 0 .
 204 X. ApproximnLc metl~otlslor stcatly equations
o. Application of tlir mo~nrnt~~rn
rqr~ationto Lllr flow pnst a flab lllr~lrnL mro incidrnrr 205
'I'hc value of the displacement thickness O1 from cqn. (8.30) will now also be calcn-
hc calc~ilatodif a specific assumption rcgardirlg the vclocit,y profilc is matln, i. r .
laktl as it will be rcqniretl later. Putting
if t,lte fitrtction I ( ? ? )from eqn. (10.6) i~ given explicitly.
1
W l ~ c nwrit.ing down a n expression for f ( q ) , it is ncrrssnry 1.0 sat,isljr cc.14nin
a2 =
0
J (1 - l) dtl, (10.10) 1)orlndary condit,ior~sfor ZL(IJ), i. c. for / ( ? I ) . At lcast tJlc no-slip c:onclit.io~~ LI -- 0
wc: oltl,n.in : ~ t .?/ -- 0 ant1 t11c condit.ion of continuity when passirlg frorn t,Itc 11ottnd:tr.y-layer
0, --a, d. (10.1 1) vl:loc*il.y,TI . (1 I I I , - 0, I I I I I S I ~ I)(\ ~111isli(vI.
l)rolilo l,o (.lit! ~mI,(:~)l.ilrl , I ~ I I I ~ I ~ (I- OI IVI . I ~
tlit,ions might inclr~tlct . 1 1 ~ contiriuity of 1.11~tangent ant1 crlrvi~lr~rc :IL t l ~ o11oirlL,
I?'l~rt,hrrniorr,thc visrous shearing stress a t the wall is given by wlicrc t,lic t w r ~sollltions arc joined. Tn otllrr words, wc may scrlr t o satisfy tha (:on-
ditions a~l./i)?l =: 0 and a Z i ~ / a ? / =
~ 0 a t IJ = (1. In the case of :t plate the col~tlit~iolt ,
v Urn v Um t,liat a2u/tJy2= 0 a t IJ = 0 is also of irnportancr, and it ran I)c scot1 frorn rclrl. (7.15)
e 8 -/'(0) =A - 5--, tl1a.t i t is satisficcl by the exact solution.

P1 = i ' ( 0 ) . Numerical c x a m p l c s :
Inf,rotlllcing thcsc vnlnrs into the niomcntllm equation (10.4), wc obt,ain Wc now propose to test the usefulness of the prccctlirlg npproxirnak mct.hotl
\viLh t,lte nit1 ofsevnrnl nxnmplcs. 7'11~q~~alit:y
of thc result tlcpcrltls t o a grcnt cxI.cn1,
0 1 1 t,hc assllrnpl,ior~whicl~ is matlc for thc volocity f~lrlot.ion (10.6). 111 ally c::~st%,
as already mcnt,ionecl, the funct,ion /(q) niust vanish nL 17 = 0 in view of t l ~ cno-
slip condit,ion a t the wall. Moroovcr, for large vnlrlcs of 17 we 1i111sthavc /('/) = 1.
Irit.cgrat,ion from 0 0 a t z -= 0 givrs t.11~first, r c s ~ ~ lfor
t . the approxi~nat~c
thcory Tf only a rough approximattion is tlcsirccl, tlie transition t o the valuc / ( q )= 1 may
in t.11~form occur with a tliscontinuous first, tlcrivativc. For a beltcr approxi~nat,ion,corrLinnit,y
in d j / d f l may bc postjulatcd. lndcpcntlcnt~lyof the pnrticular nssl~myt,ionfor l ( q )
the cruant,it,ies

I T r n c ~tllc sllearing strrss a t t.l~e\vall from cqn. (10.12) beronics

must Itc pnrc numI)crs. T h r y can bc easily calc~llatcdfrom cqns. (10.8) t o (10.17)

Finally, t.hc t . o t ~ ldrag on a plate \vrt.t.ctl on both sides mri be written a s

I
2 I1 -- 2 1) J totlx, i. c.
0
Fig. 10.2. Vclocity tlisLril,~~lion
i n t.hc boundary
layer on n flat plntr nt xrro i~icitlanrc!
:11i(1 fro111~ ( ~ I I s(10.1
. 1 ) anti (10.14) we obtain the tlisplaccmerit t,hicknrss (1) Lincrr armlrroxirnntiorl
(2) Cubic npl~rrrximntiouIrom Tablr 10.1

Tahlc 10.1 contains rcslllts of scvcral calcrtlat,ions wil.11 a.lt,cr~~ativc veloc:it,y-

A cornparison of t.11~approximaf,c oxpressions for the Itonndary-layer t6hickrlcss,
li)r t . 1 1 ~shcnring st.rcss a t t,hc wall, ant1 for dm.g with thc re~pcct~ivc
t.11~
formulae of
:lrc:ur:tt,c throry, rqns. (7.37), (7.31) nt~tl(7.:13), sliows t h a t Lhc use of tllc iritcgr:~I
rnorncr~l~um c q ~ l : ~ t i olcatls
n in all cn.ses t o a peufcctly correct fornlulation of the
equations. I n ot,hcr words, t,lrc dcpcrlrlenccof tliese'quantities on the current length, x ,
t.11~frcc-st,rexm vclocit,y, Urn,ant1 the coeffioiont of kinematic viscosity, v , is correctly
tlctll~c~etl.li'r~rt,l~crniore, the relation I)ct.~\~ecn momer~tunitllickncss and shearing
strrss nt, tlw wall givrn by rqn. (10 5) r a n also be dcducrd from t h e approximate
rnlr~llation,as is rnsily vcrifird. The still-unkrion,n coefficients a,, a, and P, can only
tlistribl~t.ionfltnctions. l'hc first two funct1ionsnrc illuslr:l.tod wit,ll tlrc aid of I'ig. 10.2.
cubic fr~nctiorlsatisfies i r ~atldition t,he conditions / ' ( I )
a fonrt11 clcgrcc polj~r~ornial
-
'I'hc linear fnnct,ion sat,isfics only t h e condit,iot~sf ( 0 ) -- 0 ant1 / ( I ) -= I , wllcrcns tllc
0 :~ntl/"(0) :x 0 ; finally,
can be made to snt,isfy the atldjt,ional contlit.ion /" (1) =-- 0 .
Thc sinc function satisfies the same I~oondarycoritfit,ions as the polynomial of
folirtli dtgrcc, except for / " ( I ) = 0. The polynoniials of third ant1 fourth tlrgree
ant1 t h e sine-fnnction lcatl t o values of shearing slrcss a t Itro wall which arc in
error by less than 3 per cent and may bc considrrcd ent,ircly atlcqllatc. 'Tllc valnrs
of the djsplaccmerit thickncss 6, show acccptablc agreement wit,h thc corrcsponditlg
cxect values.
 206 X. Approxi~nnternct.l~otlsfor steady equat,iona b. The approxir~intonirthod duo to TIN.von Jchrnlhn and K. Pol~lha~~ncn 207
Table 10.1. Rrsultn of the calcr~lationof the bo~lr~tlnry
layer for a flat plate at zero incidence forin is assumed for the vclocitty profile. This allows us t o calculate t h e momentum
baaed on a~nroximaLethcorv
tl~ickucss,t h e displace~nentthickness, a n d t h e shearing stress a t tllc wall. I n choosing
a suitablc velocity fi~rictioni t is necessary to talrc into account t h e same considera-
t,ions ns beforc, nnmnly thosc regarding tlie no-slip contlition a t t,l~cwall, a s wcll a s thc
r e c ~ i ~ i r c m r noft , ~cont.inc~it,yat, t . 1 1 ~point whcrc this sol~tt,ionis joinctl t o tthc poLcnt*i:~l
soI~~t,ion. I ~ ~ ~ r I . l ~ t : r ni t~1 oI,IIc
r r , ~)rt:sot~co
of IL pr(-ssItro gratlict~t~
t,hc fr~r~c:I,ion
n111st
a t l n ~ i tthe cxisbcricc of profilcs wit11 and w i t l ~ o r ~ a tpoint of it~llcxioncorrcspor~tlirtg
t.o t,hcir occrirrencc in regions of nsg,zt,ive or positive pressure gradients. In ortlcr
to kc in a posit,ion to cn.lcr~latctho point of scgamtion with tho aitl of t l ~ npproxin~at~c c
nletl~otlt,hc existence of a profile with zero gratlicnt a t the w:~11(au/ay),-,=0 must
also be possible. On thc ot.hcr l~anclf ~ ~ n c t i o npostulating s similarity of vclocity
profiles for various valrics of x m a y no lorigcr be prcscribctl. Followir~gI<. I'ol~l-
11a11scnwe asslime a polynomial of tlic fonrbh dcgrcc for the velocity function in
t.crn~sof t,hc dinicrrsionless tlist.ancc from t,hc wall 11 = ?//8(2), i. e. we put,

in t,I~erange 0 5 11 5 I , wl\crens for 31 > 1 we assumc simply tc/U = 1. W e further

d c ~ n a n d ,as before, t,Ilat the boundary laycr sho~ildjoin the potential flow a t the
finitc distance from tltc wall y = d(x).
I n ortlcr t o clct.crrninc t l ~ cfour frcc constants, a b, c, (1, wc s11all prcscribc t l ~ c
following four boundary conclit~ior~s
It is seen t , l ~ at.hc
t a p p r o s i n ~ a t cmct.liocl Icacls t o sa.t,isfnctory rcsult,~in t.11~case
of a flat platjc a t zero inciclcncc, and the extraordinary sinlp1icit.y of the calcnl:~t,ior~
is cluite rcnlarkable, compared with tlte complcxit,y of thc exact solution.

h. Tllc approxil~intcr~ietl~oil
~ I to TII. VOII KLr1n511 R I I C ~K. P ~ b l h n l ~ s e for
I C l l two- As seen from ccjns. (7.10) t o (7.12), t,hcy arc a11 sat,isficd by Lhe exact solution.
dirnct~siot~al
flow# Thcse requirrment.s are sufficient t.o tlctrrtriinc tlrc constants a, b, C, d, because
the no-slip condition a t the wall i s implicit in eqn. (10.19). The first condit,ion
We now propose to clcvelop the approximate mcthotl of t l ~ c1)reccding scct.ion whiclr is sat,isficrl 1 ) ~ ' all exact solntions, as seen from eqn. (7.15), is of part,ic~llar
so t , l ~ n tit can l)c apl~lictlto t . 1 1 ~ gcr~cralproblrm of a two-tlirncr~sional ho~rntlnry importance. I t dctrrtniucs t l ~ ccurvat,urc of t l ~ ovelocity profile near the wall atld
layer wit.11 prcssrlrc gradient. The tnct,l~odin its original for111was first ir~tlicatctlI)y
malrcs sure t h a t tlrcro is no point of inllcxion in the velocity profile i n regions of
1C. l'ohlhar~scn [Is]. The succeccling tlcscriptio~lof thc method is basetl on iLs tnorc dccrcnsing pressurc. I~nrtl~ertnore, regions of incrcasir~gprrssnrc contain poir~t~s of
motlcrn form as developcrl by tT. TIolstcir~and T . 13011len [GI. \Vc now cl~oose,a s inflexion a s required by the exact solution in Chap. VII., Figs. 7.3 and 7.4. Introdrrcirlg
before, a system of coortlinat.cs in whicll x c1enot.c~t,hc n.ro r n c a s ~ ~ r ealong d the wcttetl t l ~ ctlirner~sionlcssq~~arit,it,y
wall and whcrc y tlcnot,os t l ~ ctlisLancc fronl t,l~cwall. 'rhc I~asiccrlnat,ion of t l ~ ctno-
nrent,nm t,heory is ol)t,ninctl by int,cgrnt,ir~gtlic eqr~:~l,ior~ of motion wit#I~rcspcct tsoy
from t.hn wall atf ?/ -=- 0 t.0 a ccrt,i~.ir~ tlist,arica I L ( x ) w l ~ i e lis
~ assntn(:cI t,o t)e o~~tsicle
t.11~I)o~trtdnrylayer for all val~rosof x. With this r~otat~ior~ t,l~ctnomentl~mcqtiat.ior~
' wc o b t a i t ~t l ~ cfollowing cx1)rcssions for tlic cot:ffic:ic!t~l,sin cqn. ( 10. I D ) :
11a.s the form nlrcntly givcri in (8.32), namely
I

and hence for tlre vclocit,y profile:

'J'his e q ~ ~ a t ~ i o n g ian
v e sordinary diffrrrni ial rqnat,ion for t l ~ ch o ~ ~ n t l n r y - l athiclrncss,
~pr
a s was tire rase wil.11 t l ~ cflat plntc in l,lic prc,cctlir~gscc*lion,provitlccl t l ~ n at ~ n i t : ~ b l o
 208 X. Approxin~atemethods for sbady equations b. The npproxitnab rnethocl dl~oto Th. von Kkrnldn ant1 K. Pohll~nnsen 209
where in t,hc bolrrltlary layer, but tlris must be exrlntled in stcady flow. Since bel~indt h e
point of scp:lration thr, present cxlculalion bxsrd, xs i t is, on t,he boundary-layer
concept,, loses significance, the shape fnctor is secn t o be rcstrictrtl t o t h r rangr
- 12 1 A -k 12 , src Pig 10.4.
I t is easily recognized t h a t t h c velocit,y profiles cxprcssed in terms of g = y / b ( z )
constitute a onc-paran~ct~cr family of curves, t h e tlirnensior~lessquarrt,it,y A being J3cforc proceeding to cnlctllat,~the bountlary-layer tlliclrncss S(x) from t,hc
a shape factor. T h e tlin~cnsio~iless (l~l:ltlt,it,yA which may also IIC written a s mon~cnI,~lrrl it, is now ~nnvrniont,1.0 (:ILICIII~LI,O t.110 : ~ I ~ I I I I O ~ I ~ . ~ll~ivlcllrss,
I.llrorc:t~~, IIII

. PdU dv 6
S2, t h e tlisplaccmer~tthickness, (I1, nlltl t h e viscous sliearing strcss aL llrc wall, t,,,
with t,hc aitl of t h e approximate velocity profile in the same way a s was (lone for
t h e flat platfa a t zero incidence in the preceding section. 'J'hrrs we obtain froin cqns. .
ran be int,rri)rcted pllysically as tJhr ratio of prrssrlro forces t o viscous forces. I n (8.83) ant1 (8.31), t,oget,her with eqn. (10.22),
order t o obtain a quant-ity t o whirh real physical significance can be ascribed, it
would be nerrssary to rcplnce 6 in the above definition by a linear quantity which
itself posscsscs pl~ysicalsignificance, s ~ i e ha s the momerrtrim thickness. This will
be done Ialcr in this section.

Cornputitla the tlefinitc integrals with the aitl of the values of F ( q ) and (:(I/) front
ecln. (10.23), we Ilavt:

Silnilarly, t.11~
viscor~sstress a t t h e wall, is, ,given
to = ! ~ ( i l ~ ~ / a y ) , _ I)y

I n ortl(3r t.o tlct.c.rmii~rt,11(: s(.ill-r~nltnown s11n.p~factor A (z)nntl, Ilrncc?, t11c ft~n(:t~ion

I'lg. 10 3. Tho functior~sF(91) arld G(77)for
the velocity distribution ill Lhe boundary
layer fro111rqns. (10 22) and (10.23)
O ( x ) from cqn. (10.21), it. is now necessary t,o rcfrr t o tthe momcnlum cq11nt.ion(10.18).
h111lt.il)lyingby d , / v I J we can r c p r c ~ r r it
~ tin t,Ilc following tlitnc~lsionlcssfornr:
Fig. 10.4. Tho ot~c-parntncterfamily of vclo-
city profiles from cqrl. (10.22)

in which t,lrc bour~tlilry-la.ycrtl~iclrrlcss0 does not ap11r:~rcxplicil,ly; t.his circrlrnst,n~lrc

O I I S anrl ( : ( q )tlcfirlctl by nclrr. (1'0.23), which t,ogel,hcrcompose
'1'11e t\vo ~ I I I I C ~ ~ ~ F(77) i s 11oL surprising, brcausc it const,it.ul,csonly a fortuit.ous qrrnnt,it,y nssorintctl with
tthc vc1ocil.y-rlist,riI)r~t~ior~ fr~nct.iollgi~rnnin cqn. (10.22), a.rc serrl ploltc-d in Fig. 10.3. 1.11~ al>proxirnnto mct,llotl of cnl(:r~lnt,iorlant1 l ~ n sn o l):lrt.i('~~l:~r physi(::l,l I ~ ~ ( > ~ I I ~ I I F ( .
Vrloc:it.y profilrs for v:lrions vnluns of A arc shown in J'ig. 10.4. The profilc wllicll 0 1 1 t,hc of,llcr 11:~ntlcqn. (10.20) cont.nins t.ltc rcnlly inlporl,;~lli,l)llysicnl cl~~:rrl1~il,ic:s,
cr>rrcspontls t.n A -: 0 is ol)f.ainc?rl w1ic:n tllJ/tlx'= 0 , i. r . for i,hc I)o~~rlda.ry Iilycr viz. t l ~ etlisplncernenl; tl~iclrnrss,(Y1, t,llc rnomcnt.l~~n t,l~iclr~lrss, ii,, an([ t,hc sllrnring
wil.lr no prrssltrc g r : ~ t l i r ~(Ila.t, ~ t glnt,e nt zero i~vcitlrncc),or for a point wlrrre t.11~ slprcssa t t,hc w:~llto.i t is, t.llcrcfore, n a t , ~ ~ rto: ~11cgi11
l with tllc: C:IICIII:L~.~O~Iof a2 fronl
vrlocity or t,llc pot.rrrtinl flow pnssrs t,lllorlgl~ rnilliml~~n or a ~ n n , x i n l n ~Inn. this case t h e momcntum cqu:~t,ion(10.2G) nncl to drtll~ccd fro111it wit.11 t,l~cnit1 of ( : ~ I I(10.24). .
lhc: vclorit.y profilo l~ccotnrsitlenticnl \vit,I~the for~rtlt-drgrccpolyno~nixlusctl for t,llr. J'ollo\ving J l . ITolst,rin nntl T. Dohlcn [T,] i t is c o n v c r l i r ~ t~ot i ~ ~ t r o t l u for
c c this prtrposc
flal, plate in t,l~oprcrrtling snct.ion. 7'11e prolilo a t separation \vit.lr (itu/a!/),, -- 0 , a sccol~tlsha.~)c factor
tlhr st~agnat.ionpoint corresl~ol~ds -
i. e. nib11 (1 =- 0, occrrrs for /I == - 12. I t will he sl~o\vn1at)rr t,hxt 1.11~
t,o A 7.062. For A > 12 vnlnrs ?r/U > 1 occrlr
profile :LL
210 X . Approximate mcthod~for shady rqi~etions b. Thc npproxininto incl.hod duo to Th. von Khrmhn rind IC. I'ol\lhn\rscn 21 1
which is connortctl with t l ~ cmonlcr~t~tnl tl~icknessin tllc samc way as t.lle first This is a non-linear differential equation of the first ordcr for Z = S22/vas a function
sha)>cfactor, A , was connect,cd with t,l~cboundary-layer t,l~ickness,0, in cqn. (10.21). of the current lengt,h coordinate, x. The fact t h a t the form of t l ~ eftirlct,ion F ( I < )
Tn atltlit,ion we sl~a,llput is very complcx does not c o n ~ t i t ~ ~a ~real
t e difficully insofar a s t l ~ csol~~t,ionof
= ??" eqn. (10.36) is concernetl, because i t is a urliversal function, i. e. one which is indc-
v ' (10.28) prndcnt of the s11:tpe of tllc body and i t can, thcrcforc, he calculntctl onro and
so t h a t for all. Thc ftlncl~ionsI C ( A ) from e . q ~(10.30),
~ ns well na j2(I(), arltl F ( K )
from eqns. (10.31), (10.32), and (10.35), respectively, are given in Table 10.2. The
auxiliary function F ( R ) is represented grnphically in Fig. 10.6.
I t is sern from crjns. (10.21), (10.27) nntl (10.24) t l ~ n t(.l~cs l ~ a p cfa.ctors ,,I a t ~ t lli
satisfy Lhe universal relation Solution of the clillkre~~~ial n motnentum tl~ickneoe: Cor~ccrninqthc
e q ~ ~ a t i ofor
solution of eqn. (10.36) i t is possible t o make tlie following rcrnarlrs: 'rho calculat,ion
should begin a t tho st-ngnation point x = 0, whore U = 0 ant1 dU/& is finit,o and
different from zero, unless the body posscsses there a shnrp crisped cdgc with zcro
anglc. The initial slopc of tfhc integral curvo db/dx would bccome infinitc nt the
upstream stagnation point were i t not for thc fact t h a t F ( I i ) vanishes there uimul-
tancously. Thus the func.tion F ( K ) is seen t,o hnvc n physicnlly menningf111 init.ia1
value. The zero of P(I0 o c c ~ ~for w vnlucs of A for which t l ~ escconct bri~cketcclterm
on t l ~ right-hand
c side of eqn. (10.35) vanishes. Thus

F(lr') = 0 for K = K O = 0-0770, or for A = A , = 7.082

for the saltc of brevity, a.ritl sul)st,itutji~lg,I< ant1 Z from eqns. (10.27) ancl (10.28)
rcspecl,ively, t.ogothor wil,l~f l ( K ) ar~tl/ , ( I ( ) from erlns. (10.31) and (10.32), we llence A = 7.052 is the value of the first shape factor a t the stngnation point,
obtain, further, from Ll~rm o m c r ~ t u ncqr~:~t,iolt
~ (10.20) togcthcr wiCh a2 6,'/v = 4 cIX/tlx, ss already mentioned. I n this manner the initial slope of the intcgrnl curve a t tlie
the rol;~t,iorl upstream sta.gnation point is seen to be of the indeterminate form 8 (singular point
of eqn. (10.36)), but its value can be easily comp~itcdby a simple process of going
over to the litnit. U1e obtain

2 / 2 ( 1 < ) - 4 TC -- 2 I( /'(I<) - F ( K ) ( I0 :14)

or, \vrit,tcn OIII, f ~ ~ l l ~ , IIcre the subscript 0 refers to the upstream st,agnat*ionpoint. With these initial
valncs t l ~ equation
e call bc convcllicntly inlcgratcd, c. g. b y the method of isoclincs.
Igigr~rc 10.5 illustrates the use of this method s s applied t o n symmct.rical
aerofoil a t zero incidence. Thc calculntion begins with the vnlncs A,, = 7.052 and
KO = 0.0770 a t the leading-edge ~ t ~ a g t ~ a t ipoint,
on and becorncs completetl ~rpon
\vllrrt: 1.110 rcxl:~.l,ion
I)c~l.\vcc.t~i l :1.11(1 I<was givc.11i l l (v111. (10.:10). \\'it,l~a.Il tl~csca.l,l)rc- reaching the point of separation with A = - 12 and Ii = -- 0.1567. Tllc velocity
vint.ions nnrl s ~ ~ l ~ s l . i l ~t01o ~ ~ IlI I~O IiToI C~I I~~ . sI I I I Ir c l ~ ~ a l , (IO.:3:1)
i o ~ ~ can I)? r~\vril,l.cn funct,ion U(x), together with its first d c r i ~ a t ~ i vclU/dx,
e is given by the potcnt.inl-
in (,It(! vcry c~o~~tlc~rscltl(i1r.111 flow solution. Thc value of d2U/dx2 is only rcquired n t t l ~ cIcading cdgc for t11c
initmidslopc of t.he int,cgm.l curve.
The procedure usctl in the c o m p ~ ~ t a t ~ imay
o n be sumr?arizcd as f o l l ~ w s :
I . The potcr~t,ialflow functior~ U (x), togcthor wit11 i1.s derivative dU/dx, are given
in terms of the arc length.
t ,,
'I'II(* qt~nutilyIf - (TI/(?, is also rrg:tnlrtl :IS n shn.1)~ r:~rtor:it. is o f p:i~.l.ic~rlnritnporta~~ce for
2. Jntcgration of cqn. (10.36) gives Z ( x ) and tlrc sccond shape factor K ( x ) so that
Lho'li~rl~i~l~:t~t. ~ ~ c/. (!II:II).
J ) O I I I I I I : L1:1yr~, S X 11. I t 3 V:LIIIC (;IT liitnita:~.r 11011:id:~rylilyrrs rnllgrs
frotn n l ) r ) ~ ~2.3
t . (r) 3-5,c f . 'l':~l)lo 10.2; i t , nsstunm val~~ca ft-o~rlnl~ot~t 1.3 to 2.2 in tllc rnso of the momcntum t,llickncss a,(x) can bc cnlcnlatcd from equation (10.27), and
t,~~rl)i~lrr~t I)ou~lrlnr.y I:iyrrs. A 1 11tf: point of I.mrlnit,ion I/,? i~lcrrnsrsco~~sirl~:ral~ly, r f . Fig. 10.6. n tsrparntion may bo found subscq~icntdy.
t,he posit,ion of the ~ ~ o iof
212 X. A1q)roxinintc r~ictl~orlg
for stearly equations b. The npproxitnste met,hod clrtc to 'rh. vori Kbrmhn nntl I<. Pol~lhnusen 213
'bblr 10.2. 1211xili:iryfr~nrtio~in
for thr npproximntr rnlr~~letiorl
of lnlliitier bor~ndnryI:~yera, R. Tho variat.ion of tho first shape fact,or A ( % )is o ~ ~ t d i n from
r r ~ cqn. ( 1 0 . ~ 0 )anti
nftrr HoI~tcitinnrl l%ohlrti151 T a l ~ l c10.2.
t,liiclrncss, O , , anti thc s11o:~ringstress a t tile wall, to,are folrnd
4. 'I'ho tlis~)lacer~~cnt
from rqn. (10.31) ant1 (10.32), respectively, togctllcr wit11 t l ~ cvalucs in 'I'atjlc 10.2.
5. Tlic: I~or~titlary-hycr
tlIti(~k~~css
O(Z) I'ollows rrorn ctlw (10.21).
(i. I'inally, I,lle vclotait.y tlisLrib~~L~io~i
is for~rltlfrom ccln. (10.22).

I'ig. 10.5. 15xnn1ploof 1 . 1 1 ~cnlct~lat~ion of the ho1111-

dary layer l)y t,hr npr)roxi~~lt~t,e ~ i ~ c t , h oIIIIC
d t,n
~ ' ~ I I I I I : ~~iri(l
I I ~ C1 lIoIl s l ~ i ~ i 1 1 - l ~ r ~ [8j.
l i l ~ ~SoIi~t.ir)t~
i1 of
l.l~ccliKorenl.inl cqri:ition (LO.:!(;) by the ~~ict,l~otls of
isac:lincs for I.hc uytit~~~ct.rirnl %Ittiltovsltii tiorofoil
.I 015 nl. nti i~~cirlrticc
angle a 0. See also Fig. 10.12
1

$ - point or separation

A. Walz [26] ~ o i n t r tout

l t h a t cqn. (10.36) can I)r rrtlrt~c~tl
l,o n simplc qu:~tlr:~trtrc
by tllc it~troductior~ of :I frtrtl~crapproxirr~al~iot~ witltont, any xpprt:~i:~l~lo loss of
nc.c.rtrnc.y. TTc forll~tlt h a t tllo function F ' ( K ) ran be approxirnatctl clrrite closely by
llir str:~iglttline
F ( K ) - - a - 0 I{.

\Vil,l~rr -::0.470 ~irltlb 6 t,llc aj~l~roxirnatiotr

-; is pnrl,ic:r~l:lrly c:losc Octwccti the
sl.:~gt~:l(.ir)~~
point ntltl t,lir l>oint; or rnnximrrrn vcloc.il,y (I'ig. I0.fi) ,111 I.liix oinrttior
cqn. ( 10.36) rctlncrs Lo

or, subst.itllt,ing the origi~lalvalues for Z and X,

This differential equation for U 8,2/v earl bc integrated exl~licitlyt o

*
 214 X. Aliproxi~nntomothotls for atcady eqnotiona c. Compnrison betwcct~tho upproximutc and oxnct uolrlt.ion~ 215
or, u ~ i n gt h e ~lumericalvalues for a and b given earlier: Tablo 10 3. Compnri~onof exnrt nnd npproximnte vnlr~rsof Lhr honndury-layer pnrurnctors for
tho caso of ti~m-dimen~ionnlstngnntion /lout

I'hus t,llc solution of eqn. (10.36) is secn t o redrlre l o a simple q r ~ a d r a t r t rAn

~ . anal-
ogous q~tadrntllrcwill k)r I I S C ~in C!hnp. X X I l for t h r ~ o l u t ~ i oof
n t.l~crql~ntionsof
turbulent. flow.

In t l ~ capproxirnnt,~~ncthotlwc havc Z0 = R,/U1, and from cqn. ( 1 0 3 ) i t follows

- -. -
t h a t t11r momentum tl~icknessis given by (T2 iVfi
= dif; = i0.0770 = 0.278 .
I t is seen from cqn. (10 81) t - f ~ a tile
t displacement thickness is approximatctl by
6, JiF/v= /,(~i,,) 1/ii,= 0.641 anti cqn. (10.32)givest0/p u - 47~'
=/ z ( K o ) l i R ,
0 :132/0.278 = 1.1!) for tllc sllcnring slrcss a t the wall. 'rile ngrccnlcr~l bclwccn
-
the approxirnnte ant1 exact values i s here also complet,cly satisfactory.

3. Flow past n circulnr cylinder. A comparison of t h e result of t h e approximate

Fig. 10.6. Tho ar~xilinryfunct,ion F ( K ) for the col- calculation for a circular cylindcr wit11 t h e fiolut,ion due t o Ilicmcnz (See. I X c )
cr~lstionof lnminnr bor~ndnrylnyer by thc method was given by I<. l'ohll~ar~scn[ I s ] in his original pnpcr. IIe 11sc:tl IIicrnenz's cxperirnen-
of JIolntcin and Bohlen [5] t,al pressure distribution function for the circular cylinder and compared the results
( I ) train* e q n . (10.35): wit.h Hiemcnz's solut,ion which takes ir1t.o account only the first thrcc t.crrns of t.lle
(2) lincar nlrproximntioll F ( R ) -- 0 - 4 7 0 - 6 K ; I3lnsius scrips. Ilicn~cnz's solution irltlicnlcs tltat scpnral.ion occurs a t an :~nplc
S = a1,agnntion point:
lf -- vclori1.y milximum
4 -=R2.0°, wllcrcns l'ohlhnuscn's npproxirnntc valnc was 4 = 81.5O. IIowcvcr, t,he
-0 R -am -OM-am m 602 o am onc m om a ~ ~ p r o x i r n n tmct,l~otl
c lrntls t.o vxlucs for tho 1)ountl:~ry-lnycrt.l~ic:kncss rlcilr t,11(:
K imint, of scpnrnt.ior1 wllic:h arc consitlcrnl)ly largcr ~.II:III 1,Itc vi~lucsnl)t~:tinr(l by
Ilicmcnz. On t.ltc ot,llcr hand i l must be rcalixcd t h a t sr~clln comparison is not
t*or~cl~~sivc, l)c:mr~sca 15lnsir1s scrics corlt,nir~irlgonly thrcc t.crn~sis in it,sclf inntlrql~atc
c. C o n ~ p n r i ~ obetween
n tile npproximnte nnct cxnct solutions t.o rc~)rc~scrll, t l ~ csolution near t,llc poi111of s~:p:~r:ttion.
\V,: now propose t,o give n comp:trison 1)clwccn a scl of cnlcr~lat.ionsol)t.:iinc:tl
I. Flat plnte a t zero incidence. It is easy t o see frorn cqn. (10.22) t h a t the \vit,l~t,llc aitl of Pohll~nuscn'sapproximale moll~ocland rlumcrical calcnlat~ionswhich
P o l i l l ~ a ~ ~ ni~pproximnt~ion
cn becomes cquivalont tjo 1Sxn.mplc3 in '1;nblc 10.1 for t h e
Ilnve bcen ~>crlormntlwill1 great accnracy on n. tligilal colnpr\lcr ~~rograrnrncrl to
case of a fI:~t. plnt,c a t zero inc:idcncc. l'his ease can also t;c obtainctl directly from
solve tlle clifferential equations directly. The e x a ~ n p l ecl~oscnfor comparison is
eqn. (10.36), whcre I l ( x ) = U,, U' = 0 and hence R = A = 0, so t11at e j n . (10.36)
ttlat of a circular cylinder in the presence of a free-st re an^ velocity cornpl~tetlfrom
givcs dZ/tlz = F(O)/U, = 0.4698/U,. Taking into accor~ntt,hnt Z = 0 a t s = 0
pot,cnttial thcory, t h e boundary-layer vclocit,ics having bccn cal~ulat~ctl wilfll a
it follows t h a t R ~ 0 . 4 6 9 8z/fJ,, or a, - 0.686 I/l.&/ii, in ngrccmcnt wi0h T n l ~ l c 13lrtsin~~ c r i c s~ o n t ~ n i n i nt.crtns
g I I t~o x l l (SOC.IXC). This ~ o m j ) n r i s o r~~l t o w st.l~~tt,
10.1. l'ablc 10.1 contains ox.zct and n p p r o ~ i m n t ~values
c of the boundary-lnycr pnrn- tlle power-series method givcs very high accumcy up to tile irnmc4atc virinily
rnct.crs for tltc purpose of comparison. Tt is sccn tb'nt agreement is very satisfactory. of t h e point of separation, However, a t t h e point of separation itself, t h e series
broken dff a t t11q term zll becomes inaccurate. I'ignre 10.7 shows a plot of tfhc
2. T w o - c l i n ~ c n ~ i o ~stngnntion
~al flow. The c x a r t solntion of 1,he problem of l)oundary-layer paramctcrs, clisplaccmdnt thicknrss, dl, inomenturn thickness, a,, and
t wo:(lirnrnsionnl stngnnt.ior~ flo\rr for wllirll U (r) = U' . r , was given irl Sec. V 9. wall shearing stress, to.It is secn t h a t t h e reccrit numerical calculations performed by
r
Ilte exnrt vnlnrs of displncrmcnt ll~iclzness,momentum tfl~ickncssand shcnring
7

W. Schoenauer [20] show somewhat dimerent trends in t,lle vicinit,y of the point of
strrss at, tho wall, calrulnlcd wit11 ttllc nit1 of t h a t theory, arc given ill 'I'a1,lc 10 3. urparat,ion as fnr a s the variations in the displaccmcnt and n ~ o m c n t l ~tl~ickncsscs m ns
216 X. Approximato n~ethodsfor steady eqllations d. Further examplcs 217

well a s in the shearing stress are concerned, a n d predict a n earlier point of separation.
W. Schocnauer found t h a t thc separation angle is a t 4 8 = 104.5Oas = 109.5'
ol)t.ainctl with t11cnit1 of t,he l'ohll~auscn npproximalior~and r$s = 108.8O sl~ggcstedby
tllc series cxp:ansion cont,inuctl up to the term z". A cornparison between t,hc v c l ~ c i t ~ y
tli~t~ribut~ions, IGg. 10.8, leacls t,o t h e conclusion t,llat there cxist,s almost perfect
n g r ~ c ~ n r rhr1,wcrn
~l. t,Iln exn.ct solr~t.ionand t.hc npproxin~at~ion in t.11c m.ngc of angles
0 < 4 < !)On,t,lrat. is in t , l ~ crange of acc:clcrat,ctl c*xt.crnal flow. I<y conl,~.asl,,d o w n -
st,rearn of the pressure rninirnltm the discrepancies increase very fast on approaching
the point, of separation.
No gcncral critmion regartling t,hc admissibility of t,he approximation has
been givcn so far, nntl it scems t,l~at,i t will bc difficult t o obtain. Judging by the
ahovc a r ~ tsimilar
l calcnlations a s well a s by cxpcrimental results it appetlrs, I~owevcr,
t o he rcnsonnbly ccrtair~ t , l ~ a tI'ol~lha~lscn'sapproximate method lcatls t o vcry
snt,isfactory rcsnlt,s in regions of accclcrat,ctl potent,ial flow. Similarly, it may 110
st,at,ed t,hat in regions of retarded potjent1inlflow t h e approximate solut,ion becomes
somc\vl~nt,innccuratc a s the point of ~cpn.rat,ioni n approacl~c-(1.Thc posit.ior~of t.11~
poil~tof srparal.ion cnn only be calculnt.rtl with 11 col~l.:lil~ tlrgl.re of ~ ~ n c r r l , : ~ i l ~ t . ~ ,
parti :~ilarlyin cases whon the point of separation is sitr~atctf con~parativclyfar
l)cl~intltJrr point of mir~i~nrrm prcssurct:.
I.II:LI~ I,IIC v(-lo(:il,y 1)rofiIt~s~ : o i ~ s l i l ~n ~ot~c.~):~r:~t~r(:l,(:r
JCront l , l ~ rass1111i1)I,in11 ~l~o
frunily it ncccssnrily follows t l ~ a t , l ~ cpoint of' separation is tlct,erminccl solely by
t,l~cvalue of t,l~isparamct,cr. I t was, I~owever,shown by I. Tani [22] t,11att l ~ cposition
of t l ~ cp o i l ~ tof scpamtion clcpcncls, in adtlition, on t l ~ cpressure gradinnt of t l ~ c'
es1,crnnl flow.
d. Further exnrnples
111t,l~issct:t,ion we propose t.o sumnrari7.c. some oxampl(:s illust.rat,ing {.Ire r : ~ l ( ? ~ ~ l n -
tiot~of 1)onnd:~rylayers by 1 . h ~ prccctling ap~~roxitr1a1.e
mct,llotls \vl~ich wcrc: first
give11 i t 1 a pn.pcr by 11. Schlicht,ing ant1 A. Ulrich II!)]. 'l'l~cfirst set of cxarnplcs is
cot~ccrnctl wit,l~elliptical cylirltlcrs ~vhose1nn.jor axes arc pn.rnllcl t,o t l ~ ctlircct,ion
of 1 . 1 1 ~s1,rcam. The rat,io of the major t,o t.hc minor axis of tho cylintlcrs ri~ngcd
ovrr all) = 1, 2, 4, 8 and the potcnt,inl vclocit,y-clistril)r~tiorlfllnct,ions arc scen plot.ted
in Figs. 10.9. 'l'he valnc of Llle vc1ocit.y rnaximcl~nis (J,,/U = 1 bla. 'rho charitc- +-
terist.ic parameter of the bonntlary layer, namely the tlisplnccmer~ttl~iclrness,d l ,
tlw S I I R J I ~fact,or, A , ant1 t.l~eshearing slrcss a t tllc w:~ll,T,,, are s r o l plot,l,ctl in
Pig. 10.10. The results for t J ~ eflat plate at, zero iriritlencc havc I~eenplottccl in thc
same figure for t,he pnrpow of colnpnrison. I n tlie case of a c:irc:ula.r cylinder separa-
tion occurs a t 211' = 0.G09, i . c. at, 4 = 109.6O, as already ~ncnt~ionetl, (2 1' = c:ircl~rn-
frrrncr) ant1 moves tlo\\;nst.rcam a s t8hc c1lij)sc bccomcs rnorc slrl~dcr.l'hc j)osit.ion
of 1 . 1 1 ~poitit of separation is marked in the vclocit,y profile plots in f i g . 10.!). The
rrsl~ltsfor nn ellipse of cr/b = 8 cliKcr only very lit,t,le from thosc fc)r a flat. pl:~t,c
nt zrro innitlencc. Fig. 10.1 1 co~lt:ains vclocit,y profiles for the boontlnry 1a.yer on
an cllipt,ic cylintler with a/h = 4. Calculat,ions concerning elliptsic cylintlers whose
minor axes are parallel t.o t , l ~ edirection of thc stream as wcll as ellipsoids of re-
roll~t.ionmay 1)c found in a paper by J . I'rclscl~ 117J.

- - -. . .--

t I'or 1%.S ~ ~ I I I ~ 1.21

c x a n ~ l ~ l o(:.: I : L1 ~i~rnsurt.cl
I I ~ . ~ 1.11~1 ~ ) < ~ s i lo,fi o1111:
~ ~I I I I ~ I I ~of, I I I ~ I I ~ I I I I I I I~I I I . I . ~ S I I ~ ( .
011 a11 t~lli~~Lir:~l
t!yli~~<lcr
01slc~~tlcr~~rss
axis. Ile fotll~rlthat it was located : ~x/b
A mlculation 1)ased on J'ollll~a~~scr~'s
CL : 1) - = 2,!)li : I ~11:icctl
i11 L: 8l,rt!:~111p:u-:illt~l L o l l l c 111:ijvv
t = 1.3 aritl tllat separation took place at x/h
apl~roxil~~ntiotl sllowetl vnry good a~rcrrncr~t
- 1.!)9.
with
~~~rnsrtrrr~~cnt,s for vclocit.y profilrs I I 1.0 ~ lllc 1)oinL of n~inilni~tn r~rrssurcIIIIL tt prrtlict.c:tl $10
r/h -
stbpnr:~tiorl. 1). hlrlcsy~~ [I31 tlnvrlopccl n rr~rlllodof ror~~l)~rl.nt.ic,~~
2.02 li)r thr p o i ~ ~ oft srl~nrt~tion in tllr n l ~ n v coxn~~~l~lr:.
H . \ I ~ ( . ~ II C : L ~ R to a. v:llll(' of
111 l ~ i nt~lc.(.llo<l,
layrr cqu:~t.ionsarc? Lrxnsforlnwl illto orcli11:rry tliKcrr:nti:~l eqliat.ior~?lw l ~ i o l:~rc
t.lrc: I~olr~~cl:try.
~ rc.l:it.c.cl Lo
F:~lknr>r :rntl Skitl~'~ cqllnt.iot~(9.8).
: ll(,rc it I I I :I ~N ~1vorl~11I I I C I I ~ ~ O I I l11:rt
~ I I ~ r~pproxi111:tIc i~~Lrgrail,io~~ l).y tho IIII!LIIO~I of i ~ o ( ~ l i ~ ~ r x
i l l ro~~ncxiol~ wil.11 I'ohll~a~rsrn'n :ipproxill~atior~ fails in t l ~ errgiorl of large 1)rossIIrc gr:idic~~trq
for t.ho CRRB of n rirc:rllnr cylinclrr lutiol~wit11 0l1c exact nolrtlio~~
\slriclr ocrur for A > 12 (1i > O.O!IR), because the plot o f X agnillst A t.~trnsat, tllis poi111
d, -- f l i s p l n r r n ~ r n lIltirknrqs: for the rase of a cirrlrlnr cy- (Table 10.2) and cantlot, tl~rmlore,be contirlucd I)oyond K -- 0.0!15. Moreover. for /1 > 12
d. = n l n n ~ r s l ~1I~i1.knr.s~:
~~n lirl~lrr;velority profiles the vrloriby prnfilcs bcco~nor~nnrrcpt,al)le as t.hry rolltniri poil~t,~ for \ v l ~ i c tli~/ I I -.- I (Fig. 10.4).
r. -- sl,esrllag atrvria a1 tlur wall 'I'l~rarcliffieillt.ira arc obviatcd wllcr~cqli. (10.37) is IIRO(I.
 218 X. Approximntn rnet~liodsfor shndy eqr~ntions d. Further oxnrnplea 219
-4 F ~ ~ r t hexample
er is shown in Fig. 10.12 which contains resl~ltsfor a symmetrical A review of the very numerous approxi~natemethods which have been pro-
Zhukovskii nerofoil a t zero incidence. The point of minimum pressure is a t x/l' = posed so far is contained in the collective book entil.lod "Laminar Boundary Layers"
= 0.141 which is very far forward on t h e aerofoil. The pressure rise a t the rear is
. nnd edited by 1,. Rosenhcad.
1181
-
very gradual so that, the point of srpamt,ion lies very far downstream of the point
of minimum pressure, i. e. zll' = 0.470. Since the Zl~ukovskiiaerofoil has a cusped I n a n effort t o improve t,he accuracy of the calculation of laminar boundary
trailing etlgc t,hc potential velocity a t tho trailing edge is djffcrent from zero. For layers, many authors replaced the preceding single-pnrameter methods by oric em-
details of adtlitional systcn~nticbountlary-layer calculations concerning nn extensive ploying tifio pramelers. This is acl~icvcdwhon t,llc encrgy intcgrnl cc11rnt.ion is sntis-
serics of Zhultovskii aerofoils with different thickness and camber ratios and a t f e d in addition t o the m ~ m e n t ~ uintcgrnl
n~ equation (ace e. g. I<. Wicghartlt. [27]).
cliffrrcnt angles of incitlcnre, refcrcnce may he made t o a p i p e r by K. nussmnnl~ Two-parameter methods have been extensively devclopcd by I,. G. Loit.sinr~slriiand
and A. Ulrich [2]. his coworkers [8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 141. Since such two-1)nrnrncter rncthotls n1.c vcry
co~nplex,n n ~ luincc t,l~cirnccrlrncy i~tliffic:tllt 10 nssc.ss, 1norlrl.n n u t i i o r ~f~cvo11re.t~rrc.1
numn,erical methods cmployetl in conj~lnct,iorlwith largc clocl.ronic con1put.crs; tlrcir
principles have bcen outlined in Sec. I X i .

Pig. 10.0. Potcntinl velocity

tlistrihution function on ellip-
tical cylinders of slenderness
o/h = 1, 2, 4, 8, tlic direction
of t.he stream being parallel to
t.110 major axis
R ;-; position or point o f srpnrrtion

Fig. 10.11. J'elorily profiles in t,l~cIniiiinnr Fig. 10.12. J'rlority profilrs i t 1 t,hc Inniinnr
Fig. 10.10. Ilrsillls of Llic cnlcr~Int,ionof hor~ndnryIn.yers on ollipt,ic,zl cylinders of ~lcndorncss
n/b t 1 , 2, 4, 8, Jcig. 10.9. n) displnrrrnnnt, t,liickrirsa of tlre bonntlary layer, h) shape factor
r) cliraring st.rr%qnt t11c~ ' n l f2. 1' -- rircllllifcrr~~~~c
of bht: rllipsc; n/b -. 1 rircr~lnrcylintlcr; n/b = m
1lat.io of axes a,/() -
borttldary lnvor on all ellipt,irnl cyli~~cier.
4
1)ouiitlary I:tycl. and pot.entinl velocity f~lnc-
t,ion for a Zl~ultovskiincrofoil .I 015 of t11ic.k-
nrss ratio dl1 = 0.15 a t an angle of inrirlrl~re
flnt plate u=0
 220 X. Approximate n~etlroelsfor steady equations e. 1,nminar flow wii.lr ndveruc presnure gmtlient; sepnrclt.ion 22 1

e. 1,nmittnr flow wit11 nclverse pressure grndiertt ; sepnrntiotl docs occnr. 12 nu~ncricnlexample will serve to make tlrin idra clonr. Anot.l~er~~osnibility cor~sisln
in ontrolling tlrc bon~rtlnry Iayer, e. g. by s~rctionor by injecting fl~ritlinto it,, or by adclit,ion
Flows with :~tlvcrsopressure gr:itlic~ri.s (rct,arricd Ilo\vs) arc of great practical inrportancc. of -11 ac:rofoil a t a poit~twl~creils presence favoural)ly afictn t.lrc I ~ o l ~ r ~ d alayer
r y in critical
111I.l~inconncxiolr it is always tlcsire~lto avoid ncpcr.m/ion frorn t,l~ewall, I)ccanse thin plrcnomeno~r regions. Thrsc ~nct,lrodswill l)c discrlsscd rnorc ft~llyin Chap. XI\'.
in associatccl wit,h large energy IO~RCS. '1111~ flow a l ) o ~ an~ t nrrofoil in a case in point,. Owing b I'olloaing 1,. 1'randt.l [I61 we sllall slrow I~owit is 11ossil)lc1.0 cni.i~nnLct.11~pcrn~issil~lc
t.lrc hcL that on the n~rcl,io~~side the prewrirc rnust, increase Lo it# free-st re an^ v a l ~ a~ tcthe txailing rl~ngnil~~tlc of t l ~ c:~dverscprcss~lregrn.<lic~~t for ~vl~iclr scj)arat.ion is jnst. ~)rcvctrI.crl.'I'llc a r g ~ ~ n ~ r n t
edge, tlrc flow is always likely 1.0 sc:parxtc. 'l'l~c flow in a divrrgcnt channcl (tlin'~~scr) nfTords will l ~ l):~.sccle O I I ~,III: von I ~ & ~ ~ I I ~ ~ I I - I ' ~ I I I I I : L a
I I~~ ~>I ~~ ~ r o x i ~clisc~~ssc~cl : ~ . ll,\vill I ) ( : : I X M I I I I ~ ~ ~ ~
~ ~ : ~ t i~oItI~S CXI).
ar~ollrcrcxan~plc.'l'l~c objcc:l, in r~singthis sl~n.pc:of cl~n~~nr:l is lo convcrt. kincl.ic cnrrgy i11t.o l l ~ : i t .t l ~ c : I ) O I I I I < ~ l: ~i ~i ~y ~
in ~i~c.lc~l 11[1r)t1 I1.y t.11~: ~ I I . ( . s s I I ~ ~ (lislril~~~(,ion
: cIvtc.r~ni~~c~~l I),y t110 11.(.1..51 ~I.:IIII
prr:ssurc energy, and if I.lre angle of tlivcrgrnco is ~ n : ~ dt,oo
c large, sc*pamt,ionm:ry ooc~tr. poLe~111i:rlflo\v 111) 1.0 :L point, \vl~i(:l~ lirs w r y clclsr in t,lie poi111,of scp:~ration,sue11 as 1)1)i11t~ 0 in
Fig. 10.14. St:rr.Ling rvith i.l~ispoint, it will I)c a s s ~ ~ ~ nthat c d i.hc prcssllrc gratlic~~t, is srtoh that t.ho
l'hcoret,ic~:ll i~~vest.igat.ions
on tlre I)ol~nvio~~r of tllc I)o~~r~tlary
Ia.ycr in tlrc virini1.y of 0l1c s11:1l)cof I I I C vnloc.it,,y profiln T O I I I : I ~ I I R I I I I C I I R I I ~ ~ .~)roccc~ling ~~ eIow~~sLre:~n~, or trIl:~t,,in ol,I~c~r \r.~rcIs,
point of nrparntion lravr been carried out, hy S. Goldsbir~pi] nnrl 13. S. Strni.ford 121 :rl. C / . talm I l ~ ofilial": f:~r:l~)r A rc:~r~ainn rol)st:~nt.;fiincc aL sc:lr:~ral.ion/I .- - 12 a val~rcof A - 10 will
rcvirw I)y S. N. I3rown a ~ v l1C. S b u ~ n r t n oI~I).
-7
~ be cl~osc.n. As sccn from 'I':tl)le 10.2 Llris lcadn t.o a clcfinite val~lefor t l ~ csecond slrnpr factor,
Ol~scrvat.ionsslro~vt l ~ n ta Inl~~innr I)or~nclnryI:~gorwhir11 separates fronr a n.nll frcqr~ent,lg narncly I( = - 0.1:169, so L11:lt Il'(K) = 1.Tr23. Using tl~csev a l ~ ~ it r s is sccrr from rqns. (10.28)
I)reolnes rrnt.t.:~rlrc~cl
lo it, Iraving first h r r o ~ ~ t~~c~. r l ) r ~ l cThin
l ~ i . .Irads t,o tllo crent,iorl of a I a ~ n i ~ l n r and (10.29) that prevention of separation i~npliesthe following relationsliip between tlrc vclocity
separ:~t,ionb~lbl)le.Fig. 10.13b, a.l~iclrpl:~ccnit.sclf bet,\vrerr t11e sepnratio~rpoint S I L I I ~1,110 ~ rcaLt,- U(z) of potential flow and the ~nomentumthickness d,(x):
ncl~tnent[joint, R. 'l'l~o flr~itlin t l ~ ebul)l)le 1)erfornrs a rircrllntory rotio ion. Accortling t,o 1%. B,' =z= -0.1369
lO.I:%a,tlre prrssllre tlistrib~lt.io~r nlong the wall can be represrrrtctl, in siml)lified fashion, by f i -
csonstant,vnlne brt,ivcen thr point of separatiotr S ant1 point I' of largest tl~ickncnsfollowed by a v -V ( x ) .
litrcl~rinrroasc fro~rrI' t.o the point of reattaclrment n.
Phenomena of this kind have been de- I t follows that dZ/dz = 0,1369 U"/U'2, or
neril)cd in tlcl.ail l)g I. 'rani 12:IJ. More rccetrt experirnerrtal investigations into t l ~ ennturc of
I:u~rinnrscpnrat.ion I)III)I)I~~s I I : L V ~ I ) ~ C I I pcrfort~~rtl
by A. 1). Y o ~ ~ nrLg nl. [2R] as \r.ell an hy hf.
Gnstcr 1481 and J. L. Van Ingen [GI. I'or theoret,ical contribr~tionssee [Zb, 3a, 5~1.3.
wlrere
It, \rill now bn shon~nwil,l~the air1 of srvrr:~Icxntnple:~that, a laminar flow can orrly support
very sln:~llaelvrrsc: Itrcssorr g r a d i n ~ ~wiI.lro~~t t.~ srl):lr;;t.io~~.Arlversc pressure gradients wlriclr exist
in practiral npl)lic~xt.ionswonl(l, tlrorcrorc, nl~nontnln.ays Ic:ul Lo separation if the flow were
laminar. 'l'lrc: circ~~msl.atrcc that real flows c:ln s ~ ~ p p oconsitlcr:~l)le
rt rates of pressure increase
in n large nr~tnl)crof rnsrs \vitl~outscpnr:~t,ionis elllo t.o t l ~ ef:lct that tlrc flow is mostly turbulent.
I t \ \ r i l l I)c srrn later t.11a.t.t.l~rl)~llcnL flows arc r:~pal)leof overe~otningn11lc11larger adverse pressure
gr:~rlicnts\vil.l)o~~t scl>:rral.ion. 'l'lrc Iwst known rx:~tnl)lcsinclutlc tlie cases of flow past circular
e;yIi~~~Ic:rs and SI)II~.I-OS, \\.IIc:II srp:~rat,ionocr:rtrs ~nr~c:lr f~~rt.lrcrr~psLrcamin laminar tiran in tur-
l)~~lent. 11o\\r. 111 pri~cti(:t:I V I I ~ I Ia ~ l v ~ r ~s c~ ~ S S gr:~dicnf.s
I I ~ C exist, the lIo\v is aln~ostaI\\'ays tnrbulent
l)c~cn~~sc, in atlelilion, f l ~ ocxist,c:nre: of an nrlvorsc prrssIIre gmclient favours the transit,ion from
la~ninar1.0 t11rI)111e:nt. llo\v. 1t is, t~cvcrtlrclrss,11sef111 to clarify some of t,he frlnda~ilcntalrelations
:~sso~~i:~lc~cl o.it.11 tho ~ ) r o v o ~ t t iof o ~sc.p;;rntin~~
~ or1 f l ~ ccxatnplc of I ~ ~ n ~ i t flow,
r n r in particnlar,
I)c(.a~~sr I : I I I I ~ I Il10\1s
: I ~ : ~ r c1 1 1 1 1 ~ 1 1Inore rcaclily :~t~rc~~:rl)Ic 1.0 n~ntlrc~nai,icnl treatment than is tho
c~tscwit11 I 11rI)111r>nt, lln~vs.
Fig. 10.14. Devclopnrent of bo~indary Fig. 10.15. I'otcntial velocity fi~nction
'I'l~e.rr arc. sc.vr.r:ll ~nrt.l~ocls of ~)re:vcr~t,ing scp:~r:ll.ion. T l ~ esi~nplcstof t,lrrnr consists in
~ g I I I ~;~~lvc.rsc~
: r r r : ~ n g i ~for ~ 1)rexss11r(:g r : ~ ( l i r ~ ~loi . sr r n ~ i ~ ihrlow
n tile limit for wlrirl~ncpnrat,ie>~~ I:~yerin the case when laminar separation for n laminar boundary layer \vitlr ar~tl
is prevented witho~ltseparation

On the otlrer hand the succeeding vclocity proflcn are given by tlro ~ n o n ~ r n t u trquation
n (10.36)
for 3. =. 0, or
U (---
le
= F ( I < ) = 1.523, (10.40)
dz

I'j 'j I Fig. 10.13. Sc~)ar:~t,ion br~l)l)lein a larninar bor~ntlsrg

~ v l ~ c rthe value for F f K ) which corrcsnontls to A
e nr~~neriral \ r
- 10 Itas beet1 irrscrlctl. Igrom
that the value of tlre .sh:b~)cfart,or rrrnains constant :lt A -: - 10
cqn" (l0.38) ant1 (10.40) i t follo~\~s
-
L - 2 - l:~yornficr I. 'l'nni 123). a) Shape of bubble (nchcnratir): if O.130!) n = 1.523, or if
s
-- V
5
R

I
b) l'rcssl~rodistrib~~tion in hnbhle along t l ~ ewall (sr!~r-
matic). 'l'hc nrc'sn~lrchetwoen S and V in tlro I)r~l)l)lo
0 = -
U U"
= 11.13 z 1 1 ,
U'=
- -
(10.41)

a > 11 : no separation; n < I l : scpnr:ition . (10.41: I )

.Llrc
. l~rcccdingargument slro~ssthat t l ~ ebor~ndaryI:lycr can st~pport,Llre atlvcrsc prrssurc gra-
11ienl.q if o > 11, wlrereas n < 11 in~pliesscparalio~~. If a rrnrainn r o ~ ~ s t . a t~ n~ t= 11, n.it,lr
A -- -- 10, t.11~I)eu~~tlarylnyrr rc~n:lins~ I t.11~
I vrrgc of scl):~r:~t.ion.
222 X. Approximate methods for steady eqnations

Qnalitnt.ivcly i t is a t once possi1)lc to ~ n n k cthe following nt~atcmcntregarding the shape lly way of n fr~rthercxam~)leof retarded flow we shall ronnider the flow t.I~rorrgha
of [,he potential velocity f u ~ ~ c t i oU(x)
n which Icatls to no ncl)arntion. I n viow of cqn. (10.41) tlivergcnt cl~:inncl whose walls nro straight. This ca.qe in corollary to the cmc of the hotrndn.ry
layer in a divcrgmt cl~nnnoltrentcd in Soc. IX b. The flow is nccn sketched in Fig. 10.16, where
U" > 0 norlrrc a1 0. 7'110 wall is nsa~~rnccl
x tlcnotrs t11r rndial tlislnticc frorl~t.11~ to I~cginnt, x .- n \vl~crc
the entrnncc vcloril,y of the potrntinl strrarn is put cqnnl to U,. The poknt.inl flow in givcn by
is a nrccndnry condition for n rctnrtlrd flow (IJ' < 0) t o xrlhcro t,o the wall. I n other words, t.lle
~nn.gnitudeof the advcrsr pressure grntlicnt, I I I I I ~tlccrrnsr ~ in t,lic, flow direction. Ii'ig. 10.15.
,J 11nsscpnrntion will nlwiiyu occllr il' ~ , I I c f~~rlt:l,ion
%
I/(%)i4 c;~~rvctI tlo\vnw:irtIn 1)chi11rlits I I I R X ~ I I I I I I ~
(11" < 0). In the opposit.~rase, whim tho vc1ocit.y fr~nct.ior~ c i ~ r v r si~pwnrds(U" > O), srj)aration
tnny he ol>viatetl. 15vcn t.he li~nilir~g c,we of IJ" = 0,i. e. Ll~crase of a velocity which tlccreanea Cornpt~tingthc vnlr~cof the qnantity a from cqn. (10.41), which is decisive for separation, we
lir~carlywith the length of arc, always Icatls to scparatiol~.Tliin latter remark agrees with the obtnin here o = 2. Applying the criterion giver, in eqn. (10.4111) we cor~cludetl~nt,scpnration
rmitlt fonnd in Src. I X d ; i t was conccrnrd with the bootwlary lnyer aaaoriatcd with a potentinl occllrs in 1111 cnscn irrrnpcctivc of t.hc m e g n i t ~ ~ dofe t.ho nnglo of divrrgence. This oxnmplc RIIOWR
flow vc1ocit.y which dccrcnwd linearly, ant1 t.he solution of thc tlil~rret~tial cquntiona wm q u o k d very clrnrly t.lr:d c lwninnr nt.rm~nhas only n vcry li~nitctlcn])ncitg for n ~ ~ p p ~ r t n11 i n gntfvrrsn
from a pnpcr by I,. IIowart,h. The su//icient condition for the absence of aepnration iu givcn by prcrrsnrc gr;itlirnt wit110116ncy~nrntion.
Acror(lirrg t,o a c:alcrrlation pcrforrnctl hy K. Pol~lhnnscn[In] tho poir~tof ~cpnrnt.ionoccrlrs
n t xr/rl = 1.21 nntl is sccn to be indcpcntlcnt of tho anglc of divergence.

on t,lie verge of sep~raLiot~.

li~nit.ingcane of o
I"rnnr cqn. (10.41) we Ilavo
-
Wo RIIRII XIOW procrccl to cnlc111:itctho potential flow and the varint.ion of ho~~ntlary-lnycr
tllickncus wllicl~are wnorinktl wiLh t,I~r I I, rvhm tho bonntlnry lnycr ro~r~ninu

U'
u, -
U" -- I 1 x -
....
Fig. 10.16. J,nniinnr honnclnry layer in n tlivrrgent
u chn11nc.1. SrpnrnLion occnrs a t r,/n = 1.21 intlcpen-
or, npon intrgrat,ing: In U' -. 1 I In 11 -I- In ( - C,'), i. r . IJ'/CJ1I = - C,', whero 6,' denotes dcnt,ly of t.he nrlglc of tlivcrgence
tlio constant of integral.ion. ltcpcntccl intagrnt.ion ~ i v c s -x
p-- -
, -I
:
1 U-lo
- = C,' z + C, . rc----,ys ):

-
For z 0 wo ul~ot~ld hnve lJ(r) .- IJ,. no that C, = $6Nn-'O. P ~ ~ t t i nfurthcr
we obtain frotn cqn. (10.41)
g C,' UOl0= C,, lu,yrr
The prcrrding concl~~sions
I I I I I ~ be ~~rglcrlccl.
npply only nq. long as t,he displaccn~rntclTect of tllr Iioi~ndary
Ilo\vevcr, this is trot the cnsc u l l c ~ lt.hc angle of divcrgcnco in stnnll.
When thin nnglc is small, t.he boundary laycrs fill l h c whole c h a ~ ~ ncross-scclion
cl aflcr a certain
w.
inlet length ( r / .Scc. XI i) and the flow gorn over nsytnptoticelly to that discussed in Scc. V 12
undrr the lieatling of channel flow. When the included angle does not excced u certain valnc
which drprnds o ~ the ? Reynolds number, thet.e is no separation.
Eqnat,ion (10.43) reprcsrn1.q the pot.cnlial vslocit,y for wl1ic11 cloparation can jnst be nvoidwl.
Ilcccntlg, S. N. l3rown nnd I(. Stewnrtnon [I] 1)111,linhrtln nllninlnry rrvir\rf on ncl~nrntior~
1 ' 1 1 ~ const,:~ntC, can IIC tlctnr~~~inccl
origin z = 0. We hnvc A -
U' ( j z / v = - 10 or d 1/10 -
fro~nthe vnlnc of the bor~ntlnry-layerI.hickness do a t t.11~
Frorn eqn. (10.43) we ohtain
;q/(--D7).
\r-l~irhthe rnnthen~aticalqucst.ion cenbrcd on thr ning~~larity
in
\vhich occllrn in 1.h~.tlifl't:r.rlll.i:rl
eqr~*t.ionna t tho critical point llas been ernpl~nnized.Sccilso tho work of S. (:oltlst.ei~~141. 11 Inore
physicnlly inspircd revie\$. of thin problcln nrm II;M r c c c ~ ~ l lbeen
y pr~h)inhrdby J . C. \villi:llll.
111 (291, n.nd by P. IC. Cl~ang[2c].
and hrnrc

-
111 Rrorrn, S.N., nnd Stcwartrron, JC.: L n ~ n i ~ l srparnl.io~~.
2
ar I\IIIIII:III<rvirrr of Id'l~~itlillrt.11. 1 ,
45-72 (1969).
From 6 - ,!r n t x = 0 we hxvr C , - 10 rl/lJ, doZ,wl~icligives the final solution for thr potcntinl 121 I3rrss111at111, I<., ant1 Ulrich, 12.: Syste~l~ntisrhe I J I I ~ C ~ ~ I I C iihrr I I ~ I~I lIr~n15inll11sn
~II c11.r I'rofil-
flow nnrl thr vnrinl,ion of bo~~ntlnry-lnyrrthirkt~rsu fornl nnf tlio 1,ngo tlos U I I I ~ C I I I I I ~ ~ I l1rv~)ritll.
I I I I ~ ~ ~,111.
: R . ( I t . l , ~ ~ l l f t ~ l ~ r t f o r ~ l (1!).1:l
. I ~ ~ ~in:
~~::
'rrv1111,lkvicl~tt!10, No. !) (l!bl3): K,I(:,\ Till 1185 (l!147).
I. ~ I -I I C ~ I ~ \'.
I I Y.:
, I,r~ilsi~i~~nltii'n
111c1l1o(l r y \\.it11 st~rtion1111tl i ~ l j ~ . v l i o;\I.\,\
for I ~ o ~ ~ n d nIt~yt'rs ~~.
J. 7, 5fi2--5B:I ( IcJIiO .
[21,] Ijrilry, W. 11. a r ~ dI\.Icl>onnltl, L). t I . : h'u~nerirnlprc-rlict.ion of i ~ ~ r . ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ lSn( .r~t B ~ I~I~I .iIlI)! l~t(-~ I I
buhhles. J F M 69, 631-056 (1975).
[2cl Cliang. P. J<.: Separat,ion of flow. Pergamon Prens, New York, 1070.
[3] (:liir~crt, hf.J3., and Ligl~t,hill,M..J.: l'lle nxiny~nn~ctric hounrlary Inyt-r ~ I :II I O I I ~ thin
It, in arc11 that, t.11~ n , n g ~ ~ i l . ~of~ tl.l~r
l r ])rrmissil)lc dcrrlor:rt.ion (tlcrrmsc in vclorit,~)is very small, cylit~dcr.I'roc. I!oy. Soc. A 230, 188-203 (1!)55).
Irring ~)roporlion:ilto .I: (1 1. I t s vnll~cis vcry nearly rcnlizctl for t,hc cnsc of constant vc1ocit.y [3n] Crinli, P., and Rcevcs, I%. I,.: Analysis of lending edge ncparnlion buhhlcs on nirfnils.
n l o n ~tho II:iI, 1)I:ilr at. zrro i ~ ~ r i t l r ~Jn~ t.hc r r . prcscnt. cnnr t,llc incrrnsc in hound:~r.y-lnyrrtl~icltncsn, Air\.\ -1. 14, 1548 --I555 (1976).
0, is ~~roporlionnl
- to 3:I'.5" :his vnll~calso t1ilh.m h n t lit,t,lc frorn t.he rase of n fln.1. plate nt zrro
( , ~ -\ v I I ~ I , I I 0
~ I I I ~ ~ I ~ I . I Il'c~r 2+5.
[ 4 j Golclntein, S . : 0 1 1 In~ninnrhonntlnry Inyrr Ilo~rnrnr n point of s r l x ~ r n t i ~()il;~rl.
..\ppI. Mnt11. 1 , 4% -I!!) (19i18).
) ~ ~ . .l. hlr~rll.
224 S . appro xi mat,^ I I I ~ I . I I O ~ Rfor alcady equation4

. .
I'roc. 4 , 8l!) 854 ( I !IlKi).
1.51 Ilc>lslvir~, [I., a11r1l1ol11011, 'I'.:1 4 : i t l e i ~ ~ f : ~ r\'erfaI~rt!r~
l~rs Z I I V l%rrcci1111111g
1:1111ir1:~rrr
I<t-il~~~ugs-
svl~irl~le~r, (lit! (ICIII K i i l ~ ~ - r ~ ~ ~ ~ g s vI ~tO! IrI fI<. : ~ lI'~IIIII:IIIS~II
~ r ~ ~ ~ ~ gev~iigsr~, l,ili~~~~ll~:~l.l~t~rirl~t
S. 10, 5 -- I0 (l!)40).
[5n] Jlortnn. 11. I?.: 11 serlli-erllpiricnl tl~corylor the ~ r o \ \ t l rand I~r~rstir~g of Iarllinnr s s p ~ r a t i o ~ l
t)~rl)I)lrs.,\rro. J<cs. (~o~rncil, C ~ ~ r r e r1':~pcr~ t , No. 107 (l!)(;7).

( I !)is):
171 or^ I ( h r n ~ h ~ 'I'll.:
~ , iil)rr I:r~~ri~r;lrr I I I I ~I I I ~ I I I I I C I I I Ilri01111g.
~~ Z.\hlRl I . 2:j:t 252 (l!l2l); Axially symlnetrical and three-dimensional bounclary layers
N1\(:,1 10!U (I!ll(i); src! also (!oil. \\'arks 11, 70- 07 (l!)5(;).
181 ~ < ~ I s c \ IN.,I., ~ I I , :III<II,oilsi:~~~skii. I,.(:.: )o\~rreirrc i ~ t ~ g r ~ ~ l i lhl~.l,l~o(It! rrrlr (1r.r I I ( ~ ~ C C I I I I I I I ~ ~
drr L i l r r ~ i ~ ~ : ~ r g r c ~ ~ z s1)olil. r l ~ i v ,\lincl.
l ~ l , . Nnuli, SSSl<36, Ko. !) (1!)42):srr nlso: ;\I)ap],roxi- I n trhediscussion of boundary layers in t,he preceding chapter we h a v e consitlrretl
111:~tc rnrl.l~t)ilof rali~~rli~lit~g I I I C lnrl~illnrI ~ o r ~ ~ ~ rI:tyer. l : ~ r yC o r ~ ~ ~ iHrlullls
lrn (I)oltlatly) do
I'AvntlCrl~ic!c1r.s Svirr~c*cw rlr I'UIISS 46, 2(i'L-~-2(ili (I!)il'L). cxclr~sivclyt,wo-tlitnensiot~alcases for wllicl~t h e vclocity componcttbs tlcpnr~tlotl011
l!)J l,r~iLsi:~~~sltii, I,.(;.: I , n ~ t r i ~ ~ a rpogr;u~i(;Itr~yi
~~yi filoi. I:in1118tgin Blosco~\~. ( ~ ~ I tIr :I ~. ~ ~l),y sl. only t w o spacc coordinates. A t t l ~ sca m e tirne t,he vclocit:y c o t n p o n c t ~ ill
t t.lto tlirrc(.iot~
11. l,ir~rI)cr~: l,a~r~ill:~rr (;rc~~~,sclricI~l,i:~~. ,\lca~lt~~~~ic:-L'erl;~g, l<crli11.I!Ni7. of t h o tllirtl s p e c coortlinnt,~(lid n o t exist. 'l'llc gcllcrnl t.ltrcc-tlitr~crlsio~~:~~I V:LSC of
1101 Imit-qi:insltii, I,. G.: Mckltatlika zllitlkosLci i gazov. Narrltn, Moscow, 1073. a borrndary layer in w h i c l ~t h e t,hrce vc1ocit.y components dcpentl o n all three co-
[I I I,oiLsi:~~~sltii, I,. (;.: U~~i\,ersal'r~ye u r a v ~ ~ c ri~l)ar:t~~~~!trirl~rsl~ie
ix pril>li~,I~r.~~ia 1, trorii I a r ~ ~ i r ~ t ~ r -
ordinates hns, s o f a r , been ltartlly elaborated bccansc of t h e cnortnous ~nall~crnxt.ical
nyltlr p o g r ; ~ ~ ~ i c lsloe\,. l t l ~ hlnt.. i hlrlth. X X I X . No. I (1!)65). See also: 'I'll? ~~r~ivrrs:bl
~ r ~ ~I'rikl.
e q ~ ~ : ~ t inutl
n t ~pnr;lrllrt,ric:
s n~~ylroxir~~:~t~ir)r~s i l l l l ~ tllc.org
r nf I R I I I ~l)o1111d:1ry
I I : ~ ~ I:I~(*I.s. J . 1111111. diftic~llt~irs nssociatotl wit.11 tile problem. W c sltall tlcscribc t , l ~ cfirst at2t,c:tnpt,si l l this
Blath. Mcrll. (I'hlhl) 2 1 , 70 8 7 (I!fC,5). tlirecl.ion nt t h e cntl of Lhc prcsc:t~tcllaptcr.
[I21 l,oilsia~~sltii, 1.. (:.: S t ~ la r 1116t,I1oilr l)ara1116l,riq11e (I(! I:\ tl~<,orir (I(! l:i VOIICIIO Iir~rilcI:irr~i~~:iire.
I'roc:. I l t,ll I I I ~ ~ IC> O ~ I I .~ ~ A1)1)1.
P S S hlrr11.. hllll~irlr I!)li(i (11. (:iirllrr, rd.). Ql)rilrgt'r \'srI:lp. O n t l ~ co t l ~ r r11nntl t . l ~ etnat.I~ctnnticnltlifficttlt~icseticour11.crctl i t 1 1.l1c s1,11tlyof'
I1rrli11,I!)l;(i, 7'22 728. axi:tlly s y ~ r ~ t n r l ~ r iI)ortrrtlnr.y
ri~l 1:r.ycrn nrc ror~witl(:~.rrl)lyfr\vc~r ntrtl 1111r(lIy r x ( . ( ~ c I
I 1 I z s y 1 , I . : I I ~ I ~ O ofI II 1 0 1 1 l 1 r yr : I I : ~ I rI . I S t . I 2J7, 5 - 55!) t.hosc in t l ~ otwo-tlirnorrsionnl cnsr. Axially sylnmct.ricnl b o ~ t n t l a r yl i ~ y c r soc:cllr, c. g.,
( I !15(;).
in flo~vsp a s t axially symmct.ricnl botlics; t l ~ caxially ~ y m m c t ~ r i c njet l also belongs
[I41 Onrrova, 14:. I?.. ar~clSill~llt~i, J,.hI.: A11~roxi111:itr I.\vo-~):~rar~~clw R O I I I L ~ O I I o f t11(%rqll:lt.i~ll
for stc:~clv-sLa.t.s I:ilnirlar I,orrn(lnrv .. (.i r r Il~rssiar~).
" I:~yorn 'l'rudy I,cllillgr. I'olyt. Irlsl,. No. J1:I under this heatling. T w o cxatnples, t h a t of tllc rotat,ing tlislc nntl axially symmct,rical
(l!)70). flow with st,agnat.ion, h a v e nlrcady I)cct~discusset1 in t,hc r l t : ~ p t e ro n e x a c t solot,ions
[I51 I'ohll~:~usrr~, I<.: Zrlr 11al1rr1111gs11-~iric.n I~~tcgl;it.io~~ tlrr I)ifli.rrnl.ialgicic.l~r~ng tlrr Inrl~irlnrrn of t.11~Navier-St.oltes equations.
I l r i l ~ ~ r ~ ~ g s s r lZAMRI ~ i c l ~ t I. , 252.- 2(i8 (1!)21).
[ I G I l'l;~,r~~IlJ. I,.: '1'11~ J I I ~ C ~ I ; I I Iof ~ ~ visrolrs
S fltricls. 111 \V. I?. l ~ u r : ~(~~~1i .I)ArrocI,v~~a~i~ir : 'I'l~rory W e sltall begin tltc prcscrlt c l ~ a p t c rwit11 n discussion of s o m e furbhcr cxntnl)lcs
If I, 34- 208 (l!l:J5). of st,ratly axi:tlly symrnct.rica1 flows w l ~ i c cl a~n b e solvcd with the aitl of t h c d i f i r c n t i n l
[17 1 !rel.sc:l~, $1.: I)ir In.t~~i~\:rre I<eibrrngssc.l~iclrt. nn sllipt.ischen Zylir~drrnunrl I~ot,ntio~lsrllipso-
ltlnn I~oi~ y r ~ ~ t ~ ~ c tAr~slriirr~rr~~g. . r i ~ ~ ~ l ~ cI,~~ftfal~rt~forscl~lr~~g
r 18, :j!)7-402 (1!)41). equations, ant1 will continue wit,l~1.11~ c ~ t ~ c t ~ sofi otile
r ~ a.l)proxilnatscprocctlnrc. \ v I ~ i c l ~
(181 J t o s r ~ ~ l ~ rL. ; ~ t(rtl.):
l, 1,:ilninar borcl1tlnry I;~ycrs.Clarcrltlor~l'ress, Oxford, I!)G3. w a s exp1:~inctl i r ~t h e prccetling c l ~ a . p t c rt o inclutlc t l ~ caxially sgrnmct.riral c:lse.
1 l!l] Srl~lirl~Li~~g, t i . , : L I I ~IJIricll. A,: Z~rrr3r.rrrl1111111g clcs tJ~~~sc;l~lages l a r ~ ~ i r ~ : ~ r - t ~ r rvJ1). I ~ ~(it.
rlo~~t. Furtllor, wc shall rlisc~lsst.11~ princip:i.l fcxt#uresof t,lrrcc-tli tnrt~sionnlbonntlnry layers.
I,r1fl.f:~Irrl.fol.scl11111g I, R R5 (1042); star also: I,ilir~~tl~nl-
- Ijer-irllt.S 10. 75-- 135 (1!)40). Norl-st,carly n.xi:ally symn~ct.ricalbotl~ttlarylayers will bc consitlcrctl it1 (Il1:111. Xi'
120.1 Sclrii~l:l~lrr, \V. : I c i t l I)ilTt~n~nzr.r~vc;rfaI~ret~ zur J,ijs1111g ilrr ( : r c r ~ ~ ~ ( : l ~ i v l ~ t ~ gf I~r iis1:lt.io-
rc I ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ g
11iirr. I : I . I I I ~ I iI ~ : ~~~l ~ rI I I I I I ~ .33, l7:!--lR!l (l!l(;4).
c o, ~ ~ ~ ~ ~S r~c ,s~s i~l ~ lI l11g.-11rcl1. t,ogct-ltcr nit.11 nott-stcatly two-ditncnsional cxnmples.
121J S ( ~ l ~ ~ ~ l )(:.n ~11.: r r rAirllow
. in ;L srpn.rat,il~glfirl~itlarI)ol~ntlnr,vlayer. NACA l<cl>.527 (l!)35).
[21:11 SLr:~llhrcl.I<. S.:Ir'io\r, i l l t,llo Inll~illarboulr(Jnrylnycr r1c:l.r srpnra(.ior~. Al<(:, IbRI :1002. 1 -27
( l!)57).
n. I ~ X L I ~
C o~ l ~ ~ t i ofor
i i s nxinlly ~ y ~ ~ ~ r l i r t rIirron~l l ~ t d i ~Inyrrw
ry
1221 'J'nni, I.: 0 1 1 t.11~ so111t.io11 16t . 1 1 ~Inminnr \,on~~darg layer ccll~ations.I7ift.y yrxrs of 1)ollndnl-y
luyrr rrsmr~:l~ (11. (:iirl.lcr, ctl.), I1rn1111nolra.cig, 1!)55, I!):{--200.
I2:II 'I':r.tli, I . : I , o ~ Y RI)CC(I IIOIVR i l ~ v ~ l v i I)lrl)l)le t~g srl):irat,ion. l'rogress ~ I IArronnr~t.ic~:~l Sciorlcm 1. Rotntion rlrnr the gror~nd. In C l ~ n p V . we 1t;~vcconsiclcrotl 1,11(: (~;ISO of Ilonr
5 , 70 I0:i (l!l(;4). in t h e ncigl11)ourllootl of a clislc w l ~ i c hrotntcs in a fluitl n t rest. T h e rase o f motion
124j ' I ' r ~ ~ r l ~ r ~ r I >I<.: r o ~N l t ~ ,I I ~ ~ I I I I ~clrr S I S~ t~r iSi rI~I~ ~t ~Ir ~~ ~g sIr I~ utlii ~ r ~ ~illre I ~ a ~~ )~ li ~
l <~ ~ i l t a l i s ~ ~ ~ c
I > ~ I I ~ IhI'Ii I~~~.r l r r ~ l'rar~(ltl
~ t l ~ AIrr~~ori:~l 1,crtlrre. ZF\V 24, 177-- 188 (l!IiG). near a stsal.ionnryw:rll, \vl~cn1.11~ lluitl a t n largo tlist,ancc al)ovc it, rotates : k t :L constant
(251 \\'n.lz, 14.: 1Sir1 tlecrrr Annalz fiir rlns ( ~ c ~ s ~ ~ l l ~ r . i n , l i g l t ~ ~ ~tlrr t t s Inl~~il~arrn
Prolil I<ril)~~~~~sscl~iclll.. angular vrlocit.y, is closcly conncct,ctl with i t , Fig. 11 . l . 'l'his c x n n ~ l ) l o\v:~sst.udic?tl
~ . ~ I ~ P I I I ~ I ~ I - 141, I ~ C 8--1'2
~ ~ ~ ~ ~(1!)4l).~ I ~ , I by U. T. Rocdewatlt [ O ] . One of 1.11~ essential cffect,s in tJte example of t,lre clislr which
12(i1 1Valso11,1C.,1.. nlltl IFrcston, .l.Fl.: 1\11nlrl)roxi~r~ate sohlliol~of lsnw Hal, pln1.c I)o~lrltl&ry r o t a t r s in a fluitl a t rest consists it1 tltc fact tltnt in tllc 1,l1i11lnycr trcar t,hc wall tllc
Inyrr ~ I ~ O O I ~AIM: I I I RI.t M 2537 (1!351).
fluid is thrown o r ~ t n ~ a r dowing
s t o tllc cxist,cncc of ccnt,rifug:~lforcrs. 'l'flc flnicl w h i c l ~
1271 il'icgl~~~rdt,, I<.: i)llor ri11(,11I<r~crpirsaI,zZ I I ~13sr,:(:l11)1111g In,~~~irlarsr ( ~ r c ~ ~ z s r l ~ i11lg.- ~*l~l~c~~.
is forcctl ortt~vnrclsit1 a. rntlinl tlircct.iori is rcplacctl b y a tl~riclst.rcnrn in t l ~ c:~xinl
ciirect,ion. 111 t.hc case ~ ~ n t l cottsidcrat~ion,
er in wllicl~t,hc fl~ritlrot,at,cs ovcr t h e waU,
tfl~crois n sitrtilnr clTcct 1ntt its sign is rcvrrsrtl : 111(: 11nr1,irlrs\ol~it:lrro1,c~l.onl, rt, Iitrgc
220 XI. Axinlly symniobricnl nnd thren-di~~~el~sionnl
bor~ndnrylnyers a. Exact solr~tioll~
for axinlly syrnmntrical borlndnry lnyers 227
dist>ance from t h e wall are in eqllilibrium under the influence of the centrifugal rotating tlisk, bccause the terms whicll are neglected in thc bo~~ndary-laycr
cquntions
force which is balanced by a radial pressure gradient. The peripheral vclocity of vanish here on their own accord. 13y eqn. (3.86) we can write down the Navier-Stokcs
the particles near t h e wall is reduced, thus decreasing materially the centrifugal equations as
force, whereas the radial pressure grntlicrit directed towards the axis remains the
samc. This set of circr~mstanccscauses the pnrkiclcs ncar the wall to flow radially
inwards, and for rcasons of cont,inr~it,ythat motion must he oo~npcrlsnt,cd11y an
axial flow upwards, as show~iin Fig. 11. I . A srlpcrimposctl firld of flow of this nature
which occurs in the boundary layer and whose direction deviates from that in
the external flow is quite generally referred to as a secondary flow. It was first dis-
covered by E. Grusc11wit.z 1451 whrn he nnnlyzcd the flow in a curvet1 cllnnnel, scc
also E. Becker [R].

The boundary cor~ditionsarc

I t is convcnicnt to illtrotlacc thc dimensionless coordinate

Fig. 11.1. Itotnt.ion of llow near in place of z, as in tile case of the rotating disk (Sec. V 11). Wc assume t,liat the
the ground vclocity components havc t,he form
Velocity component^: u - radial;
a - tan~ential: 10 - axial. Owlng to
rrlctlon.t h e tangential velocity sulTera
deceloratlon in tho ncfghbourhood of the
dlak at rest. Thls glves rise to a aceon-
Thc ratlial prcsstlre grnrlicnt can bc con~pntctlfor t.lia frictiorllcss llow a l a large
dary Pow which la directed radlslly In- ( I / @ ) . (aplar) = V 2 / r ,or, wit11 V = r CO,
distancc from t.hc wall from tho c~rldit~iorl:
wards

I n the framework of the boundary-layer theory i t is a s s u ~ ~ i ct hda t the same pressure

The secondary flow which accompanies rotation near a solid wall and which
gradient acta in the visaoua layor ncar the wall. lntroclucing cqns. (1 1.4) and ( 1 1.5)
hna bcen described it1 the preceding paragraph can bo clearly observed in a teacup: into eqns. ( l l . l a , b, d), we obtain a system of ordinary dilrcrcntial equatio~iswhich
after the rotation has bcen generated by vigorous stirring and again after the flow
is analogous t o that in Sec. V 11 :
has been left t o itself for a short while, the radial inward flow field near the bottom
will he formed. Its existence can be inferred from the fact that tea leaves settle in a little
heap near the centre a t the bottom.
I n order t o formulat,e the mathematical problem, we shall assume cylindrical
+,
polar coordinates r, z, the stationary wall being a t z = 0, see Fig. 11.1. The fluid
a t a large distance from the wall will be assumed t o rotate like a rigid body, with a
constent angillar vclocity w . We shall denote the velocity componenh in the radial
direction by u, that in the tangential direction b y v , the axial component being with the boundary conditions
derloted by W . For reasons of axial symmetry the derivatives with respect to 4 may be
dropped from tltc Navicr-Stokcs cquntions. The sol~ltioriwhich we are about to find
will be an exact solution of thc Navier-Stokes equations, just as wae t h a t for the
 >
228 XI. Axially symtnrlrir:~lnn(l tl~rrc.dimrn~ionaI
botlntlary lnyer~ a. Exact solntions for axially symmetrical houndary layorn

Tltc pressure grndjrrtL it1 t.he z-rlircct,ior~rnny l)c nssr~mcd eqnnl t,o zero, ns SIIC~I
an ass~~mpt,ion
is comp:it.iblc with I)otlt~tl:~ry-lsycr
t,llcory. AItrrt~xt.ivcl~r,
it, mtl i)e
cnlcr~lat.ctlfrorn rqn. ( 1 1 . 1 r ) , nft.t:r t,l~cprirlrip:~lsolution llatl Ijocn oht.:~itlctl,whicll
t , l ~ r nrrs111l.si l l nrl rsnc:t solt11,ion of 1.11(- Nnvier-Sl.oltrs cq~~nt,ions.
'I'llr sgsl,cbn~ of rrl~lnliol~s ( I 1.6) \ritll l , l l r I)orttldnry contlit.iorls ( 1 1.7) was first,
solvc~lI)y 11. 'r. T30c3tlc\rr:~dt. [!)I i r :I~ vcvy I:~l)ot.iorls\r:t.v I)y IIIC:IIIS o f :1 I)OIVPI. scries cs-
~):unsirlnat[ = O : ~ t l t l:ITI :~syn~l)totic cxl):~ttsior~ for [ m. IEecently this sol~ltionwas
I=-

~~rt.t:(.tc(I11~1.1. E.Ny(I:il11[Sin] i l l nrl r~nl)rlhlishctlI):l.l)cr.T l ~ V:LIIICR r of t,l~(: fur~(:t,iotl~

F,f:, 11 :~(-(*or(lit~g tx) Ny(l:~,Itl:Lr(\g i v ( v ~in 'J7:t,t~I(, I I . I : L I I ~ Ii t 1 Icig. 1 1 .2. TIIP11orizo11t~:~l
vcloc-ily. i.c. I.l~rI.(~RIII~,:I.TII,of IL :i1i(1 I ) , i~ :LIRO R I I ~ \ V I I plo(,tcd i l l n 1)olar tlingram in
Fig. 1 1.3. 'l'llc :l.nglo I)rt,wccn l,lrc I~orizot~l~nl vclority componrr~tant1 (.he pt:ripl~crnl
dircrtion tlrprntls only on t,l~nI~cigl~t,, arltl t,l~ovrclors irl Fig. 11.3 ititlicxntc t,llis
tlircctiotl for varying Iltigl11.s.'l'hc tlcvi:~t.iorrI'rorn 1.11(! 1)cripltcrnl tlircction 1)rcst*rihctl
a t n Inrgc? 11c:ight. is Inrgcst. nrnr 1 . h ~grotrrrd alltl has n vnlue of 50.G0 inwnrtls. 'l'ho
Iargcsl. tlrvixtiolr of 7.4O ot~twartfsoccurs for ( = 4-63 so t,llat, the largrst angular

Fig. 11.3. IXotation near a uolid mall,

l'nhlc 11 1. 'l'l~r funct.ions for thr velocity tlistri1)ution for t l ~ rcase of rotation nvpr a after Boedewadt. Vector representation
slntiot~nry\v:111, nftcr J . E. Nytlahl [81a] oC the horizontal velocity component

4
Fig. 11.2. Rotatior1 near a solid walh
aftrr Soedewadt [Dl. Velocity rlistribn-
tion in thc bounctnry layer from
eqn. (I 1.4); RCO a180 Table 1 I . I

difference, i. e. t h a t between t h e ground and t h a t a t ( --= 4.63, is 58". It is ft~rtllcr

remarkable t , i ~ a tllc
t axial velocity component w does not depend on the dist,nnce r
from t.llo axis bltt only on t l ~ cdistance from t l ~ cgrountl. Tllc motion a t all l>oir~t,s is
llpwartls wi1.h la > 0. As alrcatly mcnt,iorlctl, this is catlsctl by the ii~wnrtlIlow rlcar
the grot~ntl,consequent upon tho tlecrcase in the rcntrifrigal forces. 111 a n y anse, as
seen from Pig. 1 1.2, t l ~ i sis compcnsatctl by n mdial flow o ~ l t w a r (at,I ~n groat,or I~eight~,
1)1it or1 t,lic wl~olo,i.llc rntliiil flow ir~wr~rtls 'I'IIc 1.ot.11IV O I I I I I I ( ~ IIo\vi~~g
1)rt:tlo1ilir1t~t,cs.
towartls (.he a.xis t,aker~over a cylinder of radius R around the z-axis is

Tnscrtit~gthc nlrmcrical valt~cof I I ( m ) from Table 11.1 we obtain

Q = - 1.387 ~ R 2i n ) .
r , 11
(11.8)

Tile volume of flow in t,he positive z-tlirection is of ~ equal

- . mngnitudc. 'J'Jlc 1:lrgcst

I I ~ ) w : I niot,ion
~(~ oc(:tlrs a t [ == 3.1, wllrrr I I I = 1.80 $0) 1) . 1t. is nlso wort,l~not,itlg tl~nt,
230 XI. Axinlly symmctricnl and three-dinicnsionnl bonndnry layers a. Exact solutions Tor axially syn~mctricnlboundary lnyers 23 1

t h e boandary layrr cxt,ends considorably higher than in the example with the disk The pressure can here be regarded const,ant, a s in t h c two-dimensional casc. The
rotatsing in a fluid a t rest (Scc. Vb). I f thc boi~&r?/-hyer thickness 8 is defined as the system of coordinates will bc selected with itts x-axis in t,l~caxis of the jet,, the radial
height for wliich t h r drviat,ion of t h c pcripltrral vclocity is c q ~ ~tao l 2 prr ccnt , wc distancc bcing dcnotcd by y. The axial and radial velocity components will be dcnotcd
1/
shall obtain 8 = 8 v / w a s against 8 = 4 d qfor t h e stationary Ruitl. by u ant1 v , rcspcctivcly. Owing t o thc assumption of a constant prcssurc the flux of
momctltrlm in lhc direction of x is constar~torlcc Inorc:
The cxa~njtlcof t,11cmot.ion of a vor1.c~sourno ~1c1.wccr1 t,wo pzrallcl walls con-
siclnretl by U. Vogclpol~l[I201 is rcl:it,ctl 10 somo cxtcnt t o thc prcscnt casc. For
very small ltcynolds numbers thc vclocit.y distribution deviates little from t l ~ c
parabolic cllrve of Poisc~~illcflow. For large Rcyrloltls n~lmhcmthc velocity profile
approacl~csa rcctarlgular tIistril)ntion, a n d a borlntlary laycr is sccn t o bc forming. I n thc adoptctl s y s k m of coortlinatcs thc cqrlation of moliorl in thc tlirrcfion of x,
T h e corresponding case of t~lrl)ulcntflow was tliscussed by C. I'fleidercr [85].I n this undcr the us11a1bor~ntlnry-layersimplifications, togetl~crwiCh thc cquatiorr of motion,
conncxion t,I~cpapcr hy R. Bccker [F1 may also be consulted. can bc written a s
Similnr phnno~ncnncnn bc found in swirling flow through n conical fnnncl-like channel
investigated by I<. Garbsnh [:12]. The potential flow ia gencrntcd by a sink of strength Q placed
a t the vertcx of t,lio cone and a potential vortcx of st,ffingtliI' plncnd along tho axis, Pig. 11.4.
The solution to t h o bonndnry-lnycr cqrrnt,ior~sis obtninetl by an itcrntivc procedure whicl~is
said to lead to n good npproxirr~ntior~ with n srnall n ~ ~ t n bof
r r step8 only. Two pnrticulnr cnsra
of such flowa have also hccn iuvcstigntctl with the nid of npyroximntc met.l~ods,and they will
be ~nentioncdin Chap. X: A. M. Ilinnic ant1 L). Y. IJnrris [7] studicd pure sink flow (I' = 0).
and G. I. Taylor rll I] nnd J. C. Cookc [ I 71 at.~~tlicd pnrc vortex llow (Q = 0). 111 tho lnttnr ant1 lllc bonndary contlitions aro
case, M shown in Pig. 11.4, the flow forms a hor~ndnrylaycr on the wall of the conical clmnnel.
The flow ficld in thc boundary Inycr develops n velocity component w in the clircction of the
cone generators,\r~I~cmas tho frictionless corc, bcing a prlre swirl, possesses only tangential velocity
compononh u. The oerondnry flow in t!le bor~ndnrylayer tranuporla some fluid towards the
vertcx. The render mny further wish to a t ~ d ya related palm by H. E. Wcbcr [121].
2. The circr~lnrjet. \Yo shall now inclicatc 11. Sclilinl~ting's[97] solnt,ion for tlrc As before, the velocity profilcs u(x, 9) can be assumed sirrrilar. Thc witit11 of the jet
laminar circnlar jct which is analogons t o the onc for a two-dimensional jet given i n will he taken t o be proportional t o P,i t being furthcr assumctl t h a t
Scc. I X g . 'Yhc subjnct of the i~lvcst~igal,ior~ is, thus, a jct which lcavcs a small circular
opening and tnixrs wit,Ir t3hesurrountling flrtitl. I n most pract,ical cascs the circular jet
i s also t.ur11nlent. 'l'l~ct,nrt)rllont circular j(:t will 1)e considcrcd in Chap. X X I V , b11t
since i t lratls t o a tlilTcrcnt.ial oq~tationwlrich is i d ~ n t ~ i cwit.11
a l t,hat for tho laminar In ortler to determine thc exponents p ant1 n wc can use the samc two contlitions as
case we shall ~ ~ S C I I St.11~
S Iat,t,cr in some grcat,cr (letmail. in the two-tlimcnsional case. First the momcntum from eqn. (11.9) must hc irldepcn-
dcnt of z, and secondly, the inertria and frictional terms in cqn. (1 1 . I o n ) must bc of the
s:mc ortlrr of magnitr~tlc.IICIICC

Thus t,he followir~gtwo equations for p and la rcsult:

2p-4n 1-2n=O; 2p-411, -- 1==p--4n,

so tI1a.t p = 11. = 1. Conscqr~cntly,we rnay now put

Fig. 11.4. Swirling flow in a

y ~ = v z F ( q ) and TI= *Y ,
convergent conical rhnrtnel, af-
b r G . I. Taylor [ I l l ] from which it follows Lhat the vclocity componcnb are
II = boandrrry lnyer on llie wall of
L11o conical r l l n n n r l wit11 secondary
1 CT flow lowardr llle vrrles
 n. Exact .solntionn for nxinlly ~ylntnrt,ricalbotnldary layers 233
232 XI. Axially synimet.rica1and tllrcc-dimensional boundary laycrs
Figure 11.5 rcprescnts a strcamlinc pattern calculated from t l ~ prcccclit~g
c cclrlations.
Jnscrting t,hcsc values irlt,o cqn. (11.10a), we obtn.in the following equation for t h e The longitntlir~alvelocity IL is shown plott,etl togcthcr with t . l ~ ror,t,llc?
~t two-tlirncn-
strcam function
FF' F.' FF" - 3-
(F,, - ): sionr11 jcl, in ]pig. 9. I :I,
r
1110volnmc o f flow Q
7
= 272
m
/ u y tly (volnmc per sccontl), which incrcasrs
tlz tl tl dtl
n

whic~l~
can be int,rgratetl once t o give with t l ~ tlist~ancc
r frorn the orificc owing t o t,ltc flow from the srlrro~~ntlings,
is rcprc-
FF' = F 1 - q F " . (11.13) scntetl by the simple cclnnliorl

The I)on~~tIarycondit,jons arc IL = IL,,, ant1 v -

0 for y = 0. I t follows t h a t F' = 0 and
F = 0 for "1 = 0. Since TL is a n even fi~nct,ionof r], F'lr] must be even, F' otltl a n d E'
Q=8nvx. (11.18)

evcn. I3ccausc of F(O) =. 0 t h e constant tcrrn in the cxpansio~lof F i n powers of 11 must

vanisll, which tlet,crmincs ono constant of intcgrat,ion. The sccond constant of inte-
grat.iotl,whicl~will be dcnot,etl by y , can bc evaluated a s follows: If F(r]) is a solution
of rqn. (11.13), t11cn F ( y v ) = F(() is also a solut,ion. A p:~rticularsolnt,ion of the
tlill'crcr~t,inlccl~~at.ion
F d... F- = d-F- - dZF
dt dt d ~ '
wllic:h sat,isfics t l ~ chountlnry condi1,ion (
F 5'
-
0: F 0, F' -=0, is givcn by
-1

(11.14)
Fig. 11.5. Strranlline pattern for a circular
1+:t2.
laminar jct
Ilcncc wc obtain from aqn. (11.12)

JJere [ = y y/x, ant1 the constant of inlegmtion y can now be determined from the
givcw valne of momentum.
From cqn. (1 1.9) we obtain for t.hc momenttlm of t l ~ cjet
l'inally, t.11~;at)i,vc rcst~l1,scan bc cxprcssctl in n. forrn t.o c61rtai11only the 1ti11cmnt.ic
viscosit.y, v , ant1 the kin.ematic momentu.m, Ii' == J l q . 'l'l~ns
This equnt,ion should be comparccl with eqn. (0.48) for t h c two-dimensional jct,. It is
secn t.hn.t,, nncxpcctrtlly, the volume of flow a t a givcn tlist.altcc frorn t,llc orificc is
intlcpcntlcnt of thc morncntl~rllof t l ~ cjot,, i. r . , ir~tlepc~rtlc~~l,
oT t,l~ccsccss of ~)rcssnrc
undcr wllicll t.11~jet leaves tlrc orificc. A jet wl~iclllcnvcs under a large prcssure
tliffcrcnce (large velocit,y) rcrnrtins narrower t,han one leaving wit,lt a srnnllcr prcssurc
tliffcrcnce (small veloci6y). The latter carries witll i t comparatively inore st,at,ior~ary
fluid, namely in a znanncr t o make the volunlo of flow a t a givcn distance fro111 tile
orifi cc c q ~ ~ to
a l t h a t in a faster jet, provided tlrat t,hc kincn~:~,t,ic
viscosit,y is t,llc same
in I)ot.l~cnsrs.
11. 1%.Scjnirc [106, IOG] was able t,o find solutions to t l ~ 1)orintlnry-1n.y~ e cqt~at.ions
:IS well as t,o the comp1ct.c Nnvicr-Stloltcs ccluatiorts ant1 t,o m:~ltc:L con~p:~rison bctwccn
I ~ l ~ fi)r
r ~ n1 . 1 1 ~r a w o f a conic:t.l jrl. \vllic.l~I)OSRPSSPR n.11 : ~ , t l t l i l ~ i oi.:~,li:tl
~ l ~ ~ I ,~ t ~ l o t -(.otn-
il.~~
~ I ~ I I ~ i~t )I I L : L I I I I ~twilit:~:.
I ~ : L ~ 111 1J1is l:~t,t,t%r
clt~ssof rt~tli:~l jtal,s 1,110 vrlot;it,ics :IIY> :11so
invcrsc?ly proportional t o t,llc tlist,ancc from t.11~ orificc. 'i'l~e t,lrcory can I)(: exto~rtlcd
to t,r~rl)nlnr~t flows by rcplncing t.l~ekincmat.ic viscosit,y wit 11 t.l~capparent kincr~latic
visaosit,y of tlurbr~lc,rlt flow, wl~icllin t,l~iscase rctnains constant, scc C:\I:L~. S XIV.
Tlte cnsc wlren a jet impingcs at. right angles on a wall nt~tlis sprcntl along il, was
solvctl Ily R4. 13. (:laucrt 1401, n.ho incl,rtlctl plnl~cns \vcll 11,s nxially syul~~~c~f.rit::~l,
atltl latninar a s well :LS L \ ~ r b t i I ~(~1l0t ~ s .
The correspontling cnsc of a cornprcssiblc circular I:~tnirlnrjet was cvalu:~t.cd1)y
M. Z. JCrzywoblocki 1611 ant1 U. C. I'ack 1831. In the subsonic rcgitnc, tllc tlcnsit,y
on the axis of thc jet is larger, and the tempcraturc is smaller tltan o n its I)o~~ntlary.
Tllese differences arc inversely p r o p o r t i ~ n a lt o the square of the distance from tile
23.1- XI. Axially uynimet.rira1nncl tlrrec-dimrnuionnlhonnrlnrg laycrs n. Exnct soll~tionqfor nxially symmctricnl boundary layers 236

orifice. According t o 11. Goertler [4317 the case when a wcak swirl is sl~perimposed this form, too, being analogous t o that in eqn. (9.34) for tllc two-dimrnsional case.
on the jet can also bc trcated mathematically, and t h e effrct of the swirling motion IIcnce, thc velocity difference turns out t o be
present in tho orifirc can bo tmcrd in the downst.rcam tlirecf.ion. J t turns out t h a t t-l~c
swirl decreases fastcr wit,l~the dist,ancc from t11e orifice th:m tlrc jet vclocit,y on the
axis.
3. The axinlly symmrtric wake. 'rile flow in an axially syn~mctricwakc, SUCII The val\lo of tlrc constant C must be tletermir~cdfrom thc drag with t11c aitl of
as occurs downstream of an axially symmet,ric body ~ l a c c din a strream parallcl to rqn. (11 21); it,s value is
it4 axis, can also be tlcscribctl with tho air1 of tho system of equations ( l l . I Q a , b).
Tho s o l ~ ~ t ~is
i oquit-c
n analogons to that, for the two-tlirncnsionnl case whicl~was tlc-
scribed in dctail in Sec. I X f . Let U, denote the oncoming vclocity and let ~ ( ry) ,
be t,he flow vclocity in the woke. We assume, a s was clone in eqn. (9.20), that, tile wl~rroc, tlcnotcs t.11~drag cocficicnL rcforrrtl 1.0 t l ~ ofrontal arra of t.11~botly, ant1
vclocity differcncc in the wake, R = 11, d / v . JIcnce we ot)tairr
U,(X,Y)= urn - ~ ( x , Y ) (11.19)

is very small compared with U, far downstream. Consequently, we shall neglect

quadratic terms in u,. With this simplification i t is possible to deduce from eqns. The plot of tile velocity difference from eqrl. (11.26) is the same as t h a t in Fig.
(11.10a) and (11.19) t l ~ efollowing differ~nt~inl
equation for 11,: 9.10. Experimcnt.al data can be found in F. R. 1Inmn's worlc [4An].

4. Bor~ndarylayer on a body of revolution. Tho flow of a viscous fluid past

The analytic form t o be assumed for the dependence of the velocity difference
ul(x, y) on t h e axial coordinate, x, and on the radial coordinat.e, y, can be discovered
from the condition t h a t the drag evaluated from the momentum of the wake must
become independent of z a t large distances downstream of the body. This leads to
the relation
03
a body of revolut,ion when the stream is parallel to its axis is of grrat practical impor-
tance. The bounrlary-layer equations have I~ecnadaptcd to this case by E. Boltzc
[lo]. Assuming a curvilinear system of coordinates (Fig. 11.0), we dcnotc by z the
current length measirred along a meridian from the stagnatron point, y denoting the
roorrlinate a t right angles t o the surface. The contour of the body of revolution will
bc specified by the radii r (x) of the sections takcn a t right angles to t l ~ caxis. We
assume t h a t there are no sharp corners so t h a t d2r/dx2 does not assume extrcmcly

D =2 n~ U, / u, . y dy = const, (11.21) large values. The velocity components parallel and normal t,o the wall will be denoted
by u and v , respectively, and the potent.ial flow will be given by U ( x ) . According
to Uolt,ze t,he boundary-layer equations will I hcn assume the form :
which is satisfied by the form
U, = ClJ, 1 (rl)
--
x '
where

wit11 thc boundary conditions :

This form is a n a l o g o ~ ~t so t h a t in cqn. (9.31) for the two-dimensional problem.
Substituting eqns. (11.22) and (11.23) into eqn. (11.20), we obtain a differential
equation for /(q). This is
(?I/')' -1- 2 q2 i' -1- 4 q / = 0 , (11.24)

artd tho boirndary conditions arc I ,.fi

4 i,
/'=o at q = 0 and /=0 at q=oo
u",--1
It is easy t o vrrify t h a t t l ~ csolnt,ior~of eqn. (11.24) has the form of a n exponential,
Fig. 11.6. Ilounrlnry lnyrr nrnr a body
/(7) = exp ( - q2) 9
(11.25) of revolntio~~.
Syatcrn of coordinates
 XI. Axially symmetrical and three-dimensional boundary layera a. Exact solutions for axially symmotrical boundary layers
236

The e q ~ ~ a t i oofn motion in the x-direction is seen t o remain unchanged compared T h e body contour is given by the series
with two-tlirncnsional flow. An order-of-magnitude estimate of terms in t h e equation

ap/aly - -
of motion in the y-direction shows t h a t the pressure gradient normal t o t,ho well
u2/r 1. Coii~equent~ly t h e pressure difference across t h e borrnda.ry layer
is of t01c ortlcr of the borrntlary layer t,hickncss S , and i t is again possible t o assrirne
the potential flow being defined by the series

t,llnt, t , l ~ ~r ~ r c s s ~gr:ltlicnt
ire of the potential stream, ap/ax, is impressed on thc bonnci-
ary I:~.ycr. The diaterico from thc wnll is rcprcuct~tetlhy 1.110tlirncr~sionlra~
coorclinnlo
Wc shall limit t.hc consitlemt,ions of this chapter to the case of ste:~tlyflow.
111orrlcr t o ir~trgratccqrls. (11.27a, b) for the axially symmctric.zl casc i t is oncc
rnorc possible t o ir~troducea stream function l/~(x,y)given b y :
and in analogy with eqn. (11.32), t h e stream-function is represented by the Blasius
series

Substituting eqns. (11.31), (11.32) and (11.35) with (11.36) into eqn. (11.30) and
This t.mnsforms eqn. (11.27a) into comparing terms, we obtain a set of differential equations for the f~inct~ions /3, . . . .
The first eqriation is
1
fir' = - 1; --I--
2
(/iZ - 1 ) , (1 1.35)
where differentiation with respect t o 77 is denoted by primea. The boundary conditions
with t h e boatitlary conditions are :

The first equation of the set is non-linear and identical with t h a t for three-
dilnensional stagnation flow which was considered in See. VlOt. A plot of /; is
Wc now procced t o give a brief account of the rnet,hods used t o calculate tdie sllown in Fig. 5.10, where /; = #'. The equations for the terms in 1 3 and z5 havc 1)ccn
bonntlary layer on a I ~ o d yof rcvolut,ion. A tnore det,ailecl account can be found in a n solved by N. Froessling [29]. The succeeding ten functions of the term 2 7 havc been
earlier ctlition of this book [ l o l l . The numerical results for a sphere, however, will evaluated by F. W. Scholkemeyer [102].
be discossctl in more completpcdetail. The t~orrntlarylayer on a bod!/ of revolulion of
Example : Sphere.
nrbitrrtr?/ .. ~ h a- p ecan be determined 1)y the same method a s that. used in See. [X c for
the caso of a cylinder of arbitrary cross-section (two-dimensional problem). The I n a manner analogous t o t h a t employcd for a circr~larcylinder in Scc. IXo, wc
velocity of the potential flow, U(z), is expantled into a power series in z and the can use the preceding scheme to solvc the casc of the sphcrc. Thc cnrrcnt, rntli~lsfor
s t , r e a t n - f u t ~ c t i o n ,is~ ~assilmed
, t o be represented by a similar series in N, with coeffi- a sphere of radius R is given by
cienta depending on the wnll distance (Blasius series). Following N. Froessling [29]
it, is found t h a t here also the coefficient-functions of y can be so arranged as t o become r (N)= I1 sin x / R , (1 1.37)
intlependent of t,he parameters of any particular problem. In this manner the func- and the velocity distribution a t the surface of the sphere we have
tions can bc calculated once and applied universnlly.
3 3
U(x) = - Urn sin x/R = - U, sin $, ( 1 1.38)
2 2
-

t The oq~mtionof continuity can also ba snlisfied by an'alternative stream function @, such that where $ denotes the central angle measurccl from the sta.gnation point,. Comparing

'Tliix form of bllc st.rcnrn f11notio11was 11scd by E. Boltzo when he calculated non-steady t into eqn. (5.47) for d(Q, i T it i~ rtotircd t,l~at1,
~h~ qtlation for /l(q) tron~fortn~ -= t ~'~atrtl
axinlly symnictricnl borrndary layem, as tJnscribc!d in Scc. XVb2. tl/l/dq = da/tlt.
 I). A p ~ r o x i ~ n nsc)l~~t,ions
tr for nxinlly syni~nrlric1,onntlnry lnyers 2313
t h e t w o wries expnnsiclns for sin (%In)in eqns. (11.37) ant1 (1 1.38), we det,ermille t,he introtlncetl certain ~nln~cricnl rorrrrtions. M. D. GI:ir~rrt rind M. J. LigI~Lhill [41] ol~tninrrl
cocfficicrlt~sof cqn. (1 1.3) a s follows ~0111Lionqhy t l ~ cn~)~lication
of J'ohlliausrn's npl~roxl~nnta method (scc See. X11)) ant1 of nn
~*)ynipt~(~tic
ueries axpnn~ion.Tlin flow along the generators of o cylinder of arbitrary cross-srction
anr, worked out hy .J. C. Caoko [IR] \vllo employeci a Blnsius seriw nn \\ell ns I'ol~lhn~~sen'n np-
~)roxitnnleprocedure.
Tllc nlnrc gc~~crnl msc of n con~prmsil,lr, nxi:llly s y n ~ n ~ r I .Iro~tnclnry
ri~ I;~yaron :I I~ocly
Tlie resultzingvclocit,y dist.rit)rtt,ions for various v a l ~ r c so f t.lrc n.nglc $ nre seen of rcvolr~tio~~ whosc r o n t o ~ ~isr a f~lnction or 1 . 1 1 ~ lo~~p,ilr~rlit~nl c:oortlinnlc, a:, ill ~?:crlir:~l:ar,
i n I'ig. 11.7; for t,l~esograplrs t,hc vclonit,y ?L h a s been con~prltedu p to t , l ~ et e r m 27. t l ~ ccnsos of n circrtlnr cylintlrr nntl n spllcrc, a.cro sl.otliccl by It. I". I'robstcin nnrl I). 1Slliot. [RR].
Tlic vclocitfy profiles for > 90° exhil)it a point of inflexion bcrausc they a r e asso- I1 turnrtl ont t,llnt thc trnnsvcrsc c ~ ~ r v n t u hasr c the S ~ I I I O ~fli\ct,on RIICII I l o ~ swit11 n. prcssur(:
grnelicnl 11s n R I I ~ I ~ I ~ C Ifiivonr:iL)Io
I I I : I ~ ~ ~~rrssttrt!
~ ~ ~ , gr:~tIirnL.As 11 r~>snIt,, 1110 sI~(v~ring xlr~,sgis
ciated with t h e rnnge of prcssnrc incrcnsc:. inrrc~wrclC I I I ~sc:l~rrrnI,ion
I is tlclayctl.
I n connexion wit,h t,llc prot~lcrna t I ~ a n t l ,we can repeat o u r previous rernarlrs
concerning t l ~ cgcnrral prnct.icahilitayof applying n B l a s i t ~ sseries. 'J'llc cnlc~rlnt.iol~ of
tthe fundnn~ent,alcocffiaicnt.~bcyontl t,lrc t,t:t.rn r7 involves a n unaccept>ablenrnogrnt
of con~prlt,at,ion,n.r~dfilrt,hertnorc, t h e calculation of slcntlcr bodics rcclr~iresc o n s i d ~ r - b. Apprnxirnnte s o l u t i n ~ ~for
s nxially crytnme~ric11o1111tlnrylnycrs
al)ly Inore t,c:rnls. All t.11is pr~t.sn very severe 1irnit.ntion o n this mettrod. F o r frrrther
resnlts concerning s p l ~ c r e s r, ~ f e r c n c esl10111(1b0 rna.tle t,o t h e s ~ ~ c c c c t l isection.
~ig I. Approxiniarc iolr~tioris Ior bou~iilnrylayers nn bodies w l ~ i c h(lo rant rotati:.
'I'llc npproxirnat,c ~ n c t l ~ ofor-Jltc
tl s o l n t i o t ~of tllc d i k r c n L i a l cqnntions of bor~l~ilnr.y-
Inycr f l o ~f o r t\vo.cii,rncl!sionn! stfitly prhtlc~;ls wl!ici~ \ ; a s , p ~ c s c ~ ~ ~ ,in c ctlr(.:~il
l in
x
(:11n1). c : ~ n, b e c x t c r ~ t l c tt,? ,. . of a:i?!~y sy,ntn~c~tj:x~l
~ t h. e. .,ens: now: h ~ ~ $ ~ ) ~ ~ ~ ! ~
t l t h e cnlculi~t.iol;'ortorlntlary iaycrs o n bo(!ic? of r c y o l u ~ i o n111 nxin.1 flow
~ i i r t l ~ ofor
a.ns -fil.s€ ifiiliEZtcd b j ~C.'q.-'Milliltiiri [76J. I)OII~II~IISCII'S a p p r o x i m a t e nlcl.liotl of
c5l&llnt,ioti iLl;ikh was describiil in Chap. X a n d w l ~ i c lis~ bn+cl o n a polynomial
of 4 t h tlcgrec w x i ' dxt.cndcd by S. Tomotilta [116, 1171 t,o it~clutlo:I body of r c -
vti1iil.io11.
'I'hc following n c c o ~ i n of
t t l ~ cmot.hod a s applied t o 1)otlir.s of revolnt,ion is I~nsccl
on t h e work of F:W. Schollrerneier [102], who used t h e m o d e r n version of t h e
niornrllt,l~rncc1un.t ion in a sin1il:~rw a y t o t,l~nbcrnployctl I)y 11. 1lolslci11a t ~ t'Il.'. J3ol1lt~n
fix t\~c.,cxsc of two-tlimensio~lal flow. 'Cite ~ n o m c n t ~ cc\nnt.ion ~m fiw tllc axially
s y ~ n ~ n r t . r i c cnso
nl is obtninctl in t,llc snlnc wn.y a s t,l~nt,11sc.11in Scc. V J I l t l 1'01. t11(:
t.\vo-tlin~t:tisionnl case. SLart,ing with r q n s . (11.27n., I)) \tro o b t : ~ i ~ r t

t 'I'l~cdrfi~~itiona
r~nploycdfor t l ~ otlin~)l:icc~nr~~t,
I~l~irknrss,
(?I,z111d 1.11~: I I I ~ I I I ~ I I ( ~ IIIl~~I i ( ~ l i ~ ~ ~ ' s s ,
<\,, of n bon~,tl:w~ r n Irotly 01 rrvolr~tionnrc t.lle ~ : L Iss
l ~ y r olr I Ii~n 1:llc t.\v~~-clit~rrnsio~~:rI
r:\so.
ct111" (8.30) and (R.31), \vitl~!I tlrnoI.ing thc coorcli~~nla
a t right. nnglr.s Irr t l ~ c\v:III.So~nc:Iit~~c-s.
I~on.c.vc.r,slipl~llytlifli-rrnt tlt~linitionsl ~ n v rI ~ r r n11arel [122]:
Trnr~sversecarvnlure. We llnvc! statre1 rcprnt,cdly t.llxt the rqllnt,iolt of lllotion (11.27n)
of an nsinlly syn~tnnI,ric:flow 11ns 1.11~ snrnc for111as tliat for t . 1 t~, w o - d i ~ ~ ~ r : ~ ~mse ~io~
o~ily
~ : i I011
contlition t,lr:tt bl~cl)o~~t~~lnr.y-ln.ytrr trlrirknms is cvcrywl~r!rcIIIUCII stnnllcr t11nn 1 . 1 1 ~r n t l i l ~of~ t l ~ c
cor~l.o~lr of tlir I)o(ly (R< r). 'Illis contli0iot1 is 11o1.~ ~ t v i ~inf it ~ .1d1 ~case of n 1o11gbut t.11ir1 cylintlcr
or, for thnt ~nntt,er,in t.lle c:n.sc of nny long and ~lcnderf)otly of rcvolul~ion.'I'l~cbor~nrlnryI:rycr
on sr~rltR I)otly gro\vs ( I O W I I R ~ , ~ P ~ Iand
I I iLq I , l ~ i c ~ l ~bc60111cs
~ l ~ ~ s s cornpZrnl)lc wit11 t l ~ crrltli~~s cvc~l-
t.onlly. 'l'ltis I~ringsint,o rvi~lt:~~ce tho rsnc:l~l.i:~ll.v I . l ~ r c c - t l i ~ ~ ~ c ~~~lnnitor ~r)f
~r on ISllo
l I)o~~~ltl:lryInyrr
on n I)otly of rovolr~I.ion\rrl~ie-l1rrs111Iafro111I,l~econ~~~:rrnl,ivcly large cr~rvnb~rrc of (he surfnro
o l tho body in t . 1 1 ~trannvrrsc direction. 'I'llc f:ictnr ( 1 -1 ?//I) taltrs into acnonnt t.11~rirrnn~nl.n~~c:n f.1111tI.II(. vrloc-il,y I! at. n rlisli~trrc:
R,.A. Srhnn ~ n t R. r, -- a = ronst, fnrln f.l~c wall is aqsocinlcd with the volrln~cflow wllich ~rllssc.41.11rong~l n sl,ri{~01 \ v i t l l l l (I!/.
plnccd in a nrriforrn axial S I ~ ~ C : ~1l1c ..
l Jk)ntl [95] t,rmt,rtl I.lir mso of n nlcntlcr rylinrlcr, of rnrli~~n
I I I .RRIIIO J)~OI)ICIII was sl,11dird Oy 11. 11. I<olly [ G o ] \vho '1711is~ O ~ ~ I isI Ilarger
~ C by n factor ( 1 4- y/r) L I I ~ I I t l ~ n \vl~irl~
t pnssrs I,llrongl~n flat. nrr:i of u.itll.l~
2 1 r.
 I). ~\pprt~xirnnt,c?
solr~t,io~~n
for nxially nyrnrnrtric 1)01111rl:try
Inyrrs 241
240 XI. Axially symmetrical and three-dime~isionalboundary lnyera

The significance of r ( x ) m a y be inferred from Fig. 11.6. Retracing the steps of

Some nunleriral examples have been calrulated
i n llis tiles;spr;scrlkcd t-o tlij T-E"-----'--
7--.- -8- ..by F.
- --
W. Sc!loll~emcier [I021
- -.--
< n lnecrlng Univcrs~tya t DraunscIlwcig as w c ~ Ia s
Sec. X b we obtain t h e following differential equation for t h e quantity Z = cJ,~/v: in7fli^oi)ai)er by J I'retscl~ [aij,"BlEailj; qiioX6d. 9 . Toinotika [117] calcnlatctl the
bountlary lkyer on a s ~ > l ~ cfoFaY$ii@
rc of Reynolds: numbers using l ) o t l ~potrrit.ial
ant1 ~ncnsurctl~ ) r t s s u r edistribntions,. A-- comparison
- . with mcasurcmrnt is given \)y
A Fnge [27], ant1 frlrther results of mcasurcments akc cGnl,Si~iEdin a paper I)y
'rile qu:mtit,irs I i , f l ( R ) , fz(lC) have the same moaning a s in tho two-dimensional
case, eqns. (10.27), (10.31) nnd (10.32). Introducing E'(IZ) as before, cqn. (10.34),
W Moc-ll(~17(;] -
111 conncxion it, is IISCI'II~ Lo ~ncntion A . Micllallco's 1741 t.l~rol,ct,icalarid
we 11ave
experinlcnt,;il invest.igat.ions on a rol.at.ionally symmetrical r:ozzlc.
1 dr U
F(K)-2K--,I; K=ZUt. (11.40)
dz U r dz U 2. Flow in tile etttrnnce of n pipe. I n this connexiorl it, may be wor.t.ll tlrnwing
attention to another axially-symmetrical boundary-laycr problcn~, namely t h a t
I t is casy t o see t h a t the substitution
associat,ctl wiLh larnirlar flow in the inlct port,iorl of a ~ t i p c Strictly
, sl)calti~lg,t.his
g=r2Z is not a problem in t~oltntlnry-layertheory I)nt il, has bccr~solvccl with the aitl of
tncthods similar to thc ones now bcing considcrctl. 'l'hc initially rcctangltlar vclocit,y
transforms the prcrcding equation t o the form tlist,ril)ul.ion in the entrancc scction of t01e pipc (z-=0) is gradl~allyt,mrlsforn~ctl
irlt,o a ~)nrnl)olic:,l'oiscr~ille, tlistril)r~t.ion11.y t,hc acl.iorl of viscous forces as sct:tior~s
furthcr dowr~st,reatn arc consitlercd. %'he arlalogo~~stwo-dimcr~sior~al prohlcni,
narncly laminar flow in the inlet portion of a rectangular channel, has alrcady
This form is preferable t o t h a t in cqn. (11.40) because i t does not contain the been consitleretl in Sec. I X i on t h e basis of the dilTercntial equations of boundary
derivative drldx. layer flow. The approximate mctliod tluc t,o L. Sr.ltiller (961 is basctl on a n oqunt.ior~
The point of separation is again a t A = - 12, i. e. a t Ii = - 0.1567, but which cxyresses the condition of cqnilibrium betwcol momentum, pressure drop
a t the st,agnation point t h e values of tfhe shape factors A and K are now different. arltl viscous dm,g i n a manncr similar to thc momcntum cql~atioridiscl~sscdearlicr.
I f the body of revolution has a blunt nose, we have a t x = 0 , i. e. a t the tip st re an^ 'I'lle velocity profiles in the inlet portion of the pipe arc approximated by a const,ant
stagnation point, velocity near t h e n.xis of the tube combined with t,wo tangent portiorls of a pxrabola
near the wall, so t h a t a t the wall t,lle vclocity becomcs equal t o zero. A t the inlet
section the wiclt,h of the parabolic portlions is zero and increases downstream until
they coalesce into a single parabola a t a definite tlistance from the entrancc. This
With this value the terms in the bracket in cqn. (11.40) reduce to F ( K ) - 2 Ii. dist,ance const.itrlt,es the t,hcoret,ical initial Icngth, and its nlagnitnde, as calculated
B y following the same argnment a s in tho two-dimensional case i t is found t h a t the by I,. Schiller, is given by x v/R2 1; = 0-115. Mcasurcmcnts j)crformccl by J. Nilruradse,
initial valnr of Ii a t the stagnation point is deterrninetl by t h e condition F ( I i ) - 2 R =
-- 0 , or, explicitly
A, = -t 4.716 ; R, = 0.05708 .
-
Fig. 11.8, show good agreement with Schillcr's thcory for about a third of t h e initial
length near t,lic ent,rance (about x v/R2 12 0.04). The act,ual transition to a parabolic
velocity profile appears to proceed more slowly than implied in the approximate
calcrllat,ion. Owing to tho accclcration impnrtccl t.o thc fluid near the ccnt,er khe
I l r n r r the initial valtrrs of thc intcgml rrlrvc (11.40) a t thc stagnation point l)cronic prcswirc drop in t,lle cntrancc increases comparrtl with t h a t of a developed flow.
K 0.05708 'I'hc addit.iona1 pressure tlrop a t thc entmncc is A p = 1.16 p 1Z2/2. An approximate
7 - -.!.
'0 - ur,, -1
u', I solntion t,o this problem was also given by 11. 1,. I,anghanr [65].
.
rl l i c flow in the ent,mncc rcgion of a pipe was st,ntfird by 11. l'l~nnis1891 in t,l~e

year 1947 and, more recently, by E. M. Sparrow e t al. [I OFa].

The initrial slope is zero for a body of r e v o l ~ t ~ i o nbecause
, for reasons of symrnctry
we must, have (I,,'' = 0 a t t.hc st:~grrat,ionpojnt. 'l'hc mctllotl of tlircct integration
tlrscribetl in Scc. X b can hc cxtendcd t,o the case of axially symnictrical bodies,
a s shown by N. l t o t t and 1,. F. Crabtree [931. Equation (10.37) for the momcntuln
~t.hiclrnessis now rcplacctl by
The flow 1)eco~nesmuch more complex in axially syn~mctricalflows in cases
wl~cnthere cxist,s a tangential (whirl) component, in atltlition t o thc lo~lgit~utlirlal
componcnt, which dccays in tlic downst,rean~direction. This problem was invcsti-
gated by L. Talbot [I101 and L. Collatz and 13. Goertler [14]. Assuming t h a t t,he
whirl component of velorit,y is small compared with the axial vclociCy of 1Iagen
and Poiscuillc, it is possible to comp11t.c the former by formulating a bountlary-value
1)roblcni in relation to a linear diffcrctltial equat,ion of second order whosc first
rigcnval~lcs have bccn evaluatctl. According t,o Tnll)ot, 1,110 whirl cornponent
242 XI. Axially nymtnct.riral and tl~rrr-tli~rrrtrsio~~al
1)onri~l:~ry
Inyrra
Fig. 11.8. Velocity distribr~bionin t,hc inlet port.ion of n pipe for the lnn~inarca.se; mennrlrc-
ments perfornicrl by Nikuradac and quotrd from Pranc1t.l-Tiet.jen vol. TI. 'l'lieory drrc to
Scliillrr (901
llns prarf irally tlrcayctl al, :I clistancc of 40 pipe radii whcn t t ~ cRcytrol(ls nuntber
has a \.alrrc of R = 10:' This is in good agreement with experimental results.
3. Rour~clnrylayrra on rotating bocliea of revolution. TIIF simplest cxarnplc of
e bounclary laycr on a rotaling hotly is tli:~tconsiderod in Scc. V b 11, namely the
problctn of a dislc rotating in a fluid at, rest,. The lluitl p r t i c l c s which rotate with the
bounda,ry laycr arc thrown outwards owing t o the existcrlce of centrifugal forces
('cent.rifuging') anti are rcplaccd by part,icles flowing towards the boundary layer
in a n axial direction. Tlic casc of a dislc o f mtlitts I< rot.nt,ing with a n angr~larvclocity
o in a n axial sl.rc:~m of velocity U, :~lTordsa simplc cxtcnsior~of the previous
problem. I n t<hclat,t.cr case the flow is govcrnctl I)y two parameters: the Rcynoltls
number and the rot,af ion pammetcr, U,/Rw, which is given by t,he ratio of frec-
st.rcam t o tip vclocity. An cxact solution t o t h e problem l ~ r ~ d econsiclcration
r was
given 11y Mi* D. M. Ilannah [46]t and A. N. Tiffortl 1.1131 for tho case of laminar
flow; IT. Salllicl~tingand R. Truckcnbrotlt [98] provided a n approximate solution.
E. Trttclrcnbrotlt 11191 invcst8igaf,ed t h e case of tnrbulent flow. .Figure 11.9 cont,ains
a plot of the torqnc coefficient,, C, = ilf/g e (2R" in terms of the Reynolds
numbcr and rotation parameter, U,/ll(u, obtained from such calculations. Ilere M
clrnotcs t h e t,orquc on tllc lcatiing side of t h e dislz only. When tlie clislz rotatcs we
may stmillassumc Ifhat separation occurs a t t h e edge of the disk. 'l'he 'stn.gr~ant,'
fluit1 Ilcllintl tllc clislr part,ly rot,n.tcs will1 thc,clislz ant1 c o n t , r i b ~ ~ t lit,l,le
rs
tortlltc. Any such contribr~tionhas been lcft n t of account in 7 in Fig. 11.9.
P (,
I t is seen t h a t Llie torque increases rapidly wi 11 U , a t constant angular velocity.
t Arl.~inllyrrf. 1381 solvm n rrl:rlr~lprol,lrrn i r r nrltic~l1t,lit! cxtcrnal ficltl in t.l~:ct, rluc to '& source
a t it~finity.
b. Approximate aolutiona for axinlly apmmctric honndary lnyer~ 243
Pig. 11.9.
Moment cocllicient on
a rotating disk in axial
flow, aftor Gchlichting
and Truckenbrotlt
[98, 1 191
W4 2 4 6 WS 2 4 6 106 2 4 6 lo7
Reynolds number R =g$
Thc flow in a circular box provided with a rotating lid shows a marlzcd rcscm-
blance t o t h a t between two rotating dislts mentioned in Scc. V b 1 1 . 7'11t! cnse
of the flow inside the box was investigated in deLail by 1). Grohne [44] who disco-
vered two peculiar features in i t : First, the flow i n the friction-free core in tlie
interior of t h e box can only be determined by taking into account t,he inllncnrc of
tlie boundary layers which form on the wall, in contrast t o normal cascs wlicn onc
naturally assumes t h a t t,hc influence of tho flow in a bot~ntlarylayer rcsu1t.s at, most
in a d.isplaccment. Secondly, the bonndary laycrs arc u n ~ ~ s u iarl~t h a t they join car11
other. Siniilarly, in the arrangement consis1.ing of R rota1,ing channrl irivc?stligat,ctl
by IT. 1,11dwieg [68], i t is possiblc t o discern two rcgior~sof flow when the spc:ctl of
robat,ion is sr~fficic?nt.ly
high, ttamcly a fric;l.ionlcss corc ant1 1)ottndnry layrrs which
form on the side walls ancl which givc risc t.o a secontlary flow. 'l'hc t.hcory lcads
t o a large increasc of t,hc drag cocfficicnt w l ~ i c lis~ dnc to rotation, ant1 this fact has
been confirmed by experiment.
Blunt boclies, sncli a s o. a. a sphere or a slcr~tlcrbody of rcvolut.ion, 11lacctl in
axial streams, show a markccl influcr~ccof rotnt,ion on dmg, a s cvitlrnc.ctl I)y t.11~
mcasr~rements performed by C. Wicsclsbergcr 11231, ant1 S. 1,11t.I1:~ntlcr ant1
A. Rydberg [69]. Fig. 11.10 contains a plot of thc drag cocfficict~tof n rotating
s p l ~ c r ein terms of the Rcynolds numbcr. I t is sccn 181iat Lhc critical Rcynoltls
number, for which the drag coefficient dcrrcascs abrnpt,ly, depends strongly O I I tlic.
rot,at.ion paramcl,er U,/Roj, and the same is trtle of t . 1 1 ~position of 1 . 1 1 ~poitit, of snl):~ra-
tion. The effect, of rotary motion on bllc posi1,ion of 1,hc line of lan1irln.r sc.pnr:~l.iot~ on
t o t,he by lhc grc~pliin ltig. I I . I I ; 1,Ilc(IILI,IL ror it IIILVO I)~Y;II ~ ~ o I ~ I ~ ~ I I I ~ I ~ I I
a s p l ~ c r ris tl(;st~il~t:(l
by N. E. lloskin [50]. When the rotatmion para.mctcr 11:~s al,tdinrtl t,11c vnl~~c:
Q = wR/[J, = 5, t>heline of sepnm.t,ion will have moved by about l o 0 in 1,hc 11p-
st,rean~direction, as compared with a sphere a t rcst. 'l.'hc physicnl ren.son for this
beflaviour is connected with the centrif~tgalforces act,ing on t,l~cfluit1 parLiclcsrolat,ing
wit,]i tile body in its bour;tlary layer. Tlrc crl~l.rif~tgal forces have tlic sn,111cr n i ~ n.s t nn
atltlit.ionn1 pressure gratlirnt dircct,etl townrtls t,l~cplntie of I,ltc erl~tn.t,or.
 244 X I . Axially symmrtriral nnd tlrrcc-dirncrrsionnl borrndary lnyers c. Itrlation hel:ween axially ~y~ntnctricnl
and t ~ ~ o - c I i ~ ~ ~ c ~I,onntl;rry
~ a i o ~ r ; rI;ryr~s
l 245

ancl t.ho displacement and tnonrentum thicknesses arc defined as

m m I

Fig. 11.10. i)r:lg coefficirntr,

o i n rotnt.ing spl~crri l l axinl
flow in trrtns of tlrc ltrJr-
rrolds number R and rotn-
tion Imra~nrtrr.Q - ioR/lI,
In the procctling eq~~ntionn, the local pcriphcrnl velocity w, -
r u) Iraq 11,cencl~onen,w n rofc!rcnr:c
veloc~ityfor the a7.im11talconrl~oncnt,w,(x, 2). 'l'ho preceding oquatiorrs ~r~:rke it possil)lr Lo pcrforrn
crrlcr~lnLionsfor Inltrinar as well as for turbulent flows, i t being necessary to irrtrodrrcc d i f i r r n t
expression8 for the shearing stress a t the wall in the latter (:me (see ref. [R4] and Sec. X X l l c ) .
In some of the cases, it proved possible to evaluate the drag coefficient in addiLion to t,he t,r~rning

0 I
- -
2 3 4
I 5x105
a9 111eaq11redhy I,uthatrdcr
and R\ilhrrg [0!1]
tnomrnt,, the former decreasing as the parameter mR/Um is increased. In this connexion, the papen
I)y C. It. Illir~gwortl~ [54] and S. T. Clru and A. N. TilTbrcl [13] may nlso hc st,ndied. The appro-
xilr~ateprocedarc conceived by EI. Schlichting [98] was extenrlcd to cornpressit~leflows by .I. Y;r-
R = O"D nlnga [125]. The preceding investigntions have been extcnded for laminar as well ns for t.nrl)ulent.
1, tlows by theoretical and experin~ental investigation^ described in ucveral papers by ,Japanese
nr~thors[29n, 10, 01, 79, 801.
h t.lrcorct.i(.:~lc?cpl;~nntioliof t,lrc vrry conrplcx thrrc-di~nrlrsionnlcll'ccb in the boundary
1:ryrrof rotating I~odicsof rcvolr~t.ionin axi:~lflow is contained in the papers by H. Schlichting [00], l'rohlcnrs connected with laminar flow nboet a uphere rotating in a flrlid at, resL IIGVO II(:I;II
IC. 'I'rr~cltrr~l~rotll~
[I181 ant1 0.I'arr 1841; tlrcse authors onployed the approxitnato method discirssed by I.. Ilowarth [51] and S. I). Nigam [All. An extension to the case involving ellips-
!:xplairrrd earlior. I t is l.rne that the borrndi~ry layer of a rotating body of revolution oids of revoh~t.iorr wns provided by B. S. Fadnis p6]. Near tho poles, the flow is L11e same as
In axial flow still rctains it^ axial syn~mct~ry, t ~ n owing
t t o the rotation there appears a peripheral on a rotating disk and near the equator i t is like the one on a rotatin cylinder. The acrorr~panyi~~g
vc1ocit.y cotnponer~tin adtlit.ion to that in the ~ncridionaldirection. For this reason, the calculation secondnry s t r e a n ~causes fluid particles to flow into the boundary yaycr near the poles, nntl out.
for st1c.11a I)o~lntlsr,ylayor 111usLint,rodrrce a ~nornentomeqnat.ion in the circ~~mferential direction of it a t the equator. The rate of this secondary flow increases with increasing slenderness, the
(11-direr:t,ion) in atlclit.ion Lo t.lrat in tho nrcrirlional tlircction (x-direction). Assuming that the cqr~abrialarea and peed of rotation remaining constant. However, the phenomena in the
al~gr~lnr vclocit,y of t.11~I~odyis io, ant1 ilcnoting t,he coordinate a t right angles to the wall by y, plnno of the equator where the two boundary layers ilnpir~qcon each other and are thrown
wr ran writ.(: 1.11~l.wo erlr~at.i~lrs of ~ I I ~ I ~ C ~ ~ in
, I It IhI ?I for111
outwards can no longer be analyzed with the aid of boundary-lnyer theory, el. W. 11. If. Banks [5a].
Further theoretical and experimental investigations of t.his problem have been later under-
taken by 0.Sawatzki [94] and by P. Dumsrgr~ee t al. [21a]. Reference [94] describes n~edsure-
rnenls d the torque exerted on a rotating sphere in the range of Ibynolds number 2.105 < R <
1.5 x 106 which goes far beyond the laminar regime. The invwtigntion of Ref. [21 a] included
the vi~r~nlizntionof the spiral strenmlines near the wnll on n sphere nnd on cones of various in-
clntlod angles as they occur'in laminar flow.
r .
I hr romponent,~or the shearing stress a t thc wall are then given by
I t has been observed that in axial turbomachines there may, under certain cireomstances,
appear an extended zone of dead fluid in tho whirl bcl~indthe row of stationary blntles ant1
ncnr the hub. This 1,henornenon was described in great detnil by K. J3antmert and H. Klaeukens
[5]. The origin of this dead-water area is conneckd wiLh the radial increase in prcssurr in l.110
ontwnrtl direction which i~ due to the whirl. Owing to tho whirl the axinl pressure inerrme nrnr
llrc huh in the bladelorn annulus behind the guides is much greater tllar~a t the outer wall. The
itrfluent:~of tho houndory layer is here only ciecontlrrry. ALLonl,ion rrr!ly, f ~ ~ r t h eho
r , (lrnwn Lo
an invc:sbigaLion tluo Lo I<. I3nmrncrt nnd ,I. Schocn [4] concerning 1.110 Ilow I.lrror~gl~ IL roLallinl:
l~ollowshaft. I t is observed thnt n funnel-like free surface is forlned a t the exit, owing to I.IIc
inbraction between centrifugal and viscous f o r m .

c. Rclatinn between axially symmetrical and two-dimensional boundary layers;

~ i g 11.11.
. Position of line of laminar
separation on a spllero rotating in axinl
stream, after N. IF. lfosltin [SO]
Mangler's transformation
The preceding considerations demonstrate that the calculatior~ of an axially
symmetrical boundary layer is, generally speaking, more difficult than that of
a two-dimensional boundary layer. That this is the rase (.an be npprcciatctl if i t is
rrmembered that the flow field in a two-dimensior~albol~ndnrylayer, say on a rylintler
246 XI. Axinlly sy~nnirt~ric-nl I)or~ntlnryI:iycrs
rind tI~n~r-tli~nrrrsio~~:ll

in cross-flow, tlrprntls only on lrhn potat~l,i:~l v c l o ~ i t ~tlistril)cltiot~,

y IJ(z). By ront.r:~st,,
w11orr 1, ~ l c t ~ o t ar sconst,arit I~tngth.I t c n ~ c ~ ~ i b c r it nh g
at
wl~cna n axially syrnmctrical I)ol~ndarylaycr is stutlictl, for cxatnplc t h a t on a
rotating 1)ody of revolntion, i t is fortntl Ifhat t l ~ ccontour r ( a ) of the botlg enters
explicitly into thc corresponding rq~lations.Tile present section is clcvotctl l o x
more tlot,ailctl invcst,ignl,io~~ir~l,o1 . 1 1 ~rolntion 1)ctwc~cntwo-tli~nc.~~sit)t~:il nlicl axi:illy
symmntric l~orrr~rlary Inycrs. it, is rasy to verify ttllat 1.l1csyst,rm of c.clrt:iI,ions ( 1 I .GO) l,mnsfortns ir11,ooclns. ( 1 1 .4!))
I1.y t,lln rrsc: of LIto sr~bsl~itulions
( I l .GI).
In st,en.tly flow t J ~ cOo~~ntlary-layor rqrr:rt.ior~sfor Lwo-tlitncnsiond flow :~ntlfnr
axially symmot~ricalflow are giver1 I)y cqns. (7. lo), (7.1 I ) nntl ( I 1.278, h), rospectivrly. ' ~ I I c hountla,ry layer on a 1)otly of rovol~ttionr ( z ) having tho itlr:~l~)ol,rt~t.ial
l'hc lnt,tfcrrcfcr t o a crlrvilir~cnrs y s t c ~ nof c:oortlin:~.l.c:s witall z tlolo1,ing t , l ~ cttrrrnl,
r vc:loril.y tlisI,ril)clf.ion I J ( z ) nnn l)c cv:tltial.c:tl by t:on~l)nting ~ J I Ct,\vo-(litllr~~sio~~:~I
arc: Icr~gt~hnntl y tlrnot,ing {,l~o tlist,nncc from t J ~ rwall in :L tlirrt-t,ior~normal t , if.. ~ l)o~~n(l:~ l:tycr o(:?),
, r y for tt, vcloc:il,.y tli3l,ril)11l,ion \vItc:ro / J r-: ZLII(IZ ti11(I :I:tire r(;l~il~(t(l ,
The rcspcctivc vc1ocit.y componctits n.rc tlcnotctl I)y I L nntl v , and l,lln mn.gllit,rltlcs I)y oqns. (1 I . G I ) . I l : ~ v i ~ tc~alcrtli~t,rttl
g I.llc voloc.il.,y o o r n p o t ~ o l ~ii,
l . ~nrltl 6 for 1 . 1 1 ~l.\vo-
wit.11 a bar rcfcr t,o tho two-tlinicnsio~~d cnsr. Wit.11 these syml)ols, wo Itavo for tlitr~ctl~iottal I)ortr~tl:~ry Inycr it is possil)lo tlo tlclcrrnine t,l~ocon~poncntnI* nntl I T or
tho two-tlinirnsional cn,sc: tltc n.xinlly symmct.rical borlntlnry laycr $1i t l ~tjl1c. nit1 of t11c t,mnsforlnnt,ion rclrra-
tions (11.51).
r
111r tnctl~odnl:Ly I)(: I)c~talfcr
7
rlntlcrsl~ootlwiI.l~l , l ~ cn.itl of tlro following cx:~.mplc.
caii
az
aii
.-=U
a/
- dB
.-
dli:
,-,,arii ' aii 8ii
aT t -a? = o ; Wc s11:~llconsitl~rroI.:~l.io11:~11y syrntnc:t.ri(::~lstagrlat.ion flow, for wltiol~

for t.hc axially symn~ct~ricnl

vasr
Iloncc, from r q n . (11.51), we Itavo

I l r r e ~ ( z dcnot.cs
) tJto (list,ancc of a point, on t11c \va.ll frotn I.llc axis of symmnt.ry. l ' l ~ c~)ol.rnI.ialflow of t l ~ cassociat~ctltwo-tlimct~sionalflow bccornrs
Tllr first eqnnfions of l)ot,l~systems nro iclrnt.icn1, t.he tliffrrrncr 1)ring or~l,yin t.l~c J - ---
npprnrnncy of t , l ~ rrntlirls ~ ( n . )in t.11~rqrtn.l,ion of conI,innit,g. U(2) = u, 113 L22 ,

It, sc~cms1.1111srcasot~nl~lc to inqnire ~vltelllrrit, is gossil)lo 1.0 intlic.at.c a trmns-
fortnal,ion wl~icll~voultlpermit t.11c nsn of t,l~nsoltrt.ions of Lltc two-tlirnrr~sionnlcast:
1.0 tlrrivc solr~f,ionsof 1,llc n.xinlly syn~rnrt,ricnlcase. Such n gc%ncmlrr:1at,ionsI1il)
bctwocn t,wo-dimcnsiond nntl n.xially symmetrical I~ounrlarylayers Itas bccn clis-
covcrctl by ITT. RTn.t~glrr[72]. I t rr(lrlccs t l ~ ocalcnlat,ion of t,l~cInnlirrn.r 11orlntla.ryInyor
for a.n n.xially s.yinmct,ric.:~lbotly t,o tl~nf,o t ~a cylintlricnl I)otly. 'l'he givcn hotly of
revol~lt,ionis nssocin.18rtlwit.11n.11 itlcnl pot,cnl,inl vclocit.y dist,ril)ntion for n rylint1ric:ll
t~otly,t l ~ fr~ncl~ior~
c Lcing rnsily calcnlatfctl frotn t,he cor11,ntlr:rntl tJlc pot,cnt,inl vcloci1.y
tlist.ril)tlt,intr or t.11~botly of rovol~tl.ion.Mnnglrr's tfmnsf'ormation is also valitl for
coml)rcssil)lt: I)otlr~tlnryIn.ycrs, n.s well ns for t11c:rmnl boundary 1:iycrs in In.tnil~:ir
flow. W r sh:1.11, I~owcvrr,consitlcr il, here only in rclat,ion to incornprrssil)lo flow.
According t,o Manglrr, 1 . h ~cqrin.t.ions wl~ic:l~
t.m.nsform tJle coortlin:~.t.esant1 1I1t:
velocit.ics of t.hc xxinlly syn~mct.ricnlprol)lcm to t,hosc of t.he eqiiivalcr~ttwo-tlimcns-
ional prol)lrm n.rc a s follows:
Z flow tlrprntls o t ~ l yon onr sp:~cr:coortlil~:il.o,:~.ntlt,lro l,wo vc:loc:it,y con~l)c)t~ottls
so t h a t 0 ( ~ =) C 5' , W ~ I C ~ (C: dcnotrs a constant. 'rllc associat.~dtwo-tlitnct~-
sior~a.lflow bclongs t o thc (:lass of w ~ t l g cflows disoussotl in Sce. 1 X a ant1 is givcn
+
by I1 = C an', with m = for tllc present c x a t n ~ ~ l cl'rom . cqn. (9.7) wc find t.11~
wc~lgc nnglp P = 2 m / ( m-1-1) = 4. Tllc assocint,ctl two-tlimcnsiot~dflow is t.ltat
past a wcdgc wit,h a n anglc n P .= n/2. '1'11~ fact tllnt nxinlly symmct.rical stagnn,l.ion
Ilo\v rat1 11e rcdttced t o tllc case of flow past, a wcdgc whosc angle is n/2 wa.s st,nt,etl
in Scc. 1 X a and is now confirmed.
11. Three-clin~ensio~~nl
Lo~tntlnrylnyers
IJttbil now wc have restricted or~rsrlvcsallnost cxc:lrlsivcly Lo t l ~ econsitlcra1,ion
of two-tlitnrr~siond:mtl axially sylnmct.rical prol~lcrns.1'rol)lcms of t.wo-tlinlct~siot~al
nncl of nsinlly syrnn~cl,ricnlflow havo t l ~ i sin ronimon l.ltat t,l~o1)rcscril)otl ~)ol,c:nt.in.l
i l l l.11(:
Irortntlnry I:~ycrtlc:pcntl on t,wo space roortIin:~t,cs(\:LCII. [II I,IIc cnsc ol' n I , l ~ t ~ ( ~ ( : - t l i ~ ~ ~ t : t ~ - -
sional 1)orrntl:iry lnycr the cxhcrnal 11otcrtt.ial llow clcpcntls on two coortlin:r.I.cs in
t,l~cw:~llsrlrfaco ant1 t.ltc llow willtin tllc 1)ountlnry laycr posscsscs all t l ~ r c cvcloci1.y
componrnt,~wllicl~,moreover, t l c p o ~ ( lon all t,hrce spxco coort1irl;~l~cs in t,l~cgcncr:~l
tmc. 'l'llc flow abont a tlislc rot,nl,ing in a fluid a t rest (Scc. VI)) and rotnt,ion in t l ~ c
nc~ig11l)ourllootlof a fixctl wall (Scc. X l a ) cor~st,it~t~tr cxarnl)lrs of t,l~rcn-tlimcnsionnl
I)ol~ntl:~ry I:~yors,rrpnrl from Ijcing cxnol solr~l~iol~s of tllc Nibvier-Sl,ol<osccltin.l,io~~s.
248 XI. Axially symmetrical and three-dimensional borrndnry layers

I f the streamlines of the potential motion are straight lines which either converge or the corlclrlsion t,lln(,in bllc frictional terms of the equat,ions for the z- and z-tlircctior~s,
diverge then, essentially, t h e flow differs from a two-dimensional pattern only in t h a t re~pcct~ively, it is possible t o ncglect'thc tlcrivat,ivcs with respect t o tllc coordinaLes
there is a change in t h e boundary-layer thickness. On t h e other hand, if the potential \vllicll are parallel t o the wall as against tlre derivative with rcsprct t o t,llo coortlinat.r
motion is curvet1 the pressure gradient across the streamlines of t h e potential flow a t right nnglcs t o it,. Itcgartling the equation in the y-tlirecliorr wc again obl,niri t.lrc
impressing itself upon t h e boundary layer gives rise t o additional influences, such a s result t,liat ap/i)?y is very small and may be neglectetl. Thus the pressure is sect1 t o
secondary flow: out,sidc t h e boundary layer the transverse pressure gradient is depend on x and z alone, and is impressed on trhc borr~lda.ryIaycr hy the pot.ct~t,i:ll
baln.nced with t,he centrifugal force, but wit,11ir1it t,11c cer~trifl~galforces are clccrcasccl flow. 'lllo c-st,irnr~.l,iot~
ft~rl.l~c,r
sl~o\vst.l~at,,g o ~ ~ c r n lsl yp c ~ ~ I < i IIOII(:
t ~ g , 01. t.Jl(:
(.011\11~.f ivt'
because of the decrcasetl velocities and, consequer~tly,the pressure gradicnt causes trrrrts may I)e ornitLetl. 'l'lle trllrec-tlilnensio~~aI liountlary-layer cqrrat.iotls arc, t(l1r11,as
ms.ss t o flow inwards, i . e. towards the concave side of t h e potential streamlines. follows:
T h e rotation of air over a fixed wall affortls a n example of this bellaviour ant1 illustrates
t h e existence of a flow inwards.
A furt,ller example of sccondary flow is affordcd by the mot.ion on the sidewall
of the channel formctl I)y turbine or compressor blades or by a deflector. The bound-
ary laycr which forms on tthc wall dcvclops a sccondary flow from the pressure
side of one blade t o t h c suction side of the next one owing t o the curvature of the
streamlines in t h e external flow ficld. The secondary flow caused by t h e sidewall
is further affectetl by the boundary laycr on the blades thc~nselvcscausing the flow \vit-li tile following boundary conditions:
pat,tcrn through a turbine or compressor stage t o become vcry complex. This prcsent.~
a vcry tlifficlllt problem to 1)ourldary-layer t,l~eorybcca~tsct h e three-tlimcnsional
nature of Lhe flow is essential to it. For a long time problems of this kind hat1 been
stutlicd by cxlicritncnt,al means only [471.

1. The Boundary layer on a yawed cylinder. Anottllcr important case of a three-

clirnet~sional bor~ndary laycr is t h a t of a n aeroplane wing, wl~ose leatling edge
is not pcrpcntlicular t o t,hc stream, as in the case of swept-back wings and ynwccl
wings. I t is lrnown from cxpericncc tllat on the suction side considerable qunnt-itsics
of the fluid move t,owartls t,llc recctling end, t h e phenomenon having a very tlet,riment.al Fig. 11.12. Sy~temof coordinates for
elfcct. on t.hc acrotlynamic behavior~rof t h e wing. a t,l~ree-clinirnsiondboundnry layer
111 two-tlirnor~sionalrnot,ion t,ltrorlgh a 1)ountlary layer, the gcometriral shape
of t,l~cI)otly it~llrlenrcsthe ficltl of flow only irl~lirect~ly, i. e. tlirougl~the vclocil,y
dist.l.il)ut.ion of t.11~pot,cnt,ial flow which alone er~t.crsthe cnlrulation. By cont.rast,, 7'he pressure gradicnt,~i)p/ax and aplilz arc known from the pot,bntial flow in accord-
1,ltrro-tli1nensio11nlt~ountlarylayers arc affcctctl by both: by tlle external vclorit,y
tlist.ril~~~t,ionant1 by t,llc geornct,rirnl shapc tlirectly. For example, in t h e case of
a I~otlyof rcvol~rliotrt,lrc variat,ion of tllc ratlilts with tlistancc cxpressctl by tho
and lo -
ance with eqn. (1 1.52). 'l'llis is a system of t-hrecequations for qi,, v , ancl lo. For 1Y
0 t,he system transforms int,o tile familiar systcm of eqliations (7.10) a ~ l t l
(7.11) for two-tli~ncnsionnlboundary-layer flow.
0

f~lnrt.ionn ( r ) nl'pcars explicitly in t,ltc dilTcrent,ial equations, see eqn. (11.27 11). U p t o Ihc prcscnt time 110 exact soll~t~iorls
of this gcncml systcm of cqnat,iotts for
For tJtr I)tlrposc of rst.al)lislling tl)r I~o~~rltlary-ln.yer ccluations we shall co~lfino t,hrec-tlimensiond floiv Ilavc brcn found, apart from ttllo cxan~plcsw l ~ i c l\vc ~ 11:lvr
o ~ ~ r s r l 1.0
v r t~. 1 1 ~silnl>lrst,r:isc of a plane w:~.llor t,o a curvccl wall wl~icliis tlrvt~lol~:tl~ln ~ncnt,ionctlprcviorrsly. 7'11. Gcis [33, 341 invcstig:ttcd tho spcri;l.l class of flows whirl^
into :I p1n.n~(Pig. 11.12). T,ct 3: ant1 z drnot,e t,hc coortlinat,cs in the wall surface, lead t o similar solut~ions.In analogy with wedge flows, t h e velocity profiles arc now
1, (Irnoti~)g (:IS ~ I I . C V ~ O I1,110
~SIY coor(liti:~t.(?
) ~ v l ~ i is
r l pcrl>en(licular
~ t o t,he wall. 'l'l~r, similar in the direction of each of the two axes of coonlirl:~tes,\ant1this :~llo\vsus
vrloc,il,y vrc!t.or of I)ot,cnt.i:ll llolv 1' will be assumrtl l o hnve tllc cmnponcrlt,s 11 ( x , t ) to transform tltc systcm (11.53) into a set of ordinary diKcrenti/l equations.
nntl II'(r.z), so 1.11:ltin the st.catly-st,al.cm s c t , l ~ pr??srlrc
c d i ~ t ~ r i b u t ~in
i o nt.he pot2cnLinl A pxrticular case of three-dimensional boundary-layer flow wjlicll is consitlrr:~l,ly
more amenable t o numerical calculatiol~is t h a t where t h e potent,ial flow depentls otl n:
b u t not on z, i. e. when
U=U(x); JV=W(x). (11.55)
I f wr now prrfortn l l ~ snrnor cst,iniat,ion, ~lntlcrtlre assu~npt.iot~
of vcry large Iteynol(ls
n ~ ~ ~ n l ) crc,lalivc;
~rs, t,o 1.11~ t.llrrc-tlimrnsionl Navicr-St,okr.s cqttnt,ior~s(:1.:%2),as These contlitior~sapply irr bile case of a yawed cylinder ant1 npproxirnat.cly, in
(1 1.5:1a, I), r ) is silrlpli-
trhc case of a yawctl wing a t zero lift,. 'L'hc syst,cnl of c!cl~lnt~ior~s
?xp!ainrtl i t , tlot,:~ilin Sot. VII a in rclat,ion t o tile two-tlimcrrsiona~casc:, wc sirall rcacll
250 X I . Axinlly nymmet,rirnl nntl t,liree-dirnenaioridhonnrlnr.~lnynrrr cl. Tl~rcc-dimensionnlboundary Inyers 25 1

fied in tjhat, t.hrre is no clepc~ntlcnccon z . With W = IV, = const and talritlg into
account t h a t - ( I / @ ) . (ap/ax) = U .((lUplx), we obtain
Tt is frtrt,hcr asslrmetl t,hat the vclocity compot~cnt~s ?c(z,11) and ~ ( zy)
, of 1.11is flow
(in which t l ~ estagnation points lie on a dcfinito lit~c)may also be oxprcssotl wiLh tho
nit1 o f n scrics i l l z with cocfficicnta dcpcntling on y (Dlasius ~crics),tho flow ~)ntt,crn
bcirig i~ltlrl)cv~tlont, of tho coordinntc z rncasr~rcctalong tho gcncralrix of tho cylinc1t:r.
'~'I~IIs,pr~tting
(1 1.57)

with tho sanlc 1)oundar.y co~ldit.ionsas 1)efore. I11 this p a r t i c ~ ~ l acase r the syst,cm is
rcduciblc in t,he sense t h a t it is possible t o cnlcr~lateIL nntl v from tho firsL a t ~ t llast
cqunt,ion, tllc solr~t~ion bring iclentficslwiLh t h a t for a two-clirnensionnl cnsc, ant1 sub-
s c q ~ ~ c n l , l tyo, cotnpl.ctrc lhc c:~.lcitlnl.ionof 111 from t,hc secontl c q ~ ~ a t ~ i owhich
rl, is,
moreover, linear in lo. This rcndors such cases really simple. Tncider~tally,it, rnigllt be
not,ctl t h a t t,hc equatiotl for the ~ e l o c i t ~component
y u) is identical with t,hat for
t h e t.mipcratnre distrihlltion in n two-clitncr~sionalboundary Inyer when the I'mntltsl 'Shr hlnct.ions IL.13, . . . satisfy t,hc diRcrrnt,ial cqunt,ions (9.18). 'l'llc rornln~t,n.t.ion of
nmnber is ct111n.lt o unitmy(soe Chap. XTJ). t l ~ c o n l l ) o ~ ~ cI& t first given by \ill. R. Scars [IOB]. I t was Inter consitlcrenbly ex-
~ ivras
r the case when TJ(z) = I J , =
Specializing t,hc syst,orn (1 1.66) still f ~ ~ r t h efor t.cntlctl 1)y 11. Coer(.lrr [42]. The frlnct,ions go, g z , . . . snt.isf.y tl.hcdiffercnt,ial ccl~~nt,ions
ronst, we obt.ain the cxamplc o f t h c flat plaLc in yaw hilt a t zero incitlcr~ce.111 Lhis case
tho prcssrlre term in the first, cqnnt,ion vanishes, and t,hc secorltl oql~at.ionbecomes
wit,li the first wllen lo is rcplncctl 11yu. Thus t,l~cs o l ~ ~ t ~ i ?~,(x,
itlcr~t~ical o n s y) nnct ~ ( zy),
brcomc prol)ort,ional, w(x, ?)I = const. . 71 (x, y), or
wl~oscborintlary conclitions are

Tltis ~ n e a n st - l ~ a in
t t,hc cnsc of n yalvrtl flat plate t.hc ~ ~ R I I I ( . : L I I of
L L ~ I C vcIocit,y
As irltliralrtl Ly L. Prandtl [801 tfllc eqila(ion for go can bc solvccl by dircct into-
in t,llc bor~r~clnry layer \vhic:lr is pnrallcl to t.110 wall is also pnr:~llclto thc ~ioLentialflow
a t :ill 1)ointa. 'l'l~o fact 1,liaI. trhe plate is ynwcd is seen t o have no influor~noor1 Lhc grntiorl, t h e reslrlt bring
f'orrnat.ion of I,hc bor~ntlr~ry 1a.yer (ir~tlcpcnrlcnceprinciple). exp
J!'{ (- f j,dl~)j dv
\Yhrn t.\ic llow in the honntlnry Iiryor on a yawed flat plate I)ccomcs t~crhvlort, go( v) = OZ - - -- O -- (I I 60)
t h e right,-l~nrltlsitlcs of t.11~first two cclll:~tions (1 1.56) must Ile srtpplcmcntcd 1vit.11
t*l~c~I,rrlns tlilc t.o t,l~rl)r~lcnt lLcyr~oltls~ t ~ r c s s (C11:lp.
rs X I X ) . 'I'llrn, t,hc two cqunt,ions j
0
- j ' ~ , d ~ dl
0
))
cnrl no longer be t,rnnsf(~rrnctlinto rn.rh ot.l~crby the ~ u b s t ~ i t , ~ ~oft iILo nfor lu ant1 vice
vrrsn. Cotiscc~r~t:nt.ly, t,l~cst.rr:~ntlillcs it1 ls11(: borlrldnry Iiyer ccnsc t,o l)o p:~r:~lIcI
t,o 1,llc llow tlircc:l,ioti it: (,Ilc I'rcc sLrc-:l~n,:ln ~ : L I Ibt: vcx~,ifictlOg tlircclj c:xi)t:t~irnctil,[Dl.
111:ttltlil.io~~, ref. [:{I J~jlscs1nl)lisllctl t.l~:~t. I.l~rtlisplncctnc!nt thic:ltrlcss of' n Lnrblllctlt,
1)ortntlnry lnger on n y+wc-rl plnfc grows so~ncwhnt,fn.st,crin the tlowrrsl,rm.~ntlircct,io~l
t.11nr1 is I,IIC c:mc 1vit,11n111 I I I I J ~ : I \ V C ~p1:~lc.
~ 'I'his :1g:ti11tI(~morist,rat.csct,11(! i 1 1 t ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 1 i c a I ~ i l i l ~ y
ol' I I I V intlrpantlcr~ccl)rincipla t,o t.nrl)~tlrl~l, I~or~ntltiry Inyrrs.
'I'l~cc : ~ l ~ ~ ~ l : l tof
. i ol r. 1l 1 ~I,I~rc~r-tlitnt~~tsio~l:~.l
borintl:~.rylnycr on :I, ynwetl cylintlor, Fig. I I. 13. I,nniir~nrhorlndary Inyer on n ynwcd
rclns. (11.5(i), ran I ~ c r n r r i c ~olit, l I)y n. 111ct,hotlsin,il:~rt.o t h a t 11srtl in t,ho cnsc of rglintlrr. The functions ge nnd gz for the vclorit,y
t,wo-.tli~nrr~sionnl llowlnl)o~lta cylit~tl(~r \vl~osca.xis is n.t righl, nnplcs t,o 1 . 1 1 ~sl,rmtn ron~porirnt.111 nlorig t 11eaxis of the rylindcr, cqn.
(Sco. TXa), i. c. I)y a s b ~ ~ m i nngscrirs oxpn~~siotl with rcspcct t o the lengt,h of arc, X, (11.58~).A t the ntngnntion lilw wc have lo/ll',
tncxsr~rcdfrom 1.11~.st.ngnn.t.ionpoint,. For n syrnnict~ricn.lcylintlcr we may p u t = go (11).
252 X I . .\xi:rlly ~yrnrn~triral
a n r l t,l~rce-ditncnsiot~al
bonntlnry layer3 d. Three-ditnensional boundary laycrs 253
wl~erc tlt~t~olcs the solr11.ionfor t,l~ct,wo-tlimnnsior~dst,n.gnal.ion-point flow accortl-
The respective streamline is shown a s a broken line, and the potential streamline
irlg t,o ccln. (5.39) n.ntl 'I'able 5.1 ; hcrc i l ( q )- = - @ ( ? I )'Shr
. frtnctions go ant1 gz which
is seen plotted for comparison It is noticeable t h a t thc flow direction in the boundary
a.ppr:Lr in t , l ~tlirT'rrcnt,ial
r c y r l s . ( 1 I .Gla, 0) arc sern plobt,cd in Fig. 1 1.13. A t,aOulatiotl
layer is t,urnerl by a large angle t,owards the r~reclingend of tho cylinder. This rirrum-
for I)ot.l~ft'rlr~c:tio~~s can be fot~ntlin ( 101 1 Chap. XI and in [42].
stanre is very important when flow patterns on yawed wings are obscrvcd with the
Approxi~~lntrtrtr~l~ntl.1,. I'r:~.t~rlt.l aid of tufts
1721 laic1 tlowtl a. ~~rogr:~~rltnc: for o t ) t , a i r ~ i l ~ ~
:I.II~II~~X~III:I~(* soI111io11s \ v i l l ~I,IIc nifl of ~ I I Vtnonlct~t\t~n t~I~t!~>r(~tn, i . r . i l l :L wajr \vl~i(:J~ Swept wings. The cxistencc of cross-flow which occurs in 1.he boundary laycr of
is siniil:~r1.0 I 11:tt. r~sc.tli l l Sro. X'1 11. In l)art,iclllar, t-tlcset of rc~nnt,ions(1 1.45) t o ( 1 1.48)

:111tl w l ~ c t1,ltc
t n s ~ I I ; I ( Iiw :L j1:~wc:tl cylintlcr when it. is ass~rrncclformally t h a t
t r : ~ ~ ~ s l i ) rillto
~ n.zitnr~ll~:ll I I I O I I I ~ I I ~ , I I I I tlliclctr~ss
I . ~ r r ~ ) r r s c ~ ~ t11.
r j ~ ? is
- const
cvd t)l~cf o r ~ n ~ l l a .
a yawed cylinder is important for the aerodynamic properties of swept wings. When
yawed or swept-back wings operate a t higher lift values t h e pressure o n the s u c t i o ~ ~
side near theleading edge shows a considerable gradient towards the receding tip,
=7

t h e effect being due t o the rearward shift of the acrofoil sections of the wing. This
phenomenon can be inferrcd from Fig. 11.15which shows the isobars on the suctibn side
of a yawcd wing. The fluid particles which become dcaclcrat,cd in the boundary layer
have a tendency to travel in the direction of this gradient, and s cross-flow in t>he
A I)ro('rtl~~rc:
wllic.l~is I~:~sc%tl
or1 t . I ~ f ~rs( cl ~ ~ a l . i owas I)y \V. 1)icnrm:cnn 1.211.
r ~ s ~)rll~lisl~c:tl dirc:ction of the rccctling tip rcst~lts.As d c ~ r ~ o ~ ~ s L rby
~ ~ .in011~11romo1it.s
to(l li~rror~no(l
A sititil:tr :t[~l)roxit~~at,(, rncl,l~odwas usrtl by J. M. Wild 11241 for the solution of by R. T. Jones [58] and W. Jacobs [55], tlic bountlary layer on t,he recetlirig portion
thc prol)l(:rn of the ynwocl cylirttlcr. I'igrlrc 11.I4 reprcscnt.~the pn.t.tern of st.rcamlines thickens, the effect leading t o prcmatnrc scpnration. I n aircraft c q ~ ~ i p p cwith
d swept-
for :L y:~wctlrllij)t.ic cylirltlcr of slrtldcrnrss ratio 6 : 1 , placctl at, a n angle of incitlcnce back wings separation begins a t the receding portion, i.e. ncar the ailerons, nntl causes
to 1.he st.mn~n. 'i'hc l i f t corfficirnt has a valuc of 0.47. The arrows s l ~ o w nill the sketch, t h e dreaded one-winged staU to occur. It is possible t o avoid this kind of sepamt.ion,
intlic:at.c~Ll~crlirrct,io~iof flow of t-hn velocity con~porlentpan.llcl t o the wall in its and hence t o prevent one-winged stalling, by equipping the wing with a 'boundary-
i~nmctlial~c ~ oe.o the
~ ~ c i g h l ~ o r ~ r l i. t l , value laycr fence' which consists of a sheet-metal wall placed on the suction sidc ill t h e
A
forward portion of the wing, thus preventing cross-flow. An aircraft with swept-back
wing.? and x boundary-layer fence on each half of the wing is shown in Fig. 11.16.
W. Liebe [66] reported on the improvement in wing cl~aract~erist~ics which earl be
attained by these means. A paper by M. J . Queijo, B. M. J a q r ~ e and t W. 1). Wolhart
[90] t1cscril)cs ~xt~erlsive mcnsurcrnent,s on models providctl with 'hor~ridary-layer
fences'. The papers by ,J. Black [8] and I). ICi~ccl~emann (641 contain morc details

Il'ig. 11.14. I~ortn~l:~l~y-l:~yrr

flow abor~La Vig. J1.15. 15xlrlnrlation of origin of c:rous-
y:rwrtl ellipticnl cyli~ldrr with lift., nf'tar flow,on a ynwcd wing nt an angle of inci-
.I. M. Wild ( 1241 dcnce. Curves of constant pressure (isobars)
on t,he ~nctionside of the wing. Near t.he
leading edge on the uppcr snrface of the wing
there is n harp pressure gradient a t right
angles to the main stream and towards the Fig. 11.16. Jet fighter De ITavilland D. 11. 110 ~ v i l . l lswept-bac:lt wings and a. Irvr~ndnry-layc:r
receding end causing cross-flow fence at edge of encll ailcron; from W. J,icl)c [66]
c,or~c-t.rnir~gt.11(: v r r y romI)lox llow l ~ a l . t , c r r ~in s I ) o u n t l n r y In.yers 011 ~ w c p tw i r l g s .
lSxl)rri111(:111.:111.c~sr11l.s ol)l,:ritlc,tl l)y A. I):rs 120) ir~(lic::r.l.n t , l ~ n ( a . I ) o 1 1 l l t l n r . ~ ~ - l aPVI
~ I~
CC1 .
(::I,IIS(Y ill I,II(> l l o \ v o ~ il,s
:I, r o ~ ~ s i ( l r r . : ~~III~~I~~)v(:III~~II~~
l~l(~ i i1111rr s i t l r ill n t t ( l i l , i o ~I,()~ l,11:1,t,

-
,I III.r:~sc!r.il.l~ 11:
t
cclr~.(1 1.55). is 1101. 1.111: o n l y otrr \ \ , l ~ i t s l ~ 11:in I)CCII
(.OIISI., give11 nt.l~tlJ,ion.
11. (:. Jdoos 1671 ~ L t ~ c l i cI.llc
c l cnsc of Ilom pnsl, n l l n t plntt! w l l c ~l.l~e ~ free ntrcsrn in rlencrib1:~lby
. - n,, -4- n, x , !\.llcrc:~s A. (:. I l a n s r n n ~ l d14. %. l l o r z i g (451 corisitlc~rerl t l ~ c
rJ -- r o ~ ~ s l .11'
gr~~f.r:~lixc.tl (.:~sc: \r.il.l~
11 :- oonsl; 11' -- 2 n, .z." .
I

S i ~ ~ r cs11c.11
: r x 1 ~ ~ r n :flows
iI ilrt. 1\01, irrul,:~licn~:~I. l11c vcIot:ilry i n l.11(: l)olind:~ryI : ~ y r r r a n Ircconlc
Inrgrr III:LII I.lln1 ill t.ltc: frv~.sl,rc;l~n. 'l'l~n cxc:css ill vclocity is r l t r r ? t o the sc:ro~rtlnry Ilorv i n I.llc
I ~ n ~ r ~ ~ t 1;iyrr
l : r r y \ v l ~ i r lr:~t~sli.rs
l~ inln) if, l l t ~ i t lp:~rl.it:lrs fro111rrgionn of I ~ i g l ~ cncrgy. cr It.s o ~ n c t i ~ n r s Fig. 11.17n
also II:II~)~IIS ~,II:L~, I.II(\i r ~ i l i : r l\~eloril,y1)roIilt~si n 1.11~l ) r i ~ ~ ( ~ i r llo!v nl t l i r r r t i o ~ rsI1o1v rcgiot~so f
l ) ; ~ r k - l l o ~\ v l ~ i c l ~~,~ c ~ v c r l l ~ r l (lo
c s snot,
, s i g ~ ~ i sf yc p ; ~ r ~ i l i ot,11cy
~ ~ ; t ~ n ~ ~ : i .tIis:rppo:~r
lly f ~ t r l , l ~ et101r.n-
r
sLrrt~111.'l'l~is t,yj)c o f br11:lviour can also bc o x p l n i ~ ~ can t l bcing tluo to n trnr~sfero f rrlr?rgy b y
t,llr srrontlnry flow. ' r l ~ cr r n d c r w i l l recognize from the p r e c c d i ~ ~exnrr~plc g t l ~ n t,llc
t tlelinitio~l
o f sc~~):~.rnI.ion is hcscl. \r,it.lr clifficrrltics \\~11ciithree-clin~rnnior~:~l 1)ounrlnry layers arc Ijcing consi-
tlrrr(l. 'l'l~isin c l ~ ~ 1.0c the fact I,l~ntt.110 relnI.ion b r l w c e ~I~nclt-floxv ~ at~d ~ h c a r i n gstrrss has ceasrtl
trr :IS sitnplc nn i n t.11~.t . ! r ~ o - t l i ~ ~ ~ o ~ ~ raac : ~ l 771. A scp:\rot.ion o f tcrms itlcnt.icnl will1
s i o r ~[4!),
~ t c : r c t i wiLh 1 . 1 1 ~frco s t , r r n ~ n(1c~cril)rdb y cqn. ( 1 1.55) call I)c srrcccss-
thf: o l i r t ~ ~ ~ c ~ o ~ ~i n~ c~ot~l~c!xion
f t ~ l l yn r l ~ i t ? v r t l:~c.rortling
, 1.0 1,. 16. 1 ~ o g : ~ r [24], ly m l ~ c nconsidcvit~gn n infiuitely l o ~ r gwing \vl~iclr
is 111:ttIt: 10 rrrl,nle nl)ouL n vcrl.ical axis ( I ~ r l i r o p t e rrotor). I t is fount1 t l ~ n t ,tho r o t a r y m o t i o n
c1oc.s n o t nll'rct, l l ~ cl~ortln.isor vclocity co1111~oncntant1 so I.llc incitlencc o f scparat.ion rclnnitln
1ln:r~li~t~tcsd. I1oI.:1lio11~ n n r c l ycntlscs 1.11~ nppc~:lr:%nrco f slight r:idiaI vclocit,y roniponr11tr4.
A f t ~ r l , l ~sprri:tI
rr c:rsr o f I11t: gr11cr:11~ i r c ) I ) l cr1cscriI)cd
r~~ l)y c q t ~ s (11.53)
. and (11.54) \ v l ~ i c is
l~
. i n ~ ~B.II~II 1111: c x l c r n n l flow consisls o f a t1r.o-tlin~rnsionnlbasic p a t l r r ~ ~
ntnrtl:1I)I1' 111r : ~ l r ~ ~ l n lorwcrs
OII \ ~ l ~ i it11rr.e-
. l ~ is s t ~ l ~ c ' r i t ~ ~ i ) onswr:~lz
~ ' d t l i s t , ~ ~ r l ~ n no cf r1.11~k i n d tlrsrril)rtl I)y
(1 (.r,z) = [ l , , ( x ) I lJl ( y . 2 ) , ,
Uc1
ll'(.r,z) = I \ ' #( r , : ), ll.l < [lo .
.I.Irr- I i o t ~ ~ ~ ~ l : r r y - l :(lo\\.
~ y t * (:r:I.I I.11tx1,~ : r l r ~ : ~ l ll)r y , s011:lrntrrl i n t o n t n ~ o - r l i ~ ~ ~ r ~I ~~nssii orp n ~ t~t car nl
l v i l l ~:L \ \ t * : ~ l < p ~ - r l ~ ~ r l ) ns11l)t:ri1111)ost*(l
l.io~~ ~ Iit,. I 'J'l~c rcr{~risitc( I i l T c r c ~ ~ l i a
r tll ~ ~ n l , i o r i~
s I Ionce
,
111111.1>. 111, 1111rot1111(:~1 11)' l i ~ ~ t : : ~ r i % : ~ l iICX:IIII[III>S
ot~. o f this kitr(l \v(!rc giv011 I)y A. M a g r r 170, 71)
:IIII~ll. S. 'I':III[ l lOaJ.

2. I~<IIIC~:I~J. I:~yrrs 011 n ~ l ~ I~edies. cr ' I ' l ~ r r ~ c : - t l i ~ ~ ~ rl~) ~ t~~i ot ~nt:l~; ~l r ~ ' - flr)!r.s
I n . y r rhrronrc n v r n
( . o ~ ~ ~ l ) l i , . : ~ill
III~II.~ l t s~~: LI S ( ~ S \VII(.II ISII* f ! x I ( ~ r ~ 1~1:0~1 l~1::111110l, I)P r(:l~rt:si~~ xi11111ly
~ l ~ ~ ~Ipy ~ I 01e s11l1t-r-
~ ~ t s i l (PI' i oI.\CO
~ ~ VOIII~)OIIC.IIIS. '1'110 Iiil1,t.r IYISI: orrrtrs, li)r ~:x:I.IIIII~(-. 0 1 1 n y:~n.c.ll I ~ r ) ( l yo f tr.vol~ll.i<rn.
111 :II.I.:IIIE~~III~~II~S o f lS1i9 l<i11<1.111~: 11irwI,io11of' vrlo(,il,y (,OIIIJIOII(~II~,S ill I,II(:l)ot111t1;1r,y 1:~yf.rt I r \ ~ i : ~ l c a
v o ~ r s i ~ l c ~ ~I'I.O.I)Ia l ~l.l1:11, l ~ ill (.IIv Srr(: SI~~AIII :itI I,IIc I)o~IIL,; i n oI,ltrr ~ ~ o r c l s:I. sIro11g s t ~ ~ o ~ ~ ~ l : ~ r y - l I o r v
livI,l is ~I-II~~:II,IYI. AII i t l r : ~01.1 IICv r r y (;o~npli(::tLrrlll~rcc-tIi111c11sin11n1 Ilo\v ~ :lItIs r ~i n~SIIVII Otit~n(I:~ry
l : ~ y ~ >isr s( Y I I I \ ~ I . ~ C * ( ~ b y l,l~t:~ ~ l t o I o g rSIIO!VII : ~ ~ ~ iln~ liig. l1.17l); it \vns l,alzc>r~ 1 ) ~1-C. A. lCit:l~rIl)rcn~~cr
n ~ ~ I c\ . l 011(1:1rl,1 2 2 011 1 1 1 ~tll)l)tbrsiclo o f a, yntvcxl ~llii)soitlo f ~ . ~ : v o l ~ t t . itoIlr l ~ ,llo\v r ) : ~ l , t r r lI ~ n \ ' i l ~ g
II~,I-I)III:I(I(!visililt: l ~ st,r(!:il~ y o f tiye iss~ringfro111 d r i l l i t ~ g s011 t l ~ csrrrkhcc t)f l,lrt: I ) o ~ l y 'l'l~t> . ~111oto-
gr:11)11sl~o\vs,ill p:trl,it:~~l:~r, III:II. l . l ~ t :[):il,l6~11 o f :I, l~l~rct~-~li~~~r~isio~~nl 1)o1111tInrylayer \!I1ic11 csisls )I; Sclrrn~nl,ic r l i n g r n ~ no f s t , r m ~ ~ ~ lvio\vrtl
i ~ ~ r s sitlnn.:~ys
i11 :LIB :t(lvrrst: IIK~SSII~(: ~I.:I(I~~:III, i 8 ~ n : i r l ~ c t I lclili'rrrnt
y frolit III:II, itr a t ~ v o - r l i ~ r ~ c ~ ~I)ot111<1:~ry sio~~:~I I)) I ~ l ~ o l , o ~ r o: tf l t~l l~~oup1icr siclr o f llrc ellipsoid o f r t ~ v c ) l ~ ~ l ~
, i cII,IIc
nI~ rv;~l,c?rr I ~ : ~ n n(11 c l ~IIC. ON 14:1<~1
1:ryt-r. 'l'hf: p r i ~ ~ c , i l )tlilli.rc~~c.o :~l is f.l~is:i n t l ~ c ! t . n . o - t l i ~ r ~ c ? ~ w cnsc, i ~ ) ~ ~ :l ,~ll~ oflrlitl i n I l l o 1)ountlnry ill (:lrstillon-sorrs-Ungnc~~x(l'sris). Rcynoltln IIIIIII~C~ (Iin1 / 1 1 -= 2 x 1 0 1 '1'11e l l ~ r vp i ~ t t c r l t
1:tyl.r is g r r ~ c r : ~ l lforrrcl y i11f.ol . l ~ nc ~ s l n : r ~ Ilr)rv ~ : ~ l i f l.l~r prrss~g ~ r~nvd i c t ~ ist s l ~ l l i r i rl y~ ~ R ~l . ~ o I I ~ ,~.IIIIS
was rnntlc visil)lc b y sI,rcnk~01 (lye issrrir~gfro111 l 1 1 r 8urf:lc:c o f I . l ~ cI)otly. 'l'hc ~ I ~ ~ P ~ L I I I ~ ~ I
~ : I I I S ~ I I ~ s r p : ~ r n l , i o~ ~~ C )~
III l.l~r ~ r . : ~ l (l .r / . Fig. 7.211); ~ II,IIC I I . I I ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ . ~ I ~ I I I C I Ic:rsr
S ~ ~ I Il ~l I~ c ' ~ l 1)art.iclra
~~i(l ill tllo Inycrs ill tlrr: r~c!igl~lrourl~ootl o f 1.11~ rr:tr st:~gn:ll.ion p l ~ i n t ,sllow n ~ n i r r l t r t clt:llrxion l
~,:III ~:;C.:~II{: s i ~ l f > \ v : ~ ylong s l l ~ e~ v n l l .' 1 ' 1 1 ~ p l ~ ~ ~ l , o g rill : ~Fig.
p l ~ lI.1711 rlvarly c:xl~iOits l , l ~ i st y p e o f Ri([C\v:LYs,'rllis ( : O ~ ~ ~ S ~ ~ O I1.0 I ( ~scpnr:ltion
R i n n. I l ~ ~ ~ e c - t l i n ~ r n I,o~~ntl:iry
s i o ~ ~ : ~ l 1:lyc.r
~ ~ ~ ~ I I :1111- I'~ I~II~
slrv:~l<s ill:1,111: III~~~II~II~II~IIC)~(I o f I,II,:r r : ~ rSI:I~II:II~~II point, i. c. i n IIIc.rrgio11 o f
c) SlrenlnJinrs at, tile wall, rn:lrltccl 8, ol)t,ninr~tlh y c n l c ~ ~ l : ~ t:III~~ i o ~ ~l ..l ~ r w r r t i c : ~s lo ~ x i r i ~ l ilitlf',
ti~~
:I sl r c t ~ ~ :~clv(.rsr.
g Iirl.ssllrc: g~.:~(li(wI. (sf'(. irlsti Iiig. 1 1 .I7n), ; ~ r oelrnl-ly S I ~ ~ I It o l)o clrllt:rto(l sitla\v:iq.n;
I l \ v > (\<I. lro\\vvrr. S~III:I~II ~ , l i ~ ) g i111 ~ )l igl t . SII~I':IIV. 'l'l~r slrr;11111i11(~s nl. llrc SII~I.:IP~! l l l ~ i ( ,arc. l ~ SIIO!VII nlnrlcctl RC; t l ~ o r cis snt,isfnct,ory qr~nlil.nlive ngrcc.rnt~111.\vilh 1.11~pnl.l,ern 111t! ~)l~ot,cigr:~l)l~
i t 1 ls'ig. I I . 171.:IIIII t t l ~ i e 11:1vt~ ~ l ~ l1t.1~81~ ~ ~ I : I lI I~Ir:tl1~111:1lio11 yY~
( sl~o!r-goo(l t i t ~ : ~ l i l : ~ l :i ~ ,gt :r r r r ~ ~\sit11 e~~t, of \ v l ~ i r is
l ~ s l ~ o \ v ri n~ I))
256 XI. Axinlly ~yn~motricnl
and tl~ree-dimcneionnlboundnry layers

tl~ooxperi~nent,nlpnt,tnrr~in Pic 11.17 b. It is, tllcreforo, not at all eaay to establish a critorion
for scparat,ion i r ~a thrco-clirnc~~siol~nl boundary layer, if proper weight is given to this type of
bel~nviolrr.A t l,l~ispoint, we wish to drnw tho render's ~t~tention to the investigations on yawed
cmwn (lnc to W. ,1. Itninbird, It. S. Crnbbe and L. S. Jurewicz [91].
It, a111)rarsLo bo possible to attempt, n theoret,icnl analysis of t,hree-dimenaionalboundary
layers w i l h t . 1 1 ~aitl of ir scheme snggcsted by L. Prnndtl [RBI who proposed to introduce a
c~r~rviiincnr systrrn of coordinatm in which the potential lines and streamlines of the free stream
aol~lclplay t.11~])art of coordit~ntos.This progmmme wns cnrrictl out by E. A. Eichelbrenner
n ~ ~A. t l 011flnrt[22] whon Ll~cycnlmllnlad tho Inlninar cmo ment~ioncdearlier. I t hna already
Iwrn rncnt.ionccl l . l ~ n tgood qr~nlit,at,ivcngreerncnt rrsultetl. as shown in Fig. 11.17c. See also
It. 'I'i~ntnnu[ I 141.

'I'he mcl.l~otlof c:nlculnt,ion proposetl by L. I'randtl r86] was recently tlcveloped Fig. 11 .I!). \'rloc.ity clist.ri-
n~~merioally 1)y W. C:cisslcr 135, 36, 371. Figure 11.18 illnstrntes the resrllt.s referring l)ution i11 1.11rI J I I I I ~ I I ~ LI )~( > I I I I c ~ -
t,o t.lrc t,hrcc-tlilnrnsional l ~ o u n d a r ylayer on a yawed ellipsoid of revolution. I n nry Iitycr along a corner,
acldition t80 t,llc pot,ential lines and st.reamlines of l l ~ eexternal flow, Figure 1 1 . 1 8 ~ nflrr Vasn111.n Itan1 1921.
shows the sepnrat.ion line rS; the latter has a course ~ i m i l a rt o t h a t in Fig. 11.17. Fi- I,iue of vo118t,11nt v e l o ~ i l , yi l l
gures l l . 18 11anct 1 1.18c represent t,he v ~ l o c i t ~distribution
y in the boundary layer nt tl~cI)ot~~~(lnt.y, a / ( i o ( r )=
various st,sLions on a partpicnlarpotc,nt.ial line.
T h e la~nirlarI~oundnrylayer on a ynir,ad rotating circular cone in a snpersonic (J" (l) C Z"I -
const. Frce-stre:wn velorit,y

streart1 was rnrlior invcst,ignted by R. Sedncy 11041, whereas ,J. C. Martin 17.71
irivrstigat.ecl 1.11~
Mngrlns eKect8on bodies of revol~tt~ion
at, R, small angle of incidence.

Another import,ant, example of a t,hree-clirnensional bountlary laycr can 11efor~ntl

in the corner Sormctl by two ~ n u t u a l l ypcrpt-~~dicnlar planes in a sf,rcarn p:~rallrl t,o
t,lteir line of intersection. This flow config~rat~ion was invrsl,igat,ed t.llro~~rl~irnlly 1)y
V ~ ~ s a ~ l1dn.m
t , n 1921. 'I'lie: rst.rrnnl rcloc:il.y nl, fnr t1ist.ntlc.c11:)s1)c.c.n nssr~nrc-tllo IIr of
Ilnrt~.co'sl,ypc., i . c!. given by

It, is recalled from See. TXa t h a t this type of exterrlal strrn.ln leads t o sirnil:tr vclocity
profiles in tile boundary layer. This feat,ure c o n t i ~ u ~ t,o
e s holcl in the casr of flow in a
corller. Some of [.he resltlts of these strldics arc given in Fig. 11.19; t,llis shows t.110
vclooity distril)utions in the corner for three cliflkrcnt v n l ~ ~ cofs tlie prcssnrc para-
llletcr nt. A comparison between t h e distribulions for different values of ns tlrrnon-
strntes t h a t the boundary layer in s corner t l ~ i c l r c ~
apprrcia1)ly
~s in t,l~cprcsrtlce of a
pressure increase in the external flow.
Expcrimcnt,al ol)scrvat.ions [82, 391 suggest t h a t t,ltr flow in t,lle corncr S(:~I:LI.:L~,~S
carlicr than t h : ~ lon llic por(,ions of t01c walls a t a larger dislnncc frotn it, cvcSl1i t 1 t,lic
prcs[:ncc of sn~nllntlversc pressure gratlicnts. 'J'l~ispliysit:cllly r ~ r ~ t l c r s t ~ r ~ . ~111011(:
~tl~~~I~I~
Fig. 11 .lR. \'rloc.il.y cli~trih~~lion i n t . 1 1 ~t,hrco-di~r~cnsio~~ni
bor~ndary-lnyeron an ellipsoid of mvo- of I)t:linvior is fnlly conlirrnetl by Lllesc thoorctionl r ~ s r t l t 0~1.1 a flnt plrtl,c: ~ t - j ) : ~ ~ . : l ( , i o ~ l
111tior1or n x i s mtio L I I ) - 4 nt nn angle of inci~lcnco? = is0,after W. Geisslcr 136, 871. a) SysLc~n occurs a t m = -0.091 (see Fig. 9.1), separ:rtion in a riglit-nriglcd corncr occrtrs a s
of ~)otrnt,inl linrfi I I I I ~st,rrn~nlinm in outer flow; S = sopaintion lit~c.b) Primary flow velocity pro- cnrly ag for m = -0.05. At na = -0.08, Fig. 11.19, t h e flow in t h e nciglll)oll~.lrootl
filrs. ~ r / l J , ,i l l t,l~rclirc,c.t.ionof the outer flow strcanilii~e~. c) Secondary flow velocity proBles,iu/Um, of t,he corner displays a separation region wit11 revrrse flom (IL < 0). By oontrnsl, a t
nt ripl~tnnplr~to t l ~ rclircrtion of t,l~eouter flom strcan~lines.'rhc velocit,y profiles arc given for a large distance no reverse flow occurs. M.Za.mir and A. 1). Young [120, 1271 carrirtl
l,ot.r~~t.inl - nliplc 4 alld st.nt,ionx as pcr table above
line 1 (13)nt, diKorrnt st,ntions111, \vit.h a7,il~~~it,l>
(6 - 0" - ~r.ir~dxr.arrlsytnn~rt,ry)
out extensive experiments on t h e laminar bomndary layer xlot~ga right,-anglctl corner
a.t zero incidence. See also S. G. Rubin [93a].
 1)ounclnry I I L ~ ( V H
rl. 'rl~rro-clin~or~sior~:il %5!)
258 XI. Axi:~Ilysytn~nrtrirnlnncl tl~rrr-~liri~msionr\i
borlntlary layers

n ~~i ' ~ J I I I I I ~ u R ~rictl~od

11r1 r ~ I . ( ~ n s iof ~ ~ I ' ~ 1.0 rot11.tinghodieu \vns given by G. J~rngclaus[40];
lie :~l)plir(lit t.o tl~c:ir~vrsLignt.ionof rclnlivo ti~olionthro~tgha cr~rvcdchnnnel which is important
it1 t,llc Clrror,~of rrrilriftll~.nl11111111)s.1.110 LI~roryIcnils 1.0 ~~rcdirl,ioriu regarding scpamtion which
nrr: in goocl :igrcrn~r:~~t, wit11 ti~ras~~re~iirnI..r.
111 cc)nrlr~sion,attention nlny I>r: drn~vnt o t.lir mlc~ti:~tion of t.lie 1101111clnry layer on two
~ n n t ~ ~ ~~n)l~l :yr ~ ) r f ~ d i flnl.
c ~ l l~)lalcs
nr a(. znro incitlt:ric:c pc:rfortnctl I)y (:. IT. Carrier 1121 and I<. Gcr-
~ I C I I [.:Hi].'I'II(:s a ~ i ~ 1)rol)lrnt
o \viLlr s ~ l ~ ~ r r s nIIOIV
n i c nn(1 lirnt trnnsfrr Ilns IIDCII dc::~lt. \ v i t . I ~IJVM. Z.
von I<rxg\vnl~loc:kiwho n~:~.krn rise of C . 1'. Cnrrirr's enrlirr work; c / . 11. A. Ilwj-cr [21bl.
'I'lie so-rnllctl "q1lnrt~r-11I:~tn 1)rol)lcni" is closrly rrl:rt.c:d to tllc above. 111it, nn invcsl.igal.io~i
i.s rnntlr of t , l ~ r *flow n l o ~ ~n gII:rL pI:rtc: a t zero ir~~*itlenoc \ v l ~ i r lposqcssca
~ n niilo etlgc! parallel to t l ~ c
!ilrr~a~rl in :~(ll1it,i0llto 1110 I(>:ldil)gcdgr. ~ ~ ~ l l r i l ~ ~for I . Ii. ~~I clt.llcorcti(.nl
ls treatment of 1,llisprol)lcrn
nrr tlrlr to I<. St.rwart.son a.1it11,. I l o ~ v : ~ r[IOXI. t l ~ n ~ ~to t l I<. Stewnrt.son [10!#]. T l ~ sitle e edge cnr~scu
Ll~rn~)pc:~r:i~t(~? of'a s r ~ p ~ ~ l r r r ~ t ~sccor~rl;rry
t ~ l n r y n ~ n t i o rin ~ tlln I)onndary layer which $reduces, ITig. 11.21. Srparat,iotl of a
ntnong 00I1rrs. 1111 ii~~r(::~s(- in the s11eari11g st,rcss. 'I'lris rcs~rltagree8 \vitIt ~ I I C ~ r ~ e a s ~ ~ r e ~ t ~ e ~ r t s
prrfc~r~nrcl I)y .J. \V. 1':ldrr 1251 on n plnln o r linile width. IIowover. the flow at t l ~ osiclo edge, t,l~rcr-rlit~~rnsin~~nl I,ountl-
likr I.II:IL i l l lire itii~nrtli:~tc trr~igl~l)onrl~ootl of 1,110 I r a d i ~ ~crlgr.
g is not. yeL mn~plclcly~ ~ n d c r ~ t . o o d . nry layer in stngnntiotl
lln~v;S ~ I I ; I ~~yIi11~1rr
~ ~nottll-
M a n y I.llrcc-tlirnensi~~tal b o u n t l a r y - l a y e r flows a r c s o physically c o ~ t t p l c xt , h a t let1 on n H:rt pltrtr, nfl,cr
Ilrey will, n t o s t probnl)ly, r e m a i n inarccssiblc t o a nnnierical trcat,~nerrt,for a long 'I'li~vnilrs ( 1 12nl; srn n l s ~
timc:. An cx:rlnplc of t,lris t,ypc is illust.rat.ctl witll t h e a i d of' F i g . 11.20. T h i s d e p i c t s Fig. 11.20
srhernnl.icnlly t.lta t , l ~ r e e - t l i ~ n e n s i o n hollrltlary
al l a y e r which f o r m s in t,he n c i g h b o u r -
hootl of a. scluat eylintlrical b o d y (small hoigllt c o m p a r e d t,o l e n g t h ) p r o v i d e d wit11 a
blllnt nose. The 1)otly is plnccti o n a flat, p l a t e . 011 t h e plat,c, a n d at a Iargc d i s t a n c e
f r o m t0re cylirtd(,r, t,llc 1)ountlnry l a y c r is trwo-tlirnensional.A s t h c c y l i n d e r is spproacll.
1 1 .] . TIlf I)ollntlnry layel. in tllc plarle of s y n ~ m r t ~ lntlst
ry o v e r r o m c a s t r o n g I)rc~ssllrc
c ~ l nrltl
, o u t . ~ i d ctlrc pla7re o/ .~?/ni.melry, t h c r c f o r m s i n t h e b o t r r ~ d a r yl a y e r t a region
of sc,contlary flow in wlricll t l t c vc.locit,y ~)rofilesa r e sltewcd, r a t l ~ c rlilre t,hosc ill Fig. increase in t.hc stngnnt,ion region of t , l ~ aylintlcr.
c ~ p o i n t S.
T h i s Ira(ls t,o s e l r n r a t , i o ~at.
ill a m a n n e r si~nil:tr t o t,hat i n t,lle dccrlcrat,ctl st,agnat,io~iIlow of I'ig. 2.15.
Ill t,lte r l c i g l ~ l , o ~ ~ r h o of
o t l t,ltis separat.ion region, t . 1 1 ~llo\z, tlcvclo1)s a ~ c . ~ ~ n ~ n t c . c l
ncoming boundary loyer
v o r t e x sllcet whicll c ~ l r l su p a r o u n t l tltc cylinrlcr n.t, its I):~srlilt(: a Irorsrsltoc. 'I'lrr
pllot,,grap~l of Pig, 11 ,21 w a s t : L l z e ~\vit,It ~ t , l ~ einicel,ioli of S I I I O ~ Zk~) l)~.o\~ialr \risll:lli~-
n ( i o l l . I1rl.c it is l,~)ss~[)[et.0 Ilo(,i(:cl,ltnt i n atltlil iorr t,o 1,!1(: prilllnrjr vOl't,(;.X \~!li('I1lOt:lt('s
c:loc:l~wisr nllrntl 01. t.l1(- cylintlt~r t . l ~ r r ef o r ~ n sa.n a.dtlit.io~r:~l, stn:~.llc~. vor.Ic.x \vl~ic.lt
~ . ~ li l l ~(.Ilrt s, a l~n r ~s r n s r . 'l'lro primat.y vol.I~c~x ,liiT(.rs ~ I I I I ~ I : ~ ~ ~ I 1'1.0111
( ~ I I (its: I IItvo-
I~
tlilrlcrlsionnl n.ltalog in t h a t it. is n o t formctl Oy t,lr(. siirnc llrtitl ~rn~.liel(.rr: O I I l11(% (.on-
t m r y , it. accel,t,s oortt~inuo~rsly freslr rnat,t:r,i:~l fro111 t.l~(: n p s l r e a m tlirvct i o ~ t: ~ n t ltlis-
~ ; l l ; l l ~ lllat~~~ri:Ll,
g~~s also ( : o t t t i n ~ ~ o n s l yiltt,o
, t,l~(:Y,OIIC~ of s r l ) : ~ ~ . i ~ l ,rottli11v(1
io~t i n s i ~ l vtlto
, ~ ~ ) ~s]lcet,,t . ~ xI t is very (lifficult t,o rnast,cr snc:11 a c:o~nl,iox flow I):L~,IVI.II iby c.:ilv~llnf ion,
IKlr(,irlll:lrly IIccnllse it is p r c t l o m i n a ~ ~ t lt11rl)lllrnt
y in tnost r : ~ s r s cv(.ll, ~ ~ I I O I I ~ itI I ('all
Woll 511wmline5
11r Ia.rnirlnr near t.lrc nail.
~ o l 1 t r m l ) ( ~ . a rrcs(-arrlr
y invt:st.ig:~t,ions inI,o s c \ l ) : ~ r : ~ l i o i~t 1r l l 1 1 . c ~ c ~ - t l i 1 1 1 c ~ t t s i ~ i n : 1 1
Ilo\vs a r e cxtcllsivcly tliscnssctl in t.lrc A(:AIbI) (:c~nli.~,cs~~c,v I ' ~ . o c , c v t l i ~No.~ ~ s I(iX I I ) .
Ia'ifi. 1 1 .20 (svI~r~ti:~t,i~').
' l ' I ~ r ( ~ ~ : - ~ l i ~ ~ ~110\111<lnry
t ~ ~ i s i n t ~Inycr
: ~ l f ~ r ~ n in
r dt,lw corllrr 11rt~1vcr11
x sqt~:it,
~.,vli~~:lrir,:~l I)ody ~~l:~,c,c.rl on :I flab ~)lat,r, ~ ~ l l-1.r r 1'. .1011nsl~011 I5ri. 571. TIICst.re:~~iili~~rnarc (:~trved l: I I . ~ \ ~ O I . gCi \ . r ~1)).~ \\'. Ib
S1lllllll:lry 1):11)1-1.so n I I ~ r ~ ~ ~ : - : l i ~ t t r t~~) sI iI oI I~I~I :~~II:tyc\~.s
~ n ~ t s i ct lIir ~ t . r y ;t.hrr1. F O ~ I I I Sin t,l~rI ~ o ~ ~ n t llnyrr
~ .~ ) I : I oI If ~' n y ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ns~n( rrs~rlt. n r y n nrco~rdnryflo\v, :~ntl S o a r s I IORa.], F'. I<. M o o ~ . c1781. .T. C. Coolz(> :11t,I R1. (i.II:III 1 I!)), :IS \vc.il ;IS I,y I1
tl~c:vc.ln1.it.y 11roliIr-NI~~:c~onrc skrwrtl. 'I'lrr I ) ~ I I I I C ~ I:ryrr
J I ~ . ~ i l l l.lie 11l:11)er~fsgrnritt:try ucpnr:~tos nt, S c l ~ l i e h t i r t p1100(.
~ ) o i n lI'? in 1.Irr sl:~gr~n.tion region. 'rllr flow for111sn ~urfnc~k: of srpn.rat.ioll; see also Fig. 11.21

1 \\'t. (I(*scril~(*IIli* ty111*of (lo\v in c . o ~ ~ j ~ l l ~ wit11 ~ ~ r l i ~ c r ~ s ~ ion

( . l i oour o n In1ni11:ir I ) o ~ ~ n ( l : layers
~ry
rvrn I l ~ o ~ l s11c*11
g l ~ f l r ~ ~ v:rrc:
u t l ~ r l ~ ~ t l ri lnl t~tlost
, c:mcbs. I)c:c:nnse 1.li1:ir c,hnrn,:tc:r in, f~~~i(l:~tnrnt~uIIy
slrralti~tg.1 111: satiic..
 260 XI. Axially syrr~lnrlrir~al
nntl II~rrr-tli~~~c~t~sio~~al
bonndnry Inyrra
References 261
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 1821 OIII~II, It.: '~IIC I , ~ i r e r . ( ~ i ~ ~ ~I ca ~ li~ i si ~i i~l)o1111(1:1r.y
: ~ r~ ~ a ~ I:t.y(*r :11o11g:L c:ol,tlrv'. Sc:. 1). 'I'~I(~SIS,
M I T , Caml)ri(lgr, Mnss., I!l6!).
[8:11 I'nck, 1l.C.: 1,wninur flow ill rill nxi:l\ly sylnlnrl.rir:~ljrl. o f c:o1111)rcssil1leIlrlicl. f:tr fl.ol11 I.llr
orific.~.I'ror. (:n11111r. I'l~il. Soc. $0,!4H - I 0 4 (1!)54).
(841 1':~rr. 0.: Ilnt.c.rsuc:li~~~~gc~i drr droitli~~r(.~~si~ (:rot~xsrlric~I~t,
) ~ ~ u l c ~ ~ n.11 r o ( . i r r c r ~ ~ ( lI)r<:lil<iir- ~:~~
p r r ~ ti ~ c axinlrr
i A11st.rii1i11111g. I)iss. I ~ r : t l ~ ~ ~ s ( : I i \ I!)(iLt; v r i g III~.-I\~(.~I. 32, :$!Kt 413 (I!)(;:!);
set: n.lno: I)ir S1.riill11111g 11111 rillrll i l x i : ~ l: t l i g ( ~ s I . r i j ~ ~roI,irro~i(lt:~)
~I.~:~~ I ) r r l ~ l t i i r p r - r.IO.
. S~,l~ill-
I)~II~,(x~III.(:cs. 5.3, 2(iO 271 (l!)5!)), n r ~ d I: ~ l o i vill I,IIc ~ , I I ~ C ~ - ( ~ ~ I I I I : I I S ~ O l)o1111(1:1ry II:I~ 1:lyc.r
011 n ~ [ ~ i ~ i tl)o(ly i i ~ ~o fgrcvnl111io11. A I A l \ .J. !2. : % ( i 2- ~ :$I\:! ( l!)li4).
r.8 5.l I'llrirlcrrr, (:.: ~ T J I ~ C ~ S I I ~ ~ I I I I I ~ ~ I I n r ~tlrlii
f (:rl)ir!l ( l r r I < r t . i s t . l r : ~ c l ~ ~ ~ : ~ s \'1)1- c l ~ i ~ I~"(o~~~s~~. ~ ~ I I I : ) ~ s -
heft No. 205 (1!)27).
. . I'rn~itll.l.. I,.: (Il)c*r I<ril)~~ri~sscl~icl~t(!~~
1861 11c.i c l r c ~ i t l i ~ r ~ r ~ ~ s i o S~~~~IIIIIII~(.II. ~~:~I(-~r I<~~Iz-I'.~~sl
sclirifl, l!)45. l:I4 141, o r (:ill. \ V < ~ r l <2, s G7!) 681; ( l ! l ~ i l ) .
[5!)1 JIIII~~~~IIS,f :.: ( ~ r ~ : ~ ~ z s r l ~ i r l ~ t ~ ~ill ~ r~oit l~ri cr rsr ~ i~cllc<r :~
l ~~~r ~~%~l rIII\(~ ~ ~ s~ ~~~ I ~ r r r ~ ~ ( l c r ~
~~ ii g l)ri [X7] I'rtrtsoh. . I . : I)ic, lamina1.r I < c i \ ~ n n g s s ( ~ l ~:IiII ~ r; lIl~i lt~~t , i s ( . l l r;Irylill(l(:r~i
~~ IIII~ I<.O~.:L~~~)IIS~~JI~~~
St,rii111111igr11. illill..h l : ~ x . l ' l : ~ ~ ~ r I z - I ~ ~ sfli .i ri I Slrii~n~~ngn~o
.~rl No. I I,(!iit.liligrli (l!)55).
rscIi~~~~g iclcli I ~ c si y ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~1I11strii1~1111ig. t r i s ( : l i r : r l . l ~ f I f : t l ~ r l ~ l i ~ r 18, s ( ~:{!I7 l ~ ~ ~40'2 ~~g (I!Wl).
I(iO1 l < t ~ l l y ,11. I < . : I\ ~ i o011l ~I,II(: I : t ~ l ~ i t i :1)01111(l:iry
~r l n y r r 011 n cir(311I:~r r , y l i ~ ~ ( l ci nr n x i n l i11ro111. [88] l ' r o l ) s t c i ~ ~I<. , I?., n11(1 ICIliol. I).: '~IIc I~:IIISVO~S~ (.II~V:L~II~I: r l l v i ~ lill , (~OIII~II.(~SS~I)I,~ :ixi:~lly
l)rrssil)l(r flour. JI\S :21, K t 4 (1054). ~ y n l r ~ ~ o l 1a111innr
,ric 11o1111tlnry-lnycr Ilo\l,. .IAS 23, 208 2 2 4 (I!)5(i).
I ( i l 1 l<rzy\r,ol~Io~.lti.h1.Z.: 0 1 1 sI(%:~(lg, I:ir~iillnr r0111111 jr1.s ill r o ~ ~ ~ l ~ r r s sYi ~l )S l( r~ ~ I I ~:ISPS S far 1891 I'I~I~II~S. I<.: Z t ~ l3c.rccl1111111g
r t l r r l : ~ ~ i ~ i t i alr'c: i~~t ~ l : ~ r ~ K q l r~III i i ~Iit~o ~ l l r~. ~I)iss.
i g (:iil.l.ilig(~l~ 1!)47.
l ) r I i i ~ ~I,lir
tl IIIOII~II, ()sl,(rrr. 111g.-Ar(;l1. .?. 373 383 (l!14!)). I!)O] Qllcijo. h1..1., ,Il~clr~ot., 13.R1.. n l l d \ \ ' o l l ~ ~ ~W. r l . I).:\ \ : i ~ ~ t l - l , ~ ~ i ~t ~ v~(~~r~- Il ~ i g:&I. : ~1l1.1i1i ~>s 1
t ~1 ( ~ ~ 1
( ( i 2 I I ( r z y \ v o l ~ l o ~ ~hl.Z.: lii. 0 1 1 I I 1 r 1101111tln.ry l n y r r i n :I r o r n r r I I Ilsr ~ o f t . 1 r~r l n x n l i o l i ~ i i r l l ~ o ( l . o f tile r f l c ( ~ l so f (!l~orcl\visc1vi11g ~CIIC:C?R:I,IO l ~ ~ ~ r i z o ~ i l , : ~posiI,io~t l - l , n i l 011 l,li(! ~ l , : ti vl I~II~~I,II~I~II;II
( : > \ N l ' r ~ \ I ' l l . No. 2, 77 112 (l!)5li). utnl)ility cl~~~rnc:trrist.ivs o f an rtirl)lnnc- 111otlc.1 n.it.11 :L 35" s\vc~l)l~-l):rc:lcwing. N A ( !I\ I{I.II.
I W l l < i i r l ~ r ~ i ~ I).: : ~ t ~ rIirr.r:lfI,
~ ~ , s l ~ : ~ l ) r:ultl
s t.lir:ir : ~ c r o ( l y ~ ) n ~ ~for ~ i cfliglll,
,a nt. sr~pernoriicspredrr. 12o:t ( 1954).
,\(IV:III(TS i n 1Irrt)11:111lir:i1 S r i ( % ~ i r 3,r s 221 252 (l!)ii2). l!)l] l < n i ~ ~ l ) i r \V.,T..
(l, C r n l ) l ~ r ,R.S., n1111,111rcrtvicz. l,.S,: 'I'll(-flow S(:[I:I~:I~~~III :II)OIII~.OIIIY 111,
I(;'Ij I<~~(~~IcIII:~IIII, I ) . : 'I'~I(* r l k r t . o r visrosit.y 011 1 1 1 r t y p r o f IIo\v 011 s\vcpt, willpa. I'rnr. Sylllpo- i ~ ~ ( ~ i ( l cN~a~t .c I<rs. r. c!o1111(.il( h t l : ~ ( I : t % l)hllCN~\lC(2,11:1rt,.I<IIII. l!)li:t (2).
S~IIIII Nnt.'l. I'l~ys. 1,:tl). (NI'I,) l!)55. [ { J I n J 1<n.j11,I<. (:. It,., J.ocsrr, . J . , UII~ l'lntc, IC. .I.:V c l o ~ i I l~rofilcs ,~ CI,~I: f r ~ for ~ ,I:t ~ III~IIIII(*III,
l l i 5 l 1,:111gl1:1:tr, 11.: Sfrncly llolv ill t,lir t . r : ~ ~ i s i t iIr11gt11 o ~ ~ o r a s l r : ~ i g l ~tl,,~ ~ t )J. c . tll)pl. Alrvli. 9, ) J o r l ~ ~ r l : ~1nyc.r
ry nlong sn)oot.li a n d r o r ~ g l ])lntrs. i .lk'hl 76. :18:1 - :t!)!) (1!)7(i).
I\ 55 'I58 ( I !).12). 1021 l2:111i. \!:ls:uil.a: A l ~ ~ ~ l i c I, A ~ (:cs(.ll\r.i~~cligl<(:il.n-IIII~I
l ~i rs?r ~ t ~ gf ici r~ clic 'l'r~~~l)(~r:~l~~rv(-rIf:
[GO] I,irl)r, \\I.: l)rr ( ~ ~ ( * I I ~ s ~ I I ~ v I I I , ~ . : I I I I I . l ~ i l c r : t v i :7, ~ 215 217 (l!)52), i t 1 dcr i l i k o ~ ~ i ~ ~ r r : s s i I:~111iti:1rcli
l,Ir~~ (~~~:IIZSCII~(:II~, 1~11l,l:t11gri111.rr ( * ( . l ~ l . \ v i ~ ~ l <I':i,I<(\. l i g ~ . ~1~S i l 1
[ti71 IA)(IS, I I . f : . : I\ si111l)lrI : ~ l l ~ i l l nI ~r o u n t l n r yl : ~ y r rn.il.h s e c o ~ ~ t l n rIlo1v. y J A R 22, 35- 40 (1955). ( I ~ r o r r t . i s r l i r r I { c i l r : ~ g~IIIII I'rol,lc~n t l r r I r ~ t . r r f ( . r r ~VOII ~ z ( : r c . ~ i z s ( . l ~ i ~ . l ~ (I)iss. c . ~ ~ . I{I.:IIIII-
l(i81 I,~~rl\r.icg,H.: I)ic :r~~sgr*l)ilrlol.r l < : a n : ~ i s l . r i i ~ nill ~ ~r~i n ~ ge t ~rotirrellden
~ Syntc~ii. I n g . - r \ r r l ~ . sc-l~!vrig I!Kifi; .Ill.bV(:l. 151; 178 (l!)(ifi).
19. 296- 308 (I!l5l). [!l:tl IZott, N . , n11(1(!r:ibt,rec, I,.I?.: Si11111liIic:clIn111i11nrl)o1111(1:1r.yl:~y(,r ~:II~:III:II~~II fol. l)o~li(,s
[(;!I] I . t ~ t l ~ i l ~ ~ ~S., l ( . r:11ic1
. l?yc1l~rrg,A . : Ex1)(:ril11~11trllrI!II~C:~SII~~IIII~~(~II i i h r r ( 1 ~ 1 1I , ~ ~ f ~ \ v i r l r r - o f r r v l ~ I i ~o r y v i s I 1 5 5 5li5 (I!)52).
s l : ~ l l ( l111.i villr*r 11111 C~IIP 111ii d(:r \ \ ' i ~ ~ < l r i ( . l j~:rr:~ll(.l(? ~ l ~ ~ ~ ~ A1.11~11
g r o l i r r r n t l c ~ I<ll::r\l.
l I~llys. [!):In] I<III)~II, S. (:.: l ~ ~ r ~ ~ ~ ~ ~llolv ~ ~ n1(111g
r r s sni rl o~r ~l ier r .,111'hl 2fi, !I7 -- 110 (l!lfi(i).
Z, .'<I;, 5V2 558 (l!):$5), [!la11 S:i\v:tlzlti, 0 . :SI.rii1111111gs1a~lql 11111 (!ill('roli(.r(\~l(l(.I<II~:(*I. ,\(.I:I hlr.(.l~.!I. Is!) 21 I (l!)70).
l i t ) ] hl:~gvr, I\.: ' ~ l ~ r ( * ( ~ - ( l i ~ ~ ~I:IIII~I~:IV ( ~ ~ ~ s i l)o1111(1:1ry
o~i:~l l : ~ y r rwit11 s111:1llrross-llo~v.,l,\S 21. I!)5I Sc11:ul. I{.,\.. :111(11<01111. I<.: Slcill f r i v l i o ~:I:I(~ ~ III-:LI-I~:IIIS(~~~ (.I~i~r:~<.l.(~risli(.s (11. i t I:~I~I~II:II.
H:I5 845 (. l!I54 ). . llo1111(1:1ryl:~y(:r or1 :I t.yIi11~1crill : ~ x i : ~i ~l ~ ( ~ o ~ ~ i j ) r ( : flo~v. s s i I ~ .I l (I\S ~ I S . (i7 I li75 ( l!)5l 1.
l i t 1 h1:lgt.r. '1.: 'l'l~il.l< I:IIII~II:I~ I ) o ~ ~ l ~ c i :ll:r~yy ( - r111iiI(.r SII(I(I('II II(~~III~J):I~~OII. Il'ifl,y ~(.;II.s (!)lil S,,llilll~r.I,.: ~ ~ I I ~ ~ ~ I ~iil~i%r ~ I II:LIII~II:II(*
~ ~ ~ I IIII,~ I I I I 1111~ 1I? 1I1 l ( ~ 1 1 i i Sl,ri,lllllllg.
. I"(II.s(.!I~. 1111:. \\If's.
IIIIIIII(~:I~~ lily(,r rcs(~i1rvl1(\I1. r~'O1lllli('ll :11111 11. (:iirl,l~:l.. (.(I.), I<~:LIIIIS(.II\~(\~~. I!I55, 21 :):$. Ilorl. 428. (1!)22); ZI\RIM 2. !Ni It)(\ (l!l22); l'l~ys. X. 2;J. I 4 (l!)22).
~

171:i 1 hl:~grr.;I.: 'I'i~rc~r-cli~~~c~~isiol,;tl bolltidnry Inxrrs. I ' r i l ~ r c l . o U ~~r i i v r r s i t y Sr.rirs. Tligli Spretl 1971 S c l ~ I i r l ~ t . i ~ 11.: ) g , 1,:1111i1inrcS l , ~ ~ l ~ l a ~ ~ s l ZAhlhl ~ r r i l t ~1:j.~ ~260 g. 2li:i (l!I:t:$).
~ I f ~ ~ . o ~ l y ~: t ~~ i n( l ~ ,let
) i i~( '~r osp t ~ ~ s i ol r'l r. i ~ ~ r c l~o~~~~i i v e r sI'rcss. i l ~ y \'ol. I Y , 2SG - :j!)4 (l!)(;4). [!I81 S r l ~ l i c l i t i n g ,[I., n ~ l t 'L'rr~c~krnl)rotIf..
l I<.:I)ir: S ~ ~ ~ ~ I I I I:IIIIII ~t ~ i ~: I~I I( ~~~ r~ ) ~ ~ s r~oI I i( t~. ~ I I. i > ~ ~ i l l ~ l ~
1721 AI:111glrr, \\'.: ZIIS:IIIIIII~,II~I:LII~ ~ , ! ~ i s ( d ~(>I)~:II'II
o~i 111111 r o l : t l i o ~ ~ s s y ~ ~ ~ ~( ~ : r~r ~~~~ztsrt :il s~ i~( ,~l ~l ~
. r~i Scllrihr. Z,\Rlhl .?2. !)7- 11 I (l!l52).
t c . ~ill~ I < o ~ ~ ~ [ ) r c ~ s sI<'I~issigkri~c~n.
il~lc.~~ Zi\hIhl 28. !)7 I():$ (1!)48).
~
(!)!I] S c l ~ l i ( . h l i ~ ~ g . I)io I : I I I I ~ I IStriil111111g
11.: ~~~ 11111 r i l l v ~ nxi:ll l :III~C~S(~~)III~(~II r o t i l ~ r ( w l rI)v(.II- ~~
1i:iI h I : ~ r l i l ~.I.('.: , 0 1 1 IIIV~I:I~IIIIS (~Il;*rls(.:IIIS~(I l ) y 1110 I)OIIII(I:I~~-I:I~(~~ (I~S~II:IC~II~~II~~ 1l~it,li~~(-ss I<iirprr. 111g..Arrl1. 21, 2'27 244 (1053).
011 I11r l)ofiirs 01' rrvo111I~io11 :bl SIII:I~~ :III~~(*S o f :~l,t:~vlz. .lt\S 21. 421 42!) (l!)57). 1100J S r l ~ l i r l ~ l i n g11.: , ' ~ l ~ r ( ~ r - ~ l i ~ ~11r11111(1:1ry ~ r ~ ~ s i o1:tyrr ~ i : ~1101v. l I , ( V ~:I[.I IIIIV ~ II~ XIII ('IIII~~~II~~OII
174) hli(.h:~ll<t.. I\.: ' I ' l r ~ : ~ ~ ~ ~111111 ~ l i s( :~x ~j ~l(~r rci ~ i i ( ~ ~ i tUII~C~~SII(.~IIIII~
(~Ilr (*ilivr ~ ~ o t , ; ~ i i o ~ ~ s s y ~ ~ i ~ i ~ t ~ t r i . o f I h r III~C*~II:I~~~II:I~ >\ssot,i:~tio~~ for l l y ( l r ; ~ ~I<I>S(*:I~(,\I~ l i ~ ~ :II l ) ~ ~ l ) v o v ~ ~ i l < / , l ~ ~ g oSs Il ~: ~I )\ ~ i. : ~ .
st,I1r11I:IIII~II:II.(~II l ) i ~ s ~ ~ ~ ~ g r ( ~ ~ ~III~.-,\IY~~I. ? , s ( : l ~ i t 31. ~ l ~ 268
l. 27!) (I!Ki2). l!I(il. l'ror. N(-l~vi;.l~)(rASS(,III~)~(Y: (;i.~~Cr:~lv (I(.l ' ~ \ s s o r i : i l . i o ~ IIII,I~I.II:II,~IIII:II(~
~ (I(*l < ~ ~ ' l ~ ( ' r i ' l i ~ ~ ~
17" h I i l l i k : l ~ ~( .' . I { . : '1'111* I)OIIII<~:I~Y I : ~ y r r: I I I ~ sl(i11 r r i ( . t , i o ~f ~o ~ :L. l i g ~ ~01 r r rrvo111Ii~>11. 'I.~:IIIS. II~cI~:LIII~~~II~~s. l ) ~ ~ l ) r o v ~ ~1262 i l z . l2!)0; SVI: :11si1 l ) F l , - l < ( ~ l ~l!)5 . (l!Ifil).
'\ShI 15 51. %!I 4:) (1!):12). [ I 0 1 1 S r l ~ l i c h t i n g ,H.: (:rrr~zs~:liic.l~~,t,I~eorir, 51.11 (.(I.. (:. 11r:11111 \'(-rlitg, I<:lrlsr1111(..I!)li5.
171il hlitll~-r.\\:.: ~CX~IC.I.~III('IIIC.II~ ~III~P~SII(~~IIIII~~~II 7,111. Il~~~1ro11~11:1111il< 111'1. li11gt4.l > l ~ y s%. . .1!). ,;IlW21 S c l ~ o l l w ~ ~ ~ rF,\\'.: i ( * r . 1)iv ln111i11:1rcl ~ ~ ~ i l ~ ~ ~:III ~ ~~ ~g os l~ : v~ l l ~i oi ~~ ~~ ls ~s lI<,,I~I)PI~II. y ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
57 so (l!):!H). I)iss. I<r:~n~isl:l~\vri:, 1!)4:$. Sl~ot.lc.~~rtl \,c.l.sio~lill ~ I r v l R~ l .; ~ l l ~ 1. . 270 277 (1!)4!)).
1771 hloorv. It. I < . : ' l ' l ~ ~ . ( ~ ( ~ - r l i ~ ~ ~ Ir :~l l lsl iilo~l:l~I: r)~ol ~ ~ ~ i ( ll i:l~~y. ryrIlo$v. .l,\S 20, 525 5:l.l (l!)5:j). [10:11 S(,:~rs. \V. I<.: I!c)IIII(~:I~~ I : ~ y v ro f yl~\v(:(lc y l i ~ ~ f l ( : r s,I,\S . 1.5. e l ! ) 52 (l!)48),
( 7 %I hlool.~., I".I\.: ' I ' ~ I I . ~ * c * ~ ( ~ ~ I I I c ~ I I s ~ I)OIIII(~:II.~
oIII:~~ 1:1) (\r I l ~ ( ~ ) r ly\ .~ l \ l : ~ ~ ~ill ( . r ,\1)111.
s Al(>(.l~./ I r . ,IIO:I:II , S(~1l.s.\ \ ' . I < . : I<oIIII(~:I~\. . I:~y(.rs. ill I ~ I I ( ' ( ~ - I ~ ~ I I I ( * IIlolv. I S ~ Oi \~.l )~.~l ~ I ~lh.I t * ~ . l ~I <. v v . 7 . 231 2x5
IS!) 228 ( l!l5(i). (1!)51),
(7!11 N:I~<:IIIIIII.;I. I . : 'l'11(' I:~III~II:I~ I ) o ~ ~ l ~ f l 1:1y1'
: l r y r 011 :I S ~ I ~ I I ! ~ ~ I1)011?'
I~ 0~:1rl)ilr:1rys~I:I[>(~ ill :isinl [ IO4j S r ~ l ~ ~I<.: r y . I,:~II~III:I~ I)ot111(1:1ryl i l y r r 0 1 1 :I S ~ ) ~ I I I I ~ I I ~i.11111. ill s111:111 :IIIKI(.S 01' : ~ l l : I,~ t111 :I
I .I < s : I l i No. , 1 , I 45 (1!)72). s ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ llo\\. r s o ~J,\S l i c 2.1. 430 4:Ni (l!b57).
1801 N:I~<;IIIIII~:I. I.. \':III~:Is~I~~:I. S.. 111111 I i ~ ~ r l ~ y\'.: : ~ . 'I'l~riI~ivl< 111r0111c111 l)o111iiI:11.yl:ly(>rs 0 1 1 [IOT,] S(luirc:. 11. 11.: '1'1i(, r0111111 I:ltllili:~r j r l . ()II:I~!. .I RI(Y.II. ; \ l ~ l ) l . RI:IIII. 1. :!2I :<?!I ( l ! l 5 l ) .
~ . i ~ l : c~. yi Iii~ ~ l~ ( l ~l ill
:~ r :IX~:II
s (Ion.. S(.vo~ltlIIII~~II. S~IIII)OS~IIIII l i l r ~ i t lh l : ~ r ~ l ~ i ~ r:111tI r . r y I"llli(li,.s. [IOOJ S c l i ~ i ~ 11. r . 13.: l<:~(Ii:ll jcls. IW'ly y r a r s o r IIOIIII(I:I~~-I:I~~C~~ I.~~SV:I~(~II (\\'. 'I'I>IIIII~~:I :III(I 11.
'l'ol<yo. SI*III. l!)72. (;ijrllrr, rcl.), l $ r n ~ ~ ~ ~ s c l 1!)55, ~ ~ v r 47 i g . 54.
[ S l 1 K ~ ~ : I I I IS. . I).: h'olt, OII I,~I(> ~1ot1111~:lry I:lylsr OII :I r o I : l l i ~ ~~g[ ) I i ( ~ X;\hl r r . I' .5, 151 I 5 5 (l!!54). IIOIin] Sp:~rro\v, 1S.RI.. I,ili, S., :111d I.IIII(~~~~II. '1'. S. : 1i10\1. ( I r \ . c . l ( r l ) ~ ~ ~ill r n l 1 1 1 ~11) ~II.O~~~II:IIII~I,
lH1:1l Nycl;~Ill. .I. I<:.: Il~v~ Ir:~llsf(-r
t for tllc: Iliiclrwntlt ~ ) l ~ o l ) l r lIl)~i s. s c r t : ~ l i o ~('olor;~rlo ~. ht,ntc ~111r:i11rr rrgioli o f tl~l)('snntl c l ~ ~ r t sI'hys. . F l t ~ i t l s7 . :$:I8 347 (I!Ni4).
I ~ ~ ~ i v r r s il it oyr,i ( ' o l l i ~ ~ s(;olnr:l(lo , 1!)71.
 264 XI. Axially ~ymmctricaland thrm-dimensional boundary layera

[107] Steinhcucr, T.: Three-dimensional boundary layers on rotating bodies and in cornera.
AOARlJograph No. 97, Part 2, 567-611 (1965).
[I081 StewartRon, K., and Howarth, L.: 011the flow past a quarter infinite plate using Oscen's
equatior~s.,lFM 7, 1-21 (1960).
[I091 Stewarteon, K.: Viscous flow pnst a qr~nrtcrinfinite platc. .JAS 28. 1- 10 (1961).
[I101 'J'nll)ot, I,.: I ~ m i n a rswirlinl?.pipe flow. .J. Appl. Mcch. 21, 1 -7 (1954).
[1]():r] 'rrrn, S.: On lnminirr bou~~dary lnyer over a rotnt~ngblnrle. .JAS 20, 780 -781 (1953).
11I I j 'J'nylor, (:. 1.: 'J'ho h o ~ ~ n d e rlayrr
y in the ronvcrging nozzle of n swirl ~rlorr~izc.r. (211rtrt.-1.
Mcch. Appl. Mal.11. 3 , 129- 139 (1950).
11 121 Tetervirt. N. : Bonndnry-layer
> . . momentu~nequations for t.hree-dirncnsional flow. NACA
TN 1479 (1!)47). Thermal boundary layers in laminar flow t
L
11131 l'iiford. A.N.. and Chu, S.T.: On the flow around a rotnting disc in a uniform stream.
,
JAS 19. 284-285 (1952).
[I 141 Timn~nn,R.: Tllc theory of three-di~nensiotialboundnry layers. J3011ndarylayer eiTecle in
acrodynamirs. Proc. of a Sympouiutn held a t Nl'l,, landon, 195.5. n. Dcrivntion o f the energy equntion
[I 151 'I'i~nman.It., and ZturL. J.A.: Eine RcrIicnmet.hode fiir dreidi~nensior~alc Ia~ninnreGrenz-
schichten. I'iftv vears of boundnry-layer - " research (W. 'l'oll~nien and II. GBrl.ler, cd.), r
.Ih c transfcr of llcat bctwcen a solid b o d y ar~tla liquid o r gascocls flow is a prohlcm
7

Ur~unsclrweig,1655, 432-445.
1, [I101 Ton~otika,S.: Ihrninar bonndary layer on the surface of n sphcro in n oniform stream. whosc considcrnt,iorl involvcs Ll~cscioncc of Illlid nlotion. 011 ttlc pl~ysic:alm o t i o r ~
ARC 1tM. I678 (1935). of tile flt~itl t h e r e is srrpcrirnposed a flow of h c a t a r ~ t l , gcricrally s p c : ~ l t i ~ ~tllc g,
, [I171 I'oniotika, S., and Imai, I.: On the transition from Ianiinar to trlrbulent flow in the t w o ficltls i r ~ t ~ c r a c111 t . ortlcr t o tletcrminc t h o t c m p c r : ~ t u r cclistribntion i t is rlec:c:ssary
bounclary lnycr of a sphere. Rep. Aero. Rea. lnst. Tokyo Id, 389-423 (I9:SR); and Tomo-
tika, S.: l'roc. Phya. Math. Soc. Japan 20 (19:38). to cornl)inc t,l~ec q ~ ~ : ~ t i of o ~nlotion
ls wit11 thoso of h c a t condnot,ion. 11 is int,r~it,ivcly
[ I 181 l'r~~ckcnbrotlt., E.:]$in Quadmtnrvcrfnhren zur Bcrcchnung der Reib~~ngsscl~icllt an axinl cvitletlt t h a t 1,llc LcmpcraLr~rcdjstribution arountl a h o t body i r ~a fluid s t r c a n ~will
angestriin~br~ rotiercndon I)rolikiirycrn. In&-Arch. 22. 21 -35 (1964). o f t c ~ lJI:LVC t h e s a m c c h a m a t c r a s t l ~ cvclocity distril)utior~i n bor~ntl:try-1:~yor flow.
[II!)] Trr~ckcnl~rodt, E.: Die turbulente S t r i i n ~ ~ ~anr l geirier angeblancnen rotiercndcn Scheibe. F o r axample, if we irr~agincn solid botly which is placcd in a fluid sLrcam : ~ r l t l w l ~ i c h
ZAMM 34, 150-162 (1954).
[I201 Vogelpohl, G.: Die Stromrlng dcr Wirbclquelle zwischen ebeuen M'iinden mit Reriick- is I ~ e n t c ds o t h a t i t s temperature is maintaincct a b o v e t h a t of t h c surror~ndingst,hen
sichtigung dcr Wandreibung. ZAMM 24, 280-294 (1944). it is clcnr tllat t l ~ c : t e m p e r a t u r e of t l ~ csCrcam will incrcasc only ovcr x t l ~ i r1:~yc:r ~ in
11211 Weher, 11. E.: The boundary lnycr inside a conical surface due to swirl. J. Appl. Mech. 23, d t h e b o d y ant1 ovcr a narrow w a k c bchintl i t , Fig. 4.2.
ifllei n ~ ~ n c d i a tr -l e i g h b o ~ ~ r h o oof
587 --592 (1950). ,I,h c m a j o r p a r t o f tllc transition from t h e t,cmpcraturc of tllc h o t botly t o t.llat of Cl~c
1 ' 11221 Wieghardt, I(.:- ISinigc Grcnzscl~icht~ilr~~s~~~igc~~ nri S<ot.nt,ionskiirpern.SchilFstccIinik 3.
102 - 103 (1!)55/5(i). coltler surroundings taltcs placc in a tl~irllayer in tllc n c i g l ~ b o u d l o o dof the l)otly
[12:3] Wieselsl,orger, C.: Uber den L~~ftwitlerstand bei gleichzeitiger Rot,ation des Versochs- wl~iclr,in analogy wit,lt flow phenomena, m a y b e termctl t l ~ ct l ~ c r m a k)onrld;iry
l I;~ycr.
korpers. Phys. Z. 28, 84-88 (1927). It, is cvitlcnt, tllnt flow phenomcna a n d t l ~ e r m n lpt~cnorncnainteract, to n higll clcgrcc.
11241 Wild, .J.M.: The bountlary laycr of yawed infinite wings. JAS IS, 41 --45 (1940).
11251 Va~nnpa..J.: An npproximatn soInt,ion of t.he Ianiinar ho~~ndnry layer on a rotating body T o 1)cgiri t . 1 ~investigatiori of s t l c l ~~ ) h c n o m c n x ,i L is rlecossary t o cstablislr tlrc
of rcvol~~t.ion in nr~iforr~~ co1111)rc~niblc flom. I'roc. OLIi .Japiln. Nat.. (:orrgr. Appl. Mecl~.. cncrgy bal:~ncc for :L llnitl clcmcnt in mot.ion a n d t o consitlcr it in atldition to t , l ~ c
295---298 ( 1956). ctl~tai~ions of rnot.ion. For a n inc:ornprcssiblc fluitl t.11~crlcrgy b:~lnr~cc is clctorr~~ir~ccl
11261 Young, A. I).: Soruc special boundary-lnyer problems (20th Prarldtl Motnorial Ixcturc). b y t.llc int,crnal o l r r p y , t,he condr~ctionof Ilcat, t , l ~corlvcct,ion
c o f l t c a t with tllc st.rc:ani
ZFW 1, 401-414 (1977).
nntl t , l ~gc~lcr:~tiorl
r of llcat through friction. TII s comprossil~lcllr~itlt h c r e is a n ;ultlit,io-
[I271 Znrnir, M., nntl Yonng, A.D.: Expcrinlcntal invcsl.igat,ion of the boundary layer in fl
strca~n\visecorr~c?r.,Icro. Quart,. 21, 313- 339 (1!)70). nal t,crtn tlnc i.o t h c worlc of cxpansion (or comprcssion) wtlcr~l.hc volnrnc is c11:~ngc:cl.
I n all r:lscs m.diation m a y also bc proscnt, b u t it.s c o r l t r i b ~ ~ t ~is i osmall
r~ a t mot1cr:rtc:
t,on~peratures,anti wc shall neglect i t complctcly. W c shall now proccctl t o establish
t,l~iscncrgy b:~lancc o n t h c basis of ttlc F i r s t Law of Tl~crmotlyrlarnics,consitl(:ring
an rlemcnt.xry volume A V = dx dy d.z of mass AM = P A V a s it flows along iths ~ ) : i t , l ~ .
l ' l ~ cqunnt.ity of h e a t dQ a d d e d t o t h c volume dr~rirlga11clcn~crttof tirnc tlt st:rvcs
t o jnrrcasc it,s int.crna1 cncrgy b y a n amorlnL tllg,, arltl t,o pcrli)rrn work tl 14'. I lc~ncc:

- -
cncrgy work

t 1 a111intlcbtctl f.o l'rof=%wr I<. Ccrslcn for l l ~ crcvisrct v r r s i o ~of~ t . l ~ cli:q)tc:r.

i~
: Ilcrc a.nt1 in \vl1:11, follo\vs, we e~nployt,I~ct l o ~ ~(Il r ,1011lt-- I Nt~\vl~on~~it~lcr or I .I - I NIII)
as t.l~cnnit of work ant1 ct~crgy).
206 XIT. l'l~rr~nnl
bo1111r11iry
lnycra i n Inminnr flow

'1'111- t.t-r111t l lC7./tlt rc:l)rt:srnls n sr~l~st.arrt i:tl tlcriv:~tivcwlricl~ consist,^ of a local ant1 Tho nrgst,ivc sigr~is a.tltletl in order t o follow t,11c sign corlvent,ioll of cqn. (1 2.1) accortl-
:I t.or~vc.t.l.ivrc . o ~ ~ l . r i l ) l ~ t . i o ~ ~ . i11g t o w l ~ i c lwork
~ adtlcd t.o t.11~fluid from t,lrr! oui,sitlc is rlcg,zt,ivc. T l ~ ctol.:tl work
j)erforrnrcl by t.11~ n o r ~ n : ~:rntl
l sl~csringsl,rrssrs prr unit! t.itnc rsrl trow l)c writ.t,c:r~:IS

r:~.I.tlrcgratlirtrt.. I l r r ~ c c ,I,lto a ~ r ~ o ~of~ nI~rnl, l . t,ra.nsforrotl ir~t,ov o l ~ ~ l vAr 1' i , l ~ r o ~ ~ g l r JIrrc a,, n,), . . . , s,, rlct~ol.ctho rlorlnn.1 ant1 s l ~ r : ~ r si.rc~sst:s
i ~ ~ g itil.rot111rctlr:~r.lit*ri l l
SIII.I':I~(~ ~ I C I I I ~ I I ~ \vl~i(:l~
S arc normal 1,o t , l ~ c2:-dirccl.ion (I'ig. 12.1) is rclr~al t,o eqns. (3.20) and (3.26). Substituting eqtrs. (12.3), (12.4) nl~tl( I 2.0) into cqlr. ( 1 2.1 ),
( h i ) '/'/r?:r)tl!/tlz. 1Zy oo~rt,rnst,, l.l~oa r n o r ~ rIc:~virlg
~t n rfiivc~lby l(k'3 ' / ' / r 3 ~ : ) 1-
1,llcv o l ~ ~ l is nntl pcrfnrnring s 11uln1)crof obvious simplificst.ions, i ~ ~ c l ~ l t l tllosei n g it~l.rotl~rcc,tl Oy
( i ' / i i . v ) (k;)7'/tln.)tl.r](I!/ tlz. 'l'l~rrs, t,hc arrlorlnt. of Itcat. atltlcd I)y oor~tl~lr(ion tlnr.irlg cqn. (3.1I), we ol~t,airl,after some calculnt,iorl, t,l~c:followilrg oncrg.y o ( j ~ ~ : ~ I . i01'o r ~ s
1,l1(!
l,itnr. tll 1.0 n, v o l ~ ~ r rAl' ~ o c:n.n I)r \v~.itt,rll flow:

Jlcrr @ rrpresrnts the tlissipatiorl firnct,iol~give11 I)y

Rgr~at.iot~ ( 1 2.7) enjoys gcnrral valitlit,y, I)ut i r l most ~,r:r,c>t,irnl r:rsrs i t is ~ ~ o s s i lt.o
~ lsirn-
c
plify it st,ill furtOrcr. Jrl doing so, it, is ncccssnry carcfrtlly t.otlist,ir~g~~islr l)ctwcc~r1 . 1 1rnsr
~
of a pcrfcc:t, gas n.ntl t . l ~ s of t :LII incom~)rc~ssil~lc Ill~itl.'I'll(- l.l~c~r~notlyt~n~rric? proprrt,ic,s
irs of t . 1 1 ~fi)rl~lc-r.111 li~c.t.,
of t , l ~ cInt,t,rr/lo ~ t o lronsl.itnt.e n lirnit.i~lgm.sc of 1,lrt: ~,rol)c.~.I
t,lic va.riat,ion in i,l~oint,crn:~Ienergy of :L prrfrc:t gas is clc I--c,, ti'/', \vlrcrrns l,l1:11~ 01'
it,s o ~ ~ t l ~ a lisl ltlh.
y c,,dT. Tlin corrcspo~~tling v:rr.iat.ior~sfor nrl int-orrrl)rrssil)l(~ fl~litl
:1ro tic = c (17' a,ll(I (I/&.rc (17' -1- (l/@)tlp.
r
I Ilr c,l~ntrg(rr:
3
i l l t . l ~ f.ot.nl
r rt~c.rgy.t l l C T , (:orr!iist,s of a chnngo tllg
: p,,l l'tlt. ill 1 . 1 1 i~ltcrtr:~l
~
c~~c.rgy anti n c.l~:l,ngci r r Iti~~t,l.ic:oirc:rgy I,y nrl ntno~lnt,(1 { 6 0 LI I'(~L' 1- 11' 4 i ( 1 2 ) } , if gas i , l ~ n t ~
l l ~ t x( , I I : I I I ~ V i l l 1l1r l)oi~(~~rI.ial
c r r ( ~ g y(IIIC to (lis~)l:~(:crnr~rl,
i r k t l ~ cgr:tvit:~t,io11;11 Iirl(1
is 11rgIrt:1(~1. I l(kt~cc
M'itlr 1l1c nit1 of' Illis rclr~:tt,io~r
: ~ ~ r tof
l
c , ( I T - c,, d '1' 1 (1
268 XII. 'I'hcrrnal borrnrlary lnycrs in lnrninar flow b. Tclnpernture incren.9~through ndinbntic cornprcssion; stagrlation temp~rat~ure 269
IIcre c,[d/kg (leg] represrnt.~t11c specific: Ilnnt a t const,nnf, pressure per unit mass.
I n general, c, clepcnds on tjcrnpcmtfnre. 111 tlte case of a constant thermal contlr~o-
t,ivit,y, we obtain the sirnplcr form
(1 J = 1 Nm;
Table 12.1. Physical constants
1 IrJ/kg dcg -
lo3 m2/sec2dog)

Tcrnpernt~~re Specific
hent
T
In tltc ca.se of an incomprcssil)lc fluid, wc liavc tliv
wit.11d n .- c tb7' yields
rct = 0, ant1 cqll. (12.7) togrtllcr
6

["CI [Kl
Cv

[lcJ/kg Kl [J/" 80" K1 I [niz/mcl

I [kg/'n nec
=PnoJ

r 7
Mercury 1 20 2931 0.138 1 9.3 1 -5 1 1560 1 0-115 10.023
I he tan~pnmt~nre changes brought, about by thc dynamic: prcssrlre variation in
1,uhr.
a comprc:ssil)le flow arc important for its heat balalice. I n particular, i t appears useful oil
t o cornpare t.11~tc~nperat,rlrcdiffcrcnccs wliicli result from the heat due t o friction
wit,ll t.liosc cattsctl by comprcssion. For this reason wo shall first cvnlrrat.c t.110 tcrnpc-
ra.t.ttrc increaso due t o compression in a frictionless fluid stream : 1 f the velocit,y Air -50 223 ' 1.006
varies along a st.rm.tnlitlc t,l~otcmpcr:~t.l~rc must vary also. In order to simplify
- .. t11;: (ntmooph.) 0 273 1.000
argrrtncrtt it, is perrnissi1)lo t o assumc t l ~ n tthe process is atliabatic xntl rcvcrsiblc 3-60 323 1.006
100 373 1.009
bcca~tsct,hc small value of conductivity and t,ho high rate of change in t h e t8hcrmo- 200 473 1.028
tfyttatnic propcrtics of state will, in general, prevctit, ally appreciable cxchange of 300 573 1-048

-
h m t wit.11 t.hc sr~rrot~ndirlgs.
increase ( A T ) , ,
In partic:rtlar wc propose t o cale~rlatethe tempcmtfurc
7', - ,7' which occlrrs a t t,lle stsagnation point of a botly in a
stream anti wlticlt is tlue t,o compression from p,, t>op,, Fig. 12.2.
In an analogous manner, thc complete Navicr-Stokcs r(1nalions (3 26) lent1 t o the
I%ernoalliequation when viscosit,y is neglected in them and whcn a n intagrnl along a
streamlinc is talren:
l'ig. 12.2. Calc~~lat~ion
of bltc tctnpcraturc inc.rmno
at stagnation point due to adiabatic comprc3sion
(A7'),,, = To - 7.m
so t h a t the tempcrature increase
1
T - T, = -- (wW2- w2), (12.14a)
c~
For the case of zero heat condnc,tion i n frictionless flow the energy equation
(12.11) givcs t3hefollowing relation between temperature and pressure along a strcam-
liric (coor<linatjes )
anti, in pnrt,icular, the temperature increase a t the ~tngtiat~ion
adiabatic contprcssion becomes
point ( w - 0) t111cto

I
wl~crct o ( s ) d c n o t c ~t h e vclocity along a streamline. Dividing by euy and integrating
along a strcamlinc we obtain IIere w, dcnotes the free-stream vclocity (Fig. 12.2). The temperature T, assumrd 1)y
" the fluid when the velocity is reduccd to zcro is known a s the slagnntio~tte~npernlurr,
sometimes also referred t o a s the total lernperature. The difference (AT),, = T o - 1'-
brtween the stagnation and the free-st,rram temperature will hcre be called t h e
ndiczbtrlic trmprralitre incrrosc
 270 XIT. 'I'l~rrtnalbo~~ndnry
layers in leniinar flow
l $ ( l ~ " t i "(1
~ 2.14%).~v'.llir:ll i a a l s o i r n o w ~ ~t,hemmprcr.ible
:~s B e r n o ~ l lcgurt,inn,
i has
( l t l ~ ca n s u ~ n p t ~ i t11:~t
b r r n t l r t l ~ ~ ( . ron o ~ l t,l~oflow in t l ~ estrertm is rev~niible,i. e. t h a t
t'he er~tn,p.yremailm c:or~st.:~nt along n st.rcnmlir~c.111 ac:tr~alfact crln. (12.143) in more
ge~lernlt11:tn this nrgumcrlt would suggest, a s it applies t o arty o n e - d i r n e ~ ~ s i o r ~ ~ l I n rnot,iotls wllore t.cmperatnro tlilTc~renrcsbring at)oul. dircrcr~crwin dcl~sit~y it
st,rcam, sric:l~a s Ll~oflow t.llrough a slentlor nozzle, on col~ditiont h a t there is no is necessary t,() inr.lIldc buoyancy forces in t.llo ccl~~nl.ions of 1not,io11(33.29) R I I ~ 10~
cxtjrrrlnl excl~nngoofllcat, Imt irrcspect.ivo of wJ~ct,I~or the crtt,ropy remains constant trc,:lt t,llcnl as Ijotly forc:cs irnp~~cssnd on t l ~ rl i c l r l i t l nr gas, I'lrc,ir 111ngl1it.rltlc.I)(,itig
or not,. Tllr erl11nt.io11can bc sl~ownt o bo approximat.c:ly t,ruc : ~ l o r ~ag sl,rcaI,~linc
i l l st.c:t(ly t~l1rcr-(lin1r:r1sional
tc.rnprr:~t.~lre incrcwso a t n vrlonitpyot'ul, -
llolv1.. F o r air wit.11 c, -- l.OO(i k.J/kg drg the ac1iabatic
100 ~ r ~ / s ohas
r a value of

'I'he %di:th:~tir:t ~ m p r r a t ~ r ~
inr:re:lse
re c n l ~ ~ ~ ~ l nfor t i from eqn. (32.1413) is sllown
f . e :kir
~)lot,tcdill 14'ig. 12.3. T l ~ ospcoifir: hcnt,, c:otltluc:t,ivitjy,arid other t,hrrmnl ,)roperties
for n number of s110st~:~ncrs are list,ed i r ~Table 12.1.

I[cre p tlc.l>ot,os t,llr rorffi(:icn(,of I,llrr~n:~l cxpnnsiot~nl. l.r~ml)c~r:r.l.~~~~c 'I'm, 1' is t,llc rn.ti()
"1' t,llc t,wo sprcific Iir:r.t,s, antl cm is t . 1 1 ~s1)rrtl 01' so1111tlol' t I ~ ( s l l i l i t l .
r I > IlC Inst t.isrm (:all 1)c nrglrrt,ctl in flows \vliivlr n1.c nfl'c~c,t.c.(l a~.n\rita.tio~~. 'I'l~is
nlrnns, gellrl~allys L ) r a l ~ i l ~(lint.
g . t.l1c t1cj~crltlrnc:rof tlrnsit,y o n ~ ~ r c s s r ~can l . c t)c: ig~lol.c%tl.
~ ~ ~ ~ wet srlbtl.act , l ~ (,he ~ ~ , grad p , ~= p, g, gct~crnt,etl I J 1.11~
t,cr~n ~ s t d i o ficltl, wc
) (3.30) t,llc followi~lgrno(lific(l form of t ' l ~ cN a r i c r - S t * ) l ~ c ~
oljl,ain from erllls. ( : J . ~ ' J.zll<l
e ~ ~ ~ ~for: t1lr ~ tst.c~ntly
~ i ~ flow
~ s of a con~prcssil)lcfluitl of const.a.111viscosit,y:
a(e.) a ( e 4 ?(PIO) -- -0, (12.1~)
ax 4- a~ az

Fig. 12.8. Atli:rl>nf ic tcnl- 111 arlllition it, is nrcrss:r.ry t o consitlcr t.11~
energy cclr~:tI,iot~
(12.12), :l.lso 1111tlvrl.llc
p.-ratrlro inrrmmo at stngnn- :~ssnrn~>t,ion of constant propcrt,ics:
tion point for air frorrl rqn.
(12.1411)
I<)
(r,, = 0 24 l%t~i/Il)i

ilvrr t.11~; tlissipat,iorl f r ~ n c t ~ i o@,

r ~ ,is given I)y oq11. (12.8). For ~)orf(xctgnsrs 1110 cqlln-
t i o l ~of st.a.t,ecan be writ.t,en an
-P .=R T . (12.20)
CI
 c. Theory of sitniI:~rit,yi n 11c:ttt,ranafrr 273
272 XII. Tl~ern~al
boundary layers in laminar flow

I n tile general case of a compressible medium, eqns. (12.17) t o (12.20) form a system I t is recognized t h a t the solr~tionsof eqns. (12 21) nntl (12.22) tlcl)cntl on Ll~cfollow-
of six s i m ~ ~ l t ~ a n c oequations
us for the six variables: u, v, w , p, e, T t . F o r incompres- ing five dimensionless groups:
sible media (liquids) t h e last equation a s well a s t h e trerms u ap/ax etc. wllich re-
present, cornprrssion work vanish. I n this case there are five equations for u, v, w , p, 1'.
1t is noccsnnry to ernphnsizo t.llnt tho sytnl)ol p does not donotc tilo sarno physical quantity
in eqnu. (12.IR), (12.19) ancl (12.20). Wherens i n tho lnut t.wo cqunlionn p stnntls for tho thorrno- 'l'hc /irst group is t l ~ calro:~tlyf:tmili,zr Ilcynoltls n r ~ n l l ~ cTr .t ~ cfo11rL11ant1 fifI11 groups
dynamic property, the uy~nbolp in eqns. (12.18) represents the difference between the actual prcu-
sure and the static pressnre of the modinn1 at rest when it* density is em (cf. remark concerning differ only Ijy {,hefactor R, so t.l~at,in all, t,l~crcarc only /out. inrlrpe7arIe111di?itcit.?iol~-
fluid8 without free surfaces in Sec. I V a). In the cn.908 treated in detail in the literature so far, tho l c ~ qua,i~lilies.
s The second group call be rcl)rcscnlctl as
pressnre term has been included either only in eqns. (12.18) - the case of free flows - or in the
pnir of eqrlationa (12.10) and (12.20) for compressible flown.

Before proceeding t o intlicate solut,ions of t h e above equations, which we shall

tliscnss in tho sl~ccccdingsections, we propose, first, t o examine them from t l ~ ep o i r ~ t This gives t l ~ cGrashof n111n1)cr
of view of t11e principle of similar it?^ [10B]. I n this way we shall discover the dimension- q /? 1:' (A 7')
G . .- -- --- 0-
less groups on which the s o l ~ ~ t i o must
ns depend. W e begin by introducing dimension- v2
less quant,il,ies illto eqns. (12.18) ant1 (12.19) in the same manner as in Sec. I V a ,
when Itcynol(1s's similarity principle was deduced from the Navier-Stoltcs eqr~xtior~s. 'i'hc third quantity m.rl bo wrilt,cn as
All lengt,l~swill be referret1 t,o a representative 1engtJ1 I , the velocities will he made
dimcnsionlcss wit,l~reference t o the free-stream velocity U,, t h e density with respect
t o e,, ant1 the pressure will be rcferrctl t o e, Urn2. The temperature in t h e energy
e(111at.iorlwill be madc dimcnsionlcss wit11 reference t o tt,~et,empcrat,ure dircrence
(Al'), = T,,, -- TW between the wall and t01e fluid a t a large distance from t h e body;
t,hus O* -- (7' -- Tc,)/(A7')".I)rnoting all climcnsionlcss q ~ ~ a n t i t iby
e s a star we obtain
from eqns. (12.18) anti (12.10) for the equation of motion in the x-direction a n d for
t h e energy equation in t h e two-dimensional case wit11 g, = -g* cos a: is the tl~erinuldilluaivity [m2/sec or fL2/soc] and

$;; 4- .*
e* jU* au* 4;:) 'p.
= - ax* + I C!K)L ,*
o * cos a + "-- (""' !ay*2
?(!:) ,

"
+
Urn2 e,U-l
(12 21)
is the dimensionless Prandtl number. It will be noted t h a t i t depends only on tho
Q* (u* h*
ao * ao*
-i- V* a y * ) - e,r,
azo*
* 1-
a20*
1- proprrtirs of the metlinm. For air P = 0.7 npproxirnatcly anrl for watcr at 20°C P = 7
approximately, whereas for oils i t is of the order of 1 0 0 0 t owing t o t l ~ r ilarge
r
(see also Table 12.1). The Jourlh dimcnsior~lcssquantity leads clircctly t o the tcm-
viscosity

perature inrrease tllrougli atliabatic compression as calculat.cd in cqn. (12.14b). We

1 1 % ~ ~

The tlimcr~sionlemd i s s i p a l i o ~function

~ is here givcn b y

wl~creE is Irnown as tllc dirnensionlcss Eclrcrt nn~nltcr.T l ~ quantiLy

c E = lJm2/c1,(A71)0

I
. ..
.. - .- .-.
.. . -

t sine(?the viu~onity/ I wn.8 aflsllnled c011sta11tthe above system is valid only for moderetc changes
in tcni rrnbrlre. I n the rmc of large temperature tlilTerences in gnscs (over 50" C or 00" F), is sorncLirncs used. It in related to the Prandtl number hy t.hr equation P, = PR
o r rnocfcmtn ones (over 10" C or 18' F) in liqnids, / I ~ n ube ~ f,aken
t to vary with tcnlpcmtnre. : The ratio of tho two tempcrat~lrcdilTcrcncesItas, 80 far, not received a separnk nanle. k'ollowing
I n tllin c:rse t.110 cq~~ation
of motion robins the form (3.29).The six equations under considera- n snggcstion by l'rofessor E. SrhmidL it 11m bern proposed in nn rarlinr edition to call it, after
tion nlnst he sn()ple~nenbriby the empirical viscosity law /c ( l ' )eqn. , (13.3), and, ill all, we I'rofc?u~orIF. It. C:. Eeltort,,ant1 to give i l t.l~ename of t.hc 1Srkrrt. nn~nbrr,E.
hnvo n syutrn~of nevcn uirnnlt.nncoun cqnnI.ioncl for tho seven functions I t , 11, 111, p, e, 7'. 11.
 car1 I)r rc>t.nilrrvlin inrotnl~rrssil~l(~ wit11 reference t o
flo\v :IISO. I)rit, I l ~ cirrf~cr~~rctnt~ion
ntli:~l):rt.ic: c:ott~l)rc~ssiotr c.cnsr,s l,o I)(: vnlitl. It is now possil)le 1.0 conclutle t h a t frictior~al I n most npp1ic:~tion.swe (lo rrot rcqtrirc t o lrrtow n.11 t,hr tlct,nils of 1 . 1 1 ~t.?rn1)c.1.;~1 ltrc.
hc~11, nncl IICRI, ( I I I C 1.0 ( : O I I I ~ ) I . C S:Ire
S ~in11)ort~nnt.
~II for the c:n.lcnlnt.iorr of t,hc temperature arrd velocity field, b u t we wish, in the first, plncc, to know t.hc tjt~n,nI,it.y of I t r , : ~ l . ox-
fic.ltl ~ h r ntltr I'rcv--st,rrn.tn vc,loc:ity 11, is so lnrgc t.l~n(, t,lro ntlinhntic t,crnl,er;~ture chnngctl lwt,wcen t,lle body nntl t,ha strcnln. 'l'lris cl~lnnt,iI,y c,nn I)(: c.xl)rrssrtl \vif,lr I Irr
in(:rt~:~sr is ol' l,lt(, S:I~II(\ ordvr nf ~ n ; ~ g ~ ~ i l:IS t t (I,lrc
l ( \ pr(?srril)c~l I~~:~r~pt>rnt,~trc
(lifT<:rcr~cr aid of x coefficient of hcnt l,rnnsf(:r, a, wl~ichis tlcfinctl ril,lrer as :I lorn1 t~l~:r~rIil.y or
~ ~ ~ l Itot
l ) ( ~ l , \ \ ~ ( l,lt(, l ly :I 1141 l.lt(, sl~r~~:llll, ns n mcnn qt~nttt,it.yover t,11c srlrf:lcc of t.lto I)otly ~ ~ n t lc:ot~sitl(:rntiorr. rr
r1
I hc rocffic:iollt, of II(::L(, t,r;lrtsf(:r is rc:l'crrc~tll,o I.IIc t1irvrc.11c.c: I~rt.\r.cv.nI I I V Ir~rtl)c.-
I f l.ltis ~)rt~sc~ril)c.tl I . ( . I I I ~ I ( ~ ~ ; I ~ (lill'+rr~~(*c
II~o is of I.lro same ortlt:r of rnn.gr~it,tltlea s r ; ~ l , l ~of
r e tile wall :LII~]
t,lraI,of't , l ~ t :I111i(l, t , l ~ l:il,l,(!r
c 1)vi11gI,:L~<(\II:LI, :L 1:11,g(: ( l i s l , : t ~I'I.I)III
~~~i~
(.It(: nl)soltift~I,rnrl)c~r:~.l.t~rc of !.I:(: f'rcc: sI.rr:r.trr, wl~ic:l~ is, for cxnrnplc, tho cnso with a
(,he wall. If q ( r ) tlcnot,ss t,hc clr~nrrI,it~y o f Itc:it r x c l ~ : ~ ~ ~I,(-rg e t lI I I I ~ I nrr:b
~ :III(It , i r l r ( *
roc-l<c.l :I(. vr.1.y l ~ i ~ nll,it,t~tl~~.
l t 1,Irc: 1Srkc.rl. r~rilnl)c,rI)rromc:s ccjl~ivnlcnt~ t.o t,llc Mnclt
( = h<:nt,flux) a t n point r , tlrctl ac~ortling1,oNC.II-/OII,'S I ~ I I 01
J cooli~l!~ it is : ~ S S I I I I I ( Y (,II:I~,,
~
~ , s(*ebrtl ' r o r ~I~, I I ~foIlo\\,i~rgr : t l ( ~ t ~ I : ~ lf'ri0111
I I I I I I I ~ ) ~ *:IS o ~ ~(,Ire
: cq11nt,io11of stsate of a
1)(.rliv.fK:IS

r 7
.lhc cocfficie~~t.
of I~cnt,t,r:~~rsft:r 11:~s tlvg]. I\(, (II(> I ) O I I I I I ~ : I I . Y
t , I t t ? ( l i n ~ ( ~ r r sI.l/n~%r(:
io~~
between n solitl botly nntl :I l l ~ ~ ithe
t l I.mttsrc:r ol'Itr:~t,is t111osolt:ly to c.o~~tltic~Iiot~. In
nccortlnnce wit,h Fot~ricr'sInw t,lle nt)soll~t.cvn.ll~eof ~ . I I ( , I ~ c n tI I I I X is. (:(In. (12.2).

~.u" y 17'~../0~.,-- T o , c,, ( y - - 1) .

No\v
(.'or~rl)nri~~g
~ , ~ I I S (12.20)
, a,trcI (12.30), :t11(1 inl.ro,Ir~rir~g
~ I i ~ ~ r ~ ~ ~(~l ts~ i; ~o, t ~~IIi l~i r~s .s s
vr(>
ol)t,nili n loc;~ltlin~cl~sionlcss cocffic:icl~t of lrrnt f.mrrsl'c:r n.ltic:l~ is l i t ~ o \ ~:ISt ~Ilto
Nrissclt number N [ B l ] :

w l ~ c ~ rM r ~ - 1 ' . ./c... is I,Itc- hl:~c.ltI I I I I I I ~ ) ( * ~' l.. 1 1 ~ \vorlr of cornpr~ssio~r nntl tlrnt tluo t,o
frit-lion I)rc.ontv i ~ t ~ l ) o r t . :wlrc,~~ ~ r ~ I ~t,Iw I'rc~.-strc:~lr~ ~ r l o i : i t is . ~ comp:trnl~lowit,l~t,l~at, k k
q 1 -- N ( T , - T ), =-. I N ( d l'), (l2:11)
of' SOIIII(I. :11tt1 ~ I I ~ S I ,II IIv l)r(~s(~ril)(,~l I ~ ( * ~ I I I ) ( ~ I ~ (; lI i~l~l I~I *~ r( ~v ~I)IY~OIII~:S
t(~r of 111,- orclrr of 1,111, 1
: ~ l ~ s o I tI t, ~l ~~I ~
I I I ) ~ ~I ~I I.V: I of
I l , l t t * l'tv(>S ~ , ~ ( , : L I I ;I I l~is
O C C - I I ~ iSl l l ) r : ~ ~ ~ li ,l li cI.II,\
( ~ lligl~t,of'ro~!l~ttLs
: i t , very ltiglt : ~ l l i l t ~ ~ l t ~ s .
r
I I t ( , prcrc~tli~~:!
1
tli~nc~t~siorr:~l nnnl,ysis lrntls 1.0 t.ltr corrcl~lsiorrt.Irnt 111c s o l ~ t f ~ i of ot~~
t,lrc?:~,ltovrsyst.c-rn of c:clc~nl,iot~s for t.11~ vrlocily nntl t,cmpcrat,r~rcfirltls tlcpcr~tlor1 t,ha
111
foIlo\\ring fo11r ~li~ttrr~siottl(~ss grollps: = /, (s*;R, P, G, E )
Urn
7' - l'm
(A?')(, = 1, ( s * ; R, P, G , E)
N = /, (s*; R, P, G , E)

'J711c sccorl(l cql~nl,iorrst,nt.cs t.lr:~t,silnilnr procrsscs :&re:~lsocl~nr:tcl.rrizc~(l Ily t h ~ .

fact. t,l~n,(f;)r t.lrr111 I.hc rnt,io 7'm/(A'/')n IIIIISI. I~nvt, I.II(' sntn(: \J:IIIIC (c/. I:!(;)).
'l'lrc syrlll,ol s* tlcrlolrs l ~ e r ct.11~l,l~rcodirnc~nsiortl(~ss s1):lc.c cnortlinnl.c~s.If :L l l l t L : l l l
v:rluc of the cosfficicnt, of 11cnt t,mnsfcr is ft)rmctl l)y int,t>grnt.ingovor t . 1 1 ~\vl>oltr
s l ~ r f n r r ,the spact-: coort1innt.c will ccnso t,o nppe:tr and
I f (AT'),, w l',.,1 . 1 1 ~ ICrltcr13 1111tn1)cris tlrlS~~rrnirrctl I)y t,hr Mar11 ntln~l)erit1 nccor-
cqn. (12.27). '1'11~ ])rol)lcrn of cl(:t,c.r~~rining
r l : l t ~ c , c > \vil.lr 1,ltcdirr~er~sionlrss
grorrl)s \ \ , l l i r l 1
govchrn 1lon.s wiI.lr 11r:lI.I,r:t.r~s~nissior~ i t 1 n pnpcr 1))' P. Pis(:l~cr1361.
is l,rr:~l.(\(l
276 XtI. Thermal boundary layers in laniinar flow d. Exact aolutiona for the problenl of temperature distribution in a viscoua flow 277

Whrn sprcial solr~tionsare consitlerctl thcn, in most cases, one or more of the Fig. 12.4. Velocity and temperature T-T,
tlimensionlrss groups will disappear as the problem will only seldom be of this most distrib11Lion in Couette flow. a) Velo-
general nature. As srrrl from eqn. (12 27) t h e temperature field and, hence, the city distribution. b) Temperature dis-
tribution with heat generated by
coefficicnt of heat transfer tlcpcnd on the Eckert number only when the temperature friction wl~en the temperatures of
cliKcrences arc large (50 to 100° C or 100 t o 200° F ) and whcn, simultaneously, botl~walls are equal. c ) Tcmperatrlre
t11e vclocitics arc very large and of the order of t h e velocity of sound. With moderate distribation wit11 heat gcncnted by
vclocitirs the ten~peraturcand vclocity fields depend on the Eckert number when Friction for tho cast when Lhc lower
wall iu non-conducting
temperaturc differences arc small (several degrees). Further, even with moderate
vrlocitics, the buoyancy forccs in eqn. (12.21) caused by temperature differences
arc small comparcd with the inertia and friction forces. I n such cases the problem
ceases t o dcpend on thc Grasllof number. Such flows are called forced flows. Iience,
for forced wnvrdio7t where
N, = f (R, P) (forced convection) .
The Gmshof nr~mbcrbecomes important only a t very small velocities of flow,
particularly if t l ~ emotion is caused by buoyancy forces, such as in the stream 1. Coucttc flow. A pnrtic~~larly simple exact solution of t,llis systcm is obtainctl
whicl~riscs along a heatcd vert.ica1 plate. Such flows are callctl natural, and we refer for Couette pow, i. e. for the case of flow between two parallel flat walls of which
to thc prohlcrn as one in d u r n 1 co~~vection.I n w c h cases thc flow becomes inde- one is a t rest, the othcr moving with a constant vclocity U 1in its own plnnc, l'ig. 12.4.
~)cntlrnt.of the Rcynoltls numbcr, and The solution of the equations of motion in the absence of a prcssurc g r a t l i c ~ in
~ t the
(natural convection) . x-direction is
N, = f (G, P)
Examples of prol)lcms in forced flow are given in Sccs. c to g of the present chapter;
cxan~plesof problems in natural convection are contained in Sec. h.
A very simple solution for the temperature distribution is obtained when i t is pos-
tulated t h a t the temperature is constant along the wall, the boundary conditions being
(I. Exnct solr~tionsfor the problem of temperature clistributinn in a visco~lsflow
y=O: T=T,; y=h: l'=T,. (12.35a)
We shall now proceed to solve several particular problems of temperature
I n this case thc dissipation function reduces t o the simplc expression @ = ( a ~ ~ / a y ) ~ ,
distribution. The examples to be discussed will be sclected from t h e Iarge number
and the equation for temperature distribution becomes consequently
of possible cases on the ground of mathematical simplicity. We shall begin by dis-
cussing several cases of exact solutions, as given by H. Schlichting [ l o l l , just as we
have begun witli the discussion of examples of exact solutions of the equations of
flow with friction in Chap. V. For the case of incompressible two-dimensional flow
witli constant properties the system of equations for the velocity and temperature With thc boundary conditiorls (12.35a), thc above equat,ior~has a solution which is
dist,ribution in steady flow along a horizontal z,z-plane we obtain from eqns. (12.17) independent of x. Since, with v = 0, the term v aT/ay on thc Icft-hand sitlc also
to (12.19): vanishes, all the convective terms on the left-hand side of eqn. (12.34) become equal
t o zero. The resulting temperature distribution is, thercfore, due solely to the gener-
ation of heat through friction and to conduction in the transverse direction. Prom
eqn. (12.35b) we obtain
d2T
k -dy2
=-p (:),' (12.35~)

and, substituting dultly, we have

'UIC solution of this cquntion which sntisfics condil,ions (12.36n) is

 d. Exact ~olrltionsfor tho problem of t,ernpornture dist,ribrlt,ion it1 a viscotl~flow 271)

0.8
r ,
I llc tlitnrtlsionlrss ~ ) n r : ~ m r I r r v
/I ll1Z 0.6
k (Fl - T") Fig. 12.5. Telnpcrn1,rlre distribntion in
r:111 also l)c wriI.t,rn a s 0.u
Cor~ettcflow for vnrions temperaturea of
both walls with lleet generated by fric-
0.2

l', -
tion (7'" = tempcrnturc of the lower wall,
kmpcmlrlrc of t,he upper wall)
if \vc: pillf
1111in1)t:r
- - 'I1, -
(A7'),. 11, is sccn t,llnt i t cat1 I)o oxprcssctl i t 1 t,orms of 1.11~
1111(1 l.llr 16c:ltcrt. n~rtnt)crfro111 ccln. (1 2.28). I n t11c cnso ~~rlclcr
1'rnntll.l
consitlornI,iot~,
0

i. c. \vl~rnt.lirrc is no convection of I ~ e i ~tth, e temperature distribution is seen t o

cleltond o n tile protluot P x E. If, finally, t,hc ilbbrevintion rl = ?//it is introtluced,
ttllo followin,n vrry dtiiple eqrlntion for tcmperatrlrc tlistribution is obtaincd:
Tltis tlistributior~is seen plottetl in Fig. 12.4b. Tlic Iligllrst tcni[)ernturc T',,,c:rrnt,ccl
by frirt,ional hcat occurs in t h c ccntrc ant1 llas a v a l t ~ ogivcn by

'I'llr t.t\~~ij)(:ral t~r(,[list ril)~~I.ionconsists of' a. lincnr t.ortn whic:ll is the snmc as in t h e
r;~s(? of n flr~itla t rest wit.11 no fricf.ionnl Ilcnt g e n ~ m t ~ o tSnpcriinposc!tl l. on i t t,llcro
is n par:~l)oliotlistril)lll.iorl wllic:l~ is tlllo t,o ltllc llrat genorat,ctl t.llrorlglt frint,ion.
111 remains vitlid provitltrtl
t l ~ ccase of coinprcs.ribic! flow for wllicll tho al)ovc solt~t.iot~
r
I II(: Lc~nll)rr:~l,rlrt;
7
tIist,ril)tltiotl for \,:~riot~s V X I I I ~ ~ Sof' tllo ~ ) r o t l ~P~ cxt E is SCCII plot,t.ntl t h a t t , l ~ eviscosit-y may I)o assumrtl t o be ilitlcpcndc~itof tcrn~)cmturc,eqn. (12.38)
i l l Id'ig. 12.5. It. is worl.lly of not.c t.llat for n g i r r n vnlt~cof the tenipcrn1,urc tlilrerent:~
cnn be put, in t h e following tlimcnsionless form
or' (.It(: 1.n.o w:tlls - 7',, 0 Ilrnt fIo\vs I'ron~ 1 . 1 1 ~11p~)crwall t o tile flrtitl only a s
lorlg :IS I l l ( : vc*lot~it.,v (Il of 1.11t: 111)l)rr\\.all (100stint. c x c t ~ a~ ccrt.nit1 l vnlnc. A rcvcrsal
or' t . I ~ t . t1il.c.c.l ion of' IItr Ilo~vof 11c:iO nl, t.11~ t~l)ltc-r.~)lal,c oc:ctlrs wl~rtrt,ho t,cn1l)t:r:~l,t11.(:
gr;~tli~~ : I (l, ~i It , t>11:111g(\ssigr~. 11, is S ~ ~ I'I.~III
I I rt111. (12.36) t , l ~ a t((I'l7/t1?/)!,.,, --0: for cvl~cro M =F [ J , / C ~ clcnol.cs I11c M:~ch nrilnl)c~.:~ntlc,, is t.110 vclocil,y of s o ~ l ~ l :tklt
I 2 k - - 7 7',,. 111~11t.t:t . 1 1 ~following r111o n.pl)lics t o Ll~otlirrrI.iot~ of 1ir:l.t. I e ~ n l ) c r a l ~ r l',.
~ r c I t is rcmarltal~lot.llnt Lhc n~nxirntlmt.ctnpcrat.r~rotlocs not tlcpcntl
llo~va!, t , l t t \ tll)l)tbr\v:III: i t . y11c::~t grnrrat,ocl 11.v fric:l,ioll is
on t,llc tlist.ancso bct,\vccll t,llo wn.lls. 'l'llo q l ~ : ~ ~ t t . of
disl~ril)utedcvcnly bctwcen t.hc st,at.ionary ant1 t.hc moving \v:~ll.
Tlie tcmpcrnturc distril,~~t,ion i n t.11~ltrcsetlt c:xa,~lll,lc is import,:lrll. for I.llc
flow in the clearance bctwccn a jorlrnal a n d it,s bcnring a.ntl was tliscussctl i t t t1ct;ril
by G . Vogclpol~l[143]. Tllc flow in tllc clcnmncc is 1anlinn.r in view of t.11~s ~ n a l l
tlitnonsions of the latter ant1 of the Iligll visr~sit.yof t1I1r oil. '1'11~ t 1 t ~ ~ ~ ~ l ) r r : riso
t.I.~rrc
tluc t,o frict.ion becorncs consitlcmblc cven :tt, ~llotlrrat,c: vclocitics, as sllo\v11 1 ) ~ '

'l'l~iss i t t 1 1 1 1 t ~~ X : I I I sllotvs
I I ~ ~ I,II:II. ior~of' IIC:II, I ~ I I ( : lo r'rict~io~t
~ \ t i l t , g(*titb~.:tl rxcrts n 1:1rgc
Table 12.1 : ,L = 0.4 I<g/mscc; contlr~ct,ivit,yof oil k -
t,llc following cxanlplc: Viscosit,y of oil at, motlcmtc t,crnl)c~rnt~t~rc

eqn. (12.38) wit.11 U , = 5 inlscc: T,,, - 'I1, 9 (leg C, ant1 for lJ1 :-
( m y ROO (1) fro111
0.14 ,J/m s r c tlcg. I l r n t ~ c!'rot11
I0
- III/Rc(::
rbl1i.c.t. 011 IItr 1)r.oc:c-ss of' rooling :111tl l,11:1.t. :I(, lliglt 1-rloril.irs the: \v:trlncr wall Inny T,, - To= 36°C. The ternpcraturc rise in the Inltricn.t,il~goil is so 1:t.rgc t.11n.t
I ) I Y . O I I I I ~ 11(~:1(('(1 inslt>:~tI01' I)rin!: (:ooI~rI.'l'llis t-l'Ii~'t. is of ( . I I I I ( I : I ~ I I ~ill~l)orl,:lnc.c
~III:II lor ills tlcpcr~tlnnccon t,cmpcmt,r~rcbccorncs itrlr)ort,:~nt,.I t . N:~lllno 1901 t:xt,c.nt 1t:tl t11c
t I I V c.o~rsi~lt.t.;~t iorl ol'c~oolitlg:11. I~iglrvt:loc.il ivs. I t . \vi,II r.c:c-~rr. in t,ltc. ~)l.ol)lt>tns c~ol~tlc:ci,t.tl prccc(ling solul,ion t,o tllc cnsc of tcl~~pcr:~l,~~rc-tlc~)t:~~tIc~~t,
vist:osil.y ant1 li)tltltl l.I1:10
tvillt t l ~ t ~ ~ In~:o~r ~ l n t l : ~l:tjrt~~.s
ry :111tl will I)(, ~ 1 i s ~ ~ 1 1 l:~.t,c:r.
ss~~~l the velocity distril)ut,ion a t right angles t.o tsllc wnlls censrs to I)c linczrr.
A further importrant so111tion for tho t.cinpcmt.urc tlistribut,ion froln rqrl. (12.n4)
is obtained wllen i t is postulatctl tltat all tho llcat d t ~ ct.o friat.io11is t,rnnsft:rrctl t,o
one of thc walls only, whoreas no Ilcat t.rnnsfer t,xlrrs ~tlaccn,t t,l~cotallrrwall (:~.Ilial):~t,ic
wall). I,& i t bo nssnmed t h a t t,Ilc lo\ver wall is ins~~laI,otl, so t,llat t,llc 1)otintl:~ry
280 X11. Tl~ermalhonndary layers in laminar flow d. IPsncl, solrttio~infor thc problrtn of totnpcraturc tlisLril,~~bion
in a visoons flow 281

conrlitions for tcm pnraturc bccomc :

of the walls, i . c. 7' -- l',,for

Ass~iming,again, equal t~cn~perat~urrs = ,I h , we
obtain from cqn. ( 1 2 . 3 5 ~ )
The solution of eqn. (12.34) with the above boundary conditions is

the solntior~of which is

it, is seen plotted. in Fig. 12.312. Thus the temperature increase of the lower wall
is given by
T (0) - To= T , - I', = ,u UI2/2 k . (12.41) The t,cmpcrat,uro distribution is reprcscntcd by a parabola of tltc forlrtd~ degree,
Fig. 12.6, ant1 t,hc mnxiln~ilntcmpcratrtrc rise in I.llo ccnt,ro of t.11~c l ~ i ~ n nis
rl

The value T, is callctl the adiabatic wa.21 temperature as already mentioned; i t is

cqual t o the reading on a thermometer in thc form of a flat plate. Upon comparing
cqns. (12.41) and (12.38) i t is seen t h a t the highest temperature rise in the centre of
tltc channel for the case of equal wall tcmpcratures is equal t o one quarter of tho
adiabatic wall temperature rise
The criterion for cooling in the case of different wall tempcratnres given in eqn. (12.37)
can be simplified if the adiabatic wall temperature T, is introduced. W e then have
11. M. de Groff [48] generalized the preceding solution for Couctte motion t o
incluclc the case when thc viscosity of the fluitl depends on temperature. The further
extension t o a compressible fluid was given by C.R. Illingworth [68] and A. J . A .
Morgan 1871.
An extension of tlte solrltion to the case of tempcrat,~trc-clcpnnclcntviscosity w:~s
given by IT. l~ausenblas1631. The corresponding solrtt,iort for a c i r c ~ ~ l npipe
r was
given Ly U. Grigull [47].
A furtl~erexact solution for the thermal bounclary layer mn bc ol~txincclfor
the flow in a ronvergrnt and a tlivcrgcnt cltannrl alrcatly cortsitlrrrtl in Sro. V 12.
The solution for the velocity field due to 0. Jeffery and 0. Iiamel quoted in that
section was utilized by I(. Millsaps and K. Pollhausen [86] in order t o solvc thc
thermal problem. The temperature distribution across the channcl is seen plotted
in Fig. 12.7 for different Prandtl numbers. Owing to the dissipation of energy which
is particularly large near the wall, the resulting temperature profiles acquire a
pronounced "boundary-layer appearance". I n fact, boundary-layer-like appearance
becomes more pronounced as the Prandtl number increases. The velocity distribution
u/us from Fig. 6.15 has been plotted in Fig. 12.7 t o provide a comparison.

2. Poiseuille flow thror1~11 a chanrlel wit11 flat walls. A fitrt,hcr and very simple
cxnot solrttiorl for t,e~npcral,ure
tlist,ribution is obtained in the casc of two-dirncr~sional
flow t~l~roltglr a cl~annclwith parallel flat walls. Using t11c symbols explaincd in Fig. 12.7. Tcmpcrnluro dis-
Fig. 12.6 we note with I'oisc~~iUct h a t the velocity distributiori is parabolic: tributions in a convergent
channel of included angle
2 a = 10" at varying Prandtl
numben P, afhr I<. Mill~aps
and K. Pohlhnusen [go].
Reynolds number R = 1342
Velocity distribution from
n g . 6.15.~
Owing to tho dissipation of
Fig. 12.6. Vc1ocit.y and tcrnpcra- E x - cncrgy which is particnlarly
turc distrihr~tionin a channel wit.11 large near the wall, the
flat walls wit11 frictional Ilmt. fx7.l<rt1 resulting tcmperatrlre pro-
file~acquirc a pronounced
int,o anconnt "boundary - layer appea-
rnncc"
 Rotntirig rli~k:(:II:I~I.V, in pnrt,icular Pigs. 5.12 and 5.13, ~ o n t ~ a i t i rad solrtt.ion
1.0 t>lwflnw prol)lr~naror~ntla n infinit.cly large disk rotat,ir~gin a fluid a t rest. l ' l ~ i s
wns n solnt,ion of' t.lrr syst,cln of eclns. (5.88). 111 order t,o tletermine t,he t.ernpern,t,ure
ficltl in tPhcr~oiglrl)o~rrIrt,otl of a hcni,c-(I.rot,at,ing disk, it is necessary t.o expand the
pre<*cvlirrgsyst.c,m of'rqr~xt.iotrsl)y inclrrding t,lrc eqnat,ion for t,Ire t,emi)eratr~rc distribu-
t.iorr it.sc.lf (c-ncsrgy c-clt~nt,io~r). Sntah cn.lctt~ln.t.ions have I)ccn prrforrnctl Oy I<. Millsaps r
J 110 ~ l r ~ lr~sx v cno\v 11ct:n orniI,t,t:tl :I,S s ~ t ~ ~ c : r l l t ~'1'11~
3
o t ~ so. ~ ~ l v of
r s I I I : I ~ I I ~of~ l ,. lI~ tI* I ~ ~ ~
and I<. I ' O I I I I I ~ L I I S ~ I I IXCin] wlro :~.lsoinc.lrltlc*tlin them t.l~ottllcotsof tlissipat.iorr. Several
vnriorts t,crms in tlrc two cqnntions whic:h lravc I)(.cn cxt.i~n:rlt:cl\ v i l , l ~t,Ito :lit1 of' I II(. v r -
acl(lit,iorr:rl stvlrtt,iorrs of tlrc Nnvier-St.olzcs orjt~at~iorrs t,ogrtlrcr with t h e energy equation
locity bountl;bry-layer equat,ion (7.2) arc slrowrr ;~l)ovc.'l'l~c osscttt.i:rl rc~sr~lt~ ol' t.lrc>
wl~iclrI(t:~tlt.0 sirnilar solrtt.iot~swrro given I ) j r 1). 1,. Tlcevcs and Ch. J . ICippcnhan 1!)7).
p r c v i o ~ ~estimation
s was t , l ~ ntth e viscor~sforccs wcrc of t,lrc sarrrc: o~.tli!rof tn:~gtril.rtt~o
a s t l ~ cinertia forces only if t l ~ ovclocit,y borrr~tlarv-l;~.vc~r t.lrirIc~~~ss,OS, s:~t.isfit:clt r l ~ ~ !

As a consequence i t provctl t o I)c possil)lo t.o ncglcc:l. F2tr/iis2 :&gainstiJ%re/i)!/' i l l 1 I 1 t -

It, l ~ a salrnatly brcn stfatfcrlon sevcral occasions t,lrnt i t is ir~tuitivelycvidctit first cqt~nt,ionof rnot.ion nntl 1.l1osocontl rclt~:r.t,io~~ of 11ro1,iotrtlroppctl out. :rlt.ogc*t.l~r?r.
t,l~a.t,i ~ rmany cases t , l ~ etc:mpcrat~~rcfield arour~tia hot body i r ~a fluid stream is
'I'l~iswas conrrectrtl wit,l~tlrc f;~cLtlrnt t , l ~ trnnsvcrsc
e pressure gmtlit.rrt i)71/i)!/-. Os, SO
of t.ltc hou~ldnry-ln?/sr11yps. 'I'lris means t,llnt t.11~tcml~eraturefield wllich spreads
t h a t tho pressure coul(l be assr~mrtlt o tlrpcntl on z alone. As secrr froln c:qn. (12.4Ga)
from the body cxt,cntls cssnnl.inlly only over n narrow zone in t h e inirnodinte neigh-
the body force wlric:l~is tlr~ct o the buoyat~c:yof t . 1 ~ I ~ o t t ~ Ilt~itl
rr p:~rLic:lcs, i. c. 1.0
bonrlrood of tlrc s~rrf:coc, wl~crcnst h e regions s t a larger tlistance from i t are not
their t,I~ermalr x p ~ n s i o n ,is of t,he: s a m r ortlrr of ni:bgr~it.utlc:IS t.lre i t ~ r r l ~: iI :I ~I ~ vis-
m:~tcrially a f i c l ~ c t lby Cl~cl ~ i g l ~ cbotly
r ton~pcratnre.I n pnrticr~lart l ~ i sis the case
c o ~ forces
~s if
whrn t,Irc cor~tllrctivit:y,k, is small, as for g;lacs ant1 liq~~itls. In s u c l ~cases t,l~ereis G % R"
a vcry steel) t,c~rnl)crnlr~ro gm.clicnt at, riglrt, angles t o t , l ~ cwall and thc l ~ c a tliux
t l ~ l c1.0 conclt~c:t.ionis of t.l~osatno ortlcr of ~ r ~ a g n i t ~ ia~sc tl eh : ~ tdue t o cor~vect~ion only
whiclr occr~rsonly \\,it11 vcry small vclocit.ics a,11<1c011sitIer~1)Iet I c n ~ p r r ~ t . t(lif-
~rc
across L: t,lrin layer n r a r t,lre \rrnll. On t,Irc other hand, it is t o t)c c ~ p c c t ~ rt,hat t l t.he
fcrcnces.
tctnpcr:~t.urrincrc:r.sc rlcnr a n nnhcntctl botly in a fluit1 stream flowitrg at. a l~iglr
IZ,rgnoltls I I I I I ~ ~n.nc1
J ~ :wlricl~
~ , is dnc 1.0 t , l ~ gc:nerat.ion
c of frictiorlal heat, is itnportar~t I t is now possible t o make a similnr rst.irnnt.io~~
of tCrnrs in t,lrt. rnorgy cclr~at,ion.
only i r r t l ~ ct,hirr 1)01111tlary layer, l)ccnusc t,lrc rj~~ntrt,it-.y of tncclinnicnl energy w l ~ i c is l~
t.r:rnsformrcl itrt.o I~c.xl.t.lrrot~glrfriot,inn is signific:l.t~t.only t,l~cre.ITcnce it rnny bc
c*slwc~tt,tlt,l~:itin ronjnnnt.ion \r.il.l~ I.lrc \,c,locit,y hor~rrtlnr~r . layrr . t.hrrc: \ \ r i l l I)r forrr~etl
:I, t,lrc.rrrrnl I I O I I I I ~In?jcr
~ : ~ .across
~~ \vlric:l~ t.l~etletnprratrrrc gmdinnt, is vcry Inrgr.
i. e. t , l ~ emnlt.iplicat.ivc fa.ctforof tlrc t,hrrmn.l contlrrct,iorr t.t:rtns, is :I.IRO a srn:l.ll qrtnn-
It is. t,liorcforc, possil)l(? t,o t.n.ltc atlvnntngc of this fact ant1 t o it~t,rotluccinto t l ~ c t,ily a s far as liquitls ant1 gases ar(: c011~0rr1edif ~ , I I cItcy 11oIc1sI I I I I I I ~ C Pis 1:1rgc, l)e-
cric?rgy cXqunl,ion,\\91ricl~ govcrrls t.hc tcrnl)c,r:~turcc l i s t r i l ~ ~ ~ t ~siniplificnt.ions
ion, of a
cause the Prandtl nllmbcr for gases is of 1,lrcortlc:r of I, :r.trtl for l i c l r ~ i t l sit, m.ngc:s I'ro~n
sirnilnr rrn.l.t~rr(.o thoso i 11Lrotlt1cct1cibrlicrr into Ll~crtlt~:~t,ions of rnotiot~(Cl~ap.VI I ) . 10 t o 1000. Ilencc it, is scerl t h a t t.11~cor~duct.iorrt.t.rtr~s c:n.tl I)ot:orrrc: 01' I.lrc S:IIII~.
L)i~iiensiorrlossfi)rtrls of t.11~ nquat,ions of motmionand energy were given in Scc. c ordrr of ma.gnituttc a s t h e cor~vcctiorltcrrns only if i)l)/;!!/ is vcry In.rgt:. i. c., o t ~ l y
of t.Iris rlrapt.rr wlrcxrc n. rcprcscnt,n.t.ivo velocity, [I,, a roprcsent,at3ivelertgth, I , a,s if in t h c vicir~ityof tire sr~rfaceof t,he botly t l ~ r r cis a I:tyrr ~ i t 1 a1 S L C C ~ t,rat~svt~rst:
~vcll a s n. rc1)t.c:sc,nt.:1.t.i\~c tliflrrcnce, (A7')0, were .rlscd t.o render t h e
t,ernj)rr;rt.~~~.c t,crnj,cmt,~~rc gratlicnt,: tire ther~n,tclho1~1rrlrrv?/lnyrr. 'l'lrc order of n~:~gnit,r~tlo of t,l~t:
rrlovn.nt c l r ~ : ~ ~ ~ l , i t . i ccli~irt:t~sionlcss.
:s Por t.lrc sake of sitnplicity we. sh;lll mst.rict orlr- convectional and viscons t m m s can now I)c csli~nntctl.I t is shown r~r~tlnr i,l~orc111nlion
s c l v c ~t,o t.ltr t.wo-tli~nrrrsiot~n.l case wil,l~constant flttitl proj>rrt,ies allti wr sha11 and t * i ~syrnbol
c 0 , denotes t h e t h i c l r ~ ~ e of
s s t l ~ ct,l~crnlalI)on~td:wy1:~yrr.t.'I'hc i . c r n ~
nlroosc: t,lrc n-n.xis along t,ltc tlircct,ion of t.11c. mnirr st.rcani. Untler t l ~ r s e~ ~ s s ~ t m p t , i o t ~ s a20/as2 can be neglcct.ed against a20/ay2 nntl t.l~rcontlr~c:tion tcrrrl lvacotnc-s of the
t.Irt: c q ~ ~ : ~ t iof
o nn ~ o t i o nin t.llc z-clirt,c:tiot~nntl t h r energy rclt~:~t,ion. oqns. (12.21) sn.nle ordnr of rnngnil,ntIe n.s t,he convcct,ional t,nrm only i f t.l~etjlricktrc~ssof I.lro t.lrc:t.~n:rl
ant1 (12.22), c:rn I)c wril,t,ctr in t l ~ cli)llo\\,ing foyrn:

. - ----
t Since t.hc Proncit,l nnmbcr may vary frorrr fluit1 to llrtirl by ~evcrnlortlrr~of tnng~~it.r~clt:
(sen
Tnhle 12.1), the prasent estimate cannot bc expected to Ilold in thc two lirnit.8 P -* 0 or P -+ a.
In sucli cases better cst,imaks result from the solrrt,ions given in eqnc1.'(12.58) n.ntl (12.62n).
284 XIJ. Thcrninl bor~nciarylayers in laminar flow
111 view of t,hc obtained estimation for the thickness of t.hc vclocity boun-
dary layer 8, N I / l / ,~wc obtain
I t follow^ that the ratio of the thickncsses of the two boundary layers is independent
of the lteynolds number. If energy dissipation through friction and the buoyancy
forces are omitted, the ratio of the two boundary-layer thicknesses becomcsdcpende~~t.
on a singln characteristic number - the Prandtl numbcr. I n this case it is possible
to givc a vcry good physical interpretation of the Prandtl number, a s will be shown
in Sec. XI1 f 4 in more detail.
Rstimnt.ing the rrmnining tcnns in thc: cnrrgy rcll~ationi t is concllrtlcd that,
in the expression for tlrc tli~sipat~ion
function only the tcrm (i?u/L~y)~
rcmains signi-
firarlL, and
l'hc l ~ r a clnc
t to friction is sccn to be important only if
Jn the case of gases t,hc hcat gcncmtcd I)y friction bccomcs important only if thc
temperature risc clue to adiabatic compression is of the same order of magnitucle
a s the difference in tempcraturc bctwccn the body and the fluid. The same rcmark
applies to the work of compression.
Reverting t o dimensional quantities and taking into accol~ntthe dependence
of viscosity on temperature, wc obtain tho following simplified equations for two-
dimensional compressible fluid flow:
Since in thc fr:rmcworlc of bountlary-laycr theory thc pressure may be rcgardctl
ns a given, impressed force, we havc hare a system of five simultaneous equations
for tho five unknowns e, IL, v, T, / r .
f. General properties of thermal boundary layer 285
Regarding the differences in the significance of p in eqn. (12.50b) on the onc hand
end in eqn. (12.GOd) n thc other, we rcfer the reader to thcremark made in Scc.
X I 1 c just after eqns. (12.17) to (12.20).
For the incompressible case (Q = em = const) and for constant viscosity these
equations reduce t o
giving three equations for u, v , and T.
f. General properties of thermal boundary layers
1. Forced and natural flows. Thc diffcrcntial equations for the velocity and
thermal boundary layer, eqns. (12.51b) and (12.51c), are very similar in structure
They differ only in the last two terms in the equation of motion and in the last
term in the temperature equation. I n the general case the velocity ficld and the
temperature field mutually interact which means t h a t tfho tcmperaturc distribution
depends on the velocity distribution and, convcrscly, thc velocity distribution
depends on the temperature distribution. I n the special casc when buoyancy forces
may be disrcgnrdccl, and when thc propcrtics of thc fli~iclmay bc assumcd t o be
independent of tcmperaturc, mutual interaction ceascs, and the velocity ficlcl no longcr
depends on the temperature ficld, although thc convcrsc depcndencc of the tcm-
perature field on the vclocity ficld still persists. This happcns a t large vclocitics
(large Reynolds numbers) and small tempcrature tliffcrcnccs, such flows being tcrmed
forced (cf. p. 276). Thc process of heat transfcr in such flows is doscribcd as forced
convection. Rows in which buoyancy forces are dominant are called natural, t,hc
rcspcctivc heat transfcr bcing known as n a t ~ ~ r convrction.
al 'l'llis casc occurs at, vcry
small vclocitics of motion in the prescncc of largc tcmpcrnLt~rctlifrercnccs. 'rho sl,at,c
of motion which accompanies natural convection is evokctl by buoyancy forces
in the gravitational field of the earth, tlrc latter bcing due to tlcnsity dil'fcmt~ccs
and gradicnt,~.For cxamplc, the ficld of motion which cxist,soiit,sidc a vcrtic:al l ~ o t
plate belongs to this class. Porcctf flows can be subdivided into t,l~oscwith rnotlrr:tt.c
and those with high velocities depending on whcthcr thc hcat tluc to friction ancl
comprcssiorr nccd or necd not bc taken into account. I n I)ot.h cascs tJlc tcmpcl-aturc:
ficld depcnds on the ficld of flow. A t modcratc vclocitics, wl~cnt11c heat clue Co
friction and comprcssion may be neglected, the depcndencc f tJre trmpcratrrrc ficld
on the vclocit,y finl(1 is govcrncd solely by t,hc Prantltl nn1111)cr.To r a e l ~,~ita!/le
vclocit,y ficl(1 thcrc corrcsporltls a singly irrfinitc fntnily of l,onl[)rrnt,l~rtrclisl.ril)~~l,io~ls
with thc I'rantltl rruuibor as it8 paramct,cr. A t lrigl~vclot:il,ics work clric I)ol,l~to
friction and comprcssion must be irrcludcd. Whether this is ncccssary or not dcpcnds
on tho Eclrcrt nrlrnher E - 2(A7'),,/(A7'),,, i.c. on wlrct,lrc-r it, is compn.r:il~lo~ \ ~ i t . l i
 286 X11. 'rl~rrlr~al
bo~~ndnry
layers it1 laminar flow

11nit.y. 111 ot,ller worcls, t.11~ \vorIz clue t o frict.ion arid compression must he talren into
accol~nt,wllcn t h e t,crnpnrnt.~~rc increase drlc t o friction nnd cornprcssion is comparable
with t,llc: t8~mpcr:~t.urc tlilTcrcrlcc prcscri0ccl a s a bourlclary contlition (t,rmpcraturc
tliffrrenco I)ct,\r;rc:11 I)otly ant1 fluiti). I f t,hc prescribed tenlperatlire difference is of If t . 1 ~work of compression a s well :IS t , l ~ ccvolut.ion of 11o:~t.t l t r o ~ ~ g tlissil)at,io~l
ll
t.ho ortlcr of t.11~m m n at)solrrt2ct.r~npcrat,l~rc, t,hc worlc duo t o frict,ion arid cornprcs- c:tn be neglect,ecl, tile same reasoning s l ~ o w stllat, rtll solltt,ions of oclr~:~t.ions (12.51 P )
sion 1)rcorncs ilnl~ort.nllt,only if t , l ~ vr1oc.il.y
c of llow is compnr:ll)lc wit,ll f.l~at,of sol~ntl. \vIlit~l~clcsrril~c: t,l~c: i,I~rrtn;tlI)o~~r~cln.ry
l;~,yc:r,nll~st,I)(: of t.t~cf o r ~ r ~ :
t ~ ~ ~ r c is lincar, unlike t . 1 1 ~
11, is il11port:rnt t.o 11o1,c:1,11:~t, t.llc t . c t n ~ ~ c r ; ~ cqrra.t,ioll
t:clunt,iorl of rnot,ion. 'l'llis Icnds t,o cnnsitlcrable sirnplificat,ions in t h e process of
int,c.grnt,itlg, nlltl s~~pc:rl)osit,ion
of known sol~lt~ions beconlcs possil)lc.
Iloncc, tile h c i ~ tflr~xfrom rcln. (12.30) cntt I)(; \vrit,t.cn
2. Atlinlmtic wall. I~itl:~II,y it, is I I C C ~ - S S R I . t,o
~ m~nt.i~
t . nl ~ i ~tI1c
t . vi~rict~y
of ~)ossiI)Ic
s d s of 1)ounclary c o ~ ~ t l i t ~ i oisn s~ n n c l lgrontcr for the ttcrrlpcratnre ficltl t,llarl for
t,hc? vrlocit,y fieIt1. Tllc t,cmpcmt,nre on t J ~ esurface of t h e body may bc constant
or v:triablc but., moreover, i t is also possil)lo t o encount,cr pro1)lcrns for wllich tho
h r ; ~ tflux is prescribetl. 111 view of eqn. (12.30), tliis means t h a t t,lle t,crnperaturc
gmtlirnt a t (,tie wall may appear as a bountlary condition. T h e so-callctl rtrliobalic
~tvrllconst.iL~ltosa pnrtic~tlnrrxn.nlplo of tllc Iatt.er class of cases, since i t rnnst be
post,l~lat,cdthn.t t,llere is n o Ilcat f l ~ l x :from t,11c wall t o tfhe fluid, i. e., the borlr~clary
c:o~~tlit.ion at, t,ho wall is
'l'llis very imporlnrlt rcl:tt.ion st,atfcst h a t for rrll 1:~lnirl:~rI)o~rntl:~.ry
I:~.yc:rs- - :~I\v;~.ys
on ttlle nss~~n~pt.iorlthnt c:otnprcssion \r.orlc nlltl t'ric:t.ionnl Ilc:;rl, :Lro rlcgligil)lc: - I , l ~ c ?
N~lssclt1111rnbcris propori.ional t o t l ~ csclnnrc root of 1.11~I<.t~y~loltls n11111l)rr.I I I S ~ ( ' : I ( ~
r
1 his case c:Ln 1)c visrtnlizotl Ily ilnagir~i~lg
1
1,hat the wall of the body is perfectly of the general rclnt.ior1 I)ctwec11 the N ~ ~ s s c :111cl lt ~ I I OIlvyt~oItIs~lnml)t-rsirnl)litltl
it~s~llatctl against I~cst,Row. 'I'llc heat generated l)y t h e fluitl througll friction serves by eqn. (12.32) on t,l~cbasis of tllc full Navirr-St.okc-s rcl~t:~.t.ioi~s, 1,11cI)or~~~tl:rry-I;~yc*r
,
1.0 11f:n.t1,llo wall 11nt.ilt,llo contlil,iotl (a7'/an),,. = 0 is reacl~ctl.Thus tile t.crnperat~rrc
si~nplilic:at.ionslead t o this special, more csplic,it. r c l ; ~ t i o l ~ .
of t.llt, wnll wl1ic:ll we rnny :~lsocall t,llc r~tlirtbcclicunll tempernlure 1)ecolnes higher 1<tluntion (12.62a) :~llowsus t o write tlo\v~l1I1t: follo\vit~gf o r t n ~ l l ;for
~ 1I1t- loc:;~l
~,II:I.~It,llaL of t,ltc ll~titlat, sornc clist,nnco fl.orn it. Srtcll contlitions are satisfied in shrarine st,rcss :
pr:~ct,ic*c \vIlrr~a so-called p1at.c t.hcrlnornct,c:r is usctl, i. (:. \\,lien t.llc ternperat,nre of
:I, f l l ~ i t l st.rrntn is rnc-asl~rctlwit,l~t.11~ aitl of a flat glat,c which is placed parallel t o
t,Il(. sl.rc.ntrl 1. 'l'hc P X C ~ S S t . ( ? ~ r l l ) c r a t ~
0 1~
1 ~1.110 t.llc rrror of t . 1 1 ~plnt.c
r c plnt,r const,it,~lt,c*s
t . l l r r n ~ o ~ ~ ~ c'I'llc
t . c ~ rerror
. 1nns0 I)c tlrtl~lc:t.t-tli l l ortlrr t.o ol)tnin t.hc 1,rnc t,empcrat.urc
of t.I~c: tnovirla I l ~ ~ i t 'l'llis l. tlifkrcnc:c is sornctitnrs c~nllctl tllc kinetic. lempernt?~re.

3. Annlogy brtwrcr~llent tratlsfer ntlcl skit1 friction. 1'01. I)onntln~~y-l:~.ycr

flow
i l~cbroc?sist,sa rc~~n:~.rk;tl~l(:
rc~l:lt.iorlsllipI)ct,\vccn Ilc,at t,mnsfc,r i~ntlslzin frict,ion ~ l ~ i ~ h ,
in i t s simplnst. form, w:l.s tlisc:ovc.rtl I)y 0. Itc?j~noltls[!I81 iil 1874. I4'or t,his rm.son,
t.llis rc:l:~.t.iot~is l r ~ l o w tn.s
~ l,llr I<,c~y~)oltls
:~n:~logy.
I t , l ~ n si)c.cn sllowtl i l l St,(:. VI 11 :I t.llnt nlk sol~~l.iorls of t.11cr two-tlirncnsional
I)ol~ntlnry-l:tycrccl~~;l.t.iorts for :In inronl~)rc~ssil)lc flnitl I ~ x v ct.hc form

As :ilrr;ttly statctl, this mostgrncrnl form of I<c~y~loltls's

:tn:ilogy is valitl for ,111 I;l~llit~.rr
1)onndnr.v Iagrrs.
In j)nrticlll:ir, if there exists a class of si?nilar solutions, t~:irnrly t l ~ : ~givcw
t.
1)y rxtrrnnl flo\vs of l h c form U ( X )= 11, x"', t11r11tllc- ror~siclcrationsof S r t 1S:l
nllow 11s t,o writr
288 XII. Thrrn~alboundary layers in lnminar flow f. Gencrnl propcrI.ien or thcrmal bor~ntlnrylnyrr 289
be neglected. Ne~ert~l~eless, thc preceding rcsnlts can t)c cxt,o~tlctlt,o incl~~tlc other
cases, R U C as~ that of a flat plnto with frictiorlnl heat (sect oqn. (12.81 ) n t ~ dioot.tlot.t?on

and p. 2!)9) or that with compression work (sce Sec. X l l l c ) . I t is l):rrtfioulnrlyr~ot.c?\r,ort,lty

t h a t thc Itcynoltls analogy earl bc rccovcrctl in tr~rbolcnt flows wl~crcit.plnys:tn rssc~~~l,i:~l
part in the calculation of heat-transfcr rates (c/. Chap. XXI [I).

4. Effect of I'randtl numher. The cor~siderat~iona of this c.haj)trr c~onvint~c 11s

It follows immediately from the temperature equation that t h a t thc J'randtl number conatitutcs t h a t parameter wl~oscvnluc i~ dc.c*isivc Tor ~ I I P
extent of the tllermal boundary layer and, thcreforc, for thc rate a t whirl1 h r a t is ,
transferred in forcctl or free convection. According to its tlrfinition

I n analogy with eqn. (12.53), t!le local Nussclt number formed with the coordinate
z assumes the form
(11 5 thc Prandtl number is equal to the ratio of two quantities: one of t,l~ctn(viseosity)
N,=-r =1/~,-F(~,P), (12.55) charactcrizcs the lluid's transport propcrtics with rcspoct to Ll~ctmrlsport of nlornen-
where tum, t h e other (thermal diKusivity) doing the same for the transport of hcat.. If
the fluid possesses a particr~larlylarge viscosity, i t can bc stated looscly that its
ability to transport momcnh~~rn is Inrgc. Const:q~rcr~l.ly,
t,hc tlnst,ruc(.ior~of ~ n o t n c f ~ t . ~ ~ n ~
introduced by the presence of a wall (no-slip condition) extends far into the fluid
and the velocity boundary layer is comparatively large. Similar statcmcnts car1 bc:
The function F ( m , P) will be discussed in more tletail in Sec. X I 1 g 2 (see eqn. (12.87)
made with respect to thc thcrmal boundary layer. I t is, thcrcforc, nr~dcrstantlal~lc
and Fig. 12.14). Thus between the local skin-friction coefficient
that the Prandtl number serves as a direct measure for the ratio of the tl~icltnesses
of the two layers in forced flow, a s already demonstrated in eqn. (12.49). The special
cwe when P = 1 (already discussed) corresponds to flows for which thc two boundary
layers are approximately equal in extent; they are exactly equal along a flat plate
a n d thc Nusselt number there exists the relation a t zero incidence whcn its temperature is uniform. I n addition to this, thc two
limiting cases whcn the Prandtl number is either very large or very small arc also
worthy of attention; they are representcd schematically in Fig. 12.8

The simplest type of flow, t h a t on a flat plate a t zero incidence, is characterized Very small Prandtl numbers: It is clear from Fig. 12.8 t h a t in the case of very
b y the value m = 0 and b y the fact t h a t eqns. (12.51 b) and (12.51 c) for the velocity small Prnndtl numbers, such as occur in molten metals (for example in mercury), it
ficld and t h e temperature field, respectively, become completely analogous if the
Prandtl nnmher has the value of unity. I n this c~ase,the solutions themselves acquire
identical algebraic forms, and we have

Consequently,
Z(0,l) = 1 ,
and eqn. (12.56) simplifies to
N, = 4 cf,' R, (m = 01, P = 1) , (12.56 b)

when applied to a flat plate. This is the simplest fonn of the Reynolds analogy;
i t was, as elready stated, first discovered by 0. Reynolds himself. a) P-U(liqu/d metals) 6) P --( liquids,oils)

The preceding argument is applicable, so far, only to laminar, incomprcssiblc Fig. 12.8. Comparison between the tcmpcmture and velo~it~yfields for bonnclnry lnyrrzl wit.11
flow^ a t constant wall tcmpcratura and on condition that energy dissipation may vrry amall and with very large valr~esof Prandtl r~a~nbcr

290 X l I . Tl~rrnmalhor~ndarylayers in lnminar flow
is possil)lc t.o disrcgartl t l ~ evc1ocit.y borrndnry layer in t h e calculation of t h e t,hcrmal
bo~untlarylayer. Conscqucnt.ly, t h e velocitty components ?L(x,IJ) and v(x, y) can be
replaced by U ( x ) anti V ( s , y) = - ( d l J l d r ) IJ, respe~t~ively,
t h e approximation for
V stemming from t h e continuity cquat,ion applied a t the wall. The energy equat,ion
( 1 2 . 5 1 ~ )then assumes t.ho particnlarly simple form
f. General proportics of tl~crmalbonnclnry Inycr 2!) 1
Very large f r a n d t l numbers: The secontl limiting casc when P + oo was solvccl
for t h e first time many years ago by M.A. 1,evi:clue 1701. Jlc inLrotlucotl t#he \,pry
reasonnble assumpt,ion t,hat the wholc of the ttcrnperat,urc ficltl is confi net1 inside t,hat.
zone of the velocit,y field where t,he longit~ldinalvelocit,y c.otnl~onent,,?I,, is st.ill pro-
port.ional t,o the trnnsversc distance y. The snmo circ111nstanc:cscan also oc:c.rtr a t
int,errnccliat,cvalrlcs of t l ~ cI'rantlt.1 n u m l ~ e rin cascs w l ~ r nt,lto tllcrninl 1)ound:try I:tycsr
starts wibh a temperature jump a t t,he wall a t a: = T o ( c f . Vig. 12.17) itlsitlo n clcvc-lopctf
veloaitly bountlnry Inycr. Accortlingly, in t,llc enrrgy cqnctI,ion, C Y ~ (12.51 II. v). SIIII-
posc t.llnt the velocit,y tlist,ribution in tile velociby bount1nr.y layer is rcprcsc-11t)ccl1 ) ~
11 = (to/p) IJ. I t can then be verified t , l ~ a t in , accordance u.it,h refs. [7(iJ ant1 I(iYa]
(see also refs. (1 111 and [I 121). the substit~~t,ion

tmnsforms t,hc cnrrgy cqnation into t8hc following orclinnry clifferc.nt.inl t-cln:~Iion:
we can trnr~sfortnt,l~c!partvial d i f f ~ r e ~ ~ cqnn.t8ion
tinl for temperatr~ra~listribut~ion
into
an ordinary onr. 'L'l~is,in tarn, Icnds to the following utiivcr~nlexpression for tile
Nrtsselt, nr~trll)cr

15c,nations (12.59a) ant1 (12.5gb) are special cases of this general equation.
Ilcrc 2, dcnntcs tlra coordinate a t whicll tfllc t.cnl~~c?r;ttttrcjt11nl1 at. tlto w:~ll 11as
bcen placetl, i l I)cirrg rcmembcrcd t,liat the cffcct of fr.rictiott:~lI~ont.has I)ccti
ncglcc1,ctl. l'ho solution of this ortlirlary differentin1 cql~:ttior~c:~n 1)c cxprcssetl ill
closed form in t,crms of t11o incomplete gamma f'rrr~ctions. I'orfor~nittg 1,111:rrcll~irrtl
calculation, we worlld obta.in t , l ~ eNussclt number

In t,I~c
casc of a flat plate (II(3:) :.- [ I , T. const) wit11 a l~niforrnwall t,ernpcrat,ure
7',,,,
we obt,ain tllc satnc tlini:rt!nt,inl cqll:&t,iotla8 t h a t encor~nt~erecl
in anot,her corlnexion
in (:ltap. V, cqn. (5.17). 1t.s solr~t~iorl
is

In l . l ~ cpnrI.ic:rtl:~l-casc of n Iltat 1)I:~to:LL z(:t.o iltc.itlcv~c:c.wit.11 r,, . - : 0, \v(* s1111sl.il.11l.c:

front cqn. (7.31)
Arcsort ling t o rqn. (12 31). t h r cormspontling Nussclt number is r0 = 0.332 I' (Iw I/ 'gx
s

anti obtain
N, = 0.33!) P I I ~ R , (11:~l~plntc , P >PO) . (12.(;2:1)
111 111(, cnsc, of st~agt~al.iorl-l~oi~tl.
flnw (11 (3:) L-= u', r ) , i t follows that,
It is s11own in Fig. 12.14 l l ~ a tt.11is ccluat.ion rrprc~scnfsn very gootl approsin~alion
292 XIT. Tl~er~nnl
I~o~n~dary
layers in laminar flow g. Thermal boundary layers in forced flow 293
evcn in the case of moderately-valued Prandtl numbers. A t the stagnation point, If the frictional heat is neglected then a temperature field exists only if there is a
the corresponding cquation is difference in temperature between thc wall and the extcrnal flow, e.g., if Tw- T , >0
(cooling). Hence it follows t h a t for a flat plate a t zero incidence in psrallcl Row
N, = 0.661 P1I3 1/% (stagnation point, P -+ oo). (12.6213) and a t small velocities the temperature arid velocity distributions arc idcrltical
provided that the Prandtl number is equal to unity:
Analogous, simple asymptotic formulae can also be established for the case of frcc
convect,ion on n verlical flat plate, [73], see also eqns. (12.118a) and (12.1181)).

g. Thermnl bouoilnry layers in forced R o w T h i ~result corresponcls to eqn. (12.52) which Icd 11s 1.0 thc f~rrnulat~ion
of Ll~c
important Iteynolds analogy between heat transfer arid skin friction.
I n the present section we shall consider several examples of thermal boundary 11. Blasius introduced new variables for the solution of t.11~flow rqna1.ions,
layors in forced flow. I n solving thcso problems, us0 will bo made of tho simplified sce oqns. (7.24) and (7.26). (y) is 1110slrcnm f n n c l i o ~ ~ ) :
thermal boundary-layer equations. J u s t as in the case of a velocity boundary layer,
the general problem of evaluating tho thermal boundary layer for a body of arbitrary
shape proves t o be extremely difficult, so t h a t we shall begin with the simpler
example of the flat plate a t zero incidence.

1. Parallel R o w paet a Bat platc at zero incidence. We shall assume that the
x-nxis is placed in the plane of the plate in the direction of flow, the y-axis being
a t right arlglcs to i t and to the flow, with the origin a t the leading cdgc. The boundary- 'rhc diffcrcntirrl <:quation for f(tl), cqn. (7.28) bccornos
layer equations for incompressible flow and constant properties (i. e. independent
of temperature) have been given in eqns. (12.61 a, b, c): assuming t h a t the buoyancy f f" + 21"' =0,
forces are equal to zero as well as t h a t dpldz = 0 [18, 941, we obtain
wit11 tllc boundary conditions: rl = 0 : f = f' = 0 ; 11 =- cm : 1' L- I . 'I'l~esolution
of these equations was given in Chap. VII, Table 7.1.

Including the eflect of frictional hcat, as secn from eqn. (12.63c), the temperature
distribution l'(r]) is given by the equation

'I'hc: I ) o ~ ~ r ~ t l aronclitaions
ry arc: I t is convenient to represent thc general solr~tioriof eqn. (12.65) by tho super-
position of two solutions of the form:
11 = 0 : u =v =0 ; T == T,,, or aT/8g = O

'I'l~e vrlocit8y field is it~tlcpcntlrr~t, of t,l~ct c m p r r a t ~ ~ rfirltl

c so t l ~ a t ,tflrc two Ilo~v
equations (12.03a, b) can be solved first and the result can be employed t o evaluate
t,he tscml)cmtnre field. An important rclatior~shipbetween the velocity distribution
antl thc tcmperat,ure distri1)ution can bc obtained immediately from eqns. (12.63 b)
: ~ n d( I 2.63 c). Jf 1;hc hcat of friction p ( a u / a ~ may
) ~ be neglected in eqn. (12.63~).
t.he two rquat.ions, (12.03b) and (12.63c), become identical if T is rrplaced by 76 in
the sccond cqr~at~ionid if, in ad(lition, the properties of the fluid satisfy the equatiori
ITcrc O1(r]) dcnotes tllc grncml solnLion of thc l~ornogcncouscq~~:~Cion and 02(t7)
denotes a particular solution of the non-homogeneo~~s equation. It is, further,
convenient to choose the boundary conditions for Ol(r]) antl O , ( q ) so as t o rnakc
01(7) the solution of the cooling problem with a prescribed temperature diKcrcnce
betwecn the wall and tlic external stream, T , - T,, with O2(l;l)giving the solrition
for the adiabatic wall. Thus 01(7) and OZ(r])satisfy t h e following equations:
294 X 11. Tlrrrnlnl bo~~rrdi~ry
layers in lan~inarflow
Table 12.2. Diniennionlcss coefficient of heat transfer, a,, ant1 ditncnnior~lcnsadi:~ltnt,icwall

with 0,' -. () at, r] -

0 ant1 0, = 0 a t q -= co . 'l'lic value 0,(0) pcrmit,s us
t.o rvalnntc t h e constnttt C from cqn. (12.66) in n manner to satisfy f.lie boontfnry
ternpcmture, b, for a flat plate a t zero incidence, fro111eqnn. (12.70) and (12.76)

nondit,ion 1' - T,,, for 7 - 0 . This yic,ltls

(,'oo/i~~g prohlcnt : Tlte solut,ion of cqn. (12.67) was first given by 13. l'olllhnnsen
[94]. I t rnn Ijr wvrittcn a s

IIct~cofor P = I : 0,(q) = 1 - / ' ( q )= 1 - ?c/U,, nntl for P = 1 the temperature

dint.riltc~t,io~~
bccomcs itlont.icn1 with t.11~vclociLy t l i ~ t ~ r i b l ~ t iin
o n accordn.nce \rritit
cqn. (12.64). 'l'he t.crnpcmt,r~regrntlicrit at, t.11~
w;~ll,a s calculated from eqn. (12.60),
wil.ll /"(O) = 0.332, bccomcs:

- ("'I) = a, (P) = (0.332)'

dtl 0

Tltr corls(,nnt r t I is s c o l ho tlcpcntl solcly on t,ltc PrantltJ tir~rnbcr,a, (P). Some valr~cs
hy 1.: I'ollll~nr~srnarc rcproclnccd in 'l'ablc 12.2. They can bc interpolated
c:~lct~l:~t.r(l Fig. 12.9. Tempc.rat~lre~list,ril>r~tion
on :I I~catrtlflnt plate a t zcro i ~ ~ c ~ t l r rI\~11r11( >stn:i11
, vrlo(.~fy
witlt goo(l nrrrtracy from t,hc formula plotted for various Pralltltl nrln~hersP (friclionnl 1lr:it ~lrglrrtctl)

For P = 1 we Irnvc:
For very stn:tll I'l;~,ntll,lnllmbcrs, cqn. (12.59~1) givcs
02(?]) = 1 - )I) .
rs, - 0.564 ;/-P (P -- 0 ) ,
\vlliclr is assr~mctlby t,ltc w;111 owing t o fri(:l.iortnl Ilml. 1 . 1 1 ~rrrlirthrtlic
'I'llc t.cnil~cmt.r~rc
wllrrrns for w r y Inrgc: I1r;ct~tlt.l1111nll)rrsaqtr. (12.62n,) lcatls t o 'l',, is t.liiis, by eqtls. (12.00) nrttl (12.72):
~tlnll/~nr~?ern/?t,rr.
r
-
l'?,,, = I
l
- T,, -- Urn? b (P) (12.74)
rP

l'ltn t.c~~nl~c.r:~l.~~~.v
I'ig. 12.9. As :~lr(\;~(Iy
rlist,ril)~~t.iot~
c;~l(~r~l:t.l.c~tl
~nanI.ionctl,t,llr. c r ~ r v efor P
I)rrf.ion. 1For v:llnrs of P 1 1 1.11~
-
f~.orn c-tin. (12.69) is sl~owlt ~)lol,t.ctlin
I givcs also t,lrc: veloc.it.y (JisOri-
tsl~rrrnnl1)ortntlary lnyrr is t,l~innrrthan t.hc valocit,y
fro111cqn. (12.72). I'or a consl.;r.nt 1'rantll.l nntn1)cr t,ho :rtli:r,l~nl.ic:\v:tll l,c-tril,rr;r.l,~tr(~ is
I ~ o r ~ t t t l ;I:~.~c*r.
~ . r ~ I'or c-x:tnrplc, For oil wit11 n I'rnn(1t.l rirttnhrr P = 1000 the tl~errnnl
I)on~lil:rry Inyc-r is otlly ono l.crit1lr of t,l~t: vc~1oc:ifyl)o~~ritlnry 1n.yrr. prol)orI,ionnl t o l , l ~ cn(lin,l)ntsict.ctn~~(~r:~I,~tr(: 1 . i ~ 1!,v,2/2
~ rr, \vlti(:l~ \V:I.S ~ ) l o l , t . i ~i~l ll
I Icig. 12.3. Sotnc rtrlrrlc.ric:al v a l r l c ~of I,It(: I;~cl.orh ( P ) ; ~ r og i v c , ~ i~l l 'I':IIII(. 12.2; 1'01.
/Irlinhn/ic 119r1lb:'1'11t. solrtl.iori ol' ~
'v:lri:lt,io~t ol' t,llc 1)nmrnrt.rr'. Itzis
~ I I (12.(i8)
I . can.tiIIC ol)t.:iinctl by t.11~
mctltotl of motlrmt,c: Prn~ttlt~l
racy from tllr. forninl:~,11 -
riumbcrs them vn.lucs ]nay 1 ~ :in(,cl.l)ol:rt,otI\ \ r i t , l ~ sr~lIinionb;I(:(:II-
1 / P . Tltc valttcs for 1:1rgvr 1'r:111tlt,lI I I I I I I ~ ) ( ~~~ S. : I I IIV in-
f'crrrtl fronl l'ig. 12.10. 111 1.11~ bmil.ing m s r , wc! I1:1vc (841
296 XI]. Thcrtnnl boundt~rylnyrn in lnminnr flow g. l r l ~ c r l ~ ~
bourltinry
nl lnycrs in rorcccl flow 207
I t is remarliablc t h a t for P = 1 wc havc cxactly b = 1. Thus, for a gas with P = 1 I'ig. 12.10. Adiabatic
flowing in a parallel stxcam with velocity U , past a flat platmea t zero incidence wall tc~npcrnturc7'" of
the temperaturc rise due to frictional heat is equal to the adiabatic tempersture, a flat plate a t zero inci-
i. e. t o t h a t which occurs from velocity U , to zero. The adiabatic wall temperature drnce with velocity Ua
[16, 201 measured st various Reynolds nrlml)ers U , x / v is seen plottcd in Fig. 12.1 1. for v:irio~lnv n l u r ~of tho
Thc agreement, is vcry good in thc laminar region. A t the point of transition from l'ra~~rll,l1111ni1)(;r;a r k r
laminar t o turbulent flow in thc boundary layer the temperature increases suddenly. 1':. 15ckc1.tanclO.llrcwitz
The temperature distribution for a n adiabatic wall represented non-tlimcnsionally is [IB] as w'cll RR D. Moksyn
[84]. I'or large I'rnndtl
t l ) -' Too -
- T , ( T I-
) Too = OJtl, P) nlltnl)rrn, according to
1'2,.- Tm T, - 'I'm b(P) ' D. Mcksyn [84], we
havc 0 = 1-0 PI13
and is seen plotted in Fig. 12.12 for various values of the Prandtl number. From
eqns. (12.74) and (12.75), we obtain that the constant C from eqn. (12.68a) is
c = ( T , - T,) - ( T , - T,) = T , - T , .
The general solution for a prcscribcd tempcraturc difference between the wall and
the free stream, T,#, - II',, eqn. (12.66), is thus

T ( 7 ) - T , = [ ( T , - T,) - ( T , - T , ) ] 0 1 ( 7 , P )
uz 0 2 ( 7 ,P )
+ ---- (12.76)
Fig. 12.1 1. Measuren~cnt of ndiabatic
wall ternpcrnturo on n flat plate in n
cP
parallel air strenm a t zero incidence in a
lnlnitlar ant1 trtrbulcnt boundnry Iayor,
with T , -- II', from eqn. (12.74). Thc dimensionless temperature distribution be- nfter Eclzert and Weise [20]; theory for
comes
laminar flow and P = 0.7
T - Too -
---
1' -Too - [L- ) E b (PI1 8 , ( r l , P ) + h E 02 (vtP ) . (12.765)
,05 2 $ 5 6 I3 ,06 7 4 5

It is shown plotted in Fig. 12.13 for various values of the Eckert number 5..
E = Um2/c,(TW- T,), from eqn. (12.28). For b x E > 2 the boundary layer
near the wall is warmer than the wall itself owing t o the generation of frictional
heat. I n such cases the wall will not be cooled by the stream of air flowing past it.

Heat transfer. As scon from eqn. (12.2) the 11c11.t flux from plate to fluid at,
station x has the value q ( x ) = - k(t3T/ay)v-oor

Thc rate of heat transfcr per unit time for both sides of a plate (length 1, width h ) is
1
Q = 2 b / q ( x ) dx, so t h a t I

Fig. 12.12. Temperature excess in the laminar boundary laycr on n flirt plate a t zero in-
a ) Neqkdir~g/rictioml heat : I n this case T ( q ) - T m = ( T ,- T , ) o1
( 7 ) by eqn. cidence in s parallel strean1 wit11 high velocity in the absence 01 hrolinq for vnrions l'rnndtl
) ~- a , ( T , -- T,). With nl from cqn. (12.71a ) we have
(12.69) wit11 ( ~ l l ' / d q= nrtmbcra (ndinbntic wirll)
 The cnsc of turbulcrit flow can bc approximatcd by l h c equations

N, = 0.0296 'fi.
R , O ' ~ t u r b u l c n t ), (12.79~)

which we quotc here for complctencss, b u t without proof. 'l'hc preceding forrnr~li~e
for t h e rate of lieat transler a r c in good ngrccmcnt with t h c n~rasnromontnt h ~ ot o
1'. Elias [31], A. Rrlwarcls nr~tlB. N. 1'urt)or 1271 ant1 .J. J(c:stsin, ID.1'. M~tc.(l(*r
ILIHI
1%.E. Wang [66J.
b) With frictional heal: I n this case with T ( q ) from cqn. (12.76) we obtain

wherc T, is t h e adiabatic wall temperature. It is identical with the wall tcmpcrature

IGg. 12.13. 'rrnrl)cr:~tr~rt. i n a l:rn)irinr I~ounrlaryIaycr on a Iicnbrl ( E > 0) and
~linlril~rrt,ion in t h e thermometer problem a n d follows from t h e equation
cooled ( E < 0) llat plntc: nL zcro incidcncc i n ti parallrl st,rcnn~for the case of a Inr~iinarhoiitidnry Urn2 - Urn2
layer nrrd \\~iI.lr frict.ional Irc:r.l accorrntctl for an calcrtl;~bdfro~nrqn. (12.70). I'mntlt,l nrrtnber T,-T,=b(P) - - - - - z i p ---. (12.80)
P 0.7 (air). 'l'llr Icnrpc!rnt,t~reof the w r ~ l lis nraint.airrctl corrst,nnt a t y,.. (:rrrvc: h x E = 0 for 2 c, 2c
zrro rrict,i(tn:~IIlr-ilt,;rttrvc h x E = 2 corrcs~)o~id~ to a11ntliabalir wall; E = 1Jm2/c,,(7',,- 7>,);
b .- 0,835. I'or h x E > 2 l.hr lrot wall ccb:tsrs I*, I?c coolctl by t,lrc strf:n111of ~oolerair, RIII(.C IIere b(P) can be takcn from Table 12.2. Iritrotlucing t h e Mach number M = U,/cw
t,l~o'l~ral,c:nnliiori' providctl I)y fricl,ional Irrnl. prc!vrtit.s c!ooling from (12.27), T, may also bc taken from

T h u s we o b h i n the following expressions for t h e local and total h e a t flux from cqns.
(12.77) ant1 (12.78) respectively

l ~ ~ [ r o t l ~ r c itli~nr.nsionlcss
rig coofficienf,~in the form of t,hc Nlrssclt ~ l u r n t ~ cfrom
r
IVIII. (12.31) instoatl of t,lic? locnl ant1 total Iicat flux, rcspcctively
I t now ceascs t o bc useful t o basc t h e cocfficicnt of h c a t transfer a(x)on thc t.cmpc-
1. k
q ( ~ ) N ( 1- 2 ) ; ~ r ~ c lQ -- 2 h 1 1. N , (T,,- l',) , raturc diffcrcncc (Tw- T,) from eqn. (12.29) o r t o clcfinc tho Nnssclt nr11n1)trr:rx i l l
.c
eqn. (12.31) because t h e heat flux is no longcr proportional t o t h a t t c m p c m t l ~ r c
diffcrencet.
N,=O.564 I / P - ~ Rfor
. P-+O,
I t E. 11:ckert and W. Wcisc [17] Iinvc, therefore, ~t~ggrnLed
to introclr~coa N I I R Rnnnrl)cr
C ~ ~ N*
based on the difference (T, - T,). We migliL tlicn cxpcct to obtain ns a 8rnt approxiina t.'loll,
even in compre~ibleflow, the mmc forrnu1.w for N* a9 in eqn. (12.79a. b). If, on llic otllcr
hand, wc retain the Nomelt number b a d on (T,- T,) tlrcn eqn. (12.81) Icnds to tlic following
exprcasions instead of (12.79a):
300 XI1. Tl~rrrnnlborrndary layers in laminar flow g. Thcrmal boundary layers i n forced flow

The cooling action of a stream of fluit1 on a wall is considcm1)ly rctluccrl because then satisfies t.llc? equation
of t,hc hrxt gencmtrd by friction. I n 111rnbsrr~ccof frirtionnl I~eat,,heat will flow from
the platc t o thc fluid ( q > 0 ) as long as T, > II', but in actr~nlfact,, if frictional 0" .t ."!-l-L
p/ 01 - It pif 0 = - p~ x 2 m - n 1""-
2
hcat is prcsont, a flow of hcat persists only if T, > T,, eqn. (12.81). Taking into
acrortnt thc valuc tlcdr~cctlfor T,, we obtain the condition t h a t heat flows from wall antl thc sol~rtionmust satisfy thc boundary cotltlitions
to fluit1 (nplwr sign) or in tho reverse tlircction (lower sign), if
1 7 ~ 0 : a:=]; 17=03: O-:()

A numcricnl cxatnplc may serve to illust~mtctfhe signifirancc of cqn. (12.82): 111

a stream of air flo\ving a t TJm = 200 m/scc, P = 0.7, cp = 1.006 k.J/kg dcg wr
1/
obtain P 1JW2/2c, = IF tlcg C. The wall will begin Lo be cooletl whcn
If tltc tenipcrat,urc difference bctwren wall and stream is snlallcr than t,ltis value
the wall will pick 11p a port,ion of thc hcat generated by friction. I n particular this
is tho case whcn thc tcmpcraturc of the wall and stream arc cqnal.
An ec~uatiorlfor thc rate of hcat transferred from n flat platc a t zcro incitIcnco
but with variable material properties was derived by H. Schuh [110]. The tempe-
rature field on a platc placed in a stream with a linear temperature distribution w54
studicd in ref. [128].
2. Additional sinlilar sol~ltionsof t l ~ eequations for thermal boundary laycrs.
I n the casc of a flat platc a t zcro incidence, the velocity and the temperature profiles
t~lrnctlout to bc similar among themselves. This means that the distributions a t
tliffcrcnt clistar~ccsz along tllc platc co111clhc mn.tlc congrrrcnt by a s~tiLahlcs t r c t c l ~ i t ~ g
in the y-direction. Since i t is lcnown t h a t tltere cxist velocity boundary layers other
t.11an those on a flat platc for which t l ~ i sis true (e. g. the wedge profiles discussed
in Chap. IX), it, appcnrs useful to stucly the possibility of tho cxistcncc of additional
similar solutions of t.he energy equation. This problem was investigated in detail
in ref. 11351. At, tho prcscnt time, we sha,ll start with t.hc class of velocity boundary
leycrs on wedges anti will awnme t h a t t,Ilc cxtcrnal flow is of the form U(z) = tc1 x"'.
111 at, analogous manner, we stiprtlatc {,hat tho wall-tcmpcraturc clistribution also
sa1,isfies n power law, say one of thc form T,(x) -,'Y = = T Ix". Walls
of constant t,rtnpcrat,~~re are inclutlctl as thc casc n == 0, and t11c valuc 12. = (1 --711,)/2
c ~ r r r ~ p o t ~tot l s:I, C O I I S ~ C I I I ~brat
, flux q . 1nt.rotlucing tlic sitnilnrit,y variable
It is clear from cqn. (12.84) t h a t its right-ltat~tlsitlc vanisltcs in tltc al)scncc
of fric:tiotlal heat and that all solutions arc then of tlrc s i t ~ ~ i l atypc.
r IIowcvcr, if
frictional hcat is includcd, similar solrrt,ions arc rcstrictctl to tltat t:ombinatio~~ of
pnratnct,crs for w11icI1 thc right-halld sido becomes intlcpcntlct~tof z. 'r11i.s oc:t:~trs
when 2 ~n - 7 t = 0 , tltat is, whcn thcrc cxists a firm cor~l,lit~g 1)ctwco11tltc vc1ot:ity
distribution it, thc cxtcrnal flow antl tho tcmperatarc tlistril~r~tion :&long1.110 w:ill.
According to this result., thc casc of a c o ~ ~ s t ~tcmpcmt,r~re
ant lratls to similar sol~~t,ions
otlly on a flat plate (1i1=1t =0). 011thc o l l ~ c rhnt~tl,if 1,110 contli1,iotl 2 111, - - 11. - 1)
is satisfied, thcn for every pair of values of m and P t l ~ c r ccxists oric tlcfinitc valur:
E, for which there is no flow of ltcat (O'(0) = 0). Jn this rasc, the tctnpc:mt,~~rc
distribution along the wa.11, once again lcrtown as tfhc atliabalic wall-tcmparat,r~rc:
distribution T,, is given by
Numcricnl valucs for t l ~ cfrtnction b(m,P) havc bcnn romput,rtl by 1%A. 1lr11r1171.
I n the particular case whcn m = 0, the numerical valucs of l'ablc 12.2 arc rccovcrctl.
Wlicn thc cffcct of dissipative hcat is ncglcctccl, wc obtain tho simpler equation
whose solutions for different valucs of thc parameters m, n, and P have bccn
published by a number of aut.hors [79, 121, 32, 33, 89, 1401. E.1E.G. Eclrcrt [I91
-
has dcmonst,ratcd that for n = 0, the local Nusselt number is given by thc equation

wr ol~tnintlic f;~tilili:irrquations (0.8~1)for the brlocity u = i J ( . z ) . / ' ( q ) ,or Eerc

N
%
= -a =
k
x
-
i---y
U ( x ) . 1:
O' (0) = - id, 0' (0) . ( 12.88)

The frinctiot~F ( m , P) is seen plotted in Fig. 12.14 on thc basis of the numcriral
data provided by 11. 1,. Evans [33]. Jn addition, thc asymptotes for very small
and vary large I'randtl numbers, cqrts. (12.57) nritf (12.01 n), rrspccl~ivrly,11avo also
302 XJI. Thorninl boundary layers in laminar flow g. Tliernial bonndary Inycrs in forced flow 303

been indicated (see also [119]). F o r thc Rat plate (m =0) the earlier rclntions from
eqns. (12.69a) and (12.62a) are, ~laturally,recovered. The caso of stagnation flow
( m = 1) leads to eqns. (12.69b) and (12.02b). I n tho special cnsc of a separation
profile (m = - 0.091) i t becomes necessary to adopt a different asymptotic
approximation for P -t oo,as shown in 1321.
The thermal boundary laycr associntcd with tho thrcc-dirnc:nsional vc:locity
boundary layer on a rectangular corner a t zero incidence is also of tllc sclf-similar
type when the external velocity distribution is of thc IIartrcc class given by U ( r ) --
C x m . The velocities a s well a s the temperature distributions for this case havc bccn
worked out in a thesis by Vasanta R a m (ref. 1921 in Chap. XI). Figure 11.I!) givcs
an idea of thc vclocit-y distribution for dilTcrcnt vnlrics of tlic ~)rcss~~rc-grntlicnl, 1)nt.n-
mctcr m. I'lrc tliagrnnl in Fig. 12.16 supplc~ncriktlic ~)rocctliilgonc in t,l~rtt,il, c : t ~ ~ ~ t . r i i t i x
an example of the associated temperature distribution. For a uniform cxtcrnal Ilow
with U(x) = Um = const and in the case of a hotter (i. e. cooled) wall for which
T, > Tm the solut,ion nevertheless exhibits a zone near the corner itsclf, shadcd in
F ~ R12.14.
. 1,ocnl Nta~cltnl~mheras a fnnction of tho Prandtl nii~nberand of the flow parameter the figure, in which ( T - Tm)/(T, - Tm) > 0, that is in which T > T,,,. 'l'l~is zonc
m for flows wliosr f'rre-stroam velocity is distrih~itedaccording to the law U ( z ) = u, zm = occurs when dissipation is included and corresponds to a condition where thc local
= v , z P l ( 2 - 0 ) (wctlge Ilow) hut for a constant wnll kmpcrature and in the absence of dissipation
fluid temperature exceeds the wall tempcraturc. Thus, loca.lly, the heat flux is reversed
and proceeds from the fluid t o the wall in spite of the fact t h a t a t a largc distancc
Asymplot.ic approximations for P -t 0 from the wall the temperature of the fluid is lower than t h a t of the wall, Tm < T,.
The physical reason for this seemingly anomalous behavior is rootad in the increased
local ratc of heating due to dissipation which occurs near thc corner. Phcnorncna of
this kind are important in the liypcrsonic flow rogimc. 'l'lic rcslrlling Inrgc inc:~.cnscs
I\riylilpt.r)tinapproxiinations for P .+ cm and P + - 0,100 according to eqn. (12.61a), and for in temperature which occur in such cases can cause burning of the surface of the body
P + u, ant1 p = - 0. I!)O:
in the stream (ci. Sec. XI11 e).
3. Thetmal boundary layere on i ~ o t l ~ e r m abodies
l of nrbitrary shape. N. I'' rocss-
Approxilnation for inbr~ncdistoPrnntitI nurnbcrs and /i'= 0, according to eqn. (12.71a). ling [39] carried out calculations on the tcrnpcraturc distribution in thc laminar
boundary layer about a body of arbitrary shapc for tlic two-climcnsionnl ant1 axially
symmetrical cases. I n his calculations, in which friction and cornprcssion work wcrc
neglected throughout, he assumed a powcr serics for the potential vcloc:ity clistribution
around the body expanded in terms of the length of arc (Blasius serics), similar to
Sec. I X c , i. e. of the form:
U = u, x 4- u, 2" -1- u, x"k ... .
The velocity distribution in the boundary laycr is wsnmctl to llavc the form:

Fig. 12.15. Tornpcrntnre distributioli , along a

lienkd wnll (T,,,> T,) it1 a right-angled corner
in n laniinar boundary layer with a constant ex- Correspondingly, the assumption for thc tcmpcrati~redist,ribut,io~iwas of tlic form :
ternal velocity Urn(inclusive ofdirisipntioli),aftnr
~n.qnndRani (1441.

1,irictn of cot~st.nrittc~nper:~.t,nrc: for P = 0.7 nricl E = 2.1. The local temperat~lreexceeds the wall
t~rr~lwraf.i~re ( 7' ;).,'-
l' i n 1.11~hntcl~r:clrcgion; conseqnent,ly,in that region heat flows fluid + wall
i n spite of tlie fncl, t,liat t.11~wall tmnperatnrn exceeds the free-stream t.aniporntnre. Tlie reason for
t . I ~ i nproccm licri in tlis~ipnt,ion.Rckert nnnibcr E -- IJ&/r, (T,,, 7',)
I n a manner similar t o t h a t for the velocity boundary laycr in Scr. TX c it, is found t h a t
the functions T I (y), T3(y), . . . satisfy ordinary diffcrcntial cqnations wliicl~include
thc functions f l , i,, . . . of the velocity distribution. I n this case, howcvcr, tllc fr~nctions
T,,T,, . . . also depend on the Prandtl number. The first arlxiljary frlrlctions TI(?/)
 g. Thermal borrnclnry lnycra in forccd flow 305
30.4 X11. Tl~ort~lal
boundary Iaycra in lerninnr flow
'I'ablc? 12.3. Thc coti~t,nntA in the equation for the cnlcnlat.ion of tho rorffic:irnt, of I~cnt,t.ransfi.r
for t,hc two-tlitncnsior~alant1 axially syrnmctricnl case were evnlnnted numerically
i n t,he ncigllborrrltood of n st,agnnt,ion point, nftm H. 11. Sqnirc []:ti J
for n Prantltl nllmber of 0.7. 'rile met,hocl under consideration is somewhat cumber-
some I)y its natnrc, ns was t,hc case wit11 the velocity boundary layer, particularly
for slcntlrr I)otly for~iiswhen a large number of terms in the power expansion is
rrqnirrd, as sl~o\vni l l 1281.
Nurnrrol~ss o l ~ ~ t , i ofor
t ~ s self-similar thermal 1)oundary layers inclusive of the
elTrc.t,s of blowing and suction can be found in [34, 44, 134, 101.
In t,lw sprcinl case when P = 1, ant1 when the Ilcatf duo t o friction is ~ieglccted,
the tfiKcrcnt.inl ccll~at,ionfor the temperature clistribution in the boundary layer
a r o ~ ~ n an
t l xrbit,r:sry cylintlcr is itlcnt.ica1 with that for the transverse velocity
coml)oncnt (volocit,y componerit in the tlircction of the generatrix of the ynwetl
rylirrtler). This r a n be seen upon comparing cqns. ( 1 2 . 6 3 ~ and
) (11.58). The relation,
~ already t)ecn discusscd in Scc. X I d , was ut,ilized b y I,. Golancl [46] for
w l ~ i c lhas
t,lro e v a l ~ ~ n t ~ of
i o rt.he
~ temperatlure distribution in the boundary layer around a
aylir~tlcrof s~)rc:ialform. Fig. 12.16. Jmcal rate of float translcr
trro~rntln circt~larrylindrr. Coml,arison
I n tile ~~eigltl~ourhootl
of a stjagnation point, where t h e velocity distribution brtweon tl~eoryantl expcriment. Nua-
is r ~ ~ ~ r c by~ oIJ~(z) t ~ ~x dwith nz =.. /? = 1 , thc Nrlsselt number dcfincd in
~ == mlt ~~nrnber N n and Jtcynolcls nnm-
eqn. (12.87) ran be rcprescntad by t h c cqrlation I~rrR,, rrfcrrcci to rylincler dintncter
I ) = 100 111111. Mmsurcn~entspcrform-
cc\ by E. Scll~nidtnnd K. Wcnner
[107]. l'l~rorytine to N. Froeasling [XI]
ant1 W. l)ie~~einann [Ill. Systelnatic
on contlition thatf oncrgy dissipation is neglected. T h e character of the function A ( P ) infl\lcncc of Rcynolds number due to
emerges from Fig. 12.14 and Table 12.3. I n thc former, the curve for /? = 1 corrcs- vnrying froe-stream turbulence, Scc.
po11tl.s t o t l ~ cfunction A . For .z circulnr cyli~ldcrwe p u t U(z) = U, sin ( x / R ) ,so XI1 g 7
tfl~at.91 I 4 fJ,/D. lrcncc

Tllc al)ove rxl)rc.ssiol~ agrcrs reasonably wcll with t h e mcasi~rementsperformed by (T- T,)] dy = - o ( C T )
ac~ ,-0
R. St.llnliclt antl I<. Wcnncr [107] a t lowcr Rcynolds numbers, see Fig. 12.16. I t
:~ppt-ars,I~owrvcr,t,hat t h e ratio N,/~/R,, drpends systematically on t h c Jtcynoltls
n l ~ n ~ l ~this
c r ; s y s t r n ~ a t ~infll~cncc
ic is not acconnl,cd for by the tl~eory.For cxamplc wllcrc a .=. k/p c, is t,l~etllcrinnl t1iff1tsivit.y ir~t~rotl~tcotlin cqn. (12.25). Tllc prnct:tling
rcl~~al.ioll, somrt,i~nrs:11so c.:~llotlt,l~cc:~~crgy-i111.rgm.I c?cl~~nl.iorrt, is clt~ito~I.IIII,~~!:OIIS
at, R - 1.7 x 10" tho m m s ~ ~ r cVRIIIC tl c x c r ~ t I st,l~ot,heorot,i~a1
onc at. the .st,:~g~int.ior~
poitrt by 10 to 16%. We s11:~llrcvcrtt t.o t,l~ispoint in Scc. X I J g 7 whcrc i t will bc to t . 1 1 ~r~lo~l~c~it.r~nl-irltcgr:~l
rclrrn(.ic~n(8.32) for t,llc v c l o ~ i t ~byo ~ ~ ~ ~ tlayer.
lnry
RIIOWII t , l ~ a t l ~ ediscrepancy is due t o the rffcct, of varying free-stream turbulence From among t l ~ cnumcrous proccclures wl~icharc avnilal~lcfor thc soll~t.iot~
procll~rrdhy a rhangr in the Jtcynolds number. of t.lrc 11catflux equation (12.91), we propose 1.0 tlcscribc t h a t tll~oto IT. B. Sqrlirc [IS21
Whcn ~,crforniingnrrnierical cnlcnlat,ions on ' thermal bountla.ry Ia.yers, i t is ill ~ 6 1 1 tlct.nil
1~ I)(:(!~IIsc it is partir~~l:~,rly
sir111)lt: t~,n(lIK:~:I,IIS(: it, i~ II rln,l,~lr:~l t-o11l,i1111-
:rt.ior~of l'olrlllauscl~'~i~l)~)roxit~\:~t.c mct,ho~lIbr t,l~csol\rt,io~~ ol t,111>vclocit,y I)o\rntl:lry
Sorttit1 t l l ~ tnpproai?ndc
, rn,etko(L~arc muell simpler l,11a1i tho preceding exact metlrods.
layer clescribetl in Cl~ap.X. I n orclcr t o ovi~luatot,l~cilitcgral on the Jcft-l~:~ntl side
Such n.pproxin~:~t,e mcl,hods arc based on nclrlatioris modclled on the integral momen-
of cqn. (12.01) wc introtfucc 1 . 1 1 va.riables
~ ?I -- y / B for t8hovt~loc:itry I ) o ~ ~ ~ i t lI:tyrr
a r y antl
t,r~rneqnnt.ion for t,l~ccalc~llntionof velocity bountlary layers wliicli was considcrcd
in tlct.nil in C11:l.p. X . Ncglrct~ing frictional heat; and tile effects of co~npressibility
it, is [)ossil)ln looinfngrat.c: t,l~c:crncrgy cquat,ion (12.51c) from y = 0 t o y = oo and
SO 1.0 ol)Ia.ill t.111:hrcst-llic:,: rq~rrdion
t Not to be confnscd wit-h the encrgy-integrnl cqnation (8.35).
306 XII. Tllcrrnal hor~ndarylayers in laminar flow

17T = ?//Or for t . 1 1 ~t.hc:rtnal layer. We tlcnoI,e, furt,l~er,t,l~cir mt,io I)y A = BT/d, ant1 Upon dividing eqn. (12.95) by eqn. (12.96), we ohtain
we ;Lssulnc: ~ , I I : I ~ ,t-llo vrlorit.y : L I I ( ~ t.on~l)crat,t~rc
clist.ribr~l.iot~s,
rcr;pcct.ivcly, havc the
fimns U~~UII.(I~
I =U( ) 2 2 11"1- == IJ (x) F ( 7 ) ,
?i4] (12.92~~)
--
A2. H ( A )= 4 1
i-4 -0 (12.97)
z
H JUQI x
O
,I .l l t r vt:loc.it,y tlist,riln~t,ionst.il)~~l:~l.ctl Ilcrc? c:orrcspontls 1.0 t,llc: I'ohlhnuscn assump- Since H ( A ) is a known function, Table 12.4, the preceding equation can bc used
t.ior~ in otl11. (10.2:1) : ~ . t ~ c l t , I ~ t : liwm of t.110 t.cml)cr:~t.l~rc
clist,ribt~t,ionf11nc:tion is so t o tloterrninc A ( x ) . T h e calculation is best porrorrncd 1)y u~lc~~cssivc
nl)proxi~natio~~n,
srlrc:l.ctl ns t,o c:nsllrc? itlt.nl,ic::tl vclocil.y : ~ n ( lt(:n~~)cra.l,ltrc ( l i ~ t ~ r i l ~ l ~ I for s ---- 0 ,
. i o nBT starting with the initial assumption t.11at A -= r o t ~ s l ~Jltwrc
. wc obtain
as rcrcl~~ircrtl11.y t,Itc Jtc~ynolclsanalogy for n flnt ~)l:~t.c a t P = I, cqn. (12.64). 011
I
srll~st.it,ut,ing
cclns. (12.!)2:1, 1)) into ccln. (12.91), wo obt,ain u4 Lu CIX

Jlc~rt. / / ( , I ) is n rl~tivors:~lf ~ ~ ~ ~ coft iAo ~

- l O,./fi wl~icli turns out l o l)c given 11y
The resulting value of A is now int,rvtlucctl into t,hc 1t:ft.-11:~ntlsitlc of ac111. (12.!)7)
thus leading t o a n improved value of A. I n general, two stst*psin the iteration nrc
found t o be sufficient.
The local rate of heat transfer becomes
Performing the intlicatcd integrations, we obtain

I I ( A ) = 2- A -
140
15 180
? /In"+ ' A4 for A <1
and ~I(A=
) 3 1,, 2 1
- - - +- -- -- - - 3
3
10 A
- - 1.
15 A2 140 A'
+ - 1- 1
--
180 A6
f
orA>, a n d hence t h e local Nusselt number referred t o a characteristic length I is

Some numerical valrlcs of the function [[(A), calculated by W. Dienemann[ll],

havc been listctl in Ta11lc 12.4.
T h e steps to be taken t o evaluate the thcrmnl boundary layer, and in partficr~lar,
Tablo 12.4. Nlrrnoricnl vnluw of tllo function H ( A ) to determine t h e variation of t h e N~lsseltnumber along a body of preseribcd sllape
are thus the following ones:
1. evaluate A (2)from eqns. (12.97) and (12.978)
2. evaluate d (x) from eqn. (12.96)
3. steps 1 a n d 2 give dT(x); finally, t h e local Nusselt number follows from
The integration of cqn. (12.93) yields eqn. (12.98).
I
Flat plate at zero incidence: The preccding approximato method will now be
compared with t h e exact solution in tthc case of n flnt plato at zero incidence. Insert-
ing U (z)= U, into eqn. (12.97), wc obtain
'I'lle vclocity l~onndary-layerthickness cJ can bc evaluated with thc aid of cqn. (10.37)
wl~c,r~ i t is rcmoml~crt:cl from cqn. (10.24)t t h a t n/d2 = 316/37. T l ~ n s
I
I .
The expression A = P-ID constitutes a n approximation t o the soInttion of this equation
which is in error b y n o more t h a n 5 per ccnt. as compared with t h e exact solution.
The boundary-layer thickness from cqn. (12.06) is

t Fttr IIir ankt. o f ~ i n ~ p l i f tlic

i l . ~rdalci~lalion
is bmcd throughot~ton the flat-plate relations ( A = 0).
 X11. ' I ' l ~ r r ~ ~
hotrnclnry
~nl I:ryrrs in lnn~iunrflow g. Tl~cr~nal
bo~~ndary
layers i n forcrtl flo~r, :lO!)

I1enc.r 01c loc.:~l N~rssrltrtumbrr rcfcrrc-tl t,o the cnrrrnt Icngt,h s alone; thc plate, calculat.ion mllc:l~Inore tlific~tlt,.I n p a r t i c ~ ~ l at,11c ~ o r s( I ( ? l . : ~ i l ~ ~ i
r , prccc[ling a ~ ~ l ~ ltnii(I(:
V ~ I I( 1 2
!Is), I)vc-o~nc.s calculalions for t,lrc thcrmal I101tntl:wy I:l.yc:rs n~socinl~ctl will^ lllc wctlgc Ilows wl~ic:lr
corresporltl to U ( z ) = ulx"' and whose vclorit,y I)onndary Inycrs, cnl~:~~l:it.c~tl r:trlicr
by 1). It. Jlart,rcc, llavc been clisc~lssctli t 1 Sca. I X n . 'I'll(: tllcrtnnl I ) o ~ ~ n t l : ~ I :r~yy r r
w11c~rrn.st,l~cc,xn.c.t sol111~io11,
cqn. (12.79a), showed t h e n ~ ~ m e r i c acoefficient
l t o b~ for wcdgc flow is also tliscussctl in a paper by A . N . rl'ifTort1 11391.
eq11:1l l o 0.:1:12.
Alt.rrn:~livc :~pproxirnnt,cproccdores for the calculatfion of-the tjhcrmalq!o~ndary 4. Tllern~nlb o ~ ~ ~ ~lnyers d a r y oti walls witli nn nrbi~rnrylenipernt~~re distrihl~tion. \+'it11 1.110
1j1,ycron 1)otlit:s of n.rl)itSr:r.rys l ~ a p c shave baeq intlicnlc;i_Ly...E..lj;ckert [l-)j a n d Gy oxcept8iot1of t.hc si~nilnrsolrlt.ions for wcdgc flows tliscussctl in Src. XI1 g 2, :ill t.l~crrn:tlI ) O I I I I I ~ : I ~ ~
layers discussctl so far were cnlc~~lnhrl or1 the x.ssun~ptio~~ thnt t l ~ ctc~nl)ornt.urc: dil1i:rcnrr l)~:l.\\W I I
I{>.I<Cclirrtint~tl* J . N . 13. jivin&mtl [23, 251; t.he latter require a somewhat larger wall and frcc s t r c : ~ rwhich ~~ creates the heat Ilux rcn~ni~~cd constant. The onlculation of Lhc
~ I I I O I I I I of
~, II~IIII(%~~C \\,orlc,
:I.~ b111t,hcir BCCIIT:L~Yis improved. 111 this connexion t,hc tmnpcratt~reficlrl nntl of t.11~ rate of heat t,rnnsrrr i n thr: prcscnrc of n tc~r~l)rrnt~uro 7',,,(3.)\vl~ic:l~
p n 1 ~ ~ tI)y . s \V. I)ic.nrniar~n1 1 I], 11.J. Merlc 1851, M.B. S k o p e k [I181 and A. G. Smit,ll is dislribr~latialol~g1.11~wnll prrscnt.~many cliffin~llics.In 111nny mscs, t.l~cscarc c.l.r:ttril hy
n.11t1 1). 1%. Spnltlit~g1.1 In] rnny I)? usrful t,o t.hr rcadcr. 111ror~f,ra.st. with 11. 13. Squil.~'s, t,l~cfw:L t,I~at,t,Ilc 10t~:il l~(::it,flux i8 hy no I I I ~ : L I I ~lcl,cr~~~ir~rrl
~ sc)lt?l.yIjy t.11r: ln(!:~lt~c-ti~lt~~ntl~~
cliIli.rc,nc.c! '/',,,(:r) 'l'<w,.
- I t , 1 1 r o v 1I~, o I)(: ~l,ro~~[cl,y
~ I I I I I I I - I I ~ C : IlI ~ yIII~,
"~I:I!I~,l~i~lc,ry" 111,. l t o 1 1 1 1 ~ 1 : ~ r y
t.11~:I:~t.ltsrpror.c.cI~~rrs rn:~.lcous(: of t.11rrcsr~lt,sof t , l ~t,hcory
c of similar I,hcrn~:ilI,o~rr~tl:rry

.
I:~.yrrs011l.linc*tl in t . 1 1 ~)rrnctli~ig
~ scc:tion. 'I'l~isimprovt:~the accuracy of tlle calclllntion.
l:ly(!r.
.
,J he cxtcnsir,~~ o f t.11~exp:insion in n J%liisiuss0ri08 1.0 i t ~ r l l ~ ~ :trl)it,r:iry
le clisfril~llt~io~~s of
(!. S. Yih [:!HI : ~ wrll
r
I11n v:irio~~s :~l)lrroxirnat,nnlct.l~otlsI~nvnI ~ o r cxaminctl
r~ crit.icnlly and comparctl wit,ll wall tcmpcrntr~rewrts worI<cdout by C . It. (;r~l~n n11(1 s :is I)y N. Icr~)rssli~~g
rxch ol llor in n pnprr 1)y 1). 13. Spnltling ant1 W. M. P u n [I221 : their accumcy has beeti [40]. The specinl rase when the velocity profilcs in thc I~ontltlnryInycr cnn I)c rclircscntotl in the
jlltlgrtl I)y pc:rli,rtning c:ornpn.risons with t.he cxaot solut,ion for the circular cylintlcr form of a power law nntl when t l ~ ctetnpcrntt~redistrihr~tio~~ nlong Lhc aell ci111I)c ~ C ~ I ~ C R O I I ~ I I
as n power series w.w invcstignhd by D. It. 1)avie~nnd 1).1':. llournc I.!)]. A P I I ~ O X ~ I~ II ~I OI ~~C~( I I I ~ C S
proritlt.tl Ily N . 1~rorssling.Accor(lil1g t.0 t.hns(: stlltlirs, trhomethods due t,o IT. J. Mcrlc for t l ~ ecnlc~ilationof tlirrnmnl boundnry lnycr along non-isot~l~crmel ~rrnllnvverc elnl)nrntctl I)y the
/85] nntl A . G . Snlit.ll and D. R . Spnlding [ l l n ] t,ul.tl onl, too I)c rclnt~ivclyt,hc I I I O S ~ , following n~ltl~ors: I).Jt. Cl~npmnnnntl W.M. Itr~l~osin 181. J . 1tlci11nnrl M. 'l'ri1111~ IXO]. L'.L.
~ ~ of l.l~rirsilnl)li(:ily. ' ~ I I c Iattcr relerencc s11ows t h a t a t a PrantU1
~ c c I I I .in: ~sl>iIlt: I)onoughc and N.B. Livingood [12]. M. J. I,ightl~ill[13:3], H. Schuh [Ill], G . S . Arnl)rolc [2],
nl~rnl)crof P :-= 0.7, t.hc similar wctlgc profiles satisfy with good accuracy thc relation I). I?. Spnl(1ing [120], E. Eckert. J.P. Hertnetk nnd R. Dirkcbnclc [2C,J, 13. J J ~liur 174. 751 and
i4. Schlirlit.ing 11021. The ~chenieprovided by If. 13. Squire, nnd clisc~~mcrl rnrlirr ~::III nlno I)o
11 (x) 'I(,$.=) = --
43- clU cxtentlcd to inclrlrle non-isothermnl walls [13:)]. 111 no st cases, thc ni~thoru~~eglrot. Ihc cvol~ltion
-- .- =- 48.72 - 2.87 - of frictiontal hcnt ahcn incon~prcssibleflow^ nro being st.11dicd.
ir dx v dr

'I'l~ist.cl11at.io11is rx:ic~t,for /3
( I ~ n trcln
)
-
0 (plnlr) : L I I I ~/3 -- 1 (stfagnat,ionpoint). If i t is supl)osctl
(12 100) vnjoys ~ ~ r ~ i v r r svnlitlily,
:tl it, is possil)lc immetlintcly t o writ.? down
Since tJ~cclimcrc~~l.ial
st.:inrlnrcl sol~~tions.
rrlnot,ion for tho t.l~rr~u:~l
writ(: clown t.lic! gctternl solut.io~~to t . 1 ~
Soc.11n st,n~~tlarcl
~)robln~n
bouutlnry Inyrr is li~~rnr,
solulion is c~l)t:iinr(l
11y cot~sidrri~~g
i b is possil)l~*
i l l 1.l1c: fornl of n li11r:ir C O I I I ~ I ~ I
ofI :~L. (~%
:I w:~ll. I'ig. 12.17. \vltosf:
Lo
. ~r (~, Ia Ii ~ ~

It.n~l)rrat.r~re i8 equal to t.hnt of the free strca~n,'I1,, from z -= O t.o s = r,,. At x = r,, t.lir: \v:iII
trt~~lwrnt~lrc is strdtlcnly c:l~a~~grdLo n vnlrlc 7Is. prodrlcing the s k p functio~~ skrtrl~ccl i l l
I'ifi. 12.17. I f the solutir>r~ t.o this proble~n is tlc~~oletl by

1'
4672-- ( '
[I,,,) )I ( ) (for P = 0.7). (12,101')
0

I lrrt: IT,, nntl I tlt:r~ol.cc . o n s l , : ~rcfcrcltcn

~~t valncs. This equat.ion corresponds t o eqtl.
(10.37) \vhic:h \r7:~s tl(%rivedI)y A. Wnlz for t,hc rnomcrlt~nmtjl~iclrncss.The local Ni~ssclL
~ ~ l l ~ n l )ist : rn.gnit~tlt:l,c:rrni~~otlI)y cqn. (12.!)8). At, t.he st.ngnal,io~lpoint we ol)t.:~it~
_ ----- OJI/?Icdqr 01 dynamic
.
.~~
,. ,
1. UfxI ----~ hni~ndaiyldvcr
i -
-..
: , i j IJ
~ , ~ ~ i ~ ~ j ~ l(lor : : 0.7)
-;+J-. -

OUlPI CdgP O/ /helm~/

<1(7/0
bnundafy layer
I)rnst.ic.:~lly\ii~n~~lili(:(ll)ro(:(:(Il~rcs for tS11ecalcrllntion of t l ~ e r m a lbountlxry 1nyc:r-s ,' <-

oil pl:ii,cs nnrl rot.;~.tionnllys y ~ n m e t ~ r iI)otlicsc were indieatreti by IT. J . Allen ant1 Fig. 12.17. Uevrloprnc~nt, of --L
I<. (!. I,oolc 1 1 1. :111!11)y If:. !':(-lz(:rt, n.ntl \I. Woisc [17]. I I I ~vc-locity n~itlIr111prr:i-
14:. IC(,I<(:rt,:III(I0 . I)r(-\vit,z [181 ~)rrfor~~ic(I~(:n.lcr~lat~ions on t,he t.ernl)c~r:~.t,rrlc: t.urc I~ountlnrylnyrr in l.lic
t l i s t , r i l ) ~ ~ l ilol ~I.II(.
~ I~r,l~tttl:~ry I:tycr allowing for t h e rKect,s of compressi1)ilit.y and ~)rcscr~cc of n sts11-likrjl1111l)
i l l aa11 tc~nl)crnt.nrc:it, st,:i-
fricI.iot1:1.1I~r:rt,.1 1 1 g c ? ~ ~ o ri:t ~ 1 gnscolls
l, ~nol.iont.hc work of coniprcssion is of the satnr
o~,tl('rof I I ~ : I C I I ~ ~ .I('I I , :IS I.II:II. tlissip:tt,cvl I.l~roltglrvisrosi try.I t is then no longer possi\)lc lion z -. r,, (stanrlnrtl pro-
l o ~ , Y I I I ~ 1T 1 1 (~ x ~ l ~io11 ~ : ~for
l t(,~r~l~(:r;~.t,~~r(:~ I i s t ~ r i l ) ~ ~tto, i n.
o ndiffnre~it~ial
equat,ion of t.Itt: I~lrm)
fivst or11t.r. :IS \ r : ~ st,It(: c;~st. wi1.11 t.llc flat, plnt,c, xntl t.Ilis c i r c u m s t a ~ ~ crenders n t,llo I
310 XJI. 'I'hrrmnl boundnry layers in laminar flow g. Tlicrmnl boundary lnycn in forcrcl flow 31 1

tinopnitethinasmethod,0. too, fniln a t the point of ucj)nrnt,ion bccauso the funct.ion ~ ( z , z , , bororncs
rO -C
)

111 nsitnil:~rtllatrnrr. thr I~rritflux q ( r ) mn IIVr o n l p ~ ~ t r from

tl
~ / ( ~ , r c=, )q* (r.rfl)(7's - 7'm)
of PI^. 12.17. 111 this cnsr
for lhr stnrltlnr(1 ~~rol)lrlrl
thr known distribr~tion A comparntivcly acctlrnte method wliich, ill nddition, mnkw nti n.llo\vnncc for frirt.ionnl
heat, has hecn indicated by 13. JA Fur 174, 761. This nlet,lld \vaa cxtcndcd t o include corn-
prcssible flows.

q (4= 1
0
q* ( ~ , r , ,(171.5
) (x0) - (12.105)
5. Thermal boundary layero on rotationnlly symmetric and rotating bodies. Tho cnlc~rlnt.ion
of rolitionally nymnlctric t.liermnl bolrtiilrii;ji lnycrs jiFcncnIi no priit-ictilnr ~liflic~~lticn l~rrn~lsc:
Ilc*rr, P ~ I I R . (12.101) nncl (12.105) c n n t a i ~Stit:ll.jr*n
~ inlrgrnln. When t.ho dintrihr~t.iotls7'.<(r) nI. tho encrgy cqrrntion is 1110snmo a q for tho two-di~nc~~siot~nl cllno. C O I I R P ~ I I C I Ino
~ .st,~ ?111ct.l1~1c1s
;.
r - . O rirc c:o~~t.i~~t~ol~w. i t is ~~ossiblc
1.11 xi11111liljrlhc rrhovc cxl)ron~iol~ to which havc bccn cvolvctl for two-ditncnsionnl prol~lcn~s cnn bo oxtc.r~clctltc) nlr >ly to rokrtic)~l:rll.i
sy~ntnotrics~~rfncos, RCC,fnr c~ntnple,[ l , 17, 1111. k ' u ~ t l ~ c r ~ ~ 1.11~~ o rrot.iLlio11ilhj
e, R ~ I I I I I I O t:nso

i
~ . ~ ~ ~
(1 'I1, cnn IICrcclr~retlto n t ~ o - ~ l i ~ l l c ~ ~
onc
~ i hy
o r ~l.llo of ~ I I CMnnglrr trn11sfortnnI.iotl17 1 I.
n l a/~pliontiol~
'I'/ - 'I1,, = 0 (.r.!/,r,,) (IX,) ( l ~ , , 9
(12.10(i) scc. X LC.
0
Tllcrmal boundary Inycrs on rotating rotationally syrnmctric ~urfaccshave bocn invcslig.tlcd
and to writr r111 n ~ ~ n l o g oversio~l
r~s of cqn. (12.106). ltcforving to cqn. (12.61 b), it is now posnible in a n ~ ~ m h eofr publications. Solutions for a disk which rotalcs in st.ill nir (cl. Src. \' 1 1 ) arc
to ol~t.:ii~lthe f~llo\vingox1)rrssion ftw 1 1 1 ~hrrll, IIIIXalong n wall providctl with n varying contained in [120, 130, 511: Lltc corresponding pro1)lcrn conrornil~ge rnl.ttl.i~~g
slthc>ro(rl. Svc:. S I I,%)
trtnlwrnI.urr T s ( r ) wllic.11 was first tliacovcrtd Ily M. .I. I,igl~thill(80) This in was nolvccl by S. N. Sing11 [I 171.
-m -* A. N. TifIbrd and S. T. Chu [I411 cxnniirictl tlic casc of a rotriling clink placctl in nn axial
1 (r) = 3 4 , )! : { stream, whereaa the problem qf a aphcre rotating in an axial strcnm forms the snl)jcct of a s111dy
by J . Siekmann [IIB]. Additionnl solutions for rolnting bodies can be found in rck. [%] and [138].
0 I. A generally valid approximate method for the study of thcrmnl boundary Iaycrs on botlics
rotating in an axial strcam was developed by Y. Ynmagn [I451 who bawd himself on 11. Schlich-
Strictly speaking, the prccoding equation is valid only for the asymptotic cnso when P + m. ting's procedure mentioned in Chap. XI (ref. [0!)] of Chop. XI).
Accortlirlg to M. J. Lighthill 1~801,n greater meaarlre of agreement in the range 0 < fl < 1 can
be R C C I I ~ W ~hen the fnctor 0.5384 is replaced by 0.487. The same equation, but with a factor
of O.VZ3, wa.q also ohL3inod hy H. W. Liepmnnn 1781 who cmploycd a different mode of reasoning.
6. Mensuretner~ts on cylinclers nn11 o t h e r Iwdy sl~nlics. R l m s r i r r m r n l s o n
As intlirntntl in tho caption to Fig. 12.14, the general, asymptotic approximation is not t , l ~ ecoefficient of h e a t transfer by forcctl cot~vcc:t.ion,mosl.ly f r o m rirc111n.raylirltl(:rs,
valid for tho ~ r p a r a t ~ i oprofilc.
n I t is, tllercforc, clear that Lighthill's equation (12.107) munt
brcak ilo\vn a t the point of separation. An improvement in tho computation of the rate of heat r a n be f o u n d in p a p e r s by R. I I i l p c r t [50] ant1 E. S c l ~ r n i dnt ~ l t I<.
l W c ~ ~ r l 1.107J.
cr 1L. IIil-
trarlrrfc.r wnu inclic~ntctlh?; I).13. S p a l d i ~ ~[120J.
g According to this method, the distribution of
the heat, flux (br the standard problem of Fig. 12.17 milat he obtaincd by iteration from tllc
fnllo\ving two rqllat.ions:

Tho ft~r~ot.ion F ( x ) urnnt.nltrv~ovor from the known claw of similar solr~t,ionsand is givcr~in roc[ 1201;
a few ri~tt~~rrinnl V I I I I I C ~ hnvc hce11 rc:l~rocinned here in 'J'ablc 12.5. 'l'hc iteration starts with
F'(,y,,) = 6.4 nncl 1c:~cln to q,*(z,z,,), frorn cqn. (12.108). This, in turn, allows us to ealc~ll~rlr
X ~ ( T , Z from
, ~ ) rrltl. (12.10!)) n~rclto inscrt it onc:o ngain int,o cqn. (12.108), nnct so on. Unr~,rt.l~rin-

I ' l l 2 Vnlt~rnof t.l~efi111ct.ionF ( x ) for tlw cnlcrllnt.ion of n thcrmnl bon~ldnrylayer on

a ~ioninothrrmnlwall; n l k r D: R. Spnlding [I201

lcig. 12.18. 7'110 N~tssclt.11r11n11orN, in t r r ~ n sof Ihc Ilny~~oltls

11itt1111cr R [or (.irt.t~lirrvylitit11.r~
after It. Flilprt [56]. Snrfacc kmpcraturc IOO" (: npprox. A c:c)rnl~;lrisc)~~ \vil.Ir 1.111: ~no:mt~rorrli:t~t~~
duo to J. Kcstin and 2'. F. Macdcr [07] srrggostn th11.1Ilill~c:rl,'s ~ I I C I ~ % I I ~ C ~ I I Cw:rc
. I I ~ . ~111:rfor111c.d
in a strcam of 0.9% trirbulcnce intensity
 312 S I I . 'I'hrr~nnlI~orlntlarylaycrs i n Inntinar flow
pert prrforrncd measurements on circular cylintlers in a cross-flow of air covering
a v c r y witlcmngcof Itcynoltls numbers. ITigltre 12.18co11tninsaplot oftlle mc:kn Nussclt
nulnbcr N,,, tnlrcrl for the wholc circumfcronce of t h e cylinder against the Itcynolds
number R. 150th N,, and R arc base11 on the diameter of t,Ile cylintler. As n first
crr~tlca.pprnxiniation i t can be a.ss~lmcclt h a t N, is p r o p ~ r t ~ i o n t,o
a l R'I2 as confirmod
by 1.11~ tllrorct,irn.I calculations for tllc f1:i.t ~)lnt,cc1.t zero incitlcncr, orlrl. (12.79a, b),
and for t,he flow nonr a sbagnation point, eqn. (12.90), in laminar flow.
The loral cocfficiolt of hcat transfer varies considerably over t,lle surface of
cylintlers nntl ot.hcr botlies; mrn.s~lrcmrnl.son circrllnr oylinrlcrs tlnc to R . Schmitlt
ntitl I<. \Vcnncr 1107j 11.r~. sl~ownin Fig. 12.19. I t is sccn 1,Ilat in t,llc Inrni~lnrbountlnry
Iaycr t . 1 ~corflicic:nlt of hcat transfer tlccrcascs wit11 tlistance from the stagnation
point, ant1 rcnchcs a rnirlilnllnl in the ncighhorlrl~oodof t l ~ epoint of s c p ~ m t i o n .Jn
t,ho LIo\v bc~hintlthe point of separation its value is about cqua.1 t.o t h a t a t the lentlirlg
rtlgc in t h r Iaminar layer. Similar worlr is reported in refs. [72] and [99].
t.rnn.sfcr for a circular cylindcr nt
varying Ilcynolds ~~umbcrs nu Inca-
nnred by R. Scl~~niilt ancl I<. Weriner
[107]. Curves ( I ) and (2) refer t,o the
rcgion below t.lio crit.ical ltcynoltls
nuinh~r,crlrvrs (3) and (4) were moa-
4111.0d i n 1.110 crit.irn1 range, and c:urvo
(5) nl~ovc:l.11~ critical rnngc
A rotn1)nrisorl 1)ct.wcorl tho ~ncasuretlval~rcsfor t h e forwartl porLion of t h c cylinder
from Fig. 32.19. i. c. for trllc portion whcrc t h e flow is laminar, a n d theoretical
cnlclrlnt.ions has nlrcatly bccrl givcn in lpi'ig. 12.16"~11ctlleorct.ical curves were based
on I.l~cnct,nal, ntcas~lretlvclocity tlistrrib~~tion $1 t,he external flow. As is known,
near the forward sl,n.gnntion point t h e Iatt.cr agrecs very well with t h a t given by
potent,inl tlleory. Tllc agreement, a s already stated, is satisfactory. I). Johnson and
.J. 1'. Ilart,nc-t.t, 1023 pcrformrtl mcasl~rcmcntsof I~eat--transfer rates on a circular
t.ylinc1t.r \vil.ll 1)lowing (sweat,-c,ooling). kc. 15cakert. ant1 W. Wcise [17, 203 published
t III- r r s l ~ l l sof 1.llrir rnc-n.snrcnlrnl,son tilr mcan ant1 local adial)atic wall temperatures
g. Tl~ormal1,oundary lnycrs in foroctl flow 31 3
on unhcat,ctl cylirldors in parnllol ant1 in cross-flow covering a rnngc of nir vc?locit.ic:s
rlrnrly up t o sonic. I n the case of n st.rram p:~r:~llcl l,o Ollc axis of f,l~oaylil~tlrrt,ltoy
ol~t:iincda mean value (T, -Ti,) 2 ~ , , / l l , , ~0.84= wd~icll was ir~drpt?ntlcntof the
Mnt:Il nr~mbcr,in good agrcemcr~t\vit,ll 1.11~ v:~lucfrom rqn. (12.80) for a Il:ct I ) I : L ~ . ~ ~ .
I n cross-flow t.Iloy obt.aincd a v a l l ~ c1~ct.wc~cn
0.6 and 0.4 wllic:l~was ; ~ l s ort:nsorl:rl)ly
intlCpendcntof t,]lc h.lach number. A summary of rccrnt work o n the t.ol.nl Ilc.at,-ll,n.tls-
fer rate from a circr~lnrcylindcr is contair~eclin n papt'r I)y IT.'I'.MOI.~:LII 1881.
It. lCiclll~orn,E. Eclrcrt,, ant1 I\. I). Anrlcrson [30j ~nc:~surc:tltllc rn1.c of I~rnt.
t,rar~sfcrrctlalor~gIL c:ircr~l:l.rcylintlnr ~)lnc:ctlin n.tl axit1.l st,ronnl, tho S I I ~ ~ I Lt.e~n- ~ C
l ) r r : ~ t ~ tor fc l.Iit: (:yli~~tlt!r
1)t:ing v:~ri:~l)li:.
'J'l~t~y
t11)t:iint:tI gt~otl:~grt:rtn(:111, \vil,l~l,l~t;or(:l,i-
cnl onIc~~lnt.ions wllc-n :~llowanccwas rnatlo For t.llc cllkal~of t,llc crtrvat~rrc:of 1 . 1 1 ~sur-
fare. l<.c:vic\vsol't:i~rrc:t~l~ j)n.l)crswhic:l~corlctsl.rlt.11clrlsc:lvc.swil.ll I I ~ ~ ; Il,r:~nsli:~.
~, ~trol~lt:r~is
arc j)llblj~11~t1 froin t.iln(: t o titnc in t,hc I?~ler~ralio~ccrb J o u r ~ t n l01 lletrl t s ~ r t 8 llf6ts.u
Tra7zsfer.
r
7
I h c t11crrna.l 1)oilntlary l:~ycrcan 1)c convcnicnl~ly~ n a t l cvisil~lcwit,ll t,l~c;hid of
int.crfcrotnct~ricpllotogml)lls. J'iguro 12.20 rcprcsrnts tho llow past a t.~rrl)incc::rsc:r~lc.
Thc shift in the lines is a measure of tho tliffcrcncc bct.wccn tllc local tlrnsit,y and
tllat, a t a rcfcrcnrc s t a t e (e. g., with rcspcct t o t l ~ cundistlrrbctl strcam). 1'1112 c11:~ngcs
in densit.y in t l ~ cregion of pot,cnt,ial flow arc tluc lnainly t o prcssurc cl~:~ngcs, I ~ u in
t
t h e 1)ountlnry 1:~ycrtho I ~ c a dt u c t o friction co~lt,ributcsgrcat.ly t o t . 1 1 ~clt:rngc in tlcrl-
sity. 1Jpon close cxamit~atior~ i t is possible t o tlisccrn i n Fig. 12.20 s u r l t l c ~s ~
l ~ t ~ Itinks
rp
in the lincs. 'l'hcsc arc rluc t o the conaitlcrablc atltlit.iona.1c:llatigr in ~1ct1sit.y1)rotltrccd
by frictional hcat. T h u s t h e kinks trace t h e oulcr cdgc of t h c tllcrmal bounclary
layer. I n natural convcction it is even cosier t o rcndcr Chc bountlnry laycr visiblc ILS
i t i s possible t o use a Schlieren method for this purpose, first described by I<. Schmidt
[105]), cf. p. 314.
Pig. 12.20. Thermal boundaryleyer on a turbine cascade, made
visible with the aid of the interferometer method, after
E. Eckcrt. Anglo of flow a t inlet /3, = 40"; solidity l/t = 2.18;
Reynolds number R = 1.97 x lo5
The shift of the interferometer lines is proportional to the
change in density. The eudden kinks in the linea near the
waU show the outer edge of the thermal boundary layer,
since the heat of friction produces a large change in density
in that rcgion
7. EUeet of free-stream turbulence. In all previous considerations concerning laminar
boundary layers it was tacitly implied that the cxbrnal stream was alm laminar. Ilowevcr, in
the overwhelming majority of crrscs, particularly during wind-t.unnc1 h k q , tho cxkrnnl stmnm
carries with it a certain dcgree of turbulctirc wllich mcnrls thnt a t every point in it, Lhc vclori1,y
fluctuates, changing its magnitude and direction. Whcn the velocity is shady on the avcrage,
there are superimposed on it three fluctuating velocity conlponcnts wl~onetime nvcragcv
over srrfGciently long intervals of time vanish. The eflect of such flucti~otionson t.hc vclocity
bonndary layer will be oxamincd in greater detail in Chnp. XV which dcnla with non-shady
boundary layers. Jn thc present section we ehall cxaniinc the cUect of s~lchfree:-stream o.srillations,
~~nrticulnrlythose duo to turbulence, on thermal bonndary layere and on ratcm of hcat transfer.
314 X11. Thermal boundary laycrs it1 laminar flow
I t iu rccognizcd that, t l ~ e r eexiutr, a diffici~ltyin providing nn rrneqt~ivocaldescription of
~ u c bIloct.rietirig ntrenma. Since torbolence involvca atochnstic finctuationa, ntrictly epcnking,
110 two t~rrhttlctitutrcnrns can ever bc ~imilnr.1Iowcvcr, it is found by experinient t h a t certain
nvcr:rgc propcrlit:~of tho osrillatiods arc adequate to dwcribe them. Tlirse nre: the intensity
of titrl~r~loncc, T, tlcfit~ctlin Scc; XVI d 1, ant1 I.ho ~ c n l cof b~trhulcticc,L, definetl in See. XVIIltl.
It, is found, frtrtltcr, that in cnaca when ttic scale of turbulcnm is small comparcd with the din~eti-
nions of I.lic I)orly. wliinlt occrtrs in most cmm in prnctice, ttic dngree of turbirlence alone sr~fficca
lo ~-l~arikrtd.rizc t.l~cIlow. I t in, t.hcn:fore, b bc cx]xcted t.hnL lhc N I I R R number
C ~ ~ for gconlctrically
uitnilar, isot,licr~ti:~l l~odicswlti~liarc placcd in f l ~ c t ~ n n t i parallel,
~~g, isolhcrtiial streanis, depc~icls
on 1.Iir tttrl~rtli:~icc ititensiy, T , in ndtlition to its clc~~cntlcnccor1 lltc l'randt,l and l<ey~~oldn rlt~tnl)eru.
'I'ltt~e. for t.ltc: local or 1.11~111c;111 Nussclt ntrn~hcrwo may write, rc~pcclively,
NZ /I (R, P, T) , (12.1 Ion)
Nm /*(RI P, T) (12.110b)
An i-irrrnse in t.11~iriten~ityof t.i~rbt~lcnce of tllo free at.renm must produrn two e~scntinlly
tlifL.rrnl cll'(:Is. I'irst, RR will 110 RIIO\VII in Chnl). XVI, an i t ~ c r r ~in~inlc~ioit~y
e nnuncs enrlinr
tmtisit.ion In) L~trl~rtlcrico in the boi~ndnryIsycr ant1 I~cnnonn incrcnso it1 1.110 rnh of liont I.rnnefcr
whicli is characterielic of a turbulent as compared with a lnminnr boundary layer. This clTnct
will Ite tliscrl~sctl in more dclail in Chap. XVI. J n addition, there e x i a t ~a sccond elTcct wliicli
can become parlicolarly pronouncecl in the prwcnce of a larninar boundary layer. Tho diagram
in Fig. 12.21 tlcpicta the variation of tho local Nuwelt number on a ci. 2ular cylinder a t different
valuen of the Itnyr~oltlonumber nncl of the intenuity of turbulei~ceof the external stream according
to nir:~m~rcmont.u ~wrrortnedby 3. Kmlin, P. k'. Mw,dcr anrl f i . 11. Sogin [A4]. These memure-
m c n h have been compnred in tho diagrani with N. J'roraqling's [39] theoretical calculations
which correspntl to LIie cwe of a turbnlericc-free extarnal stream. These resultr, are quite aimilnr
to tlicmc reproduced in Pig. 12.19. I t is n o b d that tho clTact is rcmnrkably high, a turbulennt
inblisit,y 01' n b o i ~ t2.5% producing an increnso in the local heat flux by nomething liko 80%.
Fig. 12.21. Variation of locnl Nuasclt number NDorr a circular cylinder wit11 turbulence intensity
T niitl angular coordiriato 6, after J . Krstin, 1'. 1'. Macrlcr and If. H. Sogin I641 (Valr~esof inkti-
sily of ti~rbillcnreT npproxirnalc only) - - - Theory after N. Frocasling 1391
I n niore recent. t,inlc*s I,. JZnyalnr (0.31 investigat,rd b o t h theoret.icnlly a n d e x -
prrirnent.ally t,tlc i n f l ~ t c n c eof tr~rbrilenec int<ensit:y o n t , l ~ at r a n s f e r of h e a t f r o m a
e i r c ~ t l a cr y l i n d r r . 'l'lie cxp!:rimcnt,n.l rcslllt, is sllown in Fig. 12.22. T h e s e measurements
also s l ~ o wt,lln(, for i ~ ~ t . e n s ~ t .betwuen
ics T = 1 anrl 5% t h e r e occrlrs a s t e e p increase
h. Thermnl borrndnry Inycrs in nnbitral flow 31.5
Fig. 12.22. l3lTnct of ti~rholenccin-
trtisit.y of t.lw' exl.crnnl sl,rct\~non
1 . 1 1 ~rnto of ltcnt brtrnnfcrrrci i t 1 tlio
stagnal.ioti poir~tof a cylinclcr, after
I,. l<aynlnr [63]
in tlic N ~ l s s c l t i u ~ n b e rns t.11e trtrbrtlcnce in(.cnsity incrcnscs, r ~ c tn. l ~ o ~ t.ht.
~ g lillt:~~c~:csc
~
is not. a s large as t.l~at in Fig. 12.21. 1,. ICayalar at.t,emptetl t o c.xplnirl t.his l)l1t~t1ornc.nor1
t,lleoretically. I I e a s s u m e s t.hat t h e st,agnat.ion stprcam (ser Icig. 5.9),c l ~ a r a c t c r i z c t lIly
st,renlnlir~eswhiell a r c r o n c n v e o u t w a r d s , dcvclops a syst.cbrn of stnt.ionn.ry, c.oi~nt.c:r-
rotat.ing vortices wllose a x e s a r c aligned wit,h t h e principal Ilow c l i r c r t i o ~ r:~.t.llcr
~, liltc
t.llose on a c o n c a v e wall s h o w n i n Fig. 1 7 . 3 2 b (Gocrt,lrr vort,icrs). A s a rcsrllt., (,Ire
flow becolnes highly three-dimensional i n t . l ~ eb o u n d a r y I:~yer wllich c x p l a i n s t,llr
i n c r r n s r i n tile 11cnt.-transfer rat,c. 111 t.llis connc:rt.ion, rt~lt~vntlf. ~ o t ~ s i t l r t ~ r ~ l:I.I.(>
~iot~s
cotlt~ainctlin t h e p n p c r s by 11. GoertJrr 14.51, 11. Sclllic-l~t.ing110:11, J . K r s t . i t ~1051.
F;. A . B r u n et n1. [4], G. W. I m w e r y a n t i R. J. Vacllorl 1821 a n d ,T. I<est.i~lnntl I,. N.
I'ersen [68a]. S e e also ref. [I181 o n p. 549.
Uncx~~ectedly, Irowcvcr, tile prccedi~igc h c t in nbscr~l011 a flat. plnla nl. zcro i~tri~lrt~cr:.
Mena~rrct~terita performed by J. Kestin, 1'. Ir'. Macder :rt~cl 11. 1':. Wang [IiHj on n fl:tt p1:rto
ahow no sensitivity to frec-stream turbr~lcr~rc in t,ho lariiirinr rnngc. 7'110 clnrtlr r r s ~ ~ lwnn t , obl.:iiltc?tl
by A . 13dwnrt18 ant1 N. lr11r11cr[27]. S ~ t r l irrs111Ia n ~ t g ~ r sl,l1:1,1,
l , rxI~rrt~:ilI , ~ I V I ) I I I ~ * I I ~:~ll'r.~,lx
Y- 1.110
local lieat transfer only it1 the presettce of a pressttrc gratlicnt.. Tlic cxpcri~ticntsqrtotctt i t 1 rcf. [(iij
provide a certain confirmation of such a sr~pposition.Ry i~nlwsir~g a pressure grndirnt artificially
on a flat plat^, i t was found possible to incrcasc Ll~clocal Nt~sscltnu~iiberby increasing tlle
turbulence in tens it,^. A qualitative explanatiori of t.his brhavior cnti t)c obtai~ierlwith Llic air1
of C. C . 1,in's thcory dcscribcd i r t Chap. XV, a s poinI.ct1 o u t in ref. [OR]. 'I'lrc clTcct of frcc-
strrsi~nti~rl~ulcnce o t ~ltent trnnsfer 11.1.9 been stlltlietl also in referri1i.r~[5,412. 43, 54. 83, IfM). 113,
l:)O]. ;\ lnotlerri anlnlnnr?. can he found in 1881.
11. Therrrlnl borrr~dnrylnyers i n nntltrnl flow (free cor~vection)
Mot.ions wllicl~a r c causcd solcly b y 1,llc t l c ~ l s i t ygrat1icnt.s crcnl.ctl 11y t,c:tnl~rr:rt,tlrc
difTercnrra n.rc tcrtiiccl ' r ~ n t u m l ' a s disLinct f r o m t.hosc 'forcctl' o n f.11~slrr*nttl I,y
e x t e r n a l causes. S ~ r c la~ nat.r~m.lflow e x i s t s a r o n n t l a vcrtficnl hot, 11l:lt,c o r nroltlltl
a 1iorizont.al h o t cylintlcr. Nat,ur:cl Ilows also (lis~)Iay,in most, cnsrs, :L I ~ o ~ I ~ I ~ ~ : ~ I . ~ -
struc:I.clrt., p:rrt.icr~lnrly if ~ I I ( . viscosit,y ant1 t~on(111cLivil.yof ( I I C ( I t l i i l :tt.t. SIII:~II.,\
comprt:l~ensive review of t h e field w a s prepnred b y A. J. Etlc 1281.
316 XI1. Thermal boundary layers in laminar flow

I n t h e casc of a verlical hot plnke, tho pressure i n each horizontal plane is equal
to gravitational pressure and is thus const+ant. The only cause of motion is
fi~rnisl~ccl by t h e differctlcc? between wcigl~ta n d buoyancy in the gravitational fieltl
of t,Itr earth. l'hc cquntfion of mot,ion is obtainetl from eqns. (12.61 a , b, c) wit11
clp/tlx,
: 0 ant1 = 1/11',. Nrglccting frirtional heat we have
't'lie vc1ocit.y compo~lent~s
now become
U = ~ V X ' ~ ~ C V~ =~ V' ;C Z - ~ ~ ~ ( ~ C ' - - ~ ~ ) ,
a n d t h e tc~tipernt~urctlist.ribut,ior\ is tlct,rrmit~crclby t l ~ cf~lnctionO(7). Equnt.iot~s
(12.1 12), (12.1 13) a.ncl (12.1 14) lcatl t.o Lhc followi~)gclini:ro~t,ialcqunt,ionn

wit.h the bound:~ry contlit.ions 5 = 5' = 0 and 0 = 1 a t 77 -- 0 and I;' =- 0, 0 = 0

a t q = 00. I'igl~rcs 12.23 and 12.24 illr~stratcthe solrttions of tll~csccq~rnt.ionsfor
various values of P. Figures 12.25 ant1 12.26 conL:~ina t:otnl~:rrisott Ijct,wc:t:ri t,I~t:(:d-
culatccl velocily and t.crnl)craturc dist.ribrltiorl ancl those nlcns~~rctlby 11:. Srl~lnitlt.
aritl W. J3ccktnann 1104].'l'he agreement is sccn t,o be very good. It, is sccn, f n r t l ~ c r ,
I J r r e n k / c,~ i3 the thrrmal diff~tsivit~y
2 and 0 -- (7'- T,)/(I', - ),
'
Z is t h e di- t h a t tthc velocit,y ancl tfhc.rmal bountfary-laycr thickness a r c proporlional to r ' l J .
mc~t~siortlrss lorn1 tc.rnprrntt~re I n n theoretical invcstigntion conccrnirlg t h e cxperi-
inrrli,ally drtrrrninrtl trmpcraturc and velocit,y fieltl of a casc involving r ~ a t u r a l
convection on a vcrttcal hot plate, due tro E. Schmidt a n d W. Beckmann [104J,
E. P o h l l ~ a l ~ s etlrrnorlstrntctl
n thaL if a strcani function is introdnccd b y putting
IL - &play ant1 v = -- atl)/ar, then t h e resulting partial tlifferential equation for y~ can
be mtlucrcl t o a n ortlinnry diffcrent,inl rqriation by the similarity transformation Fig. 12.25. Tempcmturo dislribu-
tion in the laminar bonndarj laycr
on n llol vert.icnl fhbt plntn in Im-
1.nrnl convccliort in air, mca-
snrrtl by I<. Sch~nidtant1 W. Iscck-
inann [104]; z = distnnce from t h o
loaor etlgr of the plate

Fig. 12.26. Vrlocity distribnt.ion in

t.1~ lanlinnr bortntlnry lnycr on n
vertical plntc in natural t:onvcction
in air as rnmsurcd by E. Sclttnidt
and It7. 13cckn1ann[I041

I = x(G~)v4 I l o n l trnalsfcr: 'L'ltc cl~lnnl.it.yof 11t:11.t, ~ ( z=) - - k(27'/i:y), l.t~:~t~sli-t~t~t-tl

1,t.r. ~ r i ~ i l .
laminar honnrlary Ixyrr on a hot vcrt,iral flat x 7 time and :wca from t . 1 1 ~plntc t o t l ~ cfluitl nL scct,ior~z 1)ccomcs
plate in natnrni ronverliorl. Tl~rorrtirnl
rnrvrs, for P 0 73, n h r J':. I'oI~II~~nscn
1 Pig. 12.24. Velocity distribution in l l ~ I:m-
r
[!)dl and S. Ostrnrh I!)3] inar boundary laycr on n hot vertical

GI-
g
,.
*a T,,, - l',.,
Tm - Ornsltol tt~~trilrrr
flat
Fig.
plate in nat,ural convection (RCO also
12.23) wil,h (aO/aq), - - 0.508 for P = 0.733. l ' l ~ c total h r n l t,mnsfcrrrd I,y iL pI:ttc> of
318 XIT. Tl~crninlbonndnry layers in lntninnr flow h. Tliermnl bornidnry Iaycrs in nnt-urn1 flow 3 1 $1
1
lcrigt,li I a~ttlwitlt.11 0 is Q ==0 / q ( ~(Iz,
) and hence Tnblo 12.6. Coefficients of heat trnnsfer on n heatod verticnl plate in nntrirnl convection (laminar),
0 according to refs. [93, 94, 109, 1261

'rho nlrarl Nnssrlt rinrnbrr tlcfinctl by Q -- h k N m ( T ,- T,) thus hecomes N,, =

= 0.677 c PI4, or, i ~ ~ s c r t i n
the
g vnlue of c from cqn. (12.1 14):
N,, = 0.478 (G)'14 , (12.110)

is t,hc Grnsliof t111tn1)cr.Tt m n also h r writken as G = g I"(T,-T,)/I~~ in tho

casc of litlt~itls. Some numerical values for intermediate Prandtl numbers are contained in Table 12.6.
'l'lie tli:tgmm in Pig. 12.27 gives a comparison hetween tlieoreticnl resulb on Calrolntions with n hmpemt~~rc-clcpcn(lctitt viscosity were performa11 1)y 'l'. Tllirn
free convcction wiLli measr~rernentson Ileatad vertical cylinders and flat platcs [50]. The olI'c(:L of suction or blowing on tho rate of llrnt Lrnnshr from n vcr1,irnl
pcrformcd by E. R. G . Eckert and T. W. Jackson [22]. When the product G P < 10R, plat,e in naturul cortvrction is tlcscribctf in refs. [29, 1241. Atltiitiot~alrlassrs of similar
1.11~flow is laminar, and for G P > 101° the flow is turbulent. The agreement hetween solutions in natural {lows were discussed by I<. T . Yang 1146). Thils, tcmpcraturc
theory and experiment is exccllcnt. distributions on the surface of the plate of the form T, - T, = TI xn also produce
E. Polill~ausen'sralculations have been extended by IT. Schuh [I091 to the case similar solutions, but the diflkrential equation (12.115) is now rcplt~cedby
of I:trge I'mncttl numbers such as exist in oils.
The casc of very small Prandtl numbers is treater1 in a paper by F.M. Sparrow
arltl .T. I,. Gregg 11261. Tlie limiting cascn whcn P + 0 and P -zoo were exambled
by E. .I. Lo l'cvre 1731, according to whom we may write
Solutions t.o l.lirsc equations were found by E. M. Sparrow and J. 1,. Crrgg L127J.
Reference [I261 discusses similar sollltior~sin the simultancor~spresenceof frec and
forced convection. I n such cases, the velocity of the external stream must be pro-
portional to xm (wedge flow) and the temperature distribution on the plate must be
proportional to xZrn-l.
Mcnsrrrcmcnt,s on n vertical hot plntc in oil pcrformctl I)y 11. 11. Tmrcnz 1811 gnvc:
the vnlue N, = 0.555 ( G x P)'I4 which constit~ltesvery satisfactory agrcelnent
with tlieoreticnl calculations if i t is considered that the theory docs not take into
account the dependence of viscosity on temperature, which is important precisely
in the case of oils.
The laminar thermal boundary layer around heated bodies in natural con-
vect.ion can bc convenicntJy rnadc visible with t,he nit1 of a Schlicrcr~ninl.liotl tlc-
viscd by E. Schmitlt [l05]. A parnllcl bcarn of light is pr~uscdt.hrol~gltt,ht: I)our~cl:~ry
layer in a direction parallel to the plate and produces sllatlo~s on a screen plnccd
Fig 12.27 Average Nitsselt nom- a t a large distance from the body. The density gradient in the air a t right anglcs
brr for frre convcction on verticnl t o the surfacc causes the rays of light to be deflected o~~twartls. Tlle dellexio~iis
plntes and cylinderti, nftcr E. R. largest a t point,s where the den5it.y gradient is stecp, i. e. ticar the botly. Wit.11 n
(:. 15cknrt and T.W. Jnrknon 1221 sufficiently large distance between screen and body thc space taken u p by tho
t'urvc ( I ) lnniinnr . heated layer remains dark so t h a t in the Schliercn picturc the shadow of tho body
-
N m 0 556 (GP)'I'; GP < 10a is surroundetl by a sliadow clue to the thermal b o ~ ~ n t l a rlayer.
y Tltc rays of light.
which are deflecl,cd out of tho temperatltrc ficld crcatc 2.11 illl~rnin:~l,ctl
zouc n.ro1111tl
Nm -
VII~VQ(2) 111rl1111rnt.
0 0210 (GP)'l'; GP > 10' thn clark shatlow. 'l'he oritcr cdgc of this zoric of light is forn~rclby 1.ltn r:r:) s wltic!lt
n P 4 ' m7 ma W' on mn w* mn just skirt the surface; consequcr~tlythcir dcflcxion is proportional to tllc tlt:r~sit,y
GxP
 X11. Thrrn~nlbor~nclnrylayers in Inminsr now
320
= 2 x 10Rt o 4 x 101°): N =0.726 ( P x G)lI4 f o r l a m i n a r flow, arltl ( P x G -:4 x 10J1)
t o 9 x IOIL): N = 0,0674( G x P1'20)-11Vor t u r b u l e n t flow.
F o r t h e s p h e r e J.I. Shell [115] calculatetl N , = 0.420 Gl14, whirl^ n-a.s c o n -
firmed by m e a s u r e ~ n e n t sin a i r . S u m m a r i e s of r e c e n t w o r k o n nntrtr:rl c o ~ i v e c t i o n
a r e containctl in ref.?. 165, 961.

,/I I] AIIc'II, lI.,l., ILII(I l,e~olz,Is.(:.: A ~ n c l , l ~ rfor

~ ( lrvtlvr~Ii~t,ing ht:ot, trmnsf(*r in l,l~c:I ; I I I I ~ IfIl o: Iw~
rcgic~nsof Iiotlic?~.NIICA Itep. 704 (1!)4:)).
121 An~hrolz,(.:.S.: 'l'llc rffcc:t, of slrrfnco t,cnlpcratrrre vi~ri:~l~ility 011 I I C R ~ ,C X I : ~ I R I I ~ ( i:l l l i r ~ ~ ~ i t r i ~ r
flow in n hol~nclitry I:~,yer.Soviet I'l~gs. 'l'ccll~l. I7hys. 2, 758. 748 (I!)57). r l ' r ; ~ ~ ~ o(. ~l:~.~i
Zli. 'rekl~.liiz. 27, 812- $21 (1957).
I:!] I3j0rlzl1111eI.(:. S., i~ntlICnys, W. M.: Ilnnt t,r:itisfor I)ct\vc~et~ conccnl.ric~rot:rti~lgc.ylit~(lrrs.
J . Jleiit 'l'rnnsfcr 81, 175-- 186 (1!)59).
[4] Urnn, 1'3. A,, I)iep, A., antl I(estin, J.: Sur Itn nouvcnrl t,ype d r s t,or~rhillonslongitrltlinnnx
g r a d i e n t at (.he surface, i. e. t o t h e local coefficierlt of h e a t transfer. F i g u r e 12.28 re- d n r l ~I'i.cortlen~crtta~rt.onrd'rtn cylinflm. C. It. Ar:ntl. Sci. 263, 742 (1!)0fi).
p r o s e ~ ~at sSelllieran p h o t o g m p h t a k e n o n n heated v e r t i c a l f l a t plnto. T h e c o n t o u r of [R] Iliiyiikt,iir, A.lt., ICcslin, J . , nntl Mi~etlor,1'. 17.: 111llucnc.eof con~l>inr~d prcsstlt.t: gr;i(lic~tlt
t l i c p l a t e is s h o w n by a b r o k e n w h i t e line. It i s easy t o recognize o n the s h a d o w t h a t and turbulence on tlle transfer of heat from n plate. Int. .J. Iloat Mass Trntlsfcr 7, 1175-
t,hc b o u n d a r y - l a y e r t h i c k n e s s increases as d4. T h e e d g e of t h e z o n e of l i g h t sllows 1186 (1!)04).
[(i]Ten I l o ~ c l ~M.: . Die WBrrnriil)ert,rngnng. Brrlitr. 19:l(i.
t(I1a.t the local roaflicicnt o f h e a t b m n s f c r is p r o p o r t i o n a l t o z-'I? T h e p i c t u r e in [7] Isrr~n.15. A , : Sclcrkcl eo~nl~rtsI.io~~ prol)len~s.Vol. I I , 185 l!j8, A(;A ltl), ~'l!~K:~lllfIll I+(*ss,
Fig. 12.2!) gives a n i n t c r f e r o g r a m f o r t h e s a m c t y p e of bounclary l a y e r ; i t w a s o b t a i n e d 1,011~l~~11, ]!)!xi.
hy E. R. G . R c k e r t a n t l E. S o e h n g e n (13J. [8] ~ h n p n ~ a nI).Jt.,
. atid It~thesin,hI.W.: 'l'rnl[)crnttrrr nntl vrlorit,y profilrs i n the ('Olil[~'rS-
sthlc:, Inlninnr borrndi~ryInyrr \viLll nr1)ilrtrry tlirtt.ril~l~tio~~ of s~~rfnc.o tc:tnl~rr,~t Itrr.. .I .\S I / ; .
547 --50!7 (1!)49).
[!I] J)avico, T).lt.. nntl 13ourne, D.E.: 011the cnlculnlion of Ilont, ant1 nlirss trnnsfrr in I:til~itlnr
and t,urbulrnt houndery layers. 1. 'Chc In~ninarca.se. Qrritrl,. .I. Mcctl. Appl. Mirth. I), 457- -
407 (1956); ~ o also e Qrtnrt. J. Mecli. II~IIII.hInt,l~.12, 0 3 7 :Kt!) ~ ~ (1959).
[lo] I)e\rey, C. F., n r ~ d(:~oRR,J. I?. : 1t:xnct sitnilar aolnt.ion of 1.11~:lnnlin:ir borrnclnry-l~iyr-reqrtn.
tiorla. Advnnros in Heat l'rnr~afer4, 317--440 (19fi7).
[I I] I)ienen~nnn,W.: Uerecl~nurigdcs W5rn1ciibergnr1grs :in In~ninnrrrrr~strij~ntcn I<iirpprn trlit.
ko~~st,nnt.er rind ortsveriir~derlichcrWnr~tlternl>ernt.rlr.Ilias. 15ra11nncll\veigI!l5I ; ZAhlM 53,
89-109 (1953); see nlso .IAS 18, 04 - 0 5 (1!)5I).
[I21 I)o~lor~gl~e, 1'. L., rind 1,ivingoocl. J. N. 13.: 1t:xnc.tsolrltions of Iiinlinnr bortnclnry liryrr rclrla.
t.io~rsxvitli const,nnt pro1)rrt.y vnlt~esfor porous wall wit,h vnriiihlr Ic~t~~poretctre. N,\(:A Ibrp.
- I I!)RR\.
-122!) \ ..,-
(12aJ Driest, E. R. van: Coi~vectiveheat tranafrr in gnsos. 1'rincet.on University Serics, High
Speed Aerodytinmic~and J e t Propulsion, Vol. 1', 339-427 (1959).
1131 Ifrkert., E. It. G., and Drnke, R.M.:Hent ntid mass t.mnsTcr. hl(:Grnw-Hill, Now York, 1!)5!1.
1141 Eckert, E.: 1':infiillrllrlg ill tlen Wiirn~c-untl StofftitiuLnunrl~.:lrtl c:tl., Ilcrlir~.I!)(;(;.
I151 Eckcrt, E.,nnti Drewitz, 0.: Der Wiir~neiihcrgnngnri nitw tnit groBer (:c:scl~\r~il~rligkcit,
Fig. 12.29. Intcrferogra~nof a thermal boundnry layer lii.l~gsn~~gest.rB~~itc Plnt.tc. Forncllg. 111g.-Wcs.11, 116 - 124 (1!)10).
I c r 1 . : ~ I I I I ~ I ~ ~ I ~ I ~I ~ I I I I II L~ ~~ I I I I I I I II I . I I I 317
or1 n vcrt,ical I~cntedflat platc, nftcr R. 1%.C. Iklzrrl (I !)40).
nnd E. Soehngcti [10] ,/ [I71 Eckert, E..I L I I ~Weisc, W.: Die 'l'ernperntnr unbehciztcr Kiirper in rinrnl (:asst.ron~ Iloltcr
Geschaindigknit. Forschg. 1ng.-Wes. 12, 40--60 (1941).
[I81 Eckert, E., and Drewitz, 0 . : Die Bercchnung dca 'I'e~i~perntr~rfel(lt~s in dor lalninclren Grenz-
scllicl~t,ncl~ncllnngcstriinlt,er unl~el~ciztcr 1Ciirpcr. I,r~l't.f:r.l~rl hrsr:111111g 19, Is!) l!lG (1042).
O t l ~ e rttllnpes: 'I'IIC mot,ion (111ct o nat,rlral chnvcction s r o r ~ n ( a I I~orizortt.:~l IIC:LL(:(~ [ID] lCrlterl., 15. : I)ie Ilcrccl~nrn~g elcu Wiirl~~c.iil)orgn~~gt*s i n tlrr 1i1111i11rlrc:n ( : r r t ~ z ~ ~ ~nnlnt I ~ i ~l.ii~n-
~l~t.
t.er Kiirper. VI)l-J~orsch~~npnl~eft 416 (1942).
c i r c u l a r o g l i ~ ~ t l cwr a s t,rcn.t,cd i n an a.na.logous w a y by R.I l c r m a n n 1551. t i c 1201 ICckcrl, [C., nrttl Wcisn, W.: M C R R I Ider I I ~ ' ~ c . ( : r t ~ ~ ~ o r n I , r ~ rnitf
~ ~ trlrr
~ r tObcrflliclrc~
c i I ~ ~ ~ ~ gnc:llnrll
I ~ P := 0 - 7 a Inenn l l c a t t,mnsfcr coefficient N,, = 0.372 G ' I ~ , w h e r e G is
F ~ I I I for angeet,riirnlsr urlbcIi(?i7.trr I<iirper. Porechg. 111g.-Wen.13, 24% -254 (1942).

N,,, I- 0.395 G114 at, G -

I ~ a s n do n t,llo clinmct.er. blcasc~remcnt.si n air p e r f o r m e d by I<. J o d l b t ~ ~ c[GI] r gave
1 0 ~ v h i c hs h o w s s ~ a t ~ i s f a c t o r ya g r e e m e n t w i t h t l ~ e o r y .
M r n s u m ~ n r n t . os n vrrt,iral cylindcrs[142].ir1 w a t e r a n d c t , l ~ ~ l r ?glycolne g a v o ( P X G =-
[21] 13ckrrt. E..R. f:., and Sorllngen, I%.:l>ist,ribut.ion of I1c:~t.t.rntrsfrr ~ : n ~ f f i e i en~r~ot~s ~ nrir(:r~Inr
cylinders in cross-llolv at. Ibeynold~~ n ~ n ~ h fro111
(1!)52).
e r s 20 t.o 500. 'rriins. ASME 74, 343- -347
d
 322 XII. T l ~ o r ~ n nI)onndnry
l lnyers in ln~ninnrflow Hmferenccs

[22] I5ckrrt.. 15.11. (:., nntl Jnckson. T.\Y.: ~\nnlysisof tnrbalent frec convection bor~ndnrylnycr [47a] Grig~rll,U.: 'rechnischc Tltermodyn?n~ik.3rd ed.. 194 p., Rrrlin, 1977.
on n flnt. plate. XI\(:;\ 1<cp. 1015 (1!)5l). [48] De Groff, H.M.: On viscor~shenting. J A S 23, 3!)5- :3!)6 (I!l5(i).
12:tJ ICc.krrt., 15.11. G . . ant1 I,i\rir~good. .I. N. R.: Mrthotl for rnlct~lnt~ion of In~ninnrhcnt trnnsfor [4!lJ Onl~n,C. I < . , anei Yih, (:. S. : I,an~innrconvect.ior~of Iiont. fron~t . \ r . o - t l i t ~ ~ r ~ ~ nI~c~clirn i o ~ ~ ~ t \vit,l~
I
i l l nir 11ii\\. l i r e ~ ~ ~~ylitidcrs
l~tl of nrbil rnry crone-sool.ion (il~clr~ding Inrge temperntr~reelifl'c- vnrin.blc \\,all tz11111rrnt11res. J're>c. 5t.11 blitltv. (:OII~.I'111icl bl(~41.2!l 40 (l!l57).
rencm itnd Lrn~~~j)irnt.ion rooling). N,\Ct\ Rep. 1118 (1953).
[RO] Hnrn, T.: Heat trnnslcr by lnniinnr Irce convcct~icrnabout, a vcrticnl lliit ~ilnt,c:\vit.l~lnrge
[241 I<c:kort, I':.I<.(:., nntl l)i;lgi~iln,/\.,I.: I5xpcrirnrntnl investignt,ion of free-convection hrat te~npcrntnretliffrretice. I3ull. JSME 1, 251 - 254 (1958).
transfer in vrrt.ivnl t,rrl~en.t, lnrgr (:rashof nntnhers. NACA Itrp. 1211 (1!)55).
[51] lInrt,nett, J . l ' . : Ilc:~l,t.rnrisfcr fro111 n ~~or~.isot,hrrn~nl tlixk rotating in st.ill nir. .l. Alipl.
1251 ICckort,. IC. It. (:., nntl 1,ivingoorl. ,I. N. 13.: Calc~rlntiotisof Inn~innrIient Lrnnsfcr nronntl Mech. 26, 672 -- ti73 ( 1959).
oyli~~tlrrs of nrbitrary cross-section nnd t,rnnspirntion cooled walls with applicntio~lto [52] Hnssan, I1.A.: 011heat, t,ransfer to Intninnr bonndnry layers. ,JASS 26, 464 (I95!)).
; tiirl~inc?bliulr cooling. NACA Itep. 1220 (1956).
\ - ' [26] 15ckert. E.It. 6.. Hnrtnctt, J. p., and Birkobnck, R.: Sinlplirtcd equations for cnlrnlntin!:
[53l 1ln11senbln.s.11.: 1)ic tiicl~t.iuotlicrn~cSt.riin1111igcinrr ziihc?n P'liiwigkrit, clnrrl~rtigr S11nltc.n
local irrltl t.ot~lhcrrt flt~xto n o ~ ~ - i s o t . l ~ c rar~rfnce.
~ i ~ n l J A S 24, 54!)-551 (1957). t r r ~ ~ l ~IS',r e151
und I ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ i l l ~Ing.-Ar(:l~. ~ ~--. IOfi (1!)50).
1271 I':tl\vartls, A,, nnd JFurbor, 1S.N.: T l ~ cit~lluenceof free stream t ~ ~ r b u l c n con c Ileet trnr~sror [54] Van I)cr Ilogge-Zijnen, U.U.: llcnt. t.rnnufcr froni I~orizont.:il(:ylindcru to n t.~~rl~nIc:~iL iiir
by convcct.ion from nn isolntrcl region of n plane sr~rfaccin parnllel air flow. I'roc. I r l r i t . Ilo\r. Appl. Sci. Res. A 7, 205-223 (1!)57).
~ c c l i .ICng. 170, 941 (1956). [RR] IIer~nnnn,It.: Wiir~nciibcrtrngl~~rg bci frcier Striirnr~nga111\vnngrrrcl~len% y l i ~ ~ ~i ll lc ?z\vcri- r
1281 atornigcn (:iuren. V1)1-l'oracliur1gal1cft 379 (l!YJli).
- .1':de. A..1.: Advnnces in free convcetion. Advances in Iteat 'rrnnsfer, 8cnd. Press, 4, 1--64
(1967). [56] Hilpert. It.: Wiirtirenbgabe von gehcizlen 1)riihtmn rrtid Itollrrri it11 Luftatror~~. IPors(:I~g.
1291 Richhorn. R..: The cffret,of mnns trnnsfer on free convect.ion. J . Ifcnt Transfer 32,260-263. 1ng.-Wes. 4. 215-224 (1933).
( I WO). 1571 IIc)\vnrt,l~,I,.: VcIc>cit,yn.tic1 t o ~ n ~ w r n tiIist.ril~t~t,ic~~~
~~re~ for 11 IIIII\, itlong a Ilnl 1)Iitl~:.l'roc:. l!,c~y.
[3O] Eicl~horn,R.., Eckert, E.R,. C... nnd Antlcruon, A. D.: An expcrimcntnl st,nrly of thc cffcf.1~ Soc. I , ~ I I I ~A ~ ~154,
I I I :!t\4 . 377 (l!l:tfi).
of ttonuniform wall tetnperature on hent trnnafcr in lnrninar nnd tl~rbulcntn x i ~ y ~ n ~ n e t r i c [58] llli~ig\v~irll~, (:. It.: So111euoI~~l.i~~nri cif I,IIC c~q~rnI,ionuof llo~vI I 11 ~ V ~ M ~ ! ~ Ic IxMi ~ t ~ ~ ~ v c ! ~l111i1l.
xiI~l~:
flow &long n cylinder. .J. Heat Transfer 82, 349-359 (1960):. I'roc:. Cnmhr. I'hil. Soc. 46, 469 -478 (IORO).
[31] IClins, I?.: I)rr Wiir~neiibcrgengcincr gelieizten Platte an stromende Luft. Abhandl. Acro- [59] ltnai, 1.: 011the heat transfer to c o n ~ t n n tpropcrt,y l n ~ t ~ i rI)ol~ndnry ~~ir lnycr wit.11 powor
dyn. InsL. 'rH Aachcn, Heft 9 (1930); ZAMM 9, 434-453 (1929) and 10, 1-14 (1930). function frec stream velocity and wnll tctnpernturc clistril~ot.ions.Qunrt. Aplil. Math. 16,
[32] Evans, H. I,.: Mhss trnnsfer through Intninar boundary layers. 3a. Similar solution to the 33-45 (1958).
b-cquat.ion when R = 0 ntid IJ >, 0.5. Int. J. Hent Mam Transfer 8. 26-41 (1961). [GO] Jalcob, M.: Heat transfer, I nnd 11. McGrnw-Hill. Ncw York, 1!)4!) nnd 1!)57.
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[37] Frick, C. W.. nnd McCullough, G. R.: A 111cthod for determining thc rate of heat transfer hent to cylinders n m r the stngnation point. ZAMI' 12, 115-132 (I9fil).
fronl a wing or sLrcamli~iedbody. NACA h p . 830 (1945). [G5] Kentin, ,I.: Tlie efTcct of frec-st,renm turbrllcnce on hcnt trnnsfcr rnks. Atlvnnrcri in Ilcat
1301 Frit,7nche. Alp., Bodnnreacu, M., J<irschcr, O . , and Esdorn, H.: Problemc der Warmciiber- Trnnsfer (T11. Irvine and J.1'. Harnett, HI.) A c ~ l l'ress, . Vol. 3, 1-32 (I!lf;r)).
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n *
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P. Avd. 2, 36, No. 4 (1940); see also NACA TM 1432; see also Lunds Univ. Arssk., N. F. NACA TN 4018 (1954).
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[40] I'riiwling, N.: Cnl(:~rlnting11y serics oxpnn~iot1of tho hent trnnsfor in Inminnr. const.nnt from plates will1 ancl witlioul a prrrinurr grntlirtit. Int. .J. llrnt Mnns 'l'ransfrr 3, I:!:! 154
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[431 (:ietlt, W. 11.: Ellcot, of tnrl~nlnncclevt:l of inoidcnt air utrea~non locnl hcnt transfer nnd York, 1950.
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[45l (:iirt,lcr. 11.: Ul~t?rc!irio Annlogie zwiricl~rnInstnbiliLiibn Inrninnrer (:ren7,sol1ichtnt,riirn11n- [73] J,o I'cvro, ll:. J.: 1.nminnr frcc eonvcct.ioti frcim n vorl.ic11.1pl~rno~ n r f n r r .Mnrl~.Il:ng. Ikn.
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324 X l l . 'rl~crn~nl
I)onntlnry Inyrrs in Iarninar flow References 325

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~~c~t~
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[I181 S k o p ~ t ~M. v , 13.: Approxinlate method for integrating t.hc eqnaliona of n Ialninnr bonr~(lnry
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[93] oshrarh, S.: An nnnlysiu of In.minnr free-con\.ection flow' nnd heat. transfer about fl flat [I191 Sniith. A. G., nncl Spalding. 1I.B.: Hcat transfer in n lnrninar boondary Inyer \vitll const.nnt
platc? pn.rallol to t.11~tlireotion i f the g e ~ ~ r r n t i nbody g force. NACA Rep. 11 11 (1953). fluid ])roperties ant1 const.nnt. \vall ternpcrnl.ure. J . R,oy. t\ero. Soc. 62, 60--64 (l!l58).
(041 I'ol~llransr~~. IC.: 1)cr Wiirn~car~st.nrtscl~ zwiscl~enfesten I<iirpern und I~liiusigkeit,etr nit [I201 Spaltling, 1). U.: Heat transfer from s~lrfacrsof non-uniforn~t,cn~pcrnt.urc.JI'hl .I, 22--32
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~ h boundary layrrs. 3. Sitni-
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[!)GI I<.nitl\l)y.(1. I).. n.nd Holln.lid~,I<. G.1'. : A goneral neth hod of t)bt.ainit~gapproxinintc sol~t- 11221 Spnltlit~g.I). I$., nncl Pun. \V. M.: ,\ revie\\, of 111(:t11otl~ for ~irc*clirtingI ~ ( . ; r l Irill~urrrr.firf-
Lions 1.0 I:rmint~r nncl t ~ ~ r l i u l cfree ~ ~ lc:onvot:liot~
, pr~ihlr~ns. Arlvnnc:cs in Ileal. '1'ranuft:r 11, licirnt.s [or Ituninnr ~~~~ifr~r~t~-liro~i(:rty I~ont~tIt~ry 1:1~(.rIlo\v~.IIII.. . I . l l w t . ~ I I I S S'I'r:t~~sh'r5.
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[!I7 1 Jlcc.vrs, 1%.I,., n110I<ipl~rnhnn,CII. .I .: 0 1 1 n parI.icrlln.r class of s i ~ ~ ~ solnt~ions ilar of t.11~eqrln- [I231 Spnrro\v, 1':. M.:l'ltc tlicr~nnlIioloitlary laver on n non-isotlirrn1:11s ~ ~ r f n\vit.l~ rc I I ~ I I - ~ I ~ I ~ ~ O
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-.( ~ ! I F-~1 .R \
\ - -

[!)HI Ilrynctltls. 0.: O n t,he extent. hnd nction of t.11~heating surface for s b n m boilers. Pror. 11241 Sporron., E.M., nntl Cess, 1t.U.: Free convcctiot~\%it11blowing or s ~ ~ r t i o t,J. i . 1Ie:lt l'rnnsfer
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Inyrr. I'l~il. Mag. 23, 681 ~-002 (19337). I boundary layer flow. l'hysics of Ipl11ir1n2, 31!)-328 (1!)5!)).
11001 S:~t.o,I<.. n.ntl Sngc. B. 11.: 'l'hcrmal t,rnnnf'er in t,urhu~entgna streams: Effect of turbulence [I261 S11arro\v. E.M., ancl Gregg, J.1,.: 1)etnils of exact low l'rat~dtl nu~nl)rrbont~tlnrylaycr
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/lOll Scl~lic.l~t.ing.14.: 15inipr csnlrle 1,iisungcn fiir tlic Tcniperaturverteilung it1 einer Inminarcn [I271 Sparro\\., 1C. M.,rind Grrgg, J. L.: Siniilnr solutions for frre ronvert.io~~ fronr :I non i s o t l ~ c r t ~ ~ a l
Striitnung. Zi\l'vlhI 31. 78.- 83 (1951). vertical &?late.' ~ r a n s .AShfE 60, 370-380 (1958).
[I021 S(.l~liclllittfi.11.: l)rr Wiirn~ciiliergal~g rtt~pinor l5.ngsarrgcst~rii1~1tal1 P1al.t~mit, veriitider- 11281 Spnrro\v, 1':. M.,nnd Gregg, J. L. : l'hc eflcct of a non inoll~crrnr~l freo atrmti~011 i i o ~ r ~ ~ c l ; ~ r ~ -
lir41rr \\';rt~cllc.t~~prrnl~r. IforscI~g.111g.-Wes. 17, 1-8 (1951). layer l ~ r n ttrnndrr. .I. Appl. Mech. 2/i, I61 I65 (1!15!l). -
326 X l I . 'l'l~cr~i~nl
ho~inrlnrylnycrs in Inminnr flow

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[I341 Stewnrt., W. 15., niicl Proher, It.: Ilcnt. t r n n ~ f c and r dirnsion in wedge flows with repitl liinnn
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11351 Stn,jtr~~ovic:, 11.: Si~riilnrbii11~rnt.11rc I)o~~ndnry Inycr~.,JASS 2/i. 571 -574 (1!)5!)).
[ l:16l S~~g:i\r.nrr~., S.. Snk), 'l'.,Koniatau. H.. nricl Osnkn, H.: Tho effect of free atrcnni t,r~rb~~lc:~~cn
~ I hcnt,
I t.rnnsfcr fro111n flnt ~ l n t s N . ACA T M 1441 ( I 135R).
\

( 1171 S ~ ~ k rS. n l'.:

. VorLirity n~~~l)lific.nticlri in stng~~ntion point llow and i h effect on hent trn~~nfcr.
.II'M
. . . . 513
21. .. - 534 (1065I.
- \ - ,
1 lRHl 'I'icn, CIA.:llcnt trnlinfcr by Inniinnr flow fron~n rot.nt.ing cone. .I. lfent. Trnn~fer82, 2Y2--- T h e d e v e l o p m e n t of tlie t . l ~ c o r yof bonntlary-layer flow i n comprcssi1,Ic s t r e a m s
253 ( l!MO).
[l3!)l l'iffortl. A.N.: 'L'lir f.l~ermotlynn.niirs of 1 . 1 1 ~lnnlirinr bonndnry lnyer of n. Iim.tnc1 hocly in n w a s st.irnulakt1 b y t h e progress i n acroriauLical cngir~ccrirign ~ l t l ,in mt:t:lit, t,inlc:s, I,y
Iiigli spoctl gna [low fieltl. J A S 12, 241 --251 (1!)45). t , l ~ cclcvolol~rnenl,of roc:knts ant1 art,ific:i:tl satollitn:~. Wl1n11 fligl~t,vr.loc:iI.ic:s of t . 1 1 ~
[I401 Tifford, A.N., nntl Cliu, S.T.: Ilcnt t.rnnsfcr in lnriiirinr boundary layers suhject Lo sr~rfnro e s t h e velocity of s o u n d a r e attainctl, t l ~ cwork of cornl,rc:ssior~ aricl
o r d e r of ~ ~ i u l t i p l of
prmsclrc nnd tetnpcrnt~rredint,rib~~l.iotis. I'roc. Second Mitlweqtern Conf. Fluid Mech. 1!)49. e n e r g y dissipation p r o d u c e s considcrablo increases i n t e m l ~ e r a t u r e a n d Forcos u s
363--3177 (1949).
(141 1 Tifforel, A.N., nnrl Clin, S.T.: 0 1 1 Llir flow nnrl temperature fieltl in forced flow a g n i n ~ nt a l w a y s to i n c l u d e t h e t h e r m a l b o u n t l a r y l a y e r i n t11e analysis, because t l ~ ot w o I)oun-
rotating tlisc. I'roc. Sccnnd U. S. Nnt. O ~ n g r .Appl. h~ccli.1955, 703-800 (1955). dary l a y e r s s t r o n g l y i n t e r a c t e a c h w i t h t h e o t h e r . At a vclocity u ~t h ~e temperature
,
11421 'I'or~loukinri.Y.S.. Ilnwkins, (:.A,, ant1 Jnkob, M.: Heat trnnsfer by frce convection from rise d u e t o a d i a b a t i c compression a t t a i n s a v a l u e of
11c:nlecl vertical sr~rfnceflt.o liquids. Il'rans. 1\ShIli: 70, 13-23 (1948).
[I431 \'ogc:lpol~l. G . : J)or Ubergmg tler Itcibr~ngswirmcvon Lngcrn ans dcr Schtnierschirht ill
die l r i t f l i t : I ~ c . - 'To~iipc:r:rt.t~rvertnil~~~~g nrirl tl~crminche Anln~~fst.rrcke in pnrnllele~r
Sc:l~~~~icrsc~liic:l~t~~:t~ bci lCrwiir111i111g d11rf.11 i1111erclLc~iI)~itig. 425 (l!14!1).
Vl)I-l~or~cli~~~~gsl~efL
[I441 V~wn~itn. J1e1ii: Ahlilichc I,iisnt~gcti fiir die (:escl~rviridigkeita- urid Te~nprnturverteilri~ig in :I*is kiio\vn f o r m ecjn. (12.14b). I I c r c c, tlcnotcx 1 . 1 1 ~sl,rc*ilicu Iic:tI, or 1 . 1 1 ~g:rs I)rr 1111it
elor i~~konipro~qiblcti lntninnren (:rcnzsrliicht cntlang einer rcclitwitikligen Ecke. lEin Ll~co-
rotiuc:l~cr Hcitrng Z I I I ~ I I'rohle~n tler Interferetiz von Gronzucliicliten. Disa. Brnrlnsclin.rig m a w . Sinc:e y p,/p, = (y - l)c, 7,' w e m:ry : r l w I\-ril,c:
l!)(;li; .It). kV(21, l!1(X;, I 5 6 b I78 (1!)67).
[I451 Yn~ringn,. I . : An nl~j~roxinintc. uolnl.it~nof t1I1eInn~itinrflow 1imt.-trnnofcrin n rot,nling nxinlly
eyn~~~ic:t,ricnl 1)ocly n~~rfrrt:rin n 11nifor111 i ~ ~ c o t i i ~ ) r e ~flow. c Mcch. 1,nb. .Jnpnt~2, No. I,
s i l ~ l J.
I I4 (l!)5(;).
-~

[ l4(i] Ynng, K.'I'. : Po~nil~lc si11iilnrit.y~ O I I I L ~ ~ Ifor

I ~ Rln~ninnrfree convection on verticnl plaks n1ic1 w l ~ r r ct h e Mach n r ~ m b c isr tlcf ncd as M, = va,/c,. T l ~ risc c i r k t c n i p r r n t l ~ r cL l ~ r o u g l ~
cylintlers. .I. Appl. Mcch. 27, 230- 2:1(i (1!)60).
frirtfion in t h e b o ~ ~ n t l a rl ayy e r is of tila s a m e o r d r r of rnnpni1.11elc as t , l ~ crise dl10 t o
ntliabalic rompression, as alrearly m e r ~ t i o n r t li r ~C l ~ s p X . I I, anti as will b c sliowri i n
grcittcr tletail l a t e r i n t h i s cliapt.rr.
,,
l h e n r ~ m c r i c a levaluat,ion of e q n s . (13.1) ant1 (13.2) For a i r conccivc:tl of as a
~ ) c r f c c gas
t i s r e p r e s e n t e d graphically i n Pig. 13.1 (in wl~iollc, = I.oOG k.J/kg d c g a n d
y -- 1.4 h a v e been assumed). It i s s e e n frorn i t tfllatst a flight velocity of 7 1 1 , ~--- 2 I~tri/sco,
w l ~ i c lcorresponds
~
s1.rcnm atjtfninsa vallle of d 7' --
t o a Mach n u m b e r of M, - 6, t,hc t r ~ n ~ , o r a t r ~risc:
2000 d c g C. 'I'liis t,cml~cl~at,nrc
r c of t l ~ cg a s
risc inarcasrs m.l,iclly
as 1 . 1 1 ~l l i g l ~ tvc:locil.y is inarcasctl. I l o w c v c ~ r ,rr g a s al. Iiigh l.c:~r~~,c:r:rL~~ro
(:11:~1igr:sifhq
pllysical propcrt.ics i n comparison wit11 tlic corresponcliiig pcrfcct, gns. 111 rcnl gases
t l l r r c o c c u r l.hc processes of tlissociatiori ant1 ioriizat.ion (forina1,ion of :L ~ , l a s ~ n : l ) .
Conseqnent.ly, tlie a b s o r p l i o n of e n e r g y associated wit11 s u c l ~processes carlses t,lle
t.cmpersture rise i n a real g a s to be smaller t h a n i t wo~llclb e i n a perfcct gas. A t a n
. . ..~

t 1 R I ~ Iindebted to Dr. F. W. Riegela who cor~t.ril)~~ted

n rrviscrl vrrsin~iof tl~isr.l~:il~tc.r(,o t,llc
previous edition; in pnrtiollar, Dr. Itiegels forniulnted the p r c s e ~ i t n t i oof~ ~tile extc~rtlcdIllir~g-
worth-Stewartson transformation contained in Sec. XI11 (1 1.
328 X I1 1. J,nn~i~~nr
I)o~~ncl:~ry
Inyrrs i n comprc.usihle flow

orl)il.nl velocity of a satellitt: of 7r1, = 8 lzm/sec, t h e temperature rise even in a real

gas is st.ill of t , l ~ corder of 10,000 tlcg C. Tho mngc of Mac11 nrimbcrs M, 1 6, in which
Tllc c ~ ~ r vcorrcsponcling
cs --
t o (1) 0.5,0.76 atltl 1.0 a r r also sltown plol.tctl in I'ig. 13.2.
I t in seen from t.110 graph tllat Subllcrlantl'n formnl:~(I:{.:{) n:Ln be nl~l)roxini:~(c~tI
t,hrrc cxisl, Inrgo cIiKcrrnncs bctwccr~the bchnvionr of a real a s opposctl t o a perfect at. high t,ctnpcmt,ures by n.tlopl,ing vitlncs of o) I)cl.wccn 0.5 nncl 0.75, \ v l ~ c ~ r c:I(; ~;~s
,gas, is givrn t.Itc: t1:tme of hypersoltic flo7o. 'l'llc occ:llrrence of chemical reactions lower tcmpcraljr~rcst.lrc v a l l ~ e(1) = 1.0 appears t o It(? ndcql~ntc.'l'llc sl)c:c:ilic 11(~:1l. c,,,
(ioniznl.io~l,tlissocint.ion) wl~ichsc:t in hcllintl a shoclr wave or in t.he 1)oundary layer n.nd l , l ~ cI'r:~ndt.l rlllml)cr,P, can both I)c nssr~rnctlt,o 1)o c:o~ist.n.nl~ wil,l~:r s:l.t,isl'nc.I.orj~
O I I ;I. solitl I)o~ly
i l l :I Ityj)c?rsonicsl.rt::~mI)y virt,no of tho cxistcrlcc: ol:t I~ight,c:tnj)c:r:~.t,trrc, c l c ~ r i or
~ ! : I ~ I I ) ~ O X ~ I I I ; I ~ ~(wen
~ O I I , a t largc! l,c:~np(:r:~l,nrc
tlilrc:r~-~~c:c*s,
:I.S SI:(*II f r o ~ 'l';11111:
t~
c.ot~sitlcr;tl)lyc.otnl)lic:xt,cs t,llc l.;~slrof annlyzing t,ho flow. F o r Cllis reason, wc s l ~ i ~ l l 12.1.
rt,s(.ric:t, our consitlcrat.ions t o t h a t range of Mach numbers in whicll tllc flllid can Somct.itrlcs, t.11~viscosity law / 1 ( 7 ' ) is :tssrlmrtl t o I)(: of' t,It(- forln
still I)c :~ssl~mctl t.o obry 1.11~perfect-gas law; i r ~air, this corrcspontls t o a range
of M.,, -r: (i.In trlotlcrn t,imcs t1111(:11 nt,tfcnt.ionl ~ a I)ccn
s giver: t,o tllcstntly of l)onntJary-
Inyrr flows a t hyprrsotuc vclocit.irs ant1 in 1,hc presence of c1iemic;tl reactions. F o r
drtails, t.llc rrntlrr is rcfcrrctl t o t.lle I)oolc by 1%'.11. J)orml~ce[20].
where 1,llc consl.ant h scarves t o nchicve a better apl)rosim:tl,ion 1.0 tthc more cx:~c~t.
Sr~t,hrrln.ndfortnt~la (13.3) in t.ho ~lciglll)onrl~ootl
of a tl(?sirctl l,rt~ll)c.r:l.I.lr~.(:
~:\IIK('
(cf. Scc. XIlTtl).

Fig. 13.I . Tc~npornt,urcrise in air in ternis

ol tho flight velocit.~,w,, and t,lle Mac11
n ~ ~ n i l ~M
c.,r , 'Vlic cllrvc Iabcllcd "l)crI'ect
gas" mas calc~llst~d wit.11 the nici of eqns.
(13.1) n11c1(13.2). Thc velocity 111s= 7.0
kn~/secin that of nn nrtificinl satellite in
orbit,, ant1 lo,< = 11.2 km/scc rcprcsenL9

Even in I.llc mngc of snpcrsonic Mac11 numbers ( M, < 6 in air), t h e t,cmperaturc

rise irt tllr gasc.or1.q stream is higll cnougll t o force us t o talrc ilit,o a.ccount the effect
of t,clnl)cre~t.urc:on the propertics of tJllc gas, in particular, on ils viscosit,y. Tllc lrine-
~ n a t i rviscosit,y
: of most gases, and, of air n.mong Lhem, incrcascs cor~sitlcrablya s t h e
t.etnl)craturc is irlcronsctl.
111t,llc caso of air, a s sltown I)y E. R. van Driest [30], i t is possible t o use a n inter-
poI:~t.ior~ or1 I). M . Sntdlcrland's theory of viscosi1,y. This can be written
fbrmr~lnl):~.sctl

Fig. 13.2. Tllc dynaoiic vis-

coaity, 11, of air in tcr~ns
wllrrc /I,, clcnotas the viscosity a t tJle reference Lrnlperat,llre T o ,and Slis a constant of the telnperaturc T
whic:l~for air assumes the value Curvc(1) B l r a s ~ ~ r c ~ n cand n l s inler-
pnlalion f o r l a ~ ~ (13.3)
la hased on
S1=llOK. '
Sntherlnncl's r q ~ l a t l n n Ourvcn
. (2).
(3). nlld ( 4 ) p o w ~ r lacs. crln.
rcl:~t.ion I)ct-weon I,lle viscosiby /I of air and 1.11~temperature, T,is
l'ltc pt-(?c.(:(li~~g ( 1 3 . 0 , !\.it11 d i f i r n n t values of
scerl plot,t,rd a.s curve ( I ) in Fig. 13.2. Sinco t,hc rcl;~tion(13.3) is still too complicated, thc exponent ro
i t is c:tlst.omnry l,o npproxirn;~.l,ci(( in t,hcorc?t.icnlcalcrllat.ions by tllo sitnplcr power law
 330 X[[1. l~%minar
borindnry lnyers in compressible flow b. IEclation between t0ie velocity and the ternprrati~refirlcls 33 I

The pllonomcna 1111tlcr con~itlcrat~ion hccome, naturally, very complicat,ctl Tho pressure gradient, a s was t h e case with i~rcornpressibleflow, is now also tlt-l.cr-
b e c n ~ ~ sofo t.lln interaction hetwccn thc velocity and t8he thermal hountlary Inycm. n ~ i r ~ c by
t l t h e frictionless external flow:
Con~parcclwiLh iricorn~~rcssil~lc flow there are a t least four aildit,ional quantit,irs
which must I)o t,riltcn into account, in t,he calcrilation of comprcssiblc boundary layers:
1. the Mach nilrnbcr
a,it,ll pl(.r) ant1 T l ( x ) ilcnol,ing the densitfly ant1 tcrnperntl~~rc,mspect.ivcly, at, t.hc
2. t,l~t! i'r:tr~tIl~lri~tmbcr
o i ~ l c rctlgo of Llio t)ouritlary Iaycr. Sincc ap/R?/ = 0 a t ally poi11L x along i,llc: flow,
3. tho viscosity FtincLion 11 (7') the tcinperature anrl dciisity satisfy tllc relnt,ion
4. hoi~ntlarycontliLion for t,cmpcratj~lrcclist,rib~it.ion
(hcal, tmnsfcr or aclial)at,ic wall).
?/I ' ~ I ( zy), = @l(x). 7'1(x) .
@ (5, (In.lo)
Making t.11~nssiiinpt,io~~ in eqns. (13.5) t,o (13.7) Lli:ltf tlit: t.cni~)rr:~t.rirc:
tlt.~)t~~itIs
It is clrar t h a t tho large number of adtlitfional pnmmctsers, compsretl with incom- on the single variable IL, i. e. t h a t
prcssiblc flow, causes the number of cases likely t o occur in practice to becomc almost T = l ' ( 1 ~ ,)
int.mctablo a s a consoq~ience. wc can dcduce from cqn. (13.7) t h a t
Comprchcnsivc roviows of tllc niimcrous papers concernerl with comprcssil)lc
boundary laycrs were givcn by G. 1Zucrt.i 1571 and 8.11. Young [106]. Details of
spccial m:~t.hcmat.iral mcthods cmployctl by varioi~snuthors have hccn discussed
by N. Cilrle [26) ant1 I<. Stewarhon [9G]. Problems of compressible turbulent layers where tlilTcrenliation with respect t o is tlcnol,cd by tho s11bs~rip1,SO Lh:~i,5",
are discussed in Chap. X X I I I . = dT1d.t~.Eliminating thc left-hand siclc with tho aitl of cqn. (13.B), wo 11avo

I). Rclntion hetwccn the velocity nnd the tcrnpcrnture fields

I n tho caso of two-dimensional flow, a n d irrespect,ive of the shapo of ttlc body,

Introtlucirig the Pmndl,l numbcr P = ,IL c,/k, which may bc nssumccl indcpondent
tllcrc exist* a romarkal)ly simple rclation betwcen thc feltis of vclocitsg a n d tcmpcra-
of temperature a s far a s gases are concerned ( c f . Tablo 12.1), we obtain
ture. I n tho p:rrticirlar $so when P = I , t h e integration of the differential equaiions
becomes much casicr. Thc corresponding proposition was first used by A. Ruse-
mann [lo] and I,. Crocco [20] when they calculated the compressible boundary layer
on 8 plate. I t can be stfatcd simply by m c r t i n g t h a t irrespective of the form of the
viscosit,y filnot.ion ,u(7'), tlic tempcratiirc I' clcpcnds solcly o n t h c velocity compo- It is clear from this form t h a t T = T(IL)is a sollltion of tho system of ecluations
nent u takon parallol to the wall, i. e. T = T ( u ) . Thiis curves of constar~tvelocit,y ( 13.5) t o (13.7) if, s i ~ n n l t a ~ ~ c o r ~ s l y ,
( u = const) are identical with the isotherms ( I ' = const). I
dp=O:p=l and T,,= - -P= (13.1 1)
This remarkable theorem can be easily deduced from the boundary-layer equa- dz k Cv
tions. Neglecting the buoyancy forces h u t taking into account t h e temperature or, if
depcndenco of the properties p and k , we can rewritc tShcboundary-layer equations d? + 0
dx
: and if, in atidition, T, =0 at y -- 0 . (1B.lla)
(12.50a, b, c) as:
This proves our proposition.
The act,nal function which describes t h e relation 1)ctween l.rniperat,urc ; ~ r l c l
velocity is ohtainril by intrgration Th11s from crln. ( I 3 I I ) wc Iravc. t.Iic- gc.r~c.r;d
solution
us
T (u) = - + C u -1. C:2 .
c~

Tho rorlst,arlk of intcgrnt.ior~C1 ant1 ( 7 , can now 1)r tld,c~rltri~~t-tl

froni t.11c. I)o~~r~rl:lry
condibions. For dpldz $: 0 we have GI == 0 .
332 XI I I . I , : ~ I I I ~ I I : Ll)o111111r1ry
~ liiyvrx ill co~nprrssiblrflow c. The flnt plntc?nt zero it~cidcnrc :$:%:I

1. Aclinl~nticwnll of tho heat flow is rlrt,erminctl b y t h e grnilient (dT/tlu,), nt tho wall. In fact, wo ran
'1'11~Ilollntlnr~.c.o~ltlif.iot~s
arc tlednce from eqn. (13.13) t.hnt

y :1 c.0 : ?L -7- U ; 'I' t (tIZ'/tl~,),< 0 t.l~rrcis a flow of llcnt from t.11~wall t o tho l l ~ ~ i t:tnd
so t l ~ a for l , (,on-
versely, for (dT/tlt~), > 0 Lent flows from tho fluid t o the wall. 111 this tnnnnor
Ilc~rr7', (a)(ICIIOI,I,S 1.11(: t ~ c m l ~ r m l .:I.(* r r o~tl(.rrtlgr of tho I)ortn(l:~.ryInycr, :III(I
~ ~1,llc:
3 urnz l l \ v - l', ,Y-1
t , l ~ c , s o l ~ ~ l . i oI)csc.oi~~rs
l~
T," - T, - or - Mm2 :
2 C, 7'- 2
rI I == T -1-
' 1 (U2 --- U 2 )
.....
2rp
. (l:%.t2)
I I e a t flux wall ;'_ fluitl, vnlitl for P = 1

i ~ ~ gRlncl~ n~lrul)cr M = Cl/c, whcrc cI2 = ( y -- I ) cp

I r l t . r o t l ~ ~ c *1.11~ Ttl we c i u ~rc-
Fig. 13.3. Relationship bet,wcen velocity and
writ.r rt111. (13.12%) i r ~t.110 form
temperature clistribt~tiot~ for the con~pressible
, (P= 1 ) . laminar boundary layer on a Rat plate including
(13.12 b)
frictional heat,, from eqn. (13.13)
Pmnd1.l n t ~ m h r r P = I . TI,, = wall tcmpernlllrr;
'I1I1(> qu:\ut.it.y 7'" - T1 r r p r c s r t ~ t ~t s. 1 ~l,rrnperat,nre inc:ronsc of nn ntlinbntic wall !Ir, = lr~c.sLr~a111
l , r n ~ p ~ ~ n l t l rlpnr
r,
~ v l l i c : l ~is tlltc: t.o I'rirtio~la.lItrnt.. I t is ir~tlrpc:tidrnt,of t,hc exponcn(, of t.l~eviscosit,g $ (Y-1) Ms > (7',,>- 7'm)1T,
f~ttlc~I.iort. wc IBIIVC (i?7'/i?!,),,,0,1 > 0, n ~ t c l I#v:LL Is Irntt4errcd 1 0 1 1 1 ~
r n l l owing Lo lllc inrpo qu:tntity or l w r t eenrrshvl h y
I > llm
criction. R I ~ I ~ O I I P IT,,, . - \-L
2. Heat trnosfcr (flnt p l n t , ~rlpldn
, -- 0) 0 I us.,

c. The flat plntc nt zero incitlcl~ce

The boundary Inyer on a flat p1at.e a t zero incitlcncc has been studiccl rxl,er~sively
i n numerous pttblications, a n d we propose t o begin wit11 n more tlctailctl cliscr~ssiotl
of this cnsc. S'irst we shn.ll dctlr~cethe ralatioll bctwccl~tllc vclocil,y nrltl t c l r l p c r a l ~ ~ ~ r o
tlist,ribution o n a flat plate from t,lle prccctling grnrrnl proposit.ion.
TII t , l ~ case
c or nn rcrlirLhrrlic~crtll(flnt,-plat,c tl~ernlornclcr)wo s~tI)st,it,~lt,o -:'/I,.,
nt~cl[ J == (I*, i~tt,oC ~ I (l3.12),
I. i t 1 t,Ilo I I O I I I I I ~ : I ~ . V
SO t,It:tt t,lto t , c . r ~ ~ l ~ ( t r (lisl,ril)~~t,iot~
;~t,~~rc
Inycr on a llat pla,l,c bcconlcs

f
and t l ~ cntlial~ntiomall trmpcrat,nrc, rqrls. (13.128, I)), is
p wl1c.n M,,, -> 0, c'clrt. (13.1:la) nssltlrlcs t,ho form of eqn. (12.64)
In 1 . 1 1 ~l i n ~ i t i t ~rnsc:
arllic:lt \rf:ls ol)l:linc~tl r:~rlicr for inconil)rcssil)lc flow.
'I'I~I: rc,l:~.tionI)c.l,wrc:ti t , l ~ cvnloc.it,y a.t~tlI,rnll)cr:~t~tro tlisl.ril)~tt~ioi~
given in ccl~l.
(I:{.I:%) is sr(w ~~lot.t.rtl in I'ig. I:{.:<. 'l'ltr t l i r ~ c t i o lof
~ 11c:~tflow can tie tled~trrtlat. w l ~ i r hfollows with M , = U,/c,, , = (y - 1) c,, l', . [t is worth noting
ant1 c2
ottcat, front 1.11~: lr~iipcrn.t.l~re grndirnt :sf t.l~o\v;iII. Sir~cc(r??~/i)?/),, > 0, t>hcclircc.t.iot~ t h a t t h e t ~ m p r r n t ~ u of
r c n wall ill comprcssiblc flow give11 hy eqn. (13.17) is itlcrlticnl
 334 XIIT. Lnrr~innr1)oundarylaycra in nompressihlc flow
c. Tllc flnt plntc at. zrro incitlrnct! :n!i
with t h a t for at1 irlromprcssiblc fluitl from eqn. (12.80) provicled t h a t i n the former
rase P = I . IT. W. I~~rnrnons and J. G. Brainerd [34) have sho\vn t,hat, it1 t h e rasc The recovery /actor, r , then represctlts t l ~ cratio of the frictional 1nml)craturr inc.rcnsr
of T'mntltl r~irrnl~ers wllic11 differ fronl unity the deviations irl wall tempcraturr of tllc plntc, (T, - T,), t o t h a t due to adiabat,ic con~prrssion,
causecl by comprrssii~ilit~y effects, a s comparect \vit,h the incon~pressihlccqt~ation urnz
AT, = - -2 c,,- >
(12 SO), arc- only very sligl~t~. TIIIISt l ~ catlinl)at,ic-\vnll trmpcmtnre cqnatiorl

from cqn. (12.14). 0 1 1 cornp;rrirlg rqrls. (13.lH) ant1 (IR.I!)) il. is S~Y:II l . I ~ : , t , t,l~o
mcovc:r,y
factor has tllc vallrc
remains vnlitl for roln~)ressil~lo flows wit11 a vrry gootl tlcgrrc of npproxirn:lfio~l r = dF- (Inminnr) , (I:L~!):I)
F o r air, wit*l~y -- 1.4 : m i P -- 0.7 1 , wt. ol)t,nill Ilcncc: for air
r -- d0.71 = 0.84 (Intliit~nr). (l:!.l!)l))

Tht. rrs~lllingt l r ~ ~ r n t l r n of
c e t h r nt1inbat)ic-wallt,rmpcraturc on thc Mar11 nrln~berhas
1)crn rrl~rc.srr~I~cti gm~)l~ic*:llly by Illo plot in Pig. 13.4. For rxamplc, at, a Mnrll

-
n11111l)rrM,, -= I t h r wall i)ccon~rsIlcxat.rtl by 4.5O C (or 80° F) in roirllrl figlrrrs.
A[. M,, - 3, t llc t . r ~ n p r r a t ~ t inorc:rso
~rr I)rt.orncs ns l~iglla s 400' C (or 720° P), ;111tl
n l M,, = 5, i t is a s rnlrrll a s 1200° C (or 2200° 1'). Z M,,,
t;7cl11deddngleof cone Mm
o no 75 lo 96
Fig. 13.5. Mrnunrrrl rrcovrry o k0 t'Z 10 I Z
factors, r, for Ianiinar bountl- v 40° br? TO 33
ary layen on conra nt srq7er- A 60' 019 to 25
0 Boo %I lo 18
sonic veloriticq lor difkrcnt
Mnrll n11111brrsnn(/ Ilrynoltln
n~r~nbcra, al1r.r C. 11. I4:bcr rJ2]; r
ronipnrison \\ it11 tl~eorelicnl
va111cslrotn rqn. ( I 3.19%)

'.rhc diagrams irl Fig. 13.5 rcprcscnt the rcsults of ~l~nn.suronlrnls

on t,llc rccovcry
factor in t h e cast of laminar \,our~dary layers on corlos in strpcrso~iiestrca.rns, per-
formed by G . R . Ebcr !32J. Tlle nrlrncriral valnc r = is seen 1-0 I)e ~ o n ( i ~ ~ t r l t : ~ I
lly t,llcse men.surements. Similar restrlts follow frorn ~nc:~sr~renlcr~l,s {)(~rli)rtl~t:~l 011
various cones and a paraboloid pcrformcd by B. dcs Clcrs ant1 J. St,err~l~crg 1271 :1,11d
It. Scl~crrcr[89].
Velneity nncl tctnpernturc clistributinns in thc nbnctlce n l l ~ c n ttrm~slt:r: 'I'IVO
p1)t:rs by \V. Ilal~t.zscht?ant1 11. Wcntlt. [44, 461 anti :L 11:l.prr by 1,. (Iror:r:o 121 1
coll(,nill cxplici(, formll]ac for the c:rlclrln.l.ion or Ll~cvt\loc:iljy :1,11tl I,c:ln~)c~l~:li.llt~t* tlisl,ri-
~)llt,iorl ill Illlmbcr of spceific cnscs. J'ignrc 13.0 cont.:lil~s11lot,sof l,llc: vcdor.il,y rlisl.l.ii)ll-
t.ion in t,lle l)ol~rltlary1;~ycrfor sovcral M;~ellnl~lnl)t?rs.It, re~)rrst:~lt,s Cl-ot:t:o's c:~lc:11-
H=LL .' Intions for a boulldary 1n.ycro n a n arlirrhcttic &rtt plnlc o n I.he: :~.ss~lnll)l ion of ;I. vise-11sil.y
" c, law = 1 and for P = 1. T11c distance, 11, frorn tllc wall has 11cc11rnntle (litl~cn-
Fig. 13.4. I n ~ ~ r c i~n st,l~r
r I c n ~ p r ~ i t ,of ~ ~a r fI:it,
ndiid~irlir,i n lrrrns of l,lic hl:~rliI I I I I I I ~ ~ Ilor
r wall mvit~gt.17 friclion:~!l~rat.IVIICI~ t,Ikc \"all i8
- r . air, fro111rrlti. (l:l.18:1)
siolllcss \vit,ll rcfcrcnco 1.0 ~GTu, where 11, tlrnot.as l,lle Itinrrn:rl,ic visc8osit3yin
t,llo oxt,crrln,lflow. I t is seen l,Il:~t for incrcasirlg I\l:rcl~tl~tlnl)r~rs
r l t l I I I I I I ~ ~f' ,

wall Ir8ttp~ralt8rt.. ({I'i')

- 7 ;
.-- T,
Atli:tl,nl.ir-wnll lvrr~r,rr:tlura
-- 7'-; Tw =
-
273" I< ( t ~ 1 2I{)
"
7',,: ICx(r,rta:~l ~ ~ . ~ ~ ~ ~ , r rI~~~~~~~
a ~ , i n~ ~ ~ t~lickcrlillg
l,llc:ro is :I. c : r ~ l ~ s i t l ~ : ~ . : ~ . l ) l ( :
of tllo IIolllltln.ry laycr ant1 tll;~I,for vc:ry I:LI.~I: hl:11.11 I I I I ~ ~ I ~ I I . I (.)I(:
.S v~.lor,i(.y
R -
clist,rihllt,ion is approximately lincar over i b W ~ I O ~thicloless.
C
 a. 'I'l~c: flat pinto nt nrro inrielci~cc: 337
,,
Ilie t.c!rnprmtt~rctlist,rib~~tion is also sho\vn in Fig. 13.6, and i t is seen t h a t
tlic fric:l.io~~nl ir~t:rcasc in thc tcmpcrature in tho bound:cry layer assi~meslarge
valurs for Iargc Mac11n111n1)crs.'Clic pnpcr by W. I~ant~zsc:l~e and JI. M'cnclt [44], quotccl
~ ~ sP = 0.7 (air) for t h e case of a licat-conducting plat,e.
cnrlicr, contnins c a l r ~ i l a t , i ofor
I t is S!IO\VII t.l~:~t, u/rJ, ploCtcd ill tcrms of y U , / Z i,"
tJ1c v ~ l o c i t ytlist,ril)~~l,ion 1/
drvial,cs c:onsitlc:r:~l~lySrom Lllnt for P -= 1 when 1.11~Mnclr nr~rnI)cr:i.ss~~nics largcr
v:rlrlrs. T l ~ cvc%loc.it.y . llrofilrs s11ow11in Fig. 13.G can bc mntlc ncarlv t.o ..coincitlc
A

.. . .. .
when t h c d i s t , a ~ ~fcrco n ~the wall, y, is nlntlc tlinic~~sionlcss with rrfcrcncc t o l/a,,, z/cI,,
Fig. 13.7, w l ~ r r c v,, t1~not~c.s t h e Irin~mat~ic viscosity of the air a t the wall. 'l'l~is
circn~nst.anccdcnot,cs pl~psicnllyt h a t t,llc i ~ ~ c r c a ill s c I~oundary-laycrtlliclrncss wit11
Rlach number ( a t constant Rcynoltls number) is mainly due t o the increase in
volnmc whinli is nssociated with the incrcasc in tlrc temperature of t h c air near the
xvall. 'l'his fact was first noticcd by A. N. Tifford [98].
Ma 2 Crn

Jiig. 13.8. (>ocllicientolnltii~frictio~ion mdia- Fig. l:t.!). Corflicic~~t, o l s l i i ~lric,t,io~i

~ for edia-
Oolic flr~tplate with rornprcnniblc, Ian~ii~ar brrlie 11:1(. 11laLc a t zero inoiclrnrt: n . i l l ~ coin-
i)o,~ncl;~ry Ir~ycr. P =. I, ), = 1.4 (air), nfl,cr ~)rrssil~lr,Ian~inar borlr~dnry 1r1ye.r. :~Tt.rr
~ I ~ \f1c!n(lta [44]
I ~ : I I I ~ J . S V:111ql It1111(*si11
1ine1 .1111111son
IHY]

I n l l ~ i sm c t l ~ o d of plollinp. lhc curvrs fcsr
clillcrcnt Dlarll nunlbcrn l ~ n v c lwcn rnrcle
nearly lo coincide. I t i s possible to conclude
from l l ~ i ntllnt t l ~ cIargc incrcnsc i n llw bovn-
dary-layer tl~lcknclis will1 n l n c l ~ n ~ ~ l l ~ bise r
mainly drlc to t l ~ cincrcnac in volomc shli-1) i s
associnted ail11 t h o increase in t c m p c r a t ~ ~ of
rc
tllc air ncnr tllc wall
7 different valucs of t,hc Pmntltl numbcr, P, ant1 of the cxponcnl in t . 1 ~viscosily
Adinbntic coefficient of skin friction: 'I'llr rorlfic.ic,i~l of ski11 f~ic't 1 0 1 1 lor : I I ~
adiabatic wall, a s cnlculntctl by W. Ilnntzsrhc nrltl 11. \Vr~ttlL,11as I ) r r ~ iplottrtl i l l
R is intlcprntlcnt
terms of tho Dfncll nnmbcr in Pig. 13.8. F o r cr, -.. 1 t , l ~ protluct
c c,
of t.11~Mac11 numllcr, b111 for tlifirct~L v a l ~ ~ cofs (1) t - l ~ cc:ocrficic%~~t
of s l i i ~S1.ic.l.io11
~
decrcascs with increasing Mac11 nurnbcr, t h e ratc of C I C C ~ C ~ SIC~ c i r ~largcr
g for srn:lllcr
va111esof o.Figurc 13.9 contains a comperiso~lbctwccn Lhc valucs of tllc cocl'ficicr~t
of skin friction for a n adiabatic flat plat,^ o b t a i ~ ~ c by t l scvcm.l aut,l~ors.i. e. for

Fig. 13.10. Bfeasl~ren~mtrr of t,he

velocity diatrih~~t~ion
in nnadiabulic,
Jiig. I3.f;. V(.l~>c~it,,v
lin(l t,cn11)cr:~t,1irc
(list,ri- Jqig. 13.7. Vc-looit,y lint^ i1~11l~ionn
ill t l ~ o In,,tinnr I~oi~i~~lriry
Inyrr i r ~sll1bc.r-
1)11tioriin (;o11111rc~%qil1lc:,
1a111iri:irI)o~~ncl:~ry lrbi~~innr I~ounclnrylayor on an aclia- sonic Llow, nl'lcr 11. M. O'l)oilt~olI
layrr on aclinlrnlic flat plate, afkr Crocco batic Rat plate a t zero incidence; data [28]. Mach nurnber Mm = 2.4.
identical with those in Fig. 13.6. The Theory from ref. [I:$]
P1.1 dist~ncefrom tho wall is referred to
l ' r x ~ i ~ l i l11111nt~rrP - I , <o = i , y = 1.4. 1)istanr~
rrom u~nllrrfcrrml 10 I' I-, ~ 1 1 1
I/rl,,, Z / U ; . For w = 1 , we have
1/ rll,,/vm = T,/Tm
338 X I I I . I,nr~lir~nr
I>orirtclt~ry
Inytm i n cort~y~rcnnil)lr
flow

fr~tirtiot~'I'hr plot sltows trll:ll the I'rat~tlfl numbrr exert*^ a mrlcll smaller influrncr r
on the rorffic.ienlf of sltir~friction thari t l ~ ccxponcnt (0. I lic casc wlicn 1.11~t.rtnperaturc varies n.long t . l ~ c\\,all, i. c. w11c11'I7,,,- 7',,,(.r).
1

11ns bc:cn st,r~tlictlbjr I). R. C l ~ n p m a ~and

i I\f. \V. [t~ibrsirl(131 011 t.hc a s s u ~ n p t ~ ol'
io~~
I'igr~rc 13.10 sllows the rt>s~ilt*$ of r n c n s ~ ~ r c n ~on c ~c~ot~~~si ~ ) r c s s iIb) ol ci ~ l ~ ~ l :layers
~.ry a vis(:osit,y f'~~lirf,ion,1//1,, = b 'I1/1',). 'rhc ann.lysis shows t . I ~ a t1.11~lornl hm.t, l111s
pcrfortnc*tl Ity 11. AI. 0'l)onnnll 1281. 'l'llry wcrc performed in t,l~chonntlnry Iayrr (q~~n,n(,it,yof )~c,nt,t,r;lllsli.rrotl p(:r 11nit. n.rc:L anti t.irnr) mnnotf bc: dct.cr~ninrtlflotll
of vrry long c-iroulnr cylintlcrs of sn1:ill tli:ctnct.cr plnccti in an axial strcar~l.'l'l~cr the t,cn~pcmt.t~rc clifl'crc~icc 7',u(2) - l',, alone 1)ut t.l1:1t it, tloj)erids 1.0 a Inrgc* tlrgrcc
.
Mac:l~11111nl)c.r w:ts kept, c:onstant a t M,, =: 2.4 I)ut t h e Itcyrtolds t~ntnl)c:rwas vn,rictl.
,1lic velocit,y tlist,ril)ut,ior~ II:IS bccti plot.tn-tl against y/O,, whcrc O2 tlcnotcs t . l ~ tnomrrl- r
on t l ~ cprevious "I~isLory" of tSllc bo~rr~tlary
prevail ~~pst,rc:lrn
Inycr, i . c. o n t,hc r o n t l i t i o ~ ~wl~ich
of t,ltc scetaioti under considrr:~l~ioti.'I'l~c local NussrIL nl~ntl)rr
s
t,utn tll~i(-kticssfrom eqn. (133.75). I t is srcn t,ll:~.t~ t l ~ cvcloc:itl,y profiles n.1, tlilTort.tl1 loses i1.s signific::~nc:cin rnsrs lien t11c wall t ~ c ~ ~ i p c r : ~varies t . ~ ~ r n.longc t.hc flow, I)c-
tlist.nnrt:s I'rotn tht: Icntling ctlgc arc silililnr t o oacli otjlirr a.ntl there is gontl :~grct:mrnt, t is prol)orl,ioti:ll 1.0 'l',,, - 'IT,,,,
rarlsr its IISC inll,lics t.li:~t,tlir local I ~ c a flr~x P ~ I I (\2.31),
.
wit.11 t . 1 1 ~ t.l~rorytlnc 1.0 I). It. C111:11)rnn11; ~ n t lA l . \jr. 1tul)csin 1131. or, t,nlrillg ill(,o :lc:cou~it,t.l~c: IlcmL gcncr:~lntl I I I'rict.ion,
~ t . I t : ~ t , it, is ~~roy,ort.io~l:~.I
1.6
'J' 7' ' I,
Velocity nicd trnipernlr~rct l i s l r i l ~ ~ ~ l i it1a t ~the
q prcscllcr of l ~ e n t1rnltnft.r: In 1I1t.
grnrml ca:lqr, 1111thhrrrl trtr?is/er p ~ r s r l i l ,t l ~ rrrl:ltiort I)ctwcen tho vclocity aticl t,oml)cr-
a t t ~ r rtlist,ril)~rt.ioncBnn I)r tlctl~~crtl from rqrl. (13 13a). Wl~eri P = 1, it can b r
wril t ~ I I

wlrt~rt: 'Ir,, is givc.11 I)y rcln. (13.17). '1'11n prcccding rcl~tal,ioncan bc cxt.c~rltlccl1,o
I'r:~ntlt,l 1111111l)t!rs
tlifYrring fro111 1111it~y
I)y 1 . 1 ) ~i t ~ t ~ r ~ t l ~ ~ of
c l ~trhc
i o r rccovrry
i factor,
whctl wc: ol)l.n.in

In 1.llisccl~rnt.ion,t.hr acli:~.l)n.t,ic wn.ll tctlipcmt,~~re, l',,, shoultl be ~ % l c ~ l l a tfrom

e d eqn.
(1:3.18). 1)11t, il, n i ~ ~ sIIC t , rr;elizrtl 1.l1n.t~this is orlly a n approximation. Thn direction
i l l w l ~ i c l11(-:1.1,
~ is t,r:lnsft:rrc:tl c:i.n I)c tlctlucotl from eqn. (13.21) n.nd written
Fig. 13.11. Vcloci1.y and tc?mpcroturc
clistrihrtt.ion in oorn~)maqihloIiirninnr
bountlnry lnyer on flat plate nL zcro
i r ~c*o~nplt:t,t:ngrrc-tncnl. wil.11 cqn. (12.82) for inc:ornl)rrssil)lc? flow incidence with hrnt tranrler, aftor
IIantzaclre anti Wendt [44]
'I'hc st~ror~tl p:l.pc:r I)y W. 11:1.11t.zst:h(::111(1 11. Mft~ndt[4G] contains rtrrmcrous
cx:~lnl)lcsfor t , l ~ cc:nsc of the? I~mt-c:or~cl~lc:t.i~~g wn.ll. Solno resi~ltsarc seen ~)lottctli n
Fig. 13.1 1. 'J'llry roli:r to t,hc casc wltcn t . I ~ t : t~r~n~)c:r:i.l.r~rc?
of 1.l1c w:ells is rc:rlr~ced by
T,. -
Wall tempernlllrf!
T,: P - free r t r r r m letllpernt~ltre.
0.7. = 1 ; y = 1-4

l ~ t11c lice st.rcam (7',, = 'I:,).A compnrisoli of t.he ~rclocityclist,ri-

cooli~igt o t . l ~ a in
l~iit,iorisin J'igs. 13.1 1 a n ~ 13.6
l SI~OWS tliat t l ~ c1)ountlary layer on a heat-corithict.ing
wall is corlsitlt:r:tl~ly s~rlnllcrt.lin.11 on a n n.tlial):tl.ic one. 'l'llc t~cmpcrn.tfnrcprofilrs
~ ~ r c in t l ~ c
slintv t.l~:tl,in t.Iit? c:~soitntlnr consitlcrat.iot~tJic I~igllcsl,l n n ~ ~ ) r m t ,irlcrcase
1)orlntl:ery Invrr :t.l.t.;~insa v : ~ . l of
~l~ :ll)o~lt20 pcr cent of t h a t d r ~ ctx, ntlial~aticcom-
~)rrssior~ irrc~spc:c:l.ivcof t . 1 1 ~Mn.cll 11111nbc:r. Calcl~lationscoriccrnjng compressible boundary layers on flat p1nf.c~which are
I
based on the momentturn-inhgml eqr~at~ion (Chap. X) have been pcrfornictl by
Since for (I) :- 1 1,111: corffiricnt, of s l z i r ~ fricfiori is intlcpcntlcrlt o f the Mach
Th.. vorl ICBrmrin and 11. S. T s i e ~ l[ S ] ; see also Pig. 13.9. Approxiriiat,e solutions
tlr~rnl)cr(IG% 1:3.8), the r:el.c :el, which 11ta:tt is tr:~nsktrrc:tl brcornrs equal t,o t l ~ a irr t
for t h e flat plate were also published by F. R o ~ ~ r i i oandl 15. A. Ric:l~cll)rrtiricr(71,
nil inc:ornprcssil~lt: strmrn. c~qri.(12.81). A survry of Iirnt.-l.r:lt~sfc-rcocffirirtlt,s ant1
1). (:olrs [I 71, 1,. Crocco 1221 ant1 11. .I. Monngltrcn 1751. S ~ l ~ ~ I ~ fori o n1,110
s t-tj~~~lt-io~~
rct.ovc:ry Ij~t.tt~rs l i ~ rI : I I I I ~ I I : I , ~:1.11(1 ~ , I I I ~ I ~ ~ I I VIIo\v
I I L :I.I. I ~ i g lMilt41
~ ~ : ~ l~ ~ e
I I I I I ~ I ~ )t:i(tt (o1111(1
of lnmir~nrI)ol~ntlarylrrycr~lwith vnrialdc! 1)ro1)crt.i0~1~c1.c ~ I,. I,. Moort: ( 7 7 1
g i v t : ~l)y
i l l :I 1~:11)t'rI)y . I . IC:tyo 1551. In t,l~isrpr~ric:xion rrf. (1051 may also I)(% mcrit,ionetl.
and G. B. W. Young and E. Janssen [1081.
340 XI 11. I,n~l~innr
I)ol~ndnryInycr3 in co~nprcwil>lo
flow (1. no~~ndxry
layrr wit11 non-zero prcRunrts grndirnt :I4 1

d. Ilor~ritlnrylayer with ~ l o ~ l - z e rpressure

o grnclier~t The srlrceeding derivation aims a t expressing the hountlary-layer equations (1:1.5)
antl (13.6) in terms of' t h e new coordinatcs 5 and i.'rhc contdnrrit~yrqilat,ion (13.5)
1. Exnrt solutions. Tllr ralculaiions conccrning bountlary 1:tyers wil.11 noti-zrro is satisfied iclrntically by the introduction of t h r st,rc:~nlf~tnctioriy)(x,y) tlcIil~c*rl
1)rrssure gratlic*nts are more clifficult I Ilnn i hose concerning flat plates, owing t o thror~gliits derivatives
t h r Iargr nr1ml)rr of irltlrprntlcnt variables 1,. Crorco [21] tlisrovered quite early
a t~mnsformat.io~t whioh siml,lifics t h e ta.slc of int,egra.ting t h e equations for t l ~ e
cases wllc:n rit,hrr (1) P = 1, ant1 t.hc viscosil,y furicl.ion / A ( ? "is) arbit,rary, or (2) whcri
tho 1'mntll.l nutnl)er has a n arltii.rary valrlo b~rt,,t~/!l'= const (i.e. when w 1). .
.I
Regnrtling 11, as a function of 5 and 8, we find tellat
1 1 1 1.11~: s11cri:rl cases of ntlinl~:tt,icwnll wil.11 P -- 1 antl to = 1, I,. Ilowarth [481,
C. It. I l l i l ~ g ~ ~ ~ o1701
r t , ha . ~ ~I<.
t l St.o\\.art,sotl (941 tliscoverecl n, transformat~io~l
wliich
r c ~ t l ~ ~ tcllr
~ c co1111)rc.ssil~lc
~s bonntlary-laycr cquat.ions t,o almost t h e same fort11 a s t1hat.
valitl for inc~onlprrssiblcflow. antl

1.1. The Jlli~igwortli-S~ewnrtson t r n n s f o r n ~ n t i o ~We

~ . now proccctl t,o tlcrivc t,llc
Illi~~gworl~h-Stcwart.son trar~sforrnation by t,he use of a sliglltly ~notlificd mcthocl
cornl)n.rctl wi1,ll rcf. [94], a n d without, a.t first!, restricting the argument t o ~ d i x b a . t i c
, s l ~ a l lsuppose t h a t t,ho PmntlLI number, P, nlay have a n
\valls. l ~ l l r t h c r n ~ o r cwc
since a5/ay - 0 . IIencc, for example
arl)it.rnr.y, i,lror~gl~ constant,, valr~c.Tho viscosity law, p ( T ) , will be assumed linear
a s in cclrl. ( l 3 . 4 a ) , nntl trho srll~script0 for viscosity ns well a s for the other ptm-
,, = .pk-9-
it!/
,.el_ at!,
c,, ;!a
,

nlot,t?rs will refer t.o st.ngnnt1ion condit.ions in t h e external stream. T h e constant O

sorvcs i,o ~)rovitlca n itnprovctl approximation t.o ifhe more exact Sutherlantl equation Fnrt,her, after a c a l c ~ ~ l a t i oduring
n which tcrms in a@/az arc! fount1 t,o cnncc?l, we
(13.3) in t h e neigltbourhood of t,he desiretl temperature. If t h e latter is chosen a t can show t h a t
t.hc wnll t,crnpcrntum, TI,, assurnctl const,arltr, then, according t,o eqns. (13.3) ant1
(13.43). it is ~ ~ e c e s s taor ~p u t

Along the ext.ernal flow, a.ssurnccl isentropic, t,Ilo sta.grlntior~ otithnlpy ronlaills
constatit, t,hnt is,
Thc II1i11gworLl1-Stewartsorl
transformat.ion ilitrotluces two new coordinates by t h e
tlcfinitiorls

0
1 ''1
I'rr re
dr (13.24)
or, in view of (13.26),

cI2 + I
((Y -I ) 11l2 = co2
I t follows t h a t
1 dc, =
-
c, tlr
-
1 ,(
2
- 1) --'.
71
.-.'.
(ill
'
c , ~ (11
so i(11:~t..finally,

Ilcrt., c tlrnoln-s i l ~ rrt-locily of sountl, a ~ i t lt h e subscript I rcfrrs t o contlitions in

t lir cxicrn:ll flow ( a t 1,I1coutcbr c ~ l g oof 1,hc bonntlary Iaycr) a t station z . Now,
c , 2 = = ( ~ ~ - l ) c , I ' l ant1 c o 2 = ( y - l ) c , T , . (13.20)
f
because
Sincc, llowevc!r, 7',tlrpc:l~tlsonly on z,wo also I~a'vc1,hat c, = cl(z); f u r l l ~ r r ,sirrcc
11, = p I ( x ) , we Iin(l 1.11:rt.i;: -- f (a) is a fnt~ct,ionof z alone. B y cont,mst, g clcpcntls
on 1)oi,I1?/ ant1 x , I)re;~risotllc tlctlsil,y, Q, in t,llc 1)ountlary lnycr dopcnds on y. We
m:ty cllso in\?rrl. i,llrse rcla.i.ions aritl I I O ~ , Ct,l~at,
t 111 t l ~ cprrscnt sortion wr fir111 it 8i1111)lcrto t l r ~ ~ ot11r
k cbulrt~~:~l
\rlc)cily I>y tllc syt~~bol
a,
1nstcnt1of U a$ in the pwt.
342 XI11. 1,nlninnr I>ollndarylayeru in rotilprenaiblc flow

The v i s c o ~ ~trr111
s in tho c q ~ ~ n t i oofn tnotion call bc trarlsforrncd wit11 t,hc aitl
of cqn. (13.4%) nntl 1,I1c perfect-gns law p == p, = p R T t o yield This trnnsfort~~cd c q t ~ n t i o rcliffc~cw
~ from the corrcspondi~~g
I~oundnry-loyrrcquntio~l
of irmcornpressiblc flow merely by thc factor ( I -1-8) w l ~ i c lrnult,iplics
~ tlmc prcssuro
trrnm.
111 order 1.0 transform t h e energy equation, we m11ltil)ly rqn. (1:) 0) 11y ?L arltl
atl(1 cclr~.(13.7) Rc~ncmbrringt h a t tllc Prandtl nun1l)cr is

or. Ity il~lrotlr~nir~gt.11~tli~normsionlcss l8c?rn~~rrx1,~~rc

f~lrlol.ion(rrlat,ivc: stfingnal.ioll-
ctltl~nlpydiffcrctlcc), tlcfincd by

Jlt-rc IL tl(:not.rs t . 1 1 ~local, ns tlist,il~otfro111 t l ~ cstn.g~~nl.io~l

c~~t~llnlp
Int,rod~rcing
y. llmc As WXR clonc! for oqn. (13.28), wo cxpross tllc pnrt,i:~ltlorivnt,ivc:s wit11 rrspcnt 1.0 z
exj)rc.ssiot~ i l l rqns. (14.33), (13.34). i111tl (13.36) into cqn. (13.0) imngincrl diviclctl nnd 21 by tllosc with resj)cot 1.0 j: nrmtl $, l ~ o t ct.llat .- h 11, p, p,/ptl p :&tl tnakc
by Q, we tlc!rivc : use of the definitions (13.40) t o obtain

I l r r r , M, -- I I ~ / C , is the Mar11 nurnl)cr of t,llc cst,rr~l;mlIlo\v. Sitit:(:

thc fnct.or of ( l i ) ~ in ~ (13.46) car1 11c p u t in fror~l,of Llle operator a2/r??y2in

~ )cqn.
cqn. (13.44), so t,I~nttltc trnrlsformcd cncrgy c c j ~ ~ n t . :~c:qt~irns
io~~ I,Ilc form :
344 X111. 1,ntninnr 1~01tt1rI:~ry
Inyrrs ill comprcsrriblc flow (1. llo~~ntlnry
lnyrr with nnn-zrro I ) ~ C * S S I Igrntlitvrl.
I~ 3.45

Eqr~nt.ions(13.41) ant1 (13.47) t.ogcthcr with t,hc continuity equation rcln.t,rs t,o t , l ~ ext,ngnnt.ion c t ~ t ~ l t n l lh~ y.-= c,, 7' -1- !, 1 1 . ~\vltic:l~ \VC c.n('o~~t~I~c*r(*~l t-:~rlit,r
in rclw (13.35) in t,hc form of n "I~c~nl)ernt.r~rc ~ I I I I ( : ~ , ~'l'l~r
~ I I "R Y. S ~ . ( ~ I I I(11' ~)ilrt,i:~l
difTcrent.inl equnt,ions for I/,, I?, ant1 T' rrtlr~cc-sin srtch c:tsrs t.o l,\\~ocor~l~lrtl ortlitrnry
tlini?rrnt,inl crlrrat.ior~scontaining tOto st,rcntn funrI.iot~nntl 1.ltc st:~gnnt.ior~ r~rt,l~:tll~y.
wlticl~is n tlirc-c.1,cotlscclncnac o f o t j r ~(I:!:lO),
. now (:ot~sI.il~~ll,o
L11c IICW ~ o l ; o F I ~ o r ~ n t l n r ~ - Sirniln.r solr1l.iot1sfor comprnssil~loI)onr~tl;r.ryl:~..yc:rsc~onsI,it.~tlo rx:cct. sol~rl.iot~s
I:lyc:r t:clr~:~l,iorts. JI,II(I :trc, l,lrt?t~~I'ot.c~,
of t31tosysI,t.trr 01' (v~~t:r~I.ions ittl~ri~tsit~:rIl~y
vt*r.y itrtl)or~I,:~~~rl..l'(~rI~:ri)s
cvcn ~ r ~ o itnport;lntly,
rc solrrtions of this Itintl art: cntployctl a s t.or~c~l~st.ont~s :~g:r.inst,
The syst.cn~of equnt.ions (13.5), (13.G), (13.7) was subject t o the bortrltlary
wl1ic.11t . 1 1 ~n.ronmay of n.pproximal.c prorrtl~trcsanrl 11a jritlgotl. I'or I.l~rsc:rrnsons.
contli t,ions
we 11ow propose rorrgl~lyto sltel,cl~tJtc line of rcnsoning wlriol~It::ttls l,o sin1il:rr sol~lt.iot~s
starl.ing wit,l~the l l l i n g w o r t I ~ - S t c ~ v n r t ~t,mnsforn~nt,im.
so~~ We s11:tll ror~c:lutlo 1,lli.s

t l ~ clntt,cr dopentling or1 whctShcrthe wall is adinbatfie or isot,hcrmal, t.ogetller with

bountlary Inycrs lnilh herrt lrn?is/er, nn n r l ~ i l r : ~ r yI)III,
-
topic witah n number of r~rtrncricnlresults. Wc sl~nll11ostulnto the vnlitlilsy of t.l~e
viscosit,y Inw from eqn. (13.4n) so tllnt ro = I ant1 P I n.rc i1nplic:tl. In t,l~oc::~scof
, c:otrst,:lnt, w:~ll I ~ : I I I ~ ) ( ~ ~ : ~ . ~ . I I I . ~ : ,
II',,, will be nssnrncd, so tlint A', will 11ccornc a const:t~~f,. In prol)l~:tr~s i~tvolving;LII
nrlirrbnlic wall, t,ltc stagnation ent,l~nlpyis given by cqn. (13.12):
I t is cnsy t o sco t.l~ntt.l~csc11011ntl:trycor~tlit.ionst.mnsforn~as follows:

ant1 rentnins cot~st,nntover t.11~1)ountlnry-lnycr t.I~ic~ltt~c:ss,

itnl~lyingS : 0 (c/. also 7

end of precetling scct,ion). I n this cnsc, tlrc sirniln.ril,y of t.11~~t~ag~~:r~,io~t-c~rtl~:~

prof les assumes a trivial form.

I/irnilirtq crrsrs: If P =
(13.47). 'I'ogcl~lrc~r
: 1 Iltrn S -
0 is n spccin.1 sol~lt,ionof the cr1crg.y cqunI.ion
\vil,l~rqn. (13.:%0),it. Ict~tlst o t.lta rcl:~,t,io~l between t , c ~ n p e r n t , ~and
~ro
Employing the stream funct.ion
Sorrn :
111, we rrwrit,c cclns. (13.41) i l t t t l (Id.-l'i) in f,ltr

volorit,y for ntl atli:tli:~.l.ic\rrnll tlisrovcratl r:rrlirr ns cqn. (13.12). I n this case, cqn.
( I 3.11 ) nssrrmrs !,IIs "incotnprrssil)lc" form of r q n . (9.I ) rnnctly.
Along a Il:~tpl:tt,c wo It:tvc tll)/tl.t: :,0 \vl~irlri111l)lirst.l~nttliil/t10 0 ns well.
7

Tlrcn for P - - I wr clisc:ovor. t,lr:tt. N -- ,\',,,(I l i / , i l ) \vif.lt R,,, c c l ~ ~ 1.0 : ~ ln c:onst.nnt con-
sLiLr~l,rsa. sl)cc-i:llsolrtl i o t ~or ( 13.47). :IS is c::lsil.v vt:rilic,cI I)y srrItst~it~uf.ion. (:onfrottI ing
cqns. ( 1 :1:l5) n.ntl ( I R.:jO), wr rccovcr I,l~c rc,lnl,iot~I)ct,\vrrt~ t,c~tnprr:tt,r~rcant1 vrlorit,y first. T h r similarity vnriablr is int,rotluccd wit11 fllc aid of Ill(: following nssttrnl)t,io~ts.
ir~tlir:rt.c~tl
ns "11". ( IR.l:!), rcn~c~nlrcring t,lt:tt 71, I I I I I S ~ ,\)a wriI,t.rn for U,, ant1 7'( for 7',, .

1.2. Srlf-si111i1nrS O I ~ I ~ ~ O 'I'ltt- I I U . Illi~~g~vtt~~tl~-Sl~t~~v:~rl~so~~ I.r:~trsf(>r~~~nt,ior~113,sIIP(.II

rlsrtl t.o rlt*rivc: cs:rc.t, solrtf.ior~snlltl l,o fortnulntc n I:~.rgcnut11l)cr of nl~l)roxin~nl,c
proac~tlnrt~s. Srlf-si1niln.r solrttions piny a n i m p ~ r t ~ n npart, t , wit,l~int>heclass of exact,
solnt~ions.111 I,lrc c:orrLrxL of incolnprrssil)lc Ilows, we consitlerctl tlmt n solrttiot~1)n-
longc.tl to tllis grorll) if l.l~cvc1locit.y 1)rolilrs 11 ( R : , y) : ~ ttwo , clill'crcr~tst,nt,ions n: cor~ltlIN: w l ~ c r eA , 11, r, s , t p1:t.y t,hc pnrt,s of rtntlcl.rrrninotl COIIS~.:III~.S, /(?I) is a n I I ~ I ~ < I I ~ I V I I
nl:r.tlc t~ot~grncnl. by I.llr nl~plicnt,ionof :t singlc seal(: l;~.c:t,or ritc:I~for IL ant1 ?j (Scc. VI 1 I 1)). s t r c n ~ nfrlnct,ion, ant1 S ( q ) is t l ~ ctcrnl~cr:tt,rtrcSrlt~ct,iontlclinctl in ocln. (1:1.:!5), n o w
It was t.lrc*nsl~t)wnt.lrnt srlrl~sin~ilnrsolut,ions existrs(l in t , l presrt~co ~~ of a dcfir~it.e cor~ccivcdt,o l)c n f1111cti6nof 77 nlonc.
gronp of t-slnrt~nlIlows II,(:I:). In cases of t,l~isI t i r ~ t l .I,ltr l)nrli:~ltliffrrcnt.inl orlr~ntior~ 1Squnt.ions (13.50) ant1 (13.51) arc now bmnsfornlctl t o tltc coortlir~:~tcs 2 an.ntl 17,
for ~ . I I ( ? st rc.ntn frlttc~l~ior~ rrtlrtrctl t.o nn ortlinary ililrrrrnt.i:ll aclrlnt.ion wlricl~is colt- and i n t h e result.ing cxprcssiorls i t is clcmnntlctl tllst t,Itc terms in 3 mlist tlisnpprar.
sitlrr:~l~ly r:~sirrl o sol\,(: I,II:III111s I ' o ~ I I I ~ ~ . I 111 this rnnnrlcr we ot)t,n.ir~ ordinary tliffcrcnt.inl cqrin1,ion.s for 1.110 fnncl.ions / ( q ) :r.rrti
Rl:~liillg11s~:of :L 111ln11)(:r of st.t~tlit~s, li)r (:x:~tnl)lt:148, 40, 50J, 'I.'. Y . I,i nnct 11. 'l'. S(17). S n c l ~c:~lc~~l:~t,ions 11:~vc11ecn ~~crforrr~ncl by 'I'. Y. I,i :~ncl11. 'I'. N:~girrnir.t.srlJOOJ
. S I I611 ( I ~ ~ I I I O I I S ~ . ~ : L I ~in
N ~ ~ : I I I I : I ([(iO. ~ : ( In nrllnl~crof ~~r:liscwort,l~y invrst,igat3ionst.l~nt. wllo found t11:~tthere exist,ctl four clnsscs of solr~t,ionsfor 7i., ( Z ) . I~ollowingthis work,
S I I ~ I I sin~il:rrsol~tl.iot~s rxist i t 1 1.11~: (.as(: of co~nprossiitlcbortntl:rry lnyrrs ns wcll. C. U. Colten [I61 d c m o n ~ t ~ r h t ~t chdn t t,hree of t.11csc clnssr,~can be rcdrlcctl tjo t3hc
As k1.r a s 1 1 1 vr1ocait.y
~ Itortr~tl;rryI:~.yrris cor~ccrr~rcl, lrcrc t.oo, ~irnilnrit~y rsl.cntls t,o common form
- I( Z"'
lit .
1.11(? Iot~gil.rttlirt:~l vrloc.ily rotnl~onrnt,,71.: wil.l~rcsl~octt o t l ~ ct,l~armnlla.ycr, similarity
346 XI 11. T,ntr~i~~ar
I~or~t~rjary now
layers in cotn~)ressil~le

(Ic' nntl VL arc c:onst,:~rlls).'1'111, foc~rt~li

r:ase
?it 7-- I<' cxp (IZ" x)

is of ni:crgitt:~l ir~tc.rrst,only, : ~ n d\trc sllall igttore it I~enorfortlt.

Wc? now \\.is11 t.o cl(~t.rr111itto tslic Torn1 of tllc cxtcrnnl flow, IL, = I L ~ ( X ) ,which
~ l st,l~cInw (1:l.5:!) cx1)resscd Lliere in the trarisforrncd variable I. It
c : o r r n s ~ ) o ~ 1.0
follows fro111oclns. (1:l.38) :~ntl(13.31) t h a t polynton~ic
~ o n l i i ~ i r ,i g I I . --
.-.
:t - - I .:Kt

n s l o Itc tlccelcriltc:tl for ;LII tlircc

TIie cxtcrnal flow wllic:li srcurcs sirnil:~rity t , ~ ~ r out
classcs of gascs.
- 7
Ilir rxt,crn:~lflow is iscritropin, :mtl hence When a n arbitrary value of m is nsslrrnctl, it is possil~l(:to iiitcgralo ccln. (1:1.61i),
generally speaking, only I)y a uories expansion. 'J'llis, howover. no loriger lcacls t o n
simple power f ~ ~ r ~ c t for
i o nt,l~crcl:~I~inn TL! =: ( x ) . 'I'lie c l i n g r : ~in~ ~
ll'ig.
~ 13.12 ( ! ~ I I I ~ : ~ ~ I I S
grlt1111s01' I,IIo vc*lot~it,.y
tlisI.ri1111t~io11
T L [ (:K) laogt:l,l~cr \viI,lt ?TI (:?) . . lc' ?'" liw I . I I ~ - V J L I I I I Y ~
if, follows t,Ii:ct, oT tn = -- I , 0, I A, 1- I I.ogoll~orwit11 Ic' - - I, 1) =-= I :u~tly - - 715. :

We now apply the transformation (13.52) iri a partinlilar form, nssrr~ning

'I'll~rs, takiiig a r c o ~ of
~ ~c.qns.
~ t (13.24), (13.53), ant1 (13.54), we derive t h a t

I l ~ cron~~ll.i~ig
# 3
tlini:rcnt.i:~l ccl11at.inr1(:an I)(: solvrtl in closed form only for pnrtic~llar
valtics of tn. If we c:l~oom
?,, -.- n& - ; y I
0
.
!.
- '
,) . 5 ,, (13.57)

Pig. 13.12. Velocity distribntions for similar solcrt,ions srrording to tho Illingwort,l~-Stc\r-artSo~~
It, jq seen t,11at in this pm.l,iri~lnrr:bsc, tllr external flow 7~,(x)in also a power i n x, t~rnnuforinntionin the cnsc when y .- 715. 17, K .?In nrrording to cqn. (18.53);
7

f h r c . x i v ) ~ i r ~morrovcr,
~f. 1)cting t,hr snnio a s for 6 , (2).Tnscrtirig thc valllcs for y which 71, = K' x)n nccortling (a) crlll. (13.5!))
apply l o monat,ornir. clintornic ant1 poly:tk)mic gasps into the exponent of x from Itelation hetwcen z anti ? is given in rqn. (13.66)
(-qn (1:) 59), wc. can rstahlish the following table. Relation bet,wcrr~I I ~and y is givan in eqn. (13.57)
 X I 11. I,nrninnr bo1111t1:~ry
Inycrs in rornprrsnil~lcflow ti. l(ot~ntlnrylnyrr ~ I ~ ~I o n - ~~~rrnnl~rc
r r o grntlirlll :!49

arbitrary manner, it will be fol~ntlt h a t t h c solutions depcntl o n the pnratnrter

in atltlition t o their dcpcndcncc o n P. Solutions for a large nrln~bcrof v a l l ~ r sof t,l~esc:

two par;~tnrt,rrsI ~ a v ebrcn workcd o u t by 'l'. Y. I,i tintl 11. '1'. Nnf;nn~atsrl[(ill ris well
nntl writ,e tlo\vn (IIP t.ransforrnctl I)o~~ntlnry-layer rrlclations (13.50) ant1 (13.51) in as by C. J3. C!ohen a n d E. Reslrotko [16n].
t,lrt- form of tile following two ordinary tliiTercntial eqr~at~ions:

in \rrl~ichI)rimc.s tlrrrot,~tliKcrcr~liat,ionwit.11respect t o 11. 'rhc pnratnetcr 8,in the salile

way r7.s onrlicr in cqn. (9.7), is tlcfinctl by

it, rlr:ir:~t~It~rixt.s
t l ~ rprrssltrc gmtlicnt of t,lrc cxtcrnal stream.

we corrclr~clewit,t~t,lrc aitl ofeqti. (13.60) t l ~ : J'~ tconst.itntcs a tlimcrisionloss form of tlrr

longit.~rtlinalvclorit,y component in t.lle bol~ntl:~rylayer, because

Sinrr ?/ -- 0, or ?/ --r oo implies 71 = 0 nritl 71 = ro, respect,ivcly, t l ~ eboundary contli-

tions for t11t- systrm (13.til) rrlr~sthe wril,t,rn

111 t.llc case of an crditrhrrtic loall, t,hc second cqnatior~(10.01) is sn.t,isfictl iticntit:nll~~,
: r ~ i t l it.
is ncrcssnry t,o solve t,ho siliglc c.tln;~t,ioti
/"' -1- //" = P(/'" 1) ,
Pig. 13.13. Vclocit:y arid ct~t,l~nll>y (lislril~~~lio~rs
in
co~nprrssiblr,1:trninar hotrntlnry lngrrn wit.l~ prr8suro
S
r .
gradient, and heat tr:lnsl'rr, nftcr C. 13. Colrcrr and
l liis ccl~~ntion, Ilowcvcr, is itlciit,ical w.it,h t.llnt for inco~npressibicwctlgc flows givori E. hshotko [lGn]. and in conforrr~it~y with cqtls. (13.62)
cnrlirr qs oqn. (!).8); it is rcrnembcrctl t,llat 1). It. Ilnrt,re,? stutlictl it-s .solutions for ant1 (13.35)
tlifli~rrnt,v:rll~t~s for ail valltcsof p < -0.199 (m<-O.090.f)
of/?. 1In f.ltrn tliscovcrctl t.l~nt,
I'rn.n<lt l N I I I I I ~ IPC--~ :1 ; OI - 1 . rJ(x) = (z)(lcnol,ru
t.lrc,rr is sc-li:~.rn.t.ion.
l.:~l,lc: nl,ovc, tlrc: first two, n:init.ly In --
(lonscr(nrnt.ljr, :\mong t.li<?spt?(!ific V ~ . I I I ~ t>r
118 ;t,r~tl
- - ln, ==
R na. d i ~ ~ i I : ~ yin
1/10 also lcntl t o .scparaLior~
c ( lt . 1 1 ~
1.111. vt.lor.il.y of I.llo t:sl.cr~tr~l flow. n), I,), c) vc:locily "

\v]ierr I,II(: 1vr7Il is :1~tli:1~l)r7~t,ic.

\ \ ~ I I c ~I III IC \vall pcrrnits t l ~ r/rrrirn/pr o/ hccrl, i t brcomcs necessary t o solvr tile
T,,, = To; -
distsil)ut,ions;tl), e ) entJinlpy dint,rihrttions; n) IS,,, = 0;
n(linl)nt,ic~rnll;h), d ) 8 ,= -0.8; T,, 0.2
7'0 cooletl w l l ; c), e) S,,= 1.0; T,, = 2 To; hcnt.ctl \\.all
systcrn of rrj~rntior~s (13 01). Sincr tllr w:~lltemperature, T,, can he prescribed in a n
350 XIII. 1.n.1ninnrhonnclxry lnycrn in comprrrwihlo flow d. l%onnclsrylnycr ~vit.11non-zero prcbnsllrogradient. 35 1

I t is wort,hy of note t h a t t h e system (13.61) s l ~ b j c c t o thc boundary conrlitions

(13.63) yirlcls t,wo pllysically sonsil)lc sol~ll,ionsw l ~ c nJl < 0 (this is also t.r~lein t h e
cnsc of a n atli:lbnt,io wnll. c / . Sca. IXn). Aceorcling t o the vicws expressccl by C. B.
Collen and 15. Itrshotlzo [lea], Lhc one oftthe two solutions which scls i n in a n expcri-
merit is cletnrnlinrtl I)y t.llc irlit,ial ~ o n d i t ~ i o n
which
s ~ s t ~ n b l i st,he
h prcssrlrc field acting

,I ,IIC eli;t,gr;~n~s i t 1 lpigs. I:!. I :!:b, I), c rc1)rcscnt, t,hc f~clocit!jtIistribr~t,ior~?I,/TI,~= /'
ill t , r r n ~ elf
s I,hc: elit~l~~~siollloss I,r:~.t~svnrscelis1,:~nc:e11 fnr variot~sv:~l~lcs of t.hc tornpe:r:~-
t,rlrc pnmmcl.rr St,, :I.II~I of Jl. 'I'l~c? pnrl.ic:~llnrvnlrrcs of S,,,choscn in t-ho clingrnrn cor-
rcsl)on(l 1.0 (.II(: li,llowing c:tscs (takcn in ordnr): a n s d i s l ~ a t ~ wall i c wi0h 'I1,,,= 'I1,;
R coo1c;cI wall wit,ll 'I1,,, = 0.2 l', (tmnsfcr of heat; froln wall t o fluid). In t-he case of
mrllteil)lo solnt,iorls, t,llc: IOCIIS 01' Iowcr vnlrlcs of /' for n given vnllrc of /I 11:~sbnen
~list.i~lg~~isl~ncl l,y a.n nst,crisk. I t is n o t c ~ o r t ~ ht ly~ a int t,hc nnsc of a hentctl wall ant1
n firvoral)lc?1)rrssllrc gr;uliont (1> 0, [gig. 13.13 c) l,Ilc velocity in the I)~lltld~I'y
.,
layer can cxc:cctl I,hc c?xl,c:rrl:l.l voloci0y , i s , i l l a cort,nitl rilngc away from t,Ilo w:~11.
J.11~rra.sor1 for it t::1.11 11c fourlel in tfho 1;~rgc:incrcnso in vollrrnc irnpnrt,c:tl 1.0 t,llc gas in lG6. I:).l4. l ) i x l v i l ) ~ ~ l , i ,of > ~ ~~Ilc*~tri~~g nI~rrwx~:ni11 P O I I I -
1,111: I ) o n r ~ e l a rlnycr
~ owing t,o st>rorlgI~cnl,ing.'l'hc gns of lower clcnsiLy is nccclcmt,ctl prmsil,lo, I:tn~innr l , o ~ ~ ~ ~ c l lnyorn nry \viI,ll prrnwlrc
gradient and heat tmnsfer, after C. 1%.(hhcn nncl 16
I)y t.l~cnx1,rrn:~lI)re;sslirc forces Inorc st,rorlaly Lhsn t.hnt in the external flow in spitc
of it,s I)ni~lgtl~?c:rlc~r:rl.rel Ily visc:ol~sS~.~PSSCS. E. Rwhotko [IBa], and i n confornlity with cqns. (13.64)
I'rn~~cll.l ! ~ -- I : rr, - - 1
I I I I I I I ~ I ~P
(I: A
',,, 0; 'I*,,
Y- 7 T, , , ; ~ t ~ l i ~ i l ~ ~\vILII.
tl,ic:
b: S,<,= - 0.8; !I1,,, = 0.2 7'"; coolrtl wnll.
c:R,,, = 1.0; T,,, = 2 T,,; hmtrcl wnll
0 1 Z 3 4 S,,6

Iiig1lrc.s I:{. 14 :I, I), (: illllst.r:l,l,c!t,Ilc irtrrirtliols in. shcori,~gslrss.9. I'his C ~ I I cn.lcll-
Iat,c:tl wit,ll t.11~aiel of nqrls. (1:1.10), (13.26). (1:1.2!)) t,ogc:t,hor wit,h thc iserllropic law
pl/pn = (ol/po):'. 1t is given lty
2 - I - I

2 v,, d

Tllr figltre:s c:orll,:li~lI)lols of /"(71) for clifli:rrnt val~rc:sof t.llo pnramcltrrs fl anel

t.ho wall iLsc.lf ( 1 , --

Whrrl t , l ~ ccxl,c:rr~n.lflow is nc:ccle:rat.ecl (/I> O ) , I.hc Inrgest. shearing slrcss occurs at,
0 ) ; wllrn tile flow is tlccclern.t,ctl (P ( O ) , t,his r n n x i m ~ ~ niovcf
away from t h e w:~llant1 1)lnccs itself f~lrlllcrfrom i t ,as t,lic pressure rise is increased,
m

t.ltn1, is for 1:lrgc:r nl)sol~ltov:~ltlcsof tllc: ncgntivc v a l ~ ~ofo Jl. lr~trotlrlcingtile ~ o c a l

skin-fric.t.ion c:orffic:icnt,
C
, =-
b e,,,16,

Fig. 13.15. Locnl skin-frictioncoefficient in comprcrrsiblc, lnn~innrI)or~ntlxry1ayrr.s wit11 prrnanro

n,llc.rc: 1.Ile. srll~sc*rilrl.
10 rc.fc:rs 1.0 I,llo wall, we finel l.llnt.
grntlirnt nnd Ilent. trnnnfcr, nflsr C.R. Cohcn ant1 R. Rcsl~i~l.kc>
I l ( i i ~ I ,and i l l v i > n f o r ~ ~ ~\ivli yl . l ~
. - -
eqn. (13.66)
Prandtl number P = 1; w = 1. 8, = 0 ; adiabatic wall. St, c: 0; coolecl wnll. R,, 5 0; I~ontcdwall
352 X'I I I. I , : ~ I I IIjot~t~clary
~ I I ~ ~ I ~ y r r sill corr~y~~r~riil~lr
flow

l'llc vn111c.sof/,,," lor tlifTornnt vn.lrlcs of S,,,are seen plo1,tcd in t,crms of P in Fig. 13.15. Wllcn t1isoris:;ing a[~proximat~c mc:t.l~otl~, it is Itoc5cssnryt,o rnnlzn :L olcnr tlisl.incl.ion
I t is rcv.ognizrtl t,llot n chnngo i l l pmssrrrn grntlicnt cxcrt,s n n ~ u o sl.ronger l~ illflucncc I)ct\vccn those as :%rei~~)plical)lo only to ndinbrrlic ~c!ttll~ :~tltltllc onvs t , l ~ : nro ~ t valitl
on I,,,", nntl 11c:llc:c: on t,l~csho:~ringst,ross n.t 1.llc wr1.11, when t , l ~ wall e is I~cntocl(Xu,> 0 ) in l.l~cprcsrnco of h ~ n Irtr)rs/er l as well.
1,11:111\ \ ' I I ~ I I t IIC I:~l,l,c,ris aoolrtl (A',, (0). 111 t311emngo of nogatjive vnluos of P t.l~ere Mc:l.l~otlswllich arc ~.c:sl,rict,ctlto nrlicthnlic iorr1l.r i r ~ r l ~ l tnn l c early o t ~ c:Icvelopetl
1-xis(,l,\vo v:~l~it.s of r,,, fnr (YI(:II v:t.ltlo of /I.'l'l~is is n co1tsoqllonr.o of t.ho rxistcnco of 11.v I,. lIo\v:~rt,l~ 1.481 n11(Il:~t.cr~no(Iifictls o r ~ ~ ( : \ v ll)y ~ : ~1t1~. S(!l~lic:l~~,ing l!lO~. t)ot,lt for
l,\vo s o l ~ ~ l , i oi ltl ~l,l~is
s r;tng(!, ns n~v~ll,ior~(xl ( ~ : ~ r l i tWII(YI
~ r . I,IIc ~v:tlIis n,(li:~l)n,l,io ==O),
(AS,,, t.llc- c.:~st: \vl~c,t~P = I ; f~~rl,llc.r,
7 ot~t.sllo~tltl rnc~rllion l , I ~ t : ~)roc:c:tl~lrc~s tlt!vc~lol~ctl1)y
I,II(: low(-r I)I.;III(:~I of' t,l~(: ( : I I ~ vyi(,ltls
(: ~~(:g:~l,i\roV : I ~ I I ( ~ Sofsl~cnrings1,rcss \vl~i(:l~
j)oinIfs IS. (:l.rlsrlln.itz [ U ] ,113'.J.:\. %ant 11 101 n t l t l I. l~luc~ggc.-l,otz :LII(I A . I?. .J(IIIIISOII (:!(i].
t,o rt:vcrsc Ilotv. M'llon t,llc wall is hnnt,cd (AS,,> 0) il, is possible t o find stlfficient,ly small :t.Il v:~litlfor arl)it.rnryV:II[ICS of t.11~ l'rnn(1t.l r111111bcr.In the spcc;i:~l(,:LSP I ~ I I C ~ ~ I ~ I -~0/ ,( I . I ~ ~
valttc,s of p -- P,,,,,, for whic:I~I)ot,l~vxlucs of I," arc ncgnt,ivc, tliat is for wl1io11 the tile last-tncnl.iorlct1 nlcl,l~od (:an I)c motlilictl t o illcl~ltlo tSllc tr:~nsfc.r of I1a;~l;.All
flow 11:1srcvorsc~tlit,s dirccLion. 1 n t l ~ cc:~soof :I coolctl wall (8, < O ) , 11oI,l1valrles of 1)rocc~lrlrc~s arc bnsctl on tllc assrlnlpt.ions t.11at o) ::: 1.
I,," ran Ijc posit.ivr, 1.11al. is 1)ol,l1can r ~ p r c s c n tnon-separated ~ flow patrl,erns. It is
sc.c:n, fin;~.lly,Ifhat, snp;~rn.t.ior~
rist,s :IS 111~:l.c~uprr:~.l,~~rn
(I,,," = O ) rnovcs i n tllc tlirect,ion of smnllcr pressrlro
of 1,Ilo wall is incrrn.sctl.
In 1 . 1 1 ~coltrsc of the last yams, \vorlr proccctlcti m:~inlyon 1.11~
I ) l r ~ n s\vit.ll hccct trrr~rsfcr.I'ron~ : L ~ I I ~ 1.11(:
I I ~ l ~ r o r ( ~ I ~ t\ r\ ~
o r ~ clr~ct.o M. h l o r c l ~ ~ r l ~17!)1.(:.
i t is nccc~ss:lrgt,o ~ n c n t ~ i t.llosc ow
( -l lsi ( ~nro
soltlt,iol~of liro-
l ~ rcst.l.i(-I.t:,Il o P - 1,
: I .II~I~(~/s I I o I , I c o
I ~ . ( : O ~ I ~ : I I I(.
I I I ortlvr t,o ~ . ~ : I I I s ~ ( Ifro111 11 f,o the pllydoal t1isLnnc:c 11, it is ncccssnry
~ I I ~ 1,11ovn.ri:~l)l(:
[lGn]. I t . ,J. Monngl1n.n ['i(i]nncl G::.I'oots [851. 1111 of' 111vtnf ~ ~ r O ~ ( ~ ~ . l1.0i t(.II(* ~ ~ :iI Sl S. IrI I~I Il~ ) -
tion tllat m -- 1. Tlle secontl : ~ n dtllirtl tncllloti on t,his list serve to tlctc?rminc the
1.0 111 ili.xt> (,qns. (I :1.H), ( 1 3. IO), (1:1.24), (I 3.25) ant1 (13.62). I t is then found tllnt
motnrnt~urnt,llicIzncss,sl<ill-rri~tion co(:rficit:tll, :LII(I ro(:lli(~i(!ntof llcnt 1.1.:111sli.r, u.l~r~t.c::~s
tllo first, ant1 forlrtll also portnit, t l ~ ctl(:l,c~rtrtitl:~t,iot~ of v ( : I o ~ i lant1 . ~ t.ctnl)o~.:rl.~trc [jro-
files. Lf'llcr~t,ho ntlmhrrs P nntl o e a c l ~tlilTcr lil.t,lofrom utliOy, i t is ~ ~ o s s i b I,o lo r ~ s o r t
t,o t h e metl~otltlevolopc.tl I)y 12. 15. T,i~xl.onant1 A. I). Young lfi81.
'I'l~cmctllod tlrie t o N. Curle [24, 251 ant1 G. M. 1,illcy 1651 arc vnlitl for nrbitrnry
Y'ho f:rct,or nlloatl of t,ho irltogml is co~n~rrlt,cd from cqn. (13.53), and t,hc f~lncl,ionnl vnlrlcs of t.hc Pra11rIt.1 n~rlnbcr,b u t arc bnsctl on tllc vincosily laiu given 11y eclns.
rcl:tI.ion b(:t,worn z nntl 2 I I I I I S ~ ,bc t,nlic11from cqn. (13.M). According t o eqns. (13.46) (13.4a) nnrl (13.23) with :I, const,ant b wl~ichmay, nt most,, tlcprrltl on z;l l l i s nlrnns
: L I I ( ~ (l3,(;2), I,II(: i~~t,(,gr:bncl
is t ~ n is Ii11t:ar. 'J'llt; \vorir ou N. (h~rlt:124 1 (*:~lct~l:~t,(:x
t,It:~t, t,I~cf ~ ~ n e I , i/L(!/') 1,11(: ~!lt:~r:~(:t,t!risl,i(:
parameters of t h e velocity borlntlary lnycr wit11 a n atlvcrsc p r c s s ~ ~ rgmtliont, e nncl
assnmes a forelz1~ow~1~dg~ of t,I~ctempcrat~lrcficld, 1)ttL ntfmi1.s t h a t the w:~lltcnlpcra-
tnrc rnny vary. Anotller paper by t l ~ csnmc author 1251 innltcs i t possil)lc t.o ra~lculate
t,llc rate of heat transfer on condition t l t ~ t l ~ ctlistril)r~t.ionof t l ~ cshcarir~gstress a t
'I1. Y. I,i ;~tttl11. '1'. N;t,g:~rnat,stt[GI] Ilavc stlcc:eotletl in deriving expressions for tho wall is known. G. M. J,illcy dctcrmitlcs 1.11~ sllrnring st,rcss : ~ tllc t w:dl nntl t h e
sitnil:rr sol1tl.iol13 wil,l~o~ll, I~avingt o otnploy t,l~r,llling\t~orL,h-Stocwartjsor~ t,m.,t~sfor- coofficicnt of heat- trrxnslcr in tlic presence of a l.cmperatttro whic:h v:~ricsalong tlrc
W. Mang1r.r 1711 in(Iic:~t.(:(ls ~ ~ l ~ s ( . i t ~ l tw11i(:l1
t~~:l.l.iot~. . i o r ~ sr a n 11c ~lsctlfor a n exnrt w:~lI.rl'l~cmebllotls worlred out by I. Ginzcl 1411 nntl I). N. Morris and ,I. W. Smith
vaI(~~~l:lt,ion \viI,l~:I,II nrl~il,rn,ryprcssttrt: ( I i ~ l ~ r i I ~ ~ ~ t ~ i o n . [80] nrc valid for a r b i t m y viscosily laiu.q, tllo l:~tt.aralso inclutling a vari:rl,lc wall
I<. Ilaslto1,lto anti 1. IC. I3cc:ltn~itlr 1861 pnblishcd a n cxnot cxlcnlation for t,hc tem~xrntrtro.
IIOIIII(~:L~Ylaynr on :L y:cwc?d c i r c ~ ~ l ac:ylincler
l.I~rcc-tlirnc:~~sic~tl:~I r with heat transfer 'rllc rc~s1ll1.s ol~l~nir~ctl witlll the :bit1 of a convcltl.iorlal npl~rnximatcc : : ~ l c ~ ~ l acnn lio~~
n.1~1:11, :III :~.rl~il,r:~.ry
v:~lt~(:of 1,Ilc I'rat~(ll,l111t111l)cr. IIC itrlprovrtl corlsitlcrnbly 11y t,ho npplic:tt,ion of :L procctl~trotlcvclopotl by I<. 'L'. Y : L I I ~
[IOJ;].

2. Approxirt~:rrc:r~~ctltncls.'I't~onnmcrolls : ~ p l ) r o x i t ~ ~kct.l~otlsnl,c which l ~ n v cbocll and e ~ ~ c r g y - i ~ ~ t cecluatiorls:

Rfo~tie~~tt~tn-itltegral grnl Wc I~cginour :~ccorlnl,Ijy t.11~
t l ( ~ \ ~ i s c ~l til~ r1,11(:
(':~.l(-~~l:~l,io~l
nr (:o~npr(:ssiI)l(:I:rtninn.r I)o~lntl:~ry lnycrs arc l)xsctl, in clcrivat.ion of t,llc niotno~lt~trm-i~~tcgrnl ant1 energy-ir~tcgrnlcclnxt,ions for con~prcssil)lc
IIIOSI, (::LSVS, on 1,111: ~ n o t ~ ~ ( : t ~ t , ~ ~ t ~ ~n.11cI
- i t ~o~crgy-int,rgr:11
t,cgr:~I cqnn.t,ionsor t J ~ bortndary
c I~onntlarylnycrs, I)c:anr~sctllcy forrn t,ho sLnrI.ing point of most npproxirnxtc Itroce-
1:1y($r. '1'11(: l.o:t(lc-rwill r(:(:aII I.~I:I.C f,Iliswas :~.lsotjho case wil01 incompressible boundary tlrlrcs. 111ortlcr Lo :~rhicvct.llis we rcfcr t.o tllc fnntlamrnt~nlcqnntions for cotn~)rcssil)lc,
l;l,yt-rs. 1\11 t,l~c.sc-al)l)rosiln:~,t,c:~nrf.llotlsIlnvo 1 . h ~cotnrnon fcaturc t h a t they lent1 1:~minarI)ottntlary layers a s recortled ill cqns. (13.6) t o (13.8). 1ntprodncirlgt h e local
I I I i n v o v t r r s ~ , I I : ~ III : o c s ' n ~ ~ l i c a tloc incompressible flows cntl~nlpy
\vhic:l~wt,rt: tlisc:~lssc-tlin (:llxp. X . TI)(: n~rrnbcrof alLernnt,ivc procctlr~resis rnucli
I;~rgc,r i l l 1.111: t::~.so of c~o~r~~)rc~ssil)le t,l~nnincornprcssit~lcbotrndary lnycrs as wonltl
1)r i.sl)c:alatl f'ronl ~.II(: incrc:nsc:tl nltn~l)crof vnrinblcs. J n this connexion t,llc surveys ant1 tilt: stagnation c n t l ~ a l p y
\vril.trn 11y A. 1). I'onng [ 1061 atltl M. Morducllow [79] may be consulted. A more
roconl, stlnlm:L1.p w:~s~)rc:j)nrc(lI)y N. C~lrlc[ZG].
 (1. Tlou~ttlnrylnycr wit,h non-acro prrssrtro grnclirr~t 355
354 XI 11. 1,nminnr i~oi~nrlnry
1:ryrm it1 rornprranil~lcflow

we can rewrite t,hc nncrgy c-q~ratior~

(13.7) in tho form:
y .
( ~ e l o c i t ~t,I~iclzt~css) (13.78)
U
cla
It is easy t.o vcrify from cclns. (13.73), (I3.74), (13.77) a.ritl (13.78) t , l ~ n 1.11~
t para-
n>cl,t:rs nl, b,, ant1 d,, satisfy tlic rclntior~

Irit,rgr:1l~ii1gt , l ~ ct n o r i ~ c n t , ~c:q~~nI,io~i
~ri~ (13.0) ant1 t p l ~c~ncrgy
c t~qirn.I.ie)n(13.71)
ovcr ?/,iri the snrrlc way ILR was tlono for i n ~ o ~ n p r c s ~ iflow, l ~ l cwo (::~ri o I ~ l . : ~(,Ire
i ~ i nio-
h) for an aclinl)nt.ic w:dl 1nrnt.111~1-ititcgr~~l:mcl energy-integral eqr~:ltiori for c:oui~)rcssil~lc flow. 'J'aiti~~gii~t,o
ncco~int.t,liat

Rq~iations(13.6), (IR.fi), (13.8) and (13.71) togcllicr with t h c boundary conrlitions

(13.72) c o n s t i t ~ ~ at c systcrn of four equations for t h e variables u, v , e ant1 A. The
pressure p ( z ) is known from Bernoulli's equation a n d is given b y eqn. (13.9); i t
remains constant over t h e thickricss of thc bounilnry Iaycr, i. c. ap/atJ = 0 . Since
I~~--~e.~(~+_~~~~)=~:~~
(Ix u dz 8, thl w (lxRO)

t h e prcsstrre remains constant across t h e layer, wc liavc a t every point Tlic crlrlat.ion for n~cckmnicn.1encrqy is olI.airicc1 by first multil)lyiiig cqn. (1B.G) by Cl~c
vrlocity component TL ant1 then intcgrnt-ing with respect to !/. Making use of tlic
continuity cqi~nt~ion and performing a t i i ~ ~ i i b of
c r sirnplificnt,ions, we obtain
A

where h,], T I ,el tlcnotc tho v n l ~ l r of

s cnthalpy, ternpcrature, and dcnsity, respectively,
a t tho orttcr ctlge of tlic boundary laycr.
W e now introdnee a displaccmcnt thickness, a momentum t?hickness and a n
energy-dissipxtion thickness in t h e samc way .M in incompressible flow and sevcral Or1 t.lic left-hand sidc of this ccli~ntioriwo tliscovcr t,lic mcc.l~anicnlwork of t.lic flow,
adtlit.ional quantit,ics clcfi riccl with t h c aitl of cnthalpy. I n this connexion the formcr tho trrm on tho right-hnntl sitlc rcpresci~t,ir~g t,hc (lissi~):~t~ioti.
111i~icornprcssil~lc
flo~,
parameters arc so dcfincd a s to reducc to the respective quantities for incomprcssiblc t h e sccoricl term on t h c Icft-liarid side vanishes bccaiisc tSlicn,with e r= const*,wc linrl
flow, cqns. (8.30). (8.31), arid (8.34), whcn p = const is sobstitirted in t h e definitjioris. t h a t a,, = 0. As n resirlt, eqn. (13.81) tmnsforms irito cqn. (8.35).
I)eiiot,ing Lhc bo~~nclnry-Iaycr t1iickna.s of the velocity laycr b y d , we int,rodiicc the
dc:finitioris : Thc c q ~ a t ~ i ofor
n thc increase in cr~l~lialpy- Iia1)itnnlly lrilo~vria s tho energy
A
equation for short - is obtninctl a s a result, of tlic intcgr:~tionof eqn. (13 71) over y.
Thus
dl : J - P-'!
el (1
) til (displnccment thiclrness) , 6

Thc loft-li.zntl sidc of this o q r ~ n l ~ i oreprrscnt.~

i~ the O I I R I I ~ C in f,llc rnt.linll)y of t<lio
strcnrii, whcrcas 1.11~1,crrns on t . 1 1 ~right,-hnntl sitlc clcscril,~it,s cli:~ngc-st l t ~ t ?In ~ I I O
tr;~nsl't:rol' lit!at, :kt, I,hc: w11,11 (sul~scrjl~t,
1 ~ :)~ n t lLo ilhv.gt-~~(:r:~l,io~~ 1,ltrc111ghcIissi~j:~l,io~t.
Noting t h a t cqn. (13.81) describes the loss in meclixn~cnlenergy, whereas cqn. (13.82)
describes the gain i n entl~a.lpy, we cnn obtain a n cq~rnt~ion wliicli describe-a the iticrcnsc
i n tola1 etzlhnllnl i n the x-direction by forming t.l~eirdifference. This yields
 11. Iloot~tlnrylayer with non-zrro prcrtnllrc grstlirt~t 357
both described earlier in clctail in Chap. X, when a pa.ssn.gc t o t.110 limit of incom-
pressible flow is performed.
Wc shall refrain from discussing this procedure in tlct,nil here, but, t,hc it~t,crcst.c!d
reader will be able t o find it in Chap. XI11 of t,hc Sixt,lt Edit,ion of t,his hoolr. \Ve
confinc our at,t,ention to the results of such caleulat,ion pcrformctl for an nprofoil in
a sul~sonicst,rcnm a,t a relatively high Mach nunibcrt.
rIllc
1 pot,cnt~ialpressure distjribrtt3io~ls
for t.he sr~c~I.iorl
sidc of the a.crofoil i l l ( ~ l ~ r s t i o ~ ~
'I.'l~cleft,-ltnntl sitlo of I.ltis c:clrtnt,ion r c p r e s r t ~ ttho , ~ it~crcnsrit1 I llo st.ngnat,io~~
rt~t~l~nlpy
of t he st.rctnnl i t 1 1.l1oz-tlirrct,inn, \vhcrcns t l ~ rrigllt-11:1r1tlsitle tlrsnribcs t,ltc qn:~t~t.it~y arc sccn plott.cd in Fig. 13.16 for f,hrcc M:~clt 1l11t111)o.s:M,,, - - z 0 ; 0.6; : I . I I ~ ~0 . 8 -
of I I ~ ~ : I ( .:~tltlrtlor st~l)t,rnrlt.tlI I t,l~c ~ wall. nt~tlfor ntl nrlgln of inc!itlonrr cr - = 0 . 'I'lto tlingr:~t~ls :~lsoi~lc:lr~rlt: p l o l , ~of 1,11(: l n * n ~ -
pcml~rrc:?I1 o111.sitlcl,l~cI)ortr~tl:~ry 1:lycr. ' r l ~ orcsrtlt.~of 1,llc: cnlcr~lnfion:~rc:sltow~kit1
I1111yrnl,i11g c v [ t t , (1:1.8:%)\ \ r i l , l ~ r c s l ) ( ~ t , z, \ b r c oI)(.:tin
Figs. 13.17 ant1 13.18. Tltc gmph in Fig. 13.17 sl~o\vst,hc v:~ri:~f,iotl of Ll~cI I I O I I I ~ ~ I I ~ I I ~ I
tbichncss O,, tho tlisplnc:cn~rt~t. l.ltic~ltr~c~ssd l , :I.S wc:ll :IS (.II(: . L I I I I ~ : L ~st.rtsss
~ I I ~ T,,, : I I O I I ~
t,hc snclriort sitlc:. As 1 . 1 1 ~R1:~cslt r~ut~tl~c:ris i~~carc~:lsc~tl, (.II(- 11oit11.ol' l:~~nitt:~r sc.~:~r:~liot~
movrs slight.ly forw:~rcl.I'hc variation of t.hc mo~nent~rltn l~Ili(:kt~~ss nt~tlshmritlg st,rcws
depcnds only littlc on t010 Mach number, whcrcns tllc tlis~)lnccmcnt,t.l~ic:ltrtrss0 ,
'I'llo rigllf,-lt:l~t~~l sic10 of C C ~ I (13.85)
I. vnt~ishes for a n nrlinhatic, loall sinre tho11 incrcascs cotisitlcrably as t l ~ cRlach nltlnl)cr is incrcnsctl. Pinnlly, Fig. 13.18 c1ispln.y~
tho vrlocit.y nncl t,t:tnperat,r~redjstril~ut.iotlsatt sev(:rnl p o ~ i t ~ i o :tIol~g t ~ s ~ ( I I c ro111.o1tr
(ilh/i)!l),,, --:0. 11. is 11ow convrtdent t,o int,ro(lr~cc 1,hc vc1ocit.y of sonnd :n = y 12 7'1 of t,llo norofoil. 'Chc vclocity profiles (lo not, c:llnt~~r n~nc:l~ wi(,l~t , l ~ cMnc.lt r~rltnbrr,
\vltich corrc.sl)o~~tls t,o t.ho s1.at.ca t t,l~cctlgt- of thc I~onntlarylayer. Sirlcc thcrl but ~ J I Ctcmpernt~arcprofiles show largc incrcnsrs in t,ltc wall t,cmpc!r;~t~rrowit.11
ibI Z C , , T I -=
r-I2
_. , incrcwing Mach nrtml)cr. ']'his is to l)e cxpcclctl, I)rc:a~~sc (.ltc wall was :lsst~~nctl
t s be adiabat,ie. 'I'hc ntlinl)nt,ic-wall t,cn~pcmttlrcs.7',, are :~.lsos l ~ o w r~)lol,t,c.tl ~ it1
il, f o l l o ~ sI,ll.~t Fig. 13.16. AII it~t~egrat~iot~ proce(li~rcfor :Ln :~(li:~l):~,t,i(! w:t.Il :I,II(I \ v i l t l ~ ~ , I I c 1~111~~Itt~r
(j,, -- - 2-I- - ( y 1 ) M2dR , (13.86) rcsl.rict,ior~st.llnt tho PrantltJ uumt)r.r is erlrlnl t,o 11nit.y : ~ t ~t,11:1t, t l I,II(: v isc,osil.~~ is
proportiot~nl t,o tcrr~pcratrtrcwas intlicnt,cd by N. 1tot.t :t.t~tlL. .I?. Cral,t.rcc 1.871.
The case of a circular cone it1 a n nxin.1 s ~ ~ p c r s o t ~s1,rcam
ic ri~l(:~~lnt.etl
11y
it, vicw of cqtl. (13.85). wllcrc M = TJlc, tlcnotcs thc local Mach n~tnlbcra t the outer W. 1T:l.ntzsche :~ncIIT. Wrntlt [45] const,itrut.esnn cxnnlplt: of an axially syn~tnc!t.ric:;~l
(:(lge s f t,llr hott~alnrylayer. Taking inta accnant the relations (13.79). (13.81) m d bouridary layer. The boundary layer on a yawed circular cone in a supersorlic stream
(13.86) we ol)t,nin t,l~cfinal form of t,he clt,erqy-i?ztegrn,leqlc.ntiolz: was considered by F. K. Moore [78]. whereas the case of a sljghtly yawrd cone
rot,at,ing in a supersonic stream was treated by R. Sedney I9:)J. Adtlitional calcnlntions
for rot,ating bodies were performed by S. T. C l ~ uanti A. N. 'l'iffortl I IT,] nr~tl by
J. Yarnaga 1 1031.
Thc proposition drrc to Mangler, described in Scc. X l c , permits 11s to redl~ce
the calculntion of axially symmetrical boundary layers on arbitxary bodics of rcvo-
lution t o t h a t i t 1 two-dimensional flow. I t remains valicl in td~cficltl of comprcssit~le
I<rluntiot~s(I 3.gO) :mcl ( I 3.87) represent, respectively, t<ltc i~lt~egralforms of tlllc fluid flow.
nlotnctrl.r~mn,ntl c~lcrgyeclnnt.ion of n cornprcssiblc, In.minnr boundary layer 011 at1
R. M. Inman 1511 analyzed the case of compressible Couette flow and cnlc~rlatecl
ntlixl~at,ic*wnll. 'l'hry c.ot~st~it,ntc
the hnsis for further calc,~lat,ionin ~pproxirnatc the skin-friction c:ocfficient for a n atliabatic as well as for a Iteat-transmit,t,irrg wall,
procr(lnn, clr~visr(l,atnong ot,hers, I)y Grtlsclrwit,~.Por incompressible flow, t h a t is but on the simplified assumption that the viscosity is proportional to temperature.
i t 1 t,hc litnil. whrn M +- 0, cqns. (13.80) a.nd (13.87) transform into thc monlent~nm-
I. E. Beclrwith [5] demonstrated t h a t i t is possible t o perform approximate calctllat-
int,rgrn.l a.11(1till(: c~t~rgy-it~t.egraI
equat,ions (8.32) and (8.35), respectively.
ions of compressible boundary layers on arbitrary, three-ciinlensional hotlies o t ~
condition that the components of the secondary stream shonltl be small corn1)nrntl
'nae nl~proximnterroccdore due to G P I I R C ~ Wn! ~ ~xvhat
Z : fo\lovvs,We sha\l pllrs11e with those of tho main flow.
nt~lynnr of the very namerota npprn~inmat~e proenlurcs, namely t h a t which was
I I . Cnlsclnuitr I j l J It, is applicable t o acliabat,ic walls with (1) = I ,
bnt ftir nrl,it,ml.y 1)rantltl numbers. As far as the amount of nlrmerical work is con- t 'I'l~ern~t~hor
is inrlehted to Mr. F. nfo~erfor \vo~.ltingout this exn~~~plc.
Sinco (:t.~~svl~\vitx'~ 111f:t l10(1
doen not lcntl t,o re;l.sot~nblrtclnpernturrs, the prment trl~lprrntl~l.c:
prolilr~I I I I Y ~1)rr11raI(~~tI:~trd
ccrnnl, this procc(l~lrcis st,ill relatively sirnpln It has the added a(1vantage t>tlati t 011 tho bnsiu of ref. [36].
goes over into the schcme rlcvisnl by I<. Pohll~ausenand II. IIolstcin and T. Bolllen.
358 XI1 I. l,:in~in:~.r
I P O I I I I ( ~ : I:~yvrs
I~~ i n c-o~i~~)rvssiljl~!
flow e. I r ~ l ~ r n o l l>ctwccn
i o ~ ~ sl~ockwave and l)o1111r111ry
layer :j59

Fig.. 13.16. In 1:).18. lain~il~nr

ho~~nclary
layrr in co~nprrwihlcs~~bsonic
flow for the s~~ction
niclr? c,T t.llc NACA H4 10 nrrol'oil r ~ r tI,l~c
h1:1~11 11111nl)(:r
nsnl~~npt.ion
P -- 0.725. C::~l~:~~lilt~ion
M,., -- I l . r r / ~ , . , ; I'r:\nclI.l l~l~niljvr
-
of :in ncli;r\iat,icwall. Angle of incirlcnre a 0".
b:wcd on t,11c approxi-
I I I ~ I A ! IIICI,II(MI Ijy I+;.(:r~~scli\vilz
1431
S - l w i n l of sf.lbnr<l.iolt

Fig. 13.18. n) Velocity distributions and

b) temperature distrib~~tiorls
in tlio boundary
lnycr nt dilTcront Mar11 n~rmlmm 6,

Fig. 13.16. 1'otcnti:~Ivclocit,~rlisl.ri1~11I.io11 I'ig 13.17. Momrnbnrri t.l~inknc?s~ I),, clin1)lxcr- with each otlicr. T l ~ i sleads to plienotncna of great complcxity I)ccn~isctlhc l)cl~avio~rr
(IllJ,, nt tl~c?
o111cradgo or 1 . 1 1 ~bonncl;rr.y tt~c~il.l.hinknr,s.s cT,, ant1 nl~oarir~g sI.rc%~T,,, of t h e 1)orrndary layer clcpentls mainly on tlrc Reynoltls nnmhcr, \\~tlercast,hc con-
layrr, t.lic cornspontling trn~~)(:r:it.t~rr dis- Tor cliK(:rc!~~Lhl:~rllrn~ri~l~crs
lriI)~~l,ion nnrl t,l~<:v:~riat~io~iill ditiorrs in a wavo arc primarily tlcpetidorit on t,I~cI\Iar:Il I I I ~ I ~ II ' )l ~ r~c.arIic.st.
.. systtx-
f , l ~ on ( l i : i l ~ : t t ~ c\v:III l(-~nprr:~I,nrf-.
7',,/'/',,, matic invest,igetions in which tlicsc two inflrrences urcrc clcarly scparat.rtl Iin.vr I)ccn
p1tt 1.0 hand a long t,irnc ago. .I. Acltc~rct..IF. Fcltlnin~itrn11t1N. 1tot.t [I], 11.\,V.I,ir11-
lnann 16x1, G.R. Qndtl, W. lloltlcr ant1 . J . I). Rcg:l.n 1381 vnrictl i l l t.l~circsl)r~.itr~cnt*
t.he Reynolds and Mach numbers intlcpendcntly of cach other arrtl so s~tct:ccdcdin
e. Ilitcractioa between shock wave and bountlary layer providing some cl.zrificat,ion of this complex interaction. The most import,ant rcs111&q
obtninotl in 1.11~ ahovc t.tircc invcst~igat.ior~nnrc tlr:xc:ril)c.tl in t.l~issr:c:t.io~r.\V(: I I I I I S ~ , ,
Wlicn a solicl I>otlyis placcrl in a stream whose velocity is high, or when i t flies however, atld t,hat a cornplct,~~rntlcrst~antling of tthcsc complex l)hc:nolrirn:~11:~s c~l~~tl(:tl
through ; ~ i rwith a high velocity, local rcgions of supersonic velocity can be us t o t.liis clay.
forri~ctlin il,s nc~iglil~o~irl~ootl. The transition from snpcrsonic velocity t o subsonic
vclocit.y against, the n.djoinir~gadverse prcqsnre gradient will u ~ n a l l ytake place Tlre pressure iricm:~scalong the I)o~rriclery1:tycr tnrrst ~llt~inr:~tcly l)c t,hc snrnc
a s t h a t in tfhc cxLcrnal flow bccarrse t h e streamline which sepamt?estho two rrgiorls
I Irrol~glr:L sI~o(:kWRVC. OII crossing the very ttliin shock wave, the pressnre, dens it,^,
tn~rst,1)c:oomc pnr:cllol 1.0 t.hc c:oritn)~~r of tfho I~otly:~f't,c.rl,l~osl~oc:k.111 1,111: l)otrrttl:~.ry
:rntl t.rm~)or:~t.irrc of t . 1 1 ~Il~ridchntigc a t cxt,rcmely high mt.os. l'lio rates of change
fn.ycr, by its ri:bturc, l J ~ eparliclcs rrcnr the wall rnovc with subsol~icvcloc:il,ics I)r~t.
arc so Iriglr t,liat, thc t.ransit,ion can hc r c g ~ r d c da s heir~gdiscontinuous, except for
shock waves can only occur in s~rpersonicst,rcams. I t is, t.hcrcforc, clear t,lrat a shock
t,11e irnmctliat,c nciglrbo~lrhoodof the wall. The existence of shock waves is of fun-
wavc which origirratcs in tlic extcrrlal st,rcam cannot reach right 111) to Iflie wall,
ctarn.cnt,al itnport,arrcc for the drag of t h e body ,as they often cause t h e boundary
ant1 i t follows t h a t tho pmssurc gmtlicnt. p r n l l c l t o t.lrc: xvnll musk On mrir:l~ niorc:
I:~ycr 1.0 scp:lrnt,e. 'l'lro t,licomticnl calcalatio~rof shock waves and associated flow
grarl~rn,lit1 t.lic ~ ~ c i g l i l ) o ~ r r l of
~ ol,hc
o ( l wall t,l~nlrit1 tho cxt,crr~:~l
sl,ro:~nl.N(:~ir1.110 1)oirtt
lit-lais is vrry tlil'lin~~lt,,n.tid wc (lo not propose to d i s c ~ ~this
s s topic here. Experiments
whcrc the shoclr wavc reaches trowards tohe wall, the r a h q of changc of al~lazancl
slio\\r tl~nt,t,l~c~)roccsscsof shook and borindary-layer formatiori intteract strongly
360 XIII. Larnitlar bo~tndoryInyers in compressible flow

l'tg. 1:1.1!). Srl~licrenpl~otogral~l~ of sl~ockwave; direction of flow front left to right, aftcr
Avltrrrt, Ifrldtnnnn nntl Ilott [I]: rr) 1:lrninnr boltnt1:~ry layer; tnult.iplo I-sl~ock,M = 1.92.
R,r, - :!!)(I; I)) t11rl)rllrnt 1)011nd3rylnyrr; rlorrnal ullork, M - 1 2 8 , Rn, - 1159
I'ig. 13.20. lsohars in a shock re-
gion i n I:~tninar flow (I-sllock),
i ~ f l r r Arkc-rrt. 1prldr11n1111nttd
I(ot,t I I ]
a u p t)econie
~ of the same order of magnitude, ant1 tmnsvrrsc prrssurc grntlirrlts ciLn
also occur tllcrc. not11 conditions rcntler tlto well-lrttown n s s ~ ~ m p t i o nofs hnrttltl:uy-
layer theory invalid.
The a,ppenrancc of tho shock wave is furltlamcrlt,nIly tliFfcrctlt tlrl)c.t~tlillg 0 1 1
whrt.hor tJtc borttttlary lnycr is latninar or t,url)rtlcnt,, Fig. 133.19. A sllor(, tlist:~lic-c-
allcntl of tltc poirtt wltcrc the csscnt,ially pcrpctltlicrtl:~rsltovlc wave itnpit~gcs011 :I
laminar bounrlsry layer, there nppea.rs a short Icg forming a so-cnllctt J - s l t ~ r k .
Fig. 13.19n.. Tn gcncml, wllcn the boundary lnyer is turbulent,, tltc rtor~nnlsltoc:li tlot.~
n o t split and n o 2-sllocks a.rc formed, Fig. 13.19b. An obliv~ceshock wlticlt ilnpitlgek
on a laminar boundary laycr from t h e outsicle becomcs rcllectcd from i t ill t,llc for111
of n fan of expansion waves, Fig. 13.30a. Ilowever, wllcn t.lle bourltlary lnyrr is
trurbnlcntj,the rcflcxion nppmrs in teltc form of n 1not.c concc?ntJrnt,c~t1
csl)ntlaiotl wn.vcx
(Fig. 13.30b).
The plot of isobaric crlrves in Fig. 13.20 ant1 the 1)rrssrtrc crlrvcs ill lcig. 1:j.21
~ l l o wt,hat t . 1 ~rat,c of prcssrlrc itlcrcnsc along a Iaminnr or :I tnrl)~tlcnLI,or~tltl:~r~.
lnycr is more gratlnal tllan in tltc cxtcrrlal stream. 'l'his llrtttcllirlg ol' Lltc 1)rcssltrc
gradient in t h e boundary layer is describetl by stating t,llat the prcssurc dist.ribrrtior~
"tliffnses" near the wall. It is observed tllat diflusion is much lnorc pronorttlcctl
for a laminar tPhanfor a turbulent bountlary Iaycr. T l ~ ctlifkrcncc bcLwccn 1nniinn.r
a n d turbulent shock diffusions can also be recognized from Fig. 13.22 whioll roprcscr~t~s
tho pressure variation along n flat platc placed parallcl t o n supersonic st.rmtn. 'L'llc
mcasnrctncnts were pcrforrnctl by 11. MT.llicplnntlrt, A. l t o ~ l t l ~attd o S. I)h:r\vi~t~
[64]. T h e pressure p l o b llavc been tnlren rlcar thc p o i r ~ ton tllc plat,c wllcrc t,llc
oblique shock produced by a wedge interacts with t>llcb o ~ ~ n t l n rlaycr. y Tltc prcssurc
gratlicnt is cor;sitlcrnbly steeper for tthc t u r b t ~ l c n tt,hnrl for tlic 1:rrnitlnr 1)oltntlary
Iaycr. The witltl~of diffusion is cc111nl t o about 100 d itt t,ltc case of int.nr:~c.fiotlwit11

Fig. 13.22. Prrsqnro tlistrihution along n 016

flat plate a t s~rpcrsonicvelocity in the
ncigl~bonrl~ood of the region of reflcxion 817
of n shock wave from lanlirlar and tur-
hrtlcrtt borrntlnry layers, aftrr I,irprnann, 008
Itosltko and Dlln\van [fi4]
houodnry-lsyrr t l ~ i r k n r s s : Innti~bnr 6 z 0 7 IBI~II
(0.028 in), t u r b l ~ l c ~d ~zst 1.4 111rt1 (0.056 In)
-8 -6 -1 -2 0 2 b 8
firl~incedloq ~ i //in/cm
 r. I~itcrnctionbrtwceir nlroclr wnvo nncl bo~~rtclat:).
I:ryer 363

a Intnirin.r l)out~rlnryI:r.ycr, but; rlocrcasrs t o about 10 0 for n t u r h ~ l l e n t1)ountlnry

Iayor; t,ltr! syn~l)ol tlnr1o1r.shrrc t,l~t:I)o~tntlnry-layort,lliolrness in i,hc si~oolrregion.
T'ho liigliar tlcgrco of tliffrlsior~wllicli is cli:tmotorislic of laminar boi111tI:~rylnycrs
can I)c ~tritltrsf,ootlif it, is not,ctl t h a t tllc srlbsonin rclgion of flow ext,cnds furf,licr
away fronl t h e wall in x Iamirtnr than in a t,rirk)rtlcnt bountlnry layer.
Irrrspcct,ivc of wl~ct,llorsepxmt,ior~tlocs or tlocs not occur, t h e bountlnry-layer
t.l~ic:kncssiricrtnscs nlicatl of tlrc poinl, of :~rrivalof {.he shock wave. T h e pressure
increme a t Lllo o~tt,crctlgt: ol t11c Iiortntl:iry I:~yer,ant1 hcr~ccalso insitlc t,ho I~ountlnry
layer, corrcspondn t o t,hc c~lrvrtlst~rcan~lilic wl1ic:lt is corlvox in the tlirection of
t.11~wall ant1 wllicli scp:r,mt,c~stlrt: oxI,t:r~r:ilfrom the 1)oirntlary-l:~yor flow. l+Jvcn in
tllc tlolnain of irlflucncn or i , l ~ ccxpnnsio~lw:~vcs which nppcnr in t,he rcllcxion of
a n ol)liquc shock wave, t l ~ sligl~t,
c tlccrc:asc it1 pressure in t h e t)onntlnry layer, l'ig 13.22,
corresponds t o tdw fact t h a t t h e curvature of t h e dividing streanlline is concave
lowards tho wall. A laminar boundary layer which has not sepsratetl can support
only very small pressure rises becal~sctllc external flow ilnprcsscs on i t the prcssrtrc
gratiicnt oxclasively t h r o u g l ~v i s c o ~ ~forces.
s A non-sepnmt,etl tnrl)rllcr~tho~tndnry
layer can t,:t.kc up mr~clilarger pressure p a d i c n t s because now t h e t l ~ r b u l e n tmixing
motion aids the process. Both laminar and tirrbulcnt boundary layers nre in a position
t o snpport the large pressure increasaq of strong shock8 if they separate. Tn particular.

O Fig. 13.24. Schliercn photograph of Lhc flow past an nerofoil. Shock-wave ant1 bountlary-layer
,
shock netr internction. Cam (2): Lnrninnr boundary lnyer with aepnrntion nlicad of tho sllock, b i ~ tre-
nttacliing behind shock. M = 0.84, R = 8.45 x I W , nftnr 1,ieprnnnn [OBI

8-7O
I
Fig. 13.23. Ilrllrsion o i n sl~ockurnvc from a f.nrl)rrlorilborrndnry lnyor or1 a flat wall, after
S. M. Ih)grlor~oll'r i r i t l (!. IF. I<cplor [ti]. Ilo~~nrlnry-lo.ycr tl~icknrsq nlrcncl o f uliock wsvc
r FT 3 r l i n i (0.12 in). n) 1Vm.k nl\oc.k, tloflcxion atiglc 0 == 7". Ilcflexion sirnilnr to Lllnt in fric-
Y When t,he strangt,h of the shock is incrcn.scd ( 0 = 13O), t.110rcflcc.l,etl pat,t.crn corit:iins
t.ir,t~lt:ssilo~v; i1t1 I,onrirl:rry-l:ryrr ncl,nrnt.ion; b) St,rong sl~orlz;dcflcxion angle 0 2 13". 120-
lIr:xir,r~ i n I ' t r v n ~ o f a tiysld~rno f corrr~,rcsnir~ri
nnrl rxpnriniotl wnvcs; honnrlirry-lnyrr 8cl)arnI.ion;
c) I'rcsal~rcclisl.vil~~~t,it~ris nL clilTcrcnt rlrllrxion onglcs 0. Scpnrat.ion occnm nt p,,,,/pW = 2 npprox.
in t.ho t r ~ r t ) ~ t l c case
n t t.11~tlcatl-water vortox I)ctwocn tho srpaml.cd 1)o111ttlnrylaSrr
ant1 t ' l ~ cwall cnn crrat<oconsitlcrable vclocitics wlricll carry l.lto inner ctlgo or i.110
bount1ar.y layer against, t.hc pressure rise Ijy t.11~action of v i s r ~ s i t ~ y'l'ht:
. sltct.cli iri
Fig. 13.23 s11ou.s how t h e bor~ndarylayer arrtl the dead-water rngion ttllicken ahratl
of t h e front and become t f ~ i n n e rbehind it. Finally, a s sllown in Fig. 13.23, tlto
boundary layer re-attachcs itself completely. The same pllcnomcnot~is also visible
in Fig. 13.24.
'I'hc? skclfnho~in Fig. 13.23 rcproclnee 1 . 1 1 ~r c s u l l ~of sorno ~nrasl~rcnit:t~l.s 1,r:r-
formed by S. M . I4ogclolloff and C. R. Koplor 161 in t:onnrxion wii.l~ their invcst~ip:c-
tions into tho rnflexion of obliclue sliock wavrs from a flat. wall mrryirlg a t , ~ ~ r l i r ~ l r t l t
bonndary layer at, a Mach tiulnbor M, = 3 in tile cxt,ornnl st;ro:~rn.'.L'lio sltnt,c:llcs
in Figs. 1 3 . 2 3 ~ant1 b show t h e reflexiorts of a weak ant1 a strong sllock, rcsprctivcly,
their st,rength being regulated by the mng~utl~clc of tllr clcflcxion ariglo 0. Wlic.11
tho shock is weak (0 = 7 '
)
, t h e rcRected shock presents a pattern whicl~~vorlltlbe
expected on the ba.sis of ideal-flow theory, arltl t,hc b o u l l t l a r ~lnycr tlocs not srl)n~.at,o.
a uystorn of cnrnprossion nncl oxpansion waves. 'l'ho I)or~ntl:try 11iyt:r rxliil)il.~:I
11~rgolot!al l,I~it:lc(:ningwliiol~1t:arIs t<ost:p:rrt~I,ion.'l'l~t! I)o~~rtrl:~r~y
Irr,.vr!r ix l,Irit!lcr:r I r ~ ~ l ~ i r ~ r l
the rcflcctctl than ahcatl of the incitlcnt, shoolc. Tltc corrcspontlirlg prcssurn t l i ~ t ~ r i -
364 XIII. Laminar boundary layers in comprcssihle flow
I . 2 S~:lllicrot~
pl~ol,ngr:ll>l~
of t,l~cflow ~~:lsl,
nrl arrofoil. Sl1oc.k-wnvr.and t~ortntlnr~r-laycr
R -
inkmct.ion. Cnsc (3): 1,ntnirlnr 1)orlntlary I:iyor with scparat,ion hcliintl sllock. M = 0.90,
8.74 x 10" aft,rr 1,icpmantl [(i3]
butions along t,hc wall arc shown plottecl in Fig. 1 3 . 2 3 for
~ different deflexion angles
(and l ~ c r ~ cctiffcrcnt
e shock strengths). Separation occurs for O > go. The pressure
rise which lratls to scpzmtion is independent of the deflexion angle and has a value
of ahont p / p , = 2.
The incidence of transition and srparation in the r~cigllbo~irhood of an impinging
shock wave are governed principally by the Reynolds number of t h e boundary
layrr anti by the Mach number of the extcrnal stream. When t h e shock is weak
and the lteynoltls nnmbcr is very small, thc boundary layer remains laminar throngh-
out,. Tncrrasing the Reynolds n i ~ m b c ra t a fixed,.'small Mach number, causes transi-
tion tosoccur at tbc point of impingement,. When thc shock is strong (largo Mach num-
ber) ant1 t,hc Itc~ynoldsnumber is small, tho laminar bountlary layer will scparatc
ahratl of t,hr shock front owing to prcssnrc diffusion; i t may also undergo transition
ahcad of t.11~shoc4< front.. When the lteynolds nr~mbcris large enough, transition
in thc t)onr~tlarylnyrr occurs ahcad of the shoclr, w!~cther tho boundary layer has
Fig. 13.26. Schlieren phot,ograph of the flow past an acrofoil. Sllock-wave and boundary-layer
interaction. C a ~ e(4): Boundary layer trlrbule~~t
R = 1.60 X 10" after 1,i~prnann1631
ahead of shock, no ucpnration. M = 0.85,
separated or not. According t o observations made by A. Fage and R. Sargcnt [RBI,
turbulent boundary layers d o not separate when the pressure ratio p,/pl is smaller
than 1-8, which corresponds to a Mach number M, < 1.3 for a normal shock wave.
1~1lrI.11c:r
cxperimcnt.al rc:s~~lt.s on t.11~it~l.c:racI~io~l
I~c!l.wcr?tisl~oc:lcwirves itr~tlI~oilnclrl.r.y
lagcrs car1 bc fonnd in the p111,licntions by W. A. Mair [G9], N. I l . .Johar~noscn1521,
0. Itartisley and W.A . Mair [R], ant1 .J. Lulcasicwicz and ,T. I<. Itoyle 1671.
During more recent times attempts have been tnadr to rlescribe the interaction
bctwcen a laminar bor~ndarylayer and a shoclr wavc by theoretical mcnns. S11cl1
attempts were mostly unsuccessful bccause, generally s~~ealring, the assurnpt.ions of
I)oirntlary-lnycr theory 11rcn.k tlown tlrnr a sltorlc wnvr. In somc s1.11clivst~~ltnct.it:~t.l
int,cgml.iot~swcrc bnscd on 1.11~Nnvicr-Stoltrs rcl~rnl;ions.11 rcvicw of' L11t. (-111.t.(:nt
c x problcms can I)c found in the pnprrs 11.y ,J. I). Murphy 181n.1,
sta1,r of this ~ o l n ~ ) I of
R . W . MacCorrnnck [14aJ, J . M . Klincber [%a], ,J.C. Cartcr [14.b], and J.1). Murphy
e t al. 181bI.
 r
I IIC variolts c,lTc*~-l.sol'sl~ocltsimpinging on a 1)ortrldnr.y In.yrr will now be illustm-
1

l,c-tl wit,l~roSct.rnce to Schlicrcn pl~ol,ogrnplis.As point.ctl o u t by A. T I . Young l.lO(i1,

i t is ~)ossil~lt:
l o tlisI.ittgnisll tllc following cnscs:

(2) 'I'lic npl)ronc:l~irlgI)o~trttl:rrylager is Intninar, but scpnmt~csn.hend of t l ~ eshock

I)c:t.n.ltsc of I.hc: :~tlvcrsc prcssrtre grntliont ant1 l.licn retnrns to the surface in
c:il.hnr a Innlinnr or t,t~rl)ltlcrltst,nt,c, Fig. 13.24t. Fig. 13.27. ICKcct of Reynolds nnmbcr
(3) 'I'lic nl)pro:~c:l~ingI)olttitl:lry layer is Intninnr, srpnmt~cscornl)lot.rly from tllc oli prranllre rtint,rihut.iol~ ott the rapper
s~irf:~nc: RIIC:L(I of I,llc sI~o(~lz,
and (1ot:s tlot r(:-attncli i t ~ c l tf o tlte st~rfncc,Fig. 13.25; nitlc of ntl norofoil ill the 1rn11so11ie
t,lln sllorlc is normal arttl sprorrt.~R A-li~nl). veloc:it.y rnllgc, n f t ~ r C;. L. 1,oving
1661: r*o~~lparisoli I)et,n.re~~ flight t a t
( 4 ) 'i'llo :tppronc.hit~gItottntlnry layer is I ~ t r l ) ~ ~ lrind
r r ~ l clocs
. not sepnmt,o frotri t,lic
s~~rf:lrc,I'ig. 13.26.
-
(filll srnlc) n.t R ---- 3 x 107 nnd willti-
t,rlnlicl tent nt R 4 x 101. Nntrtrnl
I.rn~lsil,ion in frrc flip11t.: t.ril?l)otl~ , ~ I L I I -
n i l . i o r ~i l l w i l ~ c l - t . t ~ ~Icwl.. l St~l~rriLi.
l ~ ~ on)
. i oM,,,
r:tl vnlr~vit,.yd i n l , r i l ~ ~ ~ tfvr ~ ~ = 0.76;
lift cocfficic~~t c,, 0.3; snt,isl:wl.ory
A lot~gtime ngo. A . I511se111ann [IO] pr~l,lisllccl observnt,ions on I~ocindary-la.yer agrcetncnt betwe~nfree-flight h t nt
sc-~~:wat.iot~ ill S I I ~ ) ~ - ~ S (low.
O I ISt~l)rrsoni(:
~C: I , I I I I I ~ ( : ~ Sarc IIRIIII.IIY cqltipl)rtl ~ i 1 . hn (IiITnscr R - 3 x 10' nilel wind-t~~lilicl tent nt
wl~irllsrrvtw 1.0 rrc20vc:r I)rctssrlrc f r o ~ n1 . 1 1 ~ltigll wintl vclot:ity. 'l'hcsa tlilT~tscrs;Lro R = 4 x 10" I)) Sllpcrcrit,icnl prcwlrro
tnn~lci l l 1 . 1 1 ~sll:sl)c of c o t ~ v c r g e t ~ l . - d i v w rll:~t~ncIs tlt t01rougI1whicll t,hc strcatn flows tlistrihntion for M, = 0.85; lift coeffi-
wil,ll 3.11 :~.cIv(-rsc~)r(*sst~rc gr:l~lie~~I,in I)olrl~1.I1cconvcrgcnt ntltl tfhr clivcrgcrlt portion. rie~ltr,, % 0.34; lnrge devintion be-
A. I%ttsc-nl:~r~t~ oltsc,rvctl I,II;IL ;it. all M:~cll~ ~ ~ ~ r nscp:~rntion l ~ c r s t l i t l not tlcpcntl on eillicr l,\vcrn frcc-llight test nt R = 3 x lo7
tltc nnglr ol' oonvcrgrtim or on t,l~cariglc of tiivcrgcncc, I)ut t h a t it coultl always be nlld mind-tut~ncltest a t R = 4 x loR
nssoriat,rtl wit.11 l,hc :~.tlvcrscprcss~~rt; grntliont. Tri this connoxion i t sllot~ltlbe rexlixctl wi11d I I I I I I I ? ~(transiilnn flxctl)
t.ltnb lltc r11:ltt~rin t.llo cllnmc:t,rr of tthc flow wl~iclloccurs a t I~ighcrMar11 nnm1)crs f l i g l ~ 111ll
i srale
is linkr~clwit,l~c:lln~lgctlr o ~ ~ t l i l ~for i t ~t.lrt.
~ ~ atlvcrsc
s pressure grnclic~nt.~.
,Lltr
. c.o~~siclt~t.:~l,iot~s vot~ct'rning1 . 1 1 ~I)(~hnvioltrof' I,ol~ntl:lry 1xyrt.s or) ac:rofoils in
111t I I . ; I ~ I s ~ , I ~ I ~. ~~ ~ g it.11:~l.
n i e foIIo\v t.rScr (-ssrnt.inllyt,c) t,11t.1)ttIrnt,I)ot~n(larylayers wl~ic-l~
\ \ i l l I)(. sttttlit.tl In.1c.r in (!II:I~s. X S l l nnd XX11I. S i t ~ r c Iiowcvrv. , t,t~n.nsit,ion pln,ys
:I 11avt ill lIt,~s(> ])t~ot:c~ssc~s,wc: shall itlst.1.1 I.lt(~111 11(*1.t!. P\.PII t . l ~ o ~ t gt,llc l ~ Lrn~tlsil~iot~
~M.u~.~'ss i t s t t l f ' will also I)(, tlisc:ltsst~tl l:~.I.t:r.t ~ a ~ n o lin y (:llnps. XVl ant1 XVI I .
'I'll(, i ~ ~ I t ~ t . : ~ tl)t:l\vt~~t~ ~ t , i o t ~ I l l ( : I ) o I I ~ I ( I ; I ~ I ~l:ry(:r nncl t11c t;xl,t!rn:~lflow is p a , ~ ~ l ~ i c ~ ~ l a ~ t ~ l y Ipig. 13.28. Corners in pnrnllel, Ilypcr-
stt.cr~~g in I I I C I.I.:I~IXOII~C rrgirnr. I'ignrc 1:1.27 n.fl,crG . 1,. Loving Ifif;] cont.ai~ls an rxperi- sotlic flo~v ----
M,
I I I ( . I I ~ . : I ~c.onl.t.il)ut.ionc:onsist.it~gof tnr:l.s~~t.t~rnc~t~t.s of 1)rcssorc tlislril)r~lionson nn nrt.o- .:..:...:.:-... Ct~rnrnwit11 cnnrldrn~l,lroverl~ratlng Nacelle f w engine/ Roo1 of w;ng
foil i t 1 Iligltl. (1:lr.g~I<c:y~loltls1111tnl)ct.) cotnpat.c~lt,o t,ltat, in n \vintl t , ~ t n ~ l(retlucctl cl
I?.c*yt~c)ltls I I I I I I I I I ~'l'llr ~ I . ) I)o~tnrl:~t~y
. I R ~ C I . S n.t.t: t ~ ~ t ~ l ) ~ tovt,~. l c t l t1 . 1 1 ~grcnt.c\r pi1t.1. of tall(:
\ v c ~ l l t ~ t[ l~ c ~ ~ . i t i t t . l c .itt.1 csitltc-r (:as(,. '1'110 t\vo I)rrssllt.cbtlisl~t~iI)~tt~io~~s. Illr o t ~ rit1 t.I1(. wi~l(l
~ I ~ I I I I V I I I I I I I t11v ~ I I I V i t 1 fligltl. : I ~ I Y Y , s:~lisl':~.t~l,orily, :LI, Mw - 0.75 (Pig. 1:!.27a,) for supersot~icrvgions oti t.11~ acrofoil, the two prc:ssnrr. tlist.ril~r~f.ions tlill'c:~.co11siclt~t~:~l)l.y.
\vllit.ll l i t ~ I~. I~I O. Il I ,~ I I (.It(: I ~ . ( . ~ I I o I I I s 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ~ l t ~ 1 ~ ~
I I I . ~ ~ S S I I It. ~l ~i s l ~ . i l ~ ~ ~isl iSI~ i~l l t ~i ~ ~ l ~ ( ~ r . i(:v(.II ' I ' I t t ~ sItot:l< \ v : ~ v ( : ( I I I I ~ I Ill(! 1)oitillI I ~ ' H ~ ~ ~ I I I ~ . l Ii 1I1 .l i~c .~t l ~ \I vI i l . l ~il) is 1t~t.11.I.v~l
111t1c.11 1.1111l1t.1.
i l l I i I l 'I . I V I , I M -- 0.85 (Il'ig. 13.27 11) wl~ic:ltgc~tic~~.:~l.c*s loc.nl tlo~vnstrmtna t t,lle Iargor Iteynolds nurabcr R = 3 x 107 of free fligl~tt , l l : r t ~ XI) L l ~ c :
wind-t~lnnel Rcynoltls n l ~ n ~ b cofr R = 4 x 106. 'r'llc pltgsicnl rxplnrln.triot~of (.l~is
circ~ln~sl~nncc is connrc*l.rtl,I ) ~ C S I I I I I I L\vif.lt I ) I ~1.110
, f i ~ t ~t.11111 l. l11t' l1o11ttc1111.y 1i1yt.r111 ( I t ( '
lowcr Iteynoltls nurn1)c.r of t,hc w ~ ~ I ( ~ - ~ . I Ir IxI ~I ~ ~ (( ~~~t ~ i ~ isn(-o~~sitl~~t.:lI)Iy
(~tlI, 1.Ilit.ltc~r( ( ~ O I I I .
pnrcxel to t,l~cnrrofoil t,l~ic:ltness)ant1 t,ltc~rcf'orcstlisl~l:~aos I,II(* sl~oc~lz \v;~vc:: t t l t l ( I I ~ : ~ ) o i ~ l l ,
of srpnra(,ion triggered by it frlrtJier ~tpslrrntn.11 is tlllts possible to ronrlrttlc tl1:1t
308 XIII. Laminnr boundary layer8 in compressible flow c. Inkroction bctwccn sllock wnvo and I)o~rnclnrylnycr
369

1 . 2 Sclllicren plrotogmph of the flow past nn aerofoil. Sllock-wave and boundary-layer

interaction. Case (5): Turbrllcl~tboundary layer wit.11 atrong separation 1)chind shock. M = 0.90,
R - 1.75 x 10'. after Liep~nann[T,:!]

t h e inll~lonccof Itcynoltls nnnlhcr o n tdlc I ~ o n r ~ t l n rlayery - a n d hence also o n t h e

shoolr wave a s well a s o n t,hc associatcci point of se,paration - is q u i t e considerable
i l l 1,ransonic flow. As n result,, t h o value of t,hc Reynoltls n u m b e r has a much great,er
t i c o/ Mach
cll;,c:t, O I I all ac,rotlynnrnir. cllar:tct,crist,ics of :tn aerofoil in t,he t r a ~ ~ s o ~range
n711n.hrrst,11nr1cit,llcr in snbsonio o r in tho p ~ i r c l ysupersonic rrgime. For this reason
i t is nccc,ssary t.o exercise nt,rnost c:tlltion when test results fronl wind tunnels in
t,r:~rl~onic
t . I ~ ( b t.:&ngc7a r c rlectl t o pretlict, I)cl~nvionrin flight. F u r t h e r experimental
rc~sl~lln on l.l~ist.ol)ic: <:a11Oc f o l ~ n ( lin 127n, 84, 91 1.
\[cry c s t , c ~ ~ s i recent
vr e ~ p e r i m e n t ~ arcsult,s
l in this field wcre cornmlrr~icntcd I)y
.I.
.J. I<ac~)rz~ynslzi 15:iJ.
Ifcat-transf'cr problems in t h e I ~ y p e r s o ~ t irange
c occur d u r i n g re-entry of space
vcllicles m ~ t lballistic roclrcts ir~t,ot.he terrestriaf atmosphere. I n cases when a i r
resistance is nt,ilize(l t,o provitlc tlccclcrat,ion a s $he moving body approaclles tfhc
surfnet oft.hc cnrt.11,it large proportion of t,he energy s o dissipated is impartetl t,o t.he
bocly in f.hr Porn1 of I~(>at,. Srrcll processes t,:rkc placc in t h e bountlary layer in t h e hyper-
sonic regime whc~t.hcrit, is Inrninar o r t.rrr\~nlcnt.,T.C. Rott,a [ 8 7 a l published a s u m - b)
I I I : I ~ :~rl.i(!l~
~ (Ivs(:ril)ing t,hr pro1,lcrns t,llnt arise in this oonncxion in two-dimonsional Fig. I R . R O I L , ~ . Reflexion of oblique sllock front flat plate wit,], boundnry laynr, a l k r Liopmann,
:dncl rot,nt.iorln.lly sj~nlrllet~ric: I)otlics. Rosllko and Ilhawan [R4]. a) Laminar boundary Inyer; b) Turbulent boundary layer
370 XIIJ. I~tminarboundary layers in compre.ssible flow o. Inkroc-Lion bct~\rrtinh0c.k wnvr n~tilI>o~~t~rl:~ry
Inyrr :g7 I
Yet nnot.licr import,ant problem of interaction between boundary layer and shock Tnl~lo10.1. The function F ( X ) lor t l ~ cprrssurr clistribr~tionalong a flnt plate in t l ~ c~ ~ r i ~ l ~ b o ~
wave occrlrs in h?ypemonic corner /lou~a t zero incitlence. 'rhe flow is accompanied by hootl 01a ullock wnvr, in nccordnncc wit11 P ~ I I A . (I:1.Rn) nncl (IR.!)O), nflor N. ('rlrlt. 1241
int,cnse 11mt.ingin the coriirr cntlxctl by l.hc very m~iclilnrgcr mt.c ol'clis..ipat,iorr in the
corner compnrctl t.o t,lic clissipation in the nciglibouring two-tlirnensionnl flow. A hint
in t h a t direction is visible in Fig. 12.16. I t was sl~ownthere t.liat even in incompressible
flow along a rectangular corner with the wall being a t a temperature exceeding t h a t
of the free st,rcam there exists a heat flux transferring l ~ c a from
t the fluid t,o the wall.
B y cont.mst, a t a large distance from the corner, t,he flow of heat takes place in t,he
reverse tlirectiori.

-
Snient,ist.s 1)ccamc:awnre of t.hc nl)ovc prohlcm only rcccnt.ly, nn.mcly in con-
riexion wit,li t.hc flight t.csts in the range o f hlnclr numhers M 3 to 6 on the American
experimental aeroplane X-15. Reports on this phenomenon were pclk)lislicd by R. I).
Nei~mann[82, !In]. Figure 13.28 reminds t,he reader t h a t such corner confignrations
exist a t t.he root of t.he wing, a t tJie side fins, a t the engine pods or a t t,hc air inlet in
air-brcnt,liing engines.
More rccc~it.expcrimcritnl invest,igat.ions on Iryj)crsoiiic corner flows wcrc pcr-
forn~rtl11y I<. IZil~lzrand 1). 111rmmcl [SB] a t the very large Mach numbers of M = 12
t o 16; they measured the pressure d i ~ t ~ r i b u t i oant1
n the local rate of heat transfer in
the corner and discovered tthc ext,raordinarily complex ~ t r u c t ~ uof r e the zone of inter-
action of the shock wave and boundary layer. The flow clevelops strong separation
xoilrs nntl the local heat-l,rarisfer rates were a s much a s tenfold larger t h a n 1,liose Fig. 13.31a.
in an ot.lirrwise idetlt.icnl two-tlimct~sionnlst.ream. M, = 3; R = 4.2 x lo5
Throrelictrl invrsligrttinns into the problem of interaction between a shock -t heated wall 7',,,= 1.25 To
wnvo :~rltla 1nminn.r borlntlnry In.yer arc very numerous. We shall be sitisfiecl with X zero Iteat trnnufer T, = 7'"
the nrcnt.ion of t.hc following fcw n.ntSliorsonly: R. A. Mr~cller[81J, 1). hfeksgr~[74], 0 rooled wall T, = 0.88 7',
M. llontln 1471 nritl ,I. Appiet,o~inrrtl 11. ,J. 1)avies 121. P~rt.icnln.rat.t,ent,ion sl~or~ltl
I,c given t o t l ~ cpaper I)y N. Crlrlc 1241. This sI,rrcly contains an in~cst~ignt~iori of
the clfcct of lieat, transfer on thc prcssilrc rise on a flat platmea s wrll a s t.hc tlescript,ion
of an n.l)proxirnat.c mcl,hod of calcl~lat~ing the boundary layer for a r l ~ i t m r ywall
triiipornt.~~rcs a.ntl Pm.nc1t.lnumbers. The mct,hod takes ndvantjage or the expcriment.al
rrsult.9 t111c to (:. 15. Gncld [39j whicl~tlemonstratod t.liat a t the point of sepiiration
t,lic vrloc:it,y grntlicnt dlJ/clz clilfcrs from zero b u t t,he velocity U itself remains
nearly const,nritt. With ttliis simplificnt,ion, i t becomes possible tro i~it~egrate t.ho
rcli~nt.ionss~~l)jcc.t, t.o the assc~rnpt~ion of a relation hctwec~rthe llnk~lownprcssllrc
gmtlit:rit ant1 t,lic incmnsc in t,hc bol~ndn.ry-layert,liiclznoss. It turns o u t t h a t tthc
j)rrssllrc cocfficirnt2 nt t.lic point of separation is intlnpentlent of t h e t,cmpcratr~rc
:I(, I.ho wall but t,lint the sprcatl i n the cxtcnt, of tho zone of interaction is proy)ortionnl
t o 7',,,. (:onscq~~enl~ly, t l ~ cprcssllro rise nt scparat,iorl I)ccorncs invrrscly proport.ioiinl

&11:1t
Ass~~iiiing p dilfc:rs little from p,, and tont wc lravc, npproximatcly
U=(x)

N. C ~ ~ r mlr11l:ltt.d
le F ( S ) nliicli is reprotlnrril here ill 'I'n1)lr 13.1 Tho
a f~~nt*tiori
foIIo\ving n / ~ I ~ r e v i a l .Iiave
i ~ ~ ~ 1.licrc
s I)ceri iiitroclurctl:
 XTII. I.nrttit~nrl)o~~rldnry
1:iyrrs in romprmsihlr flow

[8] Bradfield, W.S., Deoourain, D.G., and Blumer, C. M.: The cffcct of Irading-edge hl~lntr~rss
on a lan~inarsr~penronicboundary layer. JAB 21, 37% 382 and 31)s (1004).
[0] Burggraf, 0. R.: Aeymptotic theory of neparntion rind r c n t t s c h n ~ r t of ~ t a Inrr~innrhorlrr~l:~ry
layer on a ron~preasionramp. AGAlill Conf. Pro(*. Flow Srpnrntiorr, No. 168, 10/1 - I()/!)
11976).
[lo] ~ l r s e k n n n ,A,: (:neut,riimung rnit lnmir~nrcr(~n?nzncl~iclrt cr~tlnrtgrincr 1'lirt.tc. ZAMM I $ ,
2.t-- 25 ( 1035).
[loat Uusctt~nnt~, A.: I)io ncl~ncnsyrnn~clri~chc kogeligo ~~l~crscltnllsl.rii~n~~tr~. 1,1t1.t.1.:1.11rl.(i)r~r~l1rrr1g
'J'hc s111)script s ~ rpc f r r s t o t h e p o i n t o f s r p : ~ m t i o n , ttlw s111)scril)l 0 tlcsc.ribrs the 19, 137-144 (1942).
sl,nte u p s t r e a m of t h e s11oc.l~ w a v c , a n d s u b s c r i p t 1 clenotes t h e s t a t e at tile edge [ l l ] Busemann, A.: L),w Abreisaen der Grenzschicht bci AntrAhcrr~r~g nn (lie Scl~n.llgosc:l~\vir~(li~-
of t h r I ) o r ~ ~ i t l a rInycr.
y keit. J b . Luftfahrtforscl~ungI, 839-541 (1940).
1121 Byran, I..F.: Expcrin~cr~ta on twrodynnlnic coolit~g.Itcport, of t,hc Inst.. of Arrocly~ra~~~ii*ri
E3.H Ziirich, No. 18, 1951.
'I'lrc prcssrrre coeffirirrlt a t separat,ion t a r n s o u t to I ~ a v et h e f o r m [131 Chapman, D.R., and Rubesin, M. W.: Temperature nncl vclocity profilcs in t,l~ero~~lpressible
l a t n i ~ ~ boundary
nr layer with arbitrary distrihrttion of R I I ~ ~ : I C Otcrnpcrntrtre. .JilS 16. 547.-
R(I5 (I 949).
1141 Cl~nrwnt,A.P., and JLcdckopp, I,.(:.: Sul~creo~lic it~In:rr(!ror~ccIlow rrlot~gt.11t: 1:0r11r.r 01.
intersecting wedges. AIAA J. 5, 480---488 (1967).
[14a] MncCormack, R.W.: Numerical solr~tionof tho irrteraction of nl~ockwnvc wit.It n larl~i~lnr
whcrc R l T a./v, a r ~ t lTI,,, Mtr ~ l o ~ ~ ot th.eo prcssrlre a n d Mac11 n ~ ~ m l ) crespect-ivcly,
r, bonndnry laycr. I'rocccdings 2nd Irlfcrn. Conf. on Ntrtncriiil Metlrorln in I ' l l ~ i c l I)YIIII.III~VR.
111)st,rr:rrn of 1.11~ s11oc:lc w t ~ v c . I ~ n t t l r oNotn:~in ~'Ilynics 8 , Sprit~g(:rV~rIng,1!)71.
[14b] Carter, J.E.: Solutions for laminar boirndnry laycrs with s c p a r n t i o ~irt~d ~ rc.nt.t.ncl~tl~rt~t.
r
AIAA Paper 74-583 (1974).
3
1 Ilr tlin.gmms i l l Igig. 13.31 a n t l b colrt.ain a cornl,arison irotwcen t,hc thcorct.ica1 [15] Chu, S.T., and Tiffnrd, A.N.: The cornpremiblc laminar 1)ortlltlnry lnyer on n rot.nt,ing Imdy
clrrvc*sn l ~ t l!,It(: ~.c.s~~lt,s of' I ~ ( ~ : L S I I C C I ~ C I1)rrli)rrnc:cl
I~*~ I>y CI. 14.: G:ltl(l ar~tl.J. 1,. Al.tritlgc of revolution. .JAR 21, 345-346 (1954).
1401. I < o t l ~t.11cory :~.n(lc.u~)rrirnt:t~t, Ict~tl1.0 t.hc conc:lusion t l m t t,ho prcssrlrc n l ~ c n t l [16] Callen, C. D.: Sintilnr solutions of cornpressiblc latnirrnr boundary laycr cqrrnt.inns. ,J'\S 2 1 ,
281 -282 (1954).
ol' t . 1 1 Z~ ~ I I Oof sc:l):~rnt,ioni s l ~ i g l ~ w c rl ~ o nt,11o wall is heat,cd t h a n w h e n i t is adin.l)nt,ic. [I681 Cohen, C. B., atid Roclhotko, E.: The cornprossiblo lntninar hottndnry lnyer with hrnt Irnrra-
A r o ~ ~ ~ p : ~ r I~c:t.wnc~l
ison t.hc? t,wo cliagranrs, cac:ll of wl~inllcorres[)ot~tlst,o a tliffcrent fer nntl arl)itrary prcssuro gradient,. NACA Jicp. 12!)4 (I!)5li).
~ r ct . 1 1 ~ wall, cot~vir~cc:s11s t.11:~t t,his cffccl bcconlcs Inore p t . o t ~ o n t ~ c c t l
t , c : r ~ ~ p ( : r a t ~at 1171 Coles, I).: McaRurementa of t~irbulcntfriction on tr s11100t.hllnt plnt,~in X ~ I I I ( * ~ S O I I ~Ilo\v. C

a s t,hc t 8 c m 1 ~ c r : ~ t , ~isl r cilrcrcnsctl. JAS 21, 433-448 (1954).

1181 Cope, W.F., and IIsrtree, D.R.: The laminar boondnry laycr in a colllprrssible Ro\v. L'hil.
Trans. Roy. Sac. A 241, 1-69 (1948).
N ~ ~ m e r i c solut.ions
al w h i c h c o n t a i n t l ~ ez o n e of i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n n s e p a r a t e d [I91 Crnbtrec, L.P.: The cornpresnible larrrit~arboundary layer on a ynned infinite wing. ;\pro.
l a m i n a r b o ~ ~ n t l a rlnycr
y a n d n frictionless s u p r r s o n i c & r e a m were perforrned by V. N. Quart. 5 , 85-100 (1954).
V a k a arlcl S . I). Rrrt,lte [I 011, as well xs b y 0.R. B u r g g r a f [9J, G . S. Set!t>les,S . M. [20] Crocco, I,.: Sulla trasmiasione del cnlore da una lnniinx pi:rnx n rln Il~ticloncorrrr~t,r:!(I :~lt:r
velocith. 1,'Acrotecnica 12, 181-107 (1932).
12ogtlot1olT antl 1.E. Vns 193a.J. [21] Crocco, L.: Sullo strato limite laminarc nei gas I~tngor ~ n nI n r ~ ~ i rpiann. ~n Ilcrrcl. illat. Univ.
Rorna V 2, 338-1132 (1941).
[22] Crocco, I,.: Lo strato laminarc nei gm. Mon. Sci. Acr. Itotnn (1946).
[23] Crocco, L., and Cohen, C.U.: Con~pressihleInmitlnr boundary lnyer with l ~ c o tIrar~sfc-~. n.r~d
pressure gradient. Fifty years of boundary layer remarch (Mr. 'I~ollrniclrand Ii. Giirt Ier, ed.),
Braunschweig, 1055, 280-293; see also NACA Rep. 12!)4 (1956).
[24] Curle, N.: The etrecta of hcnt transfer on lenrinnr boundary lnyer scpnrntion in srtpersonic
flow. Aero. Quart. 12, 309-336 (1961).
111 Ackcrct,, J., I ~ c l d r ~ r n nF., ~ ~and
, Rott, N.: IJr~tcrs~~chrtngcn a11 Verdichk~ngsstiisse~~ ut~d [25] Curle, N.: I-Icat tranofer through a comprmqihle Inlr~innrhor~ndnryInyrr. Aero. 011:~rt. It?,

~rc117.sclriol1l.nr1 in nc:l~ncll hcwcgtcn Cnserl. Itcport No. 10 of Llrc Inst. of Aerotlyr~a~nics 255-270 (1902).
I:'IxII Ziiric:l~ 1!)4(i: nee also NACA '1'M 11 1:) (1!)47). [26] Crrrle, N.: The Iarninar bourtdnry lnycr cq~lnLions.(:l;rml~tlorr I'rcss, Oxford, I!)li2.
121 Al)lrlrt,on. .I. I'., I L I I ~ II)nvics, f l . ,l.: A note on tho i~~tcrnot.ior~
of n nortnal slroclc wavc wit,h n [27J D ~ Clers, B J3.. and Stcrnbcrg, J.: On bonntlary Inycr tcrnpornt~lrcrrcovcry f:rctors. .l,\S
tlrcrrnnl hotr~~tl;~.ry layer. JAS 25, 722---723 (1958). 19, 645-646 (1952).
[:$I J<i~r(lslc?y, O., nntl Mnir, W. A,: Separation of thc 0o1111darylayer n t n slightly blunt, lcatling [27a] nelery, J., Chattot, J . . J . , and Lc J3allc11r,J.C.: Internc.tion visqueusc avcc d6csollr~nrllt(.I1
crlgo i r l ~rll~crsonic flow. Phil. Mag. 4 3 , 338,344- 352 (1052). Bcoulcrnent transsonique. AGARD Corrf. Proc. Plow Scj~arntio~r, No. 168, 27 -1 1.0 27 - - 13
141 J3nrry. I'.\Y.. Sllnpiro, II.A., end N C I I I I I ~ ~ I I , VOIIIC experinlent8 on t.hc interact,ion
R.P.: (19751.
of slroclz w:~vcsmiLh holt~rtlnrylayers on a Ilnt plate. J. Appl. Mcch. 17, 126--131 (1950). [28] O'l)onncll, R.M.:Expcrir~~cntnl invcsligntion nt Mac11 I I I I I I I ~ Cor ~ 2.41 of I L V ( % ~ I Iskill ~ ~

(51 Jlrekwillr, I . E.: Sitnilnrit,y solrttions for srn:~llcrosn flown iri Inn~innrror~rprrssible1)onntlnry friction cocfficicnta and vclocity profilcs for Inrr~irlnrnntl t ~ l r l ~ ~ t lIro~~tldriry
or~t 1:1yr-r~ II)IR(*RH-

I:ryr!rs. N /IS/\ '1'11. 1L 107, 1 --07 (l!)lil). ~ n c n tof probe cffcck. NACA TN 3122 (105.1).
I61 73oatlo11off.S. RI.. znd I<el)lrr, C. IC.: Separation of a srlpersoriic: turbt~lentboundary laycr. [29] Dorrance, W.H. : Viscous hypersonic Row. Theory of reacting hypersonic b o i ~ n t l n rInycrn. ~
s
J A S 22, 414- 424 (l!)55): McGraw-Hill, New York, 1962.
[7] Ilr,r~llir~l, I?., :rlrrl 1~ichcli)rot1ner.1c.A.: (:nlc~ll dc la C O I I C ~ C iirllite Inl~lit~nire
compressible. [30] Van Ihiest, E.R.: Investigation of lanliriar boundary lager in cornprcssiblo fluid8 using the
illl:t.l~otlrrnl~itlvapplir:il)lc 8.11 r m de In ~)lnqitoplane. 1,n IG!chcrchc Ai.ro11. 28 (1952). Crocco-Method. NACA T N 2597 (1952).
(:lt] \'a11 I)rit.st., 15.11..: 'l'l~r ~ ~ r o l ~ l of e n rnnrocly~rnn~ir Irmting. t\ero. ~CIIR.R.cvicw 15, 2Ii.- 41 [56] I<ipke, K., nnd Hamtnel, D.: Unt~?rs~lchungrn an 15ngsnngrstrol11tr11Il:c.ltr~~~kol~lig~trR(io~~t\
(1!15(i). in1 IIvperurhallbercicl~. ZFW 23, 417--42!) (1975).
-.
132I Il:l~rr. (:. I < . : I<.r!c,c.nt,ir~\~r.stip.t.ionx of Irtnpf:r:&t.nrcrenovcry nncl hn:%tt.rnns~nissio~~ on c:ollc:s [RC,n] Klinchcr, J.M., anti Stegnr, J . L.: Nu~ncrirnlcnlcnlnt.ion of lnn~iunrI~o~c~~tl;~ry-l:~.ycr st:l,ar.
nrlrl t.ylin(l~'rsi l l :txi:~lIIOIV in tI11c NOI. /\1:rol1:1.llist,i('.~ Wind ' ~ I I I I I I ,li\S ~ I . ID, I I; (l!)52). at,ion. NASA TN 7732 (1974).
[:$:31 J $ i ~ . j r ~ ~ l l I+:. ~ rA,: ~ ~ ~ ~ r ,clc < : ~ I ( :(I?
r ~ ~AI6t~l1o~Jcs I I ~In rn11(:11(!1i111iIcInn~innircl ) i ( l i ~ ~ ~ r ~ ~ sCII io~~ellc [57] K~rert.i,G . : Tllc Inminnr boundary lnycr in c o ~ r ~ ~ ~ r r s sIlo~v. i l r l r Advar~(~rs in 1\pl11. Mc:clr.
rtgi111r~~~1111~1rrssi1)lr. 0fIi1.r Nn,t.ion:~lfl'l<t 11~1rs rt, clc: 1<~6(:11cr(~he A6ro11:111t,ir~tt(:s (ON I<JLA), 11. -21
- - 7 - -92 (l!)5l).
~ \-,-
1 ttris, 1'11l1li~~:tl,io11 No. ,Ye? (l!)5(i). [5XJ I,ceu, I,.: On Lltc bonr~darylnyer cqu:it.io~~s i l l Ilypornonic IIo\\l :~ncl t.l~rir: I ~ ~ , ~ I I X ~ I I I : Isol- ~,~*
[:i41 I#;IIIIIIOII~. Ll.\Lf., : I I I ~ I%r:~inrr(l, ,I. (:.: 'I'~:III~IC:~:L~,II~C c!ll'r(:ls i l l n In111i11:tr( : ~ I I I I ~ I c ~ Ilnid
:Hs~~I~~ ution. J A S 20, 143-146 (l!lfi3).
~ .~ II\I>IIR :I Ilitl. l~l:tl,t:..I. i\pl~l.hlreh. S. I\ I05 (1!)4l) I L I ~,I. ,\IIII\.
I I ~ I I I I I \.: Il:tj,t*r .. hIc(:11.!), I [59] Iaes, L. : Tnflucncr of t.11~ Icnding-etlgo ul~orkwave on Ll~o1:rtninnr 11o1111clnr~ 1:ly~r:~t,11yl1rr-
( l!l42). 8o11icsl~rcclu..1AS 23, 5!)4- -600 nnd ti12 (1!)5li).
1351 I":~g,r,I\.. :rncI S:~rprnt..I<.: Shocsli \v:~vc.:III(I11o1111<1:iry 1:tyrr ~ I ~ I C I I O I ~ I II(::I~ ~ I I : ~:L Ilnh 11lnt.r [GI)] I,i, 'l'.Y., ant1 Nag:tlnntsn. H.T.: S i n ~ i l s~o~l r~ t , i o t of ~ s C O I I I L ) ~ C ~1101111clary
R ~ I I I C 1:lyt.r CCIIIR-
RII~.~:I,(.~*. I'ro('. ILoy. Sot:. A /!)/I, 1 20 (1!1*17). t,innu. ,lAS 20, 05:!- 655 ( l!)5:!).
[:!(;I J'liiggr 1/)l7.. I., :~nrl. ~ ~ I I I I R I I I I .A. I('.: l,:t~l~in:~r r ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ l ) t . rI~onncl:~ry s s i l ~ l c I:~ycr long :L I : I I ~ v ~ < I [(ill Li, '1'. Y . , and Nn.gatnnt.s~~, Il.'l'.: Sin~ilnrsnlnt~ionsnf v0111~1rrssi11l(: I I O I I I I ~ ~ : I ~.I{IILL. ~J-~:I~~~
it~n~~lntc(l s~~rf:~.cc. .l/\S 22. 445 4 5 4 (1!)55). tions. ,)AS 22, 607- (;I6 (1955).
1371 (::~rlcl,(:. 15. : S o n ~ c: ~ q ) r c :of I ~ I:c~~lin:~r I)o~ltr(l:LryI:tycr srllnrat,ion in con~prrssil)IcIIOIV \vit,l~ I621 1,ibby. ll.A., ant1 Mordut:how, M.: Mct.llod for calcnlntion of ( ~ o n ~ ~ ) r ~ sIsIiOl ~I Il Ir I ~ :l:ty(:r ~~,,.
r a t ) II~.:IL t,rnnsfcr Lo t,llc \wall. Acro. (),unrt.. 4 . 123- 150 ( 1953). with nxinl prrssnrc grndicnt and heat Lran~fer.NACA 'rN :I157 (l!)(i4).
(RRI (:nclcl. (:. 15.. I lolclcr. I). W., rirrtl I<,P~ILII, .I. I).: 1\11cxlxri~ncnt.nlinvcst,ignt.ion I I t.hr ~ inter- [li:l] I,irpn~nr~r~, H. W.: 'I 11c i~~t.crnc:t.ion I~nl,u~ccn honndnry Ittyrr an(( sl~ocL\~:L\,I.R i l l l , r : ~ t ~ s o ~ ~ i c
n.c~l.iot~ I)cI.wcc:n RIIOCI( \vnvrs :III~I I~onniI:ir,yIILYC~R. 1'r11(:. 1 2 0 ~So(:. . A 226, 227 253 (l!)51). IIII\V.J A S 13, I?!:$ (;:I7 ( Il)Al\).
[:!!I] (::~tlfl, (:.It:.: AI, cx11cri111ent,nlinvcsI,ignttio~rof h(;rrI, I,rt~nsfcr(:ll'r:rts on I I ~ I I I I ~ I II~t,yvr ~.~ [li4] I,~(:IJIIIIIIIII, 11. W.. I<OHIII(O, A., I I I I ~ I I)~IIL\C.:I.II. S.: 0 1 1 r ~ ~ l l ~ ~ O('HIIIII~I(
~ l i o t\VII.V~.H
~ l'r0111I ~ , I U I I I C ~ I I ~ ~
S I : I ~ I I ~ I II I s ~ r r s ~ w~ i. cI 2 I 122 (1!)57). ln.yc!rn, NA(:I\ J<I!~I.I 1011 (l!)W2).
1401 (::~.~ltl. (:.I<.. nntl r\l.l.riclgc?,.I.J,.: A 11o1.ro n I.l~ocl1i:c:I.s of Ilc:tt, brnnslvr on t.ho uoparnt.ion (IifiI 1,illc:y. (:. hl.: A nin~l)liIir(lt,I~rnry~ r n k i fri~:l.io~~ l~ I I I I ~I I O ~ L l.r11.11~(i.r
~. ( i ~IrL ~ . I I I I I J I I . ( ~ H S ~ I I:LIII~II:L~
II~.
nf I : I I I I ~ I I : L ~ I I ~ I I I I (1:1yrr. ~ : I ~AIL(: ~ (;I' 5li!) (l!llil). 11011ncI:tryInycr. (:oil. Acro. (!rnnIi(!ltl, Nolc No. $13 (l!l5!)).
1411 (:inzc.l, I.: 1Sin I'~I~I~~I:~IIsc:II-V~~~I~II~CII zllr Hc~rec:ln~ttngI n ~ ~ ~ i n nk~~n~y~rcnsihler rrr Grcnz- [(ili] I.oving. C:. I,.: Wil~d-t~tt~nel-fligl~t corrclntion of sl~ocltinclrt~.c~ti sn11:~rnl.rtl Ilr)\v. N/\SI\ 'I'N I?
sc41ic:l1lc.11. Zr\MM 2!1, ci 4 (1!l4!)); (:in~.vl. I.: 15in I'ol~ll~nrlnc~~-Vorfi~I~rn~~ znr Iiorc~:l~t~ur~g :45RO ( I !)ti$).
I ; ~ ~ ~ \ i ~ tko~r~\~rrssil~lc.r
arrr I:rc.~r~~.s~~l~icl~t~*~~ :LIIckincr e;c:lttrizt~~tlWntr(l. ZAMM 29, :YLI 337 (671 I , I I ~ ~ : L S ~ J.,
~ : ~I V
I I II ~
~l<oylr,
~ ~ ~ , %].I<.:l t o t ~ ~ ~ f l :lt~yrr ~ . r y $I,II~I\V:IIZI:i ~ ~ v ( - s l i g i:l ~l s\ in~l ~ ~ ~~ r s o ~ ~ i
( l!)4!)). Ilow. AJtC ItM 2lil:l (l!)521. > ,

[421 (:rrcw, , I . 15.: InLcrnc:tio~~x hrt,\\,rcn s11n(~I( IVIIVOX i ~ n dt,~lrhnlenl,l ~ o ~ ~ n t l layers. ary Progrew [(;8] J,nxton, 1a.E.. nnd Young, A,]).: Ucnernlisrd ~nrtl~otls for f l ~ c a l c n l : r t i ~of ~ ~t ~l ~ nI : ~ n ~ i t ~ n r
i l l i\nroslr:rcr Sc:icnrm ( I ) . I < i i o l ~ r n ~ : ~ . n ~ ~11,
rcl.). , 235 -340 (1!)70). cornl~rwsibleboundary layer chnracterisI.ia8 wit11 hcnt. t,ransfer nntl n o l r - r ~ n i f ~ ~ r~nr~c s s n r e
1431 ~:rns~~l~\viI:z, I<.: (!:LIvIII:1[111ro~:l16 (lc In ~ O I I ~IirniIfi : I I ~ 1nt11i11:tirc(:II 6(:nnIr111cnt.ron~prnssil~ln dist.rihut.ion. ARC R,M 3238 (l!)(i2).
S I I ~I I I I ~l~:irt~i I I ~ I I I . ~ ~ , I I I ~ ~ (11. ~ I ~ l:t
~ ~ (:11:11(!1tr.
, I - ~ ~ ~ ~ Ofli(:(:
: N~tI,innnlI I ' I < I ~ I I ~ I (4, ~ ~ scia: lt6c11c~r1:11(: A6rn. [ I l t i r V . A : I X ~ I I I onI sc~trrrr~l.ion of 11on11(111ry 111yrw1111 11ro11(.~ i l l :I S I I I I ( . I . S O I I ~ ~:Lit.-

I I ~ I I ~ , ~ ~ I(ONIClLi!),
I I X I'nris. l'n11Iit;:tl,i1111 N o . ,I7 (l!)50). 8Lrcn.111.1'11iI. Mng. 43, 342. 6!)5--7lI; (l!)52).
[441 JI:~r~txsvl~c~, \\I.. r~ncl\I'c:ntll., 11.: ZUIIIIio111l)rrssil1ili1,5ln9ci11lllln4 hcsi t l ~ rIntnin:rrcn (:rr117.- [70J klnngler, W.: Z I I ~ ~ . I I ~ I I Iz\vi8r11c11 C I I ~ I ~cbenrt~
II~ U I I ~~ O ~ : I ~ ~ ~ I I I S S J - I I I I I lI :I r~ ~ ( ~~~~S ~~~~~ I. (s :~I ~I I ~
schir*l~l. clrr ol~rnc~tr I1l;il,Ir. .lh. (It,. l,rr~t.f:~I~rI.f~~rs~:Ir~~ng I , 517 - 5 2 1 (1!)40). ten in koulpressihlen l'liissigkeito~~.ZAMM 28, 07 - 10:s (1!)4H).
1451 I I : I I I I , ~ , s ~\\I,,~ I I ~:CII(I , \Vrndt. 11.: l)ir 1:11ni11nre(;r(:nzs~:I~ichta n cinrn~ ntit, ~~her8ch:%Il. [71] Mangler, W.: ICin Verfnhren zur I%crecl~nnt~g der Intl~innrrtr (:renzsrl~icl~t.wit brlichiger
g<;sc~l~\vi~~tligk~-it, . ~ * I I ~ I I ~ I ~ S ~ O I I ~l<rc!i~lzcgcl.
: I I I ~ ( * ~ I , ~ ~ I I I ~11ie11t PII ,111, (It,. l , ~ ~ f t ~ f : ~ l ~ r I , f ( ~I ,r s c l ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ g J)ruckverteilut~gt ~ n dWiirlnciiberg:lng fiir nllc Illa~~h-Znl~lc:~~. ZVW 4, Ii:! - (ili (I!)A(i).
76 77 (I!H I). [72J Mt~ydc\\~. I<,.(:.,:LII(I I':I.~~IWI, (7.C.: l C x ~ ~ ( ~ r i ~ i~i ~ tv~c n* Is ~I inglt ~nft it,l~c ~ ~ ~1m~:rI
~ :LIIII :ivrv~ig(:slci~r
[4(il Il:~.nlxs~.l~c~. \ V . , :rll,l \\'c.llcll.. 11.: I)ic I:I.III~II:I~: (:~C:II~.SC:II~~:II~. ~ L I I110r ~ I I ~ : I I ~ 1'1:1l.lc~
II nit. I I I I < I fric:Lio~~ in t l ~ v111111innr 11o1111dnry 111j(\r(III n llnl. 11l:llr 111. :L AI:I~.II-III~IIIIII.~ of 2.4. Ni\('iZ '1.N
I \ i r ~ ~ i i I : r Ig~: ~~~~tI%(:rii(.ksi(.l~I.iU~l~~g .~r r 111'). 1<0111~1r(~ssil~ilit,~iI.. .Ill. (11,. Ir~~fl,f:~l~rl.- 2740 I~.I!)52).
~ ~ ) ~ H V III, I4I0I I #50 (I!lJ2). [73] IMCLRYII, I).: 111trgrnIi011 (11the h01111~1:11.y1:1yrrr q ~ l ~ ~ t i ol'i~r n s:I IIIIIII(I in :I r o t n l ~ r v ~ ~ iflnicl. l~lv
1471 Ilonctn, ill.: ,\ tl~ty)~otic::tli~~vest.i#nt.io~~ of (,hei ~ r k r n c t i ohrI.ween ~~ nl~oclc\mvt:s and 11on111l- I'roc. ]toy. Soc. 1.ontlon 1\ 105, 180---IN8(1!)48).
trry I:~yc.rs..l:\S 2.5. li(i7 (i7X (I!)5X). 1741 MCksyn. If.: 'l'I1c I1011111l11ry lnycr rc1nnI.io11~ of c o t n ~ ~ r r s n i lIc~\v l ~ l ~ s1.11irrntio11.
~ % ~ \ h l M 38,
372-379 (1958).
[48l I~loa.;lrLlr,I,.: (!ntroerning t.11~ rl1i.r.t. of co1111)r0ssihiliLy 011 I:~.tilinnrhonniinr,~ Inynrs nrrcl tllc*ir [75] ~onagllntl;IL. J'.: An npproxin~ate~011lt.io11 of t,l~ern~nl>rcssil~lr In~ninnr1101111cl:iry l:~yrrOII
u c ~ ~ : ~ r ~ t tI'rn<;. i o n . I<,ny. Soc, Ifint1011 A I!),/, I(;.- 42 (l!)4N). a flat p l n k ARC Ithl 2760 (1949).
1491 Illi~~g\vorII~. (:.I<..: 'j.110 l:~.n~inar ho~~n(l:try Inyer :msorintntl \rtit.l~rctnrtlrrl flow of :r eonIr)rcs- 1761 hlonngl~nn,R. J.: EfFec:ts of 11t?att,r:~~~sfcr OII Innrinnr I~or~nclnry lnyor clovolol1111rntnncler
nil~lclI1ti11. ~\l<.(:l<hl 25!)ll (I!Mli). prcflnuro grndict~t,~ in con~pr~vsil~lc llo\r. AJ<C JLM 3218 (I!)(;[).
1501 llli~~g\vnrll~, I:. I<,.: Stc::~dy llo\v ~ I It l ~ c1n111in:trho1111(1:1ry ln.y@rof n gas. l'ror. h y . Srjv. [77 1 Moore, 1,. I,.: A solnt.ion of t.11~:1n111in:irI~onnil:ir~v l~lyrt.~ ( I I Iions : I ( for 11 ~ O I I I ~ I I . ( . lI11i4l *S~III~
A /!I!). 5:KI 558 (I!M!l). \srit,h vnri111)iol ~ r o [ ~ ( ~ r l~i rI sI ,( : ~ I I ~(Iissocit~tio~~.
~ I I ~ J i \ S /!I, 505 518 ( l!l52).
151 1 II~I\I:III. I{,.ill.: I\ 110((. 0 1 1 (111%sl<it~-fri(.lion cn(~fIiri(:nl,~f n ( : O I I I I I ~ ( : S(!o~~(bl.tr I ~ .I ASS
S ~ ~ I ~(101~.
17x1 Moorr, 1'.J<.: ' I ' l ~ r c c - t l i ~ ~ ~ c : ~ ~I:rl~~i~l:ir
s i o ~ ~ : i 11o1111tl:~ry
l 1:1y13r 1101~..I,\S 20, 525 5:i.l (l!l5:l).
2G. IWL (l!)S!)). IT!)] Mortl~tvl~o~v. R.1.: A~~nlysis nntl ( ~ n l ~ . ~ l l :Ily ~ ( iinl~*grnl
o~~ 111rt110ilsof I : I I I I ~ I I( ::Io~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ r v s s i l ~ l
1521 . I ~ ~ I : I I I I I ~ S V INI ., I I.: I ~ ; X ~ I ~ ~ ~ on I I I ~~ \ II ~I .~~ ~ ~~ I I I ( ~ I I SS ~I I~~II (I *: ~I S. I~I I I ~llo\v
(: in rornrrn a11i1t)b3(:r 1)ountlnry layer 1vif11 l ~ c n tLrn~lsfc?rnnrl wit11 nncl \vil.l~c~~~t prc:ssnrr! gr:tcliv~~l. Ki\(!l\ I<,r:p.
CYIIII.:I.VI* SII~~':IIY*S. l'l~il. h111g..l.'j, :I.lO, 5li8 580 (l!l52).
~

1215 (1!155).
5 : l l , s .I : \ I S l ' t in ~ : I I I S ~I I I, ~: :I S~ i r I i S 1 1 1 r I . 74 I!). (801 Morris, J).N.. rind Stnitli, J.\f'.: 'I'IIc vo1111)rrssil1lc: I;IIII~II:II, 11o1111cl:try l:~yt,rwit11 :~rl~itr;try
Nil1111 ( ' ~ ~ ~ g r cof- sIs. l ~ c . Int.ort~:~.l ion:l.l (!o~~ncil of 1110 i\c:ronanl~ic:nI S~:irnc:cs Ilnifn, Israel, Iwessure nntl snrfncc te~nperntnregrcrdienfs. Jt2S 20, 805 818 (l!)53).Sc:cnlso: Alllrris. I). h'.,
,\ngnst. 1!)74. and Smith, ,J. \V.: Kin Niil~er~tngsverlit~lrcn fiir tlic I n t r g r n t i n ~(lor ~ I n n ~ i n a r clzo~~~l)rrssiI~lc~r
~~
I5,ll VOII I ( . ~ ~ I I I & '1'11..I I .:III<I ' I ' s i t * ~ ~11.
. S . : I{OIIIIC~:I.V~ l:~yrri l l r o ~ ~ r ~ ~ r r s Islinhil~r l ,114s ~ . 5 , 227 - -232 ( : ~ c I I ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ I ~ ~ ~ IZi\M ~ ~ ~M~ 3c4 ~. ~1931.-
I I I194 I I (1!)54).
~cII.
, (l!l:jS): SVI. :rIst~:V O I I Ii:irt11611. '1'11.: 1{1*1111rl. 1111 \'oll:~ (!ongrrss, I ~ O I I I P l!):j5; s ~ a180 e (;oil. 181 ] Miillcr, E.A,: 'I'l~oorc~t.iuc~lrc Untcrsnrl~nngcniil~rr(li~,\ V ~ ~ I ~ ~ I S I~ ~ \ Y ~~: I \~ . V
\ I I .~
I (I .~
~ I~
I ( ~Z
I I (-in
II I I I ~
\Y~>rl<s 1 I I. :\I:\ :V25. fnllc.nc11.11s c l ~ \ a n ~ : l ~V~~rtlir~l1lrr11g~xI,ol1
i~n 1111t1 rlvr I ~ I I I I ~ I I I I I ~I!~~.II.~H(.I:~(.JI(
II i l l t.ilt4.r (j1,t.l.
1551 I ~ I I ~ c .I.: . . St:~\,c-y rri~,Ii,)~t w ~ v f l i ~ ~ i tr~~~~~t vt s~.vS:~cl,ors t ~ r y : I I IIIP:II. ~ ~ trn~~sft-r (~i~f:fIi(~it:nlf~ for
~el~nllst~riirnnng. Yift.y year8 of honntl:rry-layc:r rmenrcl~(CV. 'l'r,lln~icr~:~ntl1 1 . l:iirl.la~,vil.),
s1111vrso11i1. llor\. .l,\S :!I, 117 l2!l (l!)54). Jirnr~narh~vrig, I!)55. 3 4 R -:I(i3.
376 XI 11. Jfiminnr 1)01111dnry1:rycra it1 compresaiblo flow

[Bla] Murphy, .I.]).: A critical evnh~ntionof annlyLicnl mothods for predicting latninnr boundary [I041 I'nng, 1t.T.: At1 irnprovetl iritcgrnl proccdnrc for ootnl~rcxsil~lr 1nntitl:tr I~c,rtr~tl:~r~ I:I~,.~
Inyer, ahock-wave it~tcrnction.NASA TN 1)-7044 (1871). a ~ ~ a l y s i .I. s . 11ppl. Mech. 28. 1)--20 (1001).
I81111 Murphy, ,I. I).. l'rcsley, I,.L., and Roue, W.C.: On the calculation of supcraonic scparnting [I051 Y ~ I I I A. I ~I).:, Section on "Hot~ndary1,nycrs" in: Modcrr~tlcvclopnicnt.s in Il~tidI I I ( Y . ~ I ; I I I ~ ~
and r r n t t , a o l ~ i ~flows. ~ g ACAltl) Corlf. I'roc. Flow Sepnrntiotl, No. 168, 22-1 to 22-12 High spcctl flow (I,. IIo\vnrt,h, cd.). 1, 375- 475, (:lrircndot~ I'rrss, 0sfc)rtl. l!)~!.
(1975). [IO(i] Y O U I I I\. ~ , I).: Skit1 fric:Lic)u in 1,110 l : ~ ~ t ~ i t1101111clary ~:ir lr~ycrof a c,o~t~prc!ssil)lc* Ilou, ,\t!t.c~.
I821 N e ~ ~ m n n R.I).: n, Special topics in hypersonic flow. AGARD I ~ c t n r eSeries No. 42, 1,7-1 Quart. I, 137-164 (1040).
to 7- 64 (1972). [I071 Young, A,]).: 13011tldarylayers atld ski11 friction in high spcc(i flo~v..I. I<oy. Arro. Soc. 5Q,
[831 I'ni, S. I., a11t1Sllcn, S. IF.: Hypersonic viucoun flow over an inclined wedge with heat trnns- 285--302 (1051).
fcr. Fift.y ycnrs of boutldnry-layer rcsenrch (W. Tollmien and H. Gortler, ed.), Brant~scl~weig, [I081 I'ottng, G. I%.\V., and J a l l s s c ~ ~E.: . 'Che co~nprcnsiblcbo~t~trlnry Iayrr. ,!AS 19. 22!) - 2:lii,
1955, 112- 121. .
288 (1952). .
[I()!)] Y ~ I I I IA.~ I)., , and Harris, 1I.D.: A net. of sitnilar so111t,io11~ of t.11~C O I I I I ) ~ ( ~ S S ~ I I I ( * l i ~ ~ ~ ~ i t l i
1841 Prr~rccy,11. ll., O R I ~ ~ I.I., I Cn, ~ l dl l n i n r ~A.I%.:
, The int~racl~ion betwcct~local rtTcch a t the I)ottt~(l:rr?:I:~ycrc:qtt:it.ions for tl!c Ilow ovcr a fl:rt. 11l:itc: 1vit.h ~tr~st~.:lrly \v:III ~ ~ I I I ~ I ~ - I . : I ~
shoc:k nrtd rc:ir sc!~~:inrbio~~ - rr uottrcc of u i g t ~ i f i c a aoalo
~ ~ t c l k c b in w i n t l t ~ t ~ ~tent8
t ~ e l on air- z l F i V 13. 2!)5 :SO1 (l!)li7).
foils n11c1wit~gs.A(:AItI) Cot~f.lJroc. No. 35, I I -- I to I 1-23 (1968). 1 1 1 0 ) %:I:I~., , I . , \ . : A c ~ ~ ~ c - l ~ r i r : ~~t ttt ~r tr~t:.rlfor or I:ir~~it~nr
~ r 1~. 1~1 ~lc.rilc:t~li~Liot~ (.r~~~~l~rc.ssil,l(* I>ot~llcl:~ry
1851 l'ooln, (:.: A nol~tl.ionof Lhe con~prcsail~lc lrb~ni~~nr
h o ~ ~ ~ ~ dlayer
r r r y cq~intionrr wit,li Iloat 11ryc!r f l t ) ~\vit,It a prcnsc~rcgradict~t,.Niit. 1,11cht,v.1,nh. 1\111sl,c!rc1n111, I<(.II.I? I l l (l!j5:l).
Lrn.nsfcr 1111tl:i~Iverscprcmwrc gradient. Quart. J . Mech. Appl. Mn1.h. 13, 67-84 (1860).
[HC,] Itcqhot.ko, I<., nrtcl l%eckwith, [.IF.: Cotnprcs~ibleItrr~tinarbo~r~ltlnry laycr ovcr a yawctl
i ~ ~ f i t ~c:ylitltlcr
itr! wibh heat trnttsfcr and nrhitrnry l'rnndtl number. NACA Ibop. 1370, 1-48
(l!)58).
I871 Itot,t. N., ntid Cral~trre,L. 17.: S i ~ i ~ p l i f claminar d bo1111dnrylnyer cnlcr~lationsfor bodies of
r c v o l ~ t t ~ iand o ~ ~for ynwcd wings. J A S 19, 55:3-565 (llj52).
1871~1
- - Rot.t.a, .J.C.: Wiir1t1cii11crgnngs~~ro1)1et1~e
- - -
11ci I~yperso~~ischen Grenzachichten. .Jb. W(1LIE
1902, 190 - - I!)(\ (1!)63).
1881 Itr~hcsit~, M. W., atld ,Johnson, 1f.A.: A crilical rovic\r- of skin frictior~and 11ca.t. t,rnnsfer
aol~tt~ior~x of (.l~rIntt~innrlro~t~ldary - of a flat plntc. 'Crnns. ASME 71, 383---388 (1849).
" levor
(P8al I<,yzhov,0. S.: Visrortn tratlaonic flows. AIIII.l b v . Fluid Mcch. (M. van Dyke. ed.) 10, 65-
!)2 (l!)78).
1891 Sc11c.rrc.r. It.: (!o~~~p:irinot~ of t,lteorct,ical nnd c x p c r i t ~ ~ c t ~Itia~l ~ tratlsfcr
ct chnrncteristics of
I)oclien of rrvol11t.io11of uupersor~icspecds. NACA Itcp. 10.55 (1951).
[!)01 S(:l~lic.l~t.it~g, 11.: Z ~ t r13crrcl1111111g dcr I:rtnirlnret~ Reil)rrt~gwclticl~t, bci ~~hcrscl~nll~racl~~\~in-
tligltril.. AIIII. rlcr Ilrn~tt~sol~wcigiuc:I~ct~ Wim. (:csellscl~aft 3, 2 3 9 - 2 0 4 (1051).
1911 St,:rr~e\\.slzy,15., ntltl Litblc, 13. H . : Sepnratior~ant1 rcattiichtnent in transonic airfoil flow.
J . Airrrnft R, !)52--958 (1071).
[92] St,ainl)ac:k, ll.C!.: At1 ex~~erirncntal invcst.ignt,ion a t n Mach tlumbcr 4.95 of flow in the
vicinit,y of a !)O0 interior corner aligned wit.11 the free stream velocity. NASA 'CN 184 (1960).
1931 Sctltlcy, It.: I,nttiitiar bonndary layer on a spinrli~lgcone a t small angles of attack in n
s~tperso~ f l~oi~~.IAS
. 24, 430---436, 455 (l!)57).
(!)RtrJ Settles, (:. S.. IlogdonotT, S. M., a11t1V m , 1. E.: Jncipicnt scpnration of n s l ~ ~ e r s o nbound- ic
ary lnyrr at. high l~oynoldsnu~nbcw.AIAA .I. 14, 50-56 (1976).
(!)4] Str\vartsot~,I<.: Corrcl:ltcd eornprcssil)le :inti incon~presnihleboundary layers. Proc. Itoy.
Sor. A 200, 84 100 (1!)4!)).
[!I51 Stcwarlno~t,I<.: 0 1 1 t,ho intrrnction hctwcer~shock waves and houtldary layers. Proc. Catlthr.
I'hil. Soc. 47. 545--553 (1951).
[!)(\I S k w n r t n o ~ I<.: ~ , 'l'hc theory of lat~tinarI)ou~~d:rry layers in cotnprcssiblc flrritln. Oxford, l0(i4.
1!)71 'I'nni, 1.: 011the :r~~l,roxirt~at,c .. solntiol~of t.l~elaminar bortndtiry - layer . S 21,
- e q .~ ~ a t i o nJs A
487 - 4!)5 (1!l54).
[!I81 'J'iltorcl, A. N.: Sitnpliliccl co~n~~rcssiblc lnmirlar bor~tldarylayer thcory. J A S 18, 358-350
f l!)5 I ).
(!)!)I 'l'oll, 'l'.A,. attcl I'incl~cl, C..: The X-15 projt:c:t,-mnlrlts atid new research. Astronautics nnd
Arror~ntlt~icn, 2. 25 -:?2 (I!.)04).
(1001 \\l:it.so~~. I<. I).. ntid Wril~ntein.I,.M.: A nLudy of hypernonic corner flow i~~toractions. AfAA
,I. 9 , 1280-.1280 (l!)71).
( I01 1 \Verlc!, M . . I . , l'olnlz. A., V:it.qa, V. N., a t ~ t lI%crt,ke,KT).: Finilo difference sol~ttionsfor artper-
sot~icsey,:tr:~f.c.d Ilown. A(:Altl) Conf. I'roc. 17low'Scp~rat,ior1.No. IC,R, 8.- 1 t,o 8-12
, 1!)75).,
[I021 LVrst.. .I. 15.. ntlcl I<orgcgi, It. 11. : St~pcrsonicittleraction in the corner of it~tersectingwedges
nt. high I<r,vt~olcls1t111111)crri. AIAA .1. 10. 652 656 (1!)72).
(10:11 Y:I.~II;I~:I, . I . : ,411~pproxittt:~Ilr s o l ~ t t ~ofi o t,hc
~ ~ lamiliar bottt~dnrylnyer on n rot.nting hody of
r c v o l r ~ l i oi ~ t , ~~ ~ ~ ~ i faontprr~sil)lc
orrn Ilow. I'roc. fit11 ,Inpan Nnt. Congr. Appl. Mech. Univ.
l<yol,o, ,J:~II:III. 205 208 ( l!)5li).
 n. Mrl.lirjd~of 1,01111tlnry-lnyrr
control 37!)

i r ~nct,rlal ny~y)lio:~tioris
i t is oftcri norcssary ($0prevent sci):~ml.io~iin ortlor tau rc-cl~rc:t:
tlr:ig ant1 t.o at,t.nir~liigli lift. Several niethods of cor~t,rollirigthe botrntlnry lnyor
I ~ n v c\)con clcvclol)cci expcriniontnlly, nnrl nlso on the b n ~ i xof I,lioorotic::~lnorrsidc:-
rntioiis 16, 76, 701. Tlicsc car1 t ~ ct:lnssifictl a s follows:
1. hlol.ion of tlie solitl wall
CIIAPTER XIV
2. Accclcrat,iori of tlic bol~ndnry 1:tycr (blowing)
3. S~~ct.ion
Boundary-layer control in laminar flow t 4. 1njac:l.iori of n, cliffcrerit gas (I)iriitry I)ot~ndary1nyc:rs)
5 . I'rovc:nt.iot~or t,rnrisit,iorit o L ~ ~ r l ~ l ~flow
l o n I)y
l 1.11t: ~~rovi.siorl
of utliL:~I~It!NII:L~;(:H
(I:i.~ninnr:tt~roIOiIs)
6. ('ooli~ig or t,lio wr~ll.
,l .iicrc ;i.rt. in existence several ineLliods which have been developed for the Mrtrhotls 1 to 4 will be discussetl in taliis chnptrr. Methods 5 ant1 fi will be
purpose of nrt.iGcinlly conbrolling trhc I)oliavio~~r of tfhc bonntlary layer. The: piirposc tlcscri1)rtl in (:II:LII. S V I I in conricxiori witJi t,ho rorisitlrrat-ion of t . 1 1 ~ t.lit.ory of
t rntisil ion fro111 l : ~ ~ i ~ ito
of flicsc mctliods is t o affect the wliolc flow in a clcsircd direction by infl~rcricing
the strtrct,urc of tlie boundary layer. As early a s in his first paper put)lishcd in 1904,
r . ~ i ti~rl)tilriit~
;~r flow.
I lio t.rcat.isc: e~it.it,lt:cI"Bo11ncl:try-1,i~ycrant1 I'low (?or~l.rol"1441 Ily (:. V. I , ; t t : l ~ -
1,. I'rantltl rlrscril~cdsevrrnl cxperirnents in which tlie borl~ldarylayer was cont,rolled. rnann ~orit.:~ins a slrmmary of the sill~jcctof boi1nd;~ry-layercontrol at:corctirip to
Ire: inl,ciidctl t o prove tJie ~ a l i t l i t ~ofy his funtfamonta.l ideas by suit,ahly designed tlic state of rcscnrcli a t t.lic time; cornpare also I.'. I<. Chang [12n]. Until t,lie rnd of the
cx~)crilncllt,sn.rld arliicvctl quite: rcmarltn.l)lc rcsl~ltsin this WRY.F i g ~ l r c14.1 shows t,lrc Sccontl Mrorltl War, t,lie problems untlcr coiisiclrrat,ion wcrc workctl on almost c,xclu-
flow 1);txt n c:irrr~l:\rc:ylititlor with s~ict,ion:tpplit:d on 0110 sitlc of i t t,hrotrgl~n sriiall sivcly in C:c>rnlnny: (.lie corrcspontling n.cl~icvrrnc:ritslinve Orrri rcport.ctl 011 1)). 11.1lt.t~
slit.. 0 1 1 t.hc s ~ ~ c t , i ositlo
n tlio llow ndlinrrs t.o I.lic cylintlcr over a consitlcrably larger [9]. Tlie tlcvelop~rirnl,of t.liis s i ~ b j e cwliicli
t toolc plncc in otlicr coirntrics since t.lir (-lid
~,ort.io~i of i t s srirf;loe: nntl scpnr:tt.io~~ is nvoitlctl; 1 . 1 1 ~tlrng is rcdt~octlnl~prcci:lljly, of t l ~ Sccontl
c \\Tor.ltl \\'at- has brcn srinimnrizctl in rcf. 1441:ts wcll as i l l 127, Rfi, G5, 104 1.
nilti si~n~ilt~niicoiisly n Inrgc cross-force: is intlt~cctlowing t o tlie lack of symnictry . I,Iic j)reserit c:linptcr will princip:tlly tfcnl with t l ~ c : prot~lcmsof colit,rol iri I:~niin:tr
in ~ J I C flow pnt,t,orii. 1nyc:rs will I)(. st.~~clic:tl
tjonritlnry Inycrs. 1'rot)lcms relatctl t.o b n r l ~ ~ ~ l cI)o~~ricl:~ry
nt
in S r r . X S I I 11 6.

A s tlrriio~~st,~.;~t,c-rI i l l (!II:L~. S, n l : ~ n ~ i ~t ~ :oi~r r n d ; Inycr

~ r y can sirl)l)ort. orily very
sni:~ll :ttlvnrst: 1)rt\ss11rt:g ~ . : ~ l i t vwiI.lio~~t,~t~ Llit: ot:t:~irt:iit:o of so1):~r:bl~io1i. 111 1 . 1 1 ~
~:RHC 0(. t,~~r\n~I,:~it. flow t , l ~ ctIn.iig& of scl)nr:tt.ion is int,riiisicaIly rodr~cetl,compsrcd
~ r I ) ~ C R I I S Oowitlg t.o l,I~rl.t~rI)i~lcnt
w r i l l l I : ~ ~ n i n :fIo\v. mixing mot,iori Iflicre is s con- 1. klotior~of tlac solid wall. 'l'lic! rtiost, oljvioils r~it*t,I~otl of ;tvoitli~igsv~j:i.~it,iott
t . i ~ ~ n o(low i ~ s of' 1iio1iiciit.11iiifro111 the cxt.crn;i.l flo\y t.ow:~rtlsl.lie: wall. Nnvcrl~lit:losq, is 1.0 nt,t.c:riil)l,t.o prevent Llio forniaLiori ol'n I~o~lritlitry 1:tyc.r. Sint:c: n I)oi~r~tl:~ry I:b,ycr
1~vc.11 i l l t t~rl)rrlt-nt,flow it is often tlrsiral)le t,o prevcrit, scparnt.ioli by adopt.ing suitable owes it.s cxist.cncc t o the cliffercrlce bctewceri tlic v ~ l o o i t ~of y tlie Iliritl ant1 tlint of Ghc
hn?ct~rl*rr?y-/tr!yrr rnntrol mcns1irrs. 'l'tio prol)lcn~of I)onntlnry-layer cont,rol Iias 0ct:omc solitl wall, it is possi1)le t o eliminate the formalion of a I,o~rndnrylnycr l ~ y:tt.t,t*mljff-
vrry. iril~~ort,nrit. lijr n. t.i~nc,in partfic~ilnri i i t,lic firltl of ncronn~itirnlengineering; irig to sllpl)rcss Clint tlill'crcrlca, i . c. by c:r~~sirig the ~ o l i t lwall t o Inovc: wit,l~1,110
st.rc:;~m.'I'lic: si::~l~lt:sI~
wny of achiovirig s11t:l1I& r c : ~ ~ ~i~ivoIvc:s
lt, (,IIO rot.:it.i(>~ior :L t:irt-trI:ir
1 l'voft~ssor I),.. \IT.\frt,csl,:~sxixl~~l of
i t ~l,Iw l)rt~1):ir:tl,it~t) t,Ilt: II~:\%~vorsioti of LIti8 rIlnplt*rfor I,lit?
c:yliritlc:r. lf'ig~rrc:14.2 NIIOWH tlie flow I ) : L ~ ~ C T Iwlti(:li
I cxi.qt~~ ~ t j o u:L t rot,:tt.ir~gc:yli~~tlc:r
b'illll I C ~ l i I i o to~f I l l i ~l>tioIc.
:180 X IV. llorlntlnry-layrr control

~)laccdin a strcam nt right anglcs t o its axis. On t h c upper sitlc, where the flow
and t,he cylinder move in tlic snmc direction, separation is completely eliminated.
I~ttrt,llcr~norc, on tllo lowcr sitlc wl~cret , l ~ ctlircot,ion of Hr~itlrnot,ioti is opposite t o
t,llnL of t.lrc solitl wall, scpnral,ion is c1cvclol)cd only incotnpletcly. 011tthc whole,
t,lro flow pnt.t.rrt1 wllich cxist.s in t,ltis case nj)proxinint,cs vcry closely tlrc pnt,t,ern of
frit:l.ionlt:ss Ilow j)asl, x circttlar c!ylititlor wit,l~oircnla.t,ion. 'rhc: sl,rram exerts n con-
sitlcmbl(: force on t,lic cylintlcr a t right :111glcst,o td~cmean flow tlircct0ioli, ;lncl t,liis
is somcttimcs referred t o ns t,he Magnr~scIFcct,. This effect can be seen, o. g., wllcn a.
t,cnnis l);~llis 'sliced' in 1)I;~y.A t t ~ c t n p twcrc
,~ also mntlc t o ~lt~ilixc t l ~ coccilrrcncc of
lift, on rotating cyliritlcrs for t h e prol)l~lsionof s l ~ i p s(I'lettner's rotor 111). With
t h e exception of rotgatsingcylinders, tlto itlc?:h of moving t l ~ solid
c wall wit,l~the stronm
can I)(? rcalizetl only a t tVhc cost, of vcry grcat complic:~tions a s far ns s l ~ a p c s
ot,hrr t.llnn ryli~~tlrionl are conoornccl, ant1 conscqt~ent,ly,this nictllotl has not fonntl
~nnalrpractical npplicatio~l. Nevort,hc:loss, A. I h v r e (261 mntle a thorougl~expcri-
mcst~t.nlinvest.ignt.ion of t,ltc inll~lcnccof a moving bo~tntlaryo n a n nerofoil. A port,ion
of l.I~t,ripper sttrf;~.ccof f.l~onerofoil was li)rrnetl into a n c:ntllcss I ~ c l tw l ~ i c lnlovatl
~
ovcxr two rollcrs so t,li:~tI,ltc: rcLttrn tnol,iot~occnrrctl in t l ~ cirlt,crior of t.11~motlcl.
'J'lio arrangcrncnt, proved vcry cff'cctivc for the avoidance of separnt,ion, nntl yicltlcd
vcry high nraxitilrlm lift, cocfficicnt,~(C,,,,,, = 3.5) a t I~iglr angles of incitlcnce
(a. z 55'). T l ~ eInrninar boltridary laycr for a flat plat,c moving in its rear part with
t.hc sf,rcmn 11n.s I)ccn c:rl(:t~latctl by ]I:. 'I'rncltcnhrotlt. [IOO].
Fig. 14.0. 1)ifFercnt arrnngen~entsfor bound- Fig. 14.4. Polar dingrnrn of n
2. Accclcrn1inn o l t l ~ bc n u ~ ~ t l layer
n r ~ (blnwi~lg). An nllnrnn.t,ive t~rc~t.ltotl of l)rcvc:l1- ary-fnycr conl.rol. n) discl~nrgoof fluid, wing will1 for\r.nrti ~ l n alltl
t II:L~
b) slotted wing, c) suction
t.il~gscp:r.rat.ion ronsist.~in supplying atltlit.ional energy t o t h e part,iclcs of fluid wl~irlr
arc Itring rct.nrtlrd in t h e bor~ndarylaycr. This resrllt can be at-hicvotl by tlisclrarging
fluill frorn t,Ilc itlt,c?riorof t,llc I)ocly wit11 t h e aicl of n special blower (I'ig. 14.:ln), or
Oy tlrriving t.hc fctlr~irctlenergy dircct,ly from tllc main s h a m . This Iat,t,cr effect. A review of recent work on control t.liroug11 blowing is contninctl in ref. [13].
pa11 I)P l)rotlrirctl by conncct.ing t h e rct,nrtlcct rcgion t.o a rcgion of l~iglierpressure
t.l~rot~gIr n slot in tlrc wing (slottcd wing, Pig. 14.3b). I n c i t l ~ c rca.sc atltlit.ionnl
crirrgy is i ~ n ~ : r r ~ 1.0 . c dtlrc pnrt,icles of lltlitl in tho boilntlary layer .near the wall. 3. Suction. 'I'llc effect- of suction consists in the rcrrioval of dccc1cr;~trtl fluitl
M'lrrn fluitl is tliscl~nrgcd,say in t h e manner shown in IGg. 14.3a. it is mnntlntory 1)artic:les from tJie bouritlary layer before they arc givcn a cliancc to carrsc scp;~mt.iori,
t,o pay mrcfrtl at,t~crrt.iont o tlie sllnpc of t,hc slit in order t o prevent t h e jet frorn Fig. 1 4 . 3 ~ A . new boundar.y layer wllicll is again cnpnl)lc of ovcrco~~ring :I c:crt,;l.in
dimc,lving into a t 8 short* dist.nncc bcl~irid the exit section. Tjatcr expcri- ntlvcrsct 1)rcssrtr.o gl.atlicnt is allowctl t o (i~rliiin 1110 rcgiol~ I ) t : l ~ i l l t l I,II(: slit,. \\'iI.lr
~ncnt,spc~rli)r~nc~tl in France [04] Iinvc rnatlc it, vcry ntll.racl.ivt: t,o n.pply blo\\ling :I.{, a srtitrnl)lc nrmngcmcnt of t l ~ eslits ant1 rrntlcr f;~vorrr;~blo c:ontlit.ions scl):~r;ll,iot~ r:Ln
t,hc t,r:iiling ctlge of n.rl acrofoil in ortlcr t o incrcnsc its mnximrlm lift. Att,cnipt.s be prcvcntcd completely. Siniultancously, tlrc atnoutrt, of prcssnrc tlrng is grcat,ly
consid(.rn.l)ly t,o incrmsc t h e rnasiln~lmlift of a Rnp wing t,lrrongh blowing in the rctlrtaetl owing t o tllc almcncc of scpa.rntion. The npl)licaI.iotr of s~lct~ion, \ v l ~ i c - l nr:rs
~
slot. 11:l.ve a.lso m r t u.it.11 sr~cccss(c/. Sec. X l l b 6). first t,rictf by L. I'mrltIt,f (Pig. 14.1), w ; ~ slater \vitlciy itsc:tl in t , l ~ ctlcsigtr ol' iiirt~r:ift,
111 1 . 1 1 ~c.;rsr of t.11~ slol.tretl wing [7],s l ~ o w nin Ipig. 14.311, t.hc c f i c t is protl11c:ctl wings. 1 %applying~ suct.ion, consit1crnl)ly grcntcr ~)rcssrlrcincrc:tscs ott I l ~ cr11,lwr
:IS follows: 'l'lrc I)o~tntl:~ry laycr forrncti or1 t h e forwnrtl slnL A - 13 is c:arrictl in1.o t,l~c side of t.llc acrolhil (i. o. lowcr nk)solt~t,cj)rcssr~rc:) :tro ol,l.:~i~~(:(I :kt1 1:l.rgt: :111gIt-s01'

tn:tit~sl.rc-n.tn brfore scl)nml,ion occurs, :&rltlfrorn point (: O I I W R ~ ( ~aS tlc\v bot~ll(ln.~.y in~:itIt:n(:t:, rind, c o t ~ s t ~ q ~ t c t ~I Tt l~~I Iy~.I I:rrg(!r
I r11axit1111r11
lift, v;rlt~(~s. 0. S(.I~I.~.III< 1851
I:~yt-ris li)rnrc.tl. IJrlJcr favoural)lc contlitions this new borttid:~rylayer will rcnc:lt invcsl,igat.ctl x 1:~rgt: ru~mi)orof tlil1i:ront nrmngcmcnLs of sttct,ion xlit,s i r l r t l t,lrcir
1.111:t.rniling rtlgc 1) wil.l~out.sc?pamt,ion. 111tliis way i t is possiblc to relegate ~ r p a r n t ~ i o t i cff'cct on mnximt~ni lift; see ;ilso ref. [104].
t,o consitlrm.bly larger n.nglcs nf incidnncc, nrtd t,o achieve rnucll larger lifts. Fig. 14.4 111 rnorc rocrnt, l,in~cssrtc:l,io~lwits :~Isonpl)liotl to rc~tlltc:ctlr:lg. lg~r1,Itt: ttst. of.
s11ows n polar tlia.grntn (lift, cocfficicnt~ plottetl against drag coeffi'licir~lt~) for a wir~g suilnblt: nrrnngrtncwt.s of sttct,iori slits it is 1)ossiblc t o sllifi, t11c l)oi~rl,o f tt.:tllsitio~~
s(~t-i.ion\vit,l~: ~ n du ~ i l ~ l ~ oforwnr<I
t~t, slat 2nd Ilnp. 'l'lic plrcnomenn in t*hcslot fornietl in t , l ~ cI)ountlary lngcr in tllc ctownstrcnrn dircctiori; this causes tlic tlr:tg cocfficic~rt
I)y t.11r fl:r.p ltcwr t,hr t.rnilittg e(lgc are, in pritlciplc, t.lic same as tliosc at, the forwnrtl t o t~ecrense, because laminar drag is sr~bstant~ially smaller thn11 tr~rb~rlcrit drag,
sl:rI. 'l'llr g:lirr in lift is seen t o I)o vory collsideral~le. Fig. 14.9. The effect of the dela?/ i n Lmn.siLion cnuscd I)y suctior~is t o rctlrlce tIllr?
bonntlr~ry-laycrl,l~icl<nt:sqwllir11 0 ~ 1 ~ 1t)t:eomes
1 less pr011c t,o ttlrning t~c~rl)~tlr-nl 131.
I'~~rl~llc~rrnorc, tllc velocity p r ~ f i l c sin R 11011ncl:~rylnycr wit.11 s~~ct.ion, L)eing frlllcr
(lc'ig. 14.61, 1t:tvc f o r ~ r ~wIlit:l~
s arc lt:ss lilct,ly to int1t1t:o t , ~ ~ r I ~ ~ ~ l t(:orr~p:trctl
:not: wit,l~
(,hose it1 1n.rninn.rI)onn~ln.rylayors w i t h o ~ stlebion
~t nr~llol c r j ~ ~thic:kncss.
al L'rol~lcms 1.1. Fundamental equations. I t is s i r n ~ ~ l c st ot Ijr:gin t . 1 1 ~ rn:~l~l~r~nnt~it:nl
stntly
c~onnc~t:l,rtl
wit.11 t,llo ~)ltt?non~onorl of t.ransit.ion. n~ltlin particr~lxrt.llosc nssoriat,ctl wit,l~ of t h e laminar bounc1ar.y laycr with s11cLio11by first. t:o~~sitlcri~lg t,ht: case wif.11t:or~-
st1c1,ion. will I)c tlisc:nssotl rnoro fitlly in (:l~ny).XVII. t i n ~ t o l ~st~nt.ion
s which mny be irna,girlctl rc.nlizcd wit11 iSllc:tit1 of a 1)or011s~:l.lJ.'l7he
iisual system of coordinates will bc atloptetl, the z-axis Ijoing along tlrc \\.all, ant1
tho y-axis Iicing nt riglit angles t o it., Fig. 14.5. S~~c:t.iot~ will Ijc ac:c:or~r~l~t:tl li)r b,vT
4. Iltjcetion oC a dilrrrcl~tga*. 'l'ho i~rjt%c:t,ion 01' a light gns. wlrirl~is tlill'c-r.c~~l, pmsnribing n tion-zcro normal vclocit.y c o ~ n p o ~ ~vc, (rz~) t:~t,t.I~ewnll; in tllrt: t:n.sc: ol'
fro111I.Il:aI, i l l the cxl.crn:il sl,roarn, t.llrotrgl~n. porous w:ill irll,o tilt: I)ountln.ry layer
rc~111ct:s trllc r t ~ t ca t which host i~ cxcllangetl 1)t:twecn tho well atid trhestream [Wj. 'l'lris
is t,11t: most irnport>:~nt one of t.lrc cll't;c:i.s protluwd this way, a.ntl for (.his reason, ml
:r.rr:~.ngc-rncnL of tllis kirltl is ofl.c:n 11set1t o ~)rovitlot.l~crnma.lprotcctior~a t 11igll sraprr-
sonic: velooit,ies. Ir~jc-r-t,ionc:ra:ates a gnscons rnixl~irci n t,lro borir~claryInycr, ant1
t.t> tlie procnsscs o l m o m c n t ~ ~aritl m 11c:~tt.r:~nsferthcrc is :ultlcd t*l~c. process of rnnss Fig. 14.5. Flnt. plntn wit.11 hon~ogcrlro~~a
n~~r!t~iot~
nl. zero ir~c:iclc?t~ca,
I.r:r.t~sf'r:rI)y tlin'trsion. Ct:ncm.lly spcn.Iting, t . 1 1 ~t,llt:rm:1.1clill'nsion r n t ~ s not,
t Ijc r~t~glt:t:t.c:tl
wil.l~rcsprct t o t,l~otlilPnsio~~ :tlo~lgc:ot~c:c.nl.r:~t,iorrgr:ulinnLs. Sirnil:tr proc:css?rc:?r::rise vo cons t
w l ~ r nn, licluitl filrn cv:1rjnr:1,1,c?sn.1. t . 1 1 ~ w:rll or who^ tllc in:~.t.crinlof Lllc w:rll it,sc:lf
1 1 1 t ~ l tnr
~ stll~li~nat~t:~. 'I'll(> I:~t,t,cr
~~rot:css is tloscri1)ctl 1)y tllc: term n.hh~lio?a;we shi~ll
rrvcrt, t.o it in Soc. XIVc. ~11t:f~ioll ~ 1 1 ~ p1 u1 t v,, < 0, making v,, > 0 for discl~argo.It, will IIC assr~n~ctl tlrnt,
t11c rjrlanl.ily of fluicl rernovcd from tJlo st>rcam is so s n ~ n l ltllat, o r ~ l yfluitl p:trt.icl(:s
5. l'rcvcntio~~ of t r a ~ a a i t i nby
~ ~tlle proviriolt oC a ~ ~ i t n lalanpcs.
~lr Lnlr~inarnerofoiln. in the imrnediatfe 1ieiglrl1ourl1ootlof tlie well arc? suolrctl away. This is ctlt~ivaI(:rlt
'l'riinsit.ion l'ronr I : ~ ~ n i nt,o t ~ rt,rlrl)lllc~rt,Row c:arl also 1)o tlt>lnyctl l ) ~ r1.11~: nsa of s~litnl)ly t o saying tfha,t.I,trc rat,io of suction vcloci(,y v , ( z ) t o frce-slfro:~tnvcloc:ity IT,,, is v t ~ y
sl1:11~~l 11otlic.s.'l'llo ol)jct:t,. :LS in t . 1 1 ~cnso of srlc:t.ion, is 1.0 rctlrlcc frict.ionn.l tlrng Ity small, say n,,/lJ,, -- 0.0001 t o 0.01 t. 'I'llr oontlitior~of t ~ slip o nL l,l~ow:rll is rc~l.:~i~rrcl
c.:~~lsing t . 1 1 ~point of t.r:l.nsil,ior~1.0 movo tlowr~st~rcnni. It, hns bccn es1,nI)lislrc:tl 1,11aL wit.11 s~~ct,iorr prescnt, as wc:ll as the cxprrssioli to = 11 (au,/r3?~),~ for thn shc:~r-il~g stross
t l ~ cloc.:rt.ioti of t,lro point o r t,rn.nsit.ion in t.11~1)onntln.ry In.ycr is st*ronglyinlltrrnrct1 at, t.11~wall. 'l'llt: q ~ ~ n r ~ l .of
i t ,fluit1
y rctnovotl, (J, will bc cxprcssccl l.llro1rg11a t l i ~ ~ ~ r t r s i o n -
l)y 1 . 1 1 ~I)rosstIrc: gr:~tliorrtin Lllc cxt.crnal st.rcn.n~.Wit.11a decrease in pressure, t.mrisition lcss volrlmc corfficicrit I)y pnt,t,ing
oc:c:tirs at, rnuc)~I ~ i g I ~ cItcyrloltIs
r rllrrnl~crstllnn wit11 prossure increase. A decrease
in 11rc.ssrlrc 11n.sR Itiglrly st,al)ilii.,ing cfic:t. orr t>lroborrrlclary layer, ancl tho oppositt:
is t.1.11t: of' a11 incrc:~.scin prcsslrro nlollg tire stream. 'l'llis circumstn,ncc is nt~ilizt~tl
in niotlcrrl low-tlr:rg ncrofoils. 'l'11c dcsirctl rt:st~lt.is acliicvrtl by tlisplacing t l ~ sectpion c
of tn:~xirnnn~t.l~ic.lcrlc~ss far rc:~rwnrtls.In t.llis manner a largo porLion of tJie ncrofoil
r.cvn:~ir~s tlntlrr ~.II(: itiflncnor of' R Iprcssurc: wllit*lltlecreasos tlowrist,rcam nntl a Inniinar
I)o~rntl:~ry Iaytlr is mninl.:~inctl. We sll:~ll rovcrt t.o t,tlis clr~cst,ionin (j11:~p.X V I I .

6. Cooling of tltr wnll. 111 :I, c:c?rt.:iin r:Lngt: o f s~~l)t-rsovic Mnc:l~ n ~ r ~ n l j c rit,s is nntl for 1.11r t*asr of 11nili)r111snt:Lion, 11, -- t:o11st.,
c:oln[)lot,c.ly 1.0 st,;al~ilizol,llc I)otrrltl:l.ry laycr by Ll~capplic::rt.ion of t:ooling
~)t~ssil~lc:
nl. t.11~wall (c/. Scc. XVI[ c). Cooling enn also bc applietl in orctcr t o retluce tlic thick-
nt*ssof t.11t: I j t ) ~ ~ ~ ~ tI:~ycr, o. a. wlrcn
l : l r y arid t.llis possi1)ility m:Ly I ~ c c ~ o nitnporl,ar~t~,
~o
g:~,sc-sof vcry low tlt>t~sit..yarc rnn.tlc t,o flow tlrro~lgllt.llc nozzles of wind t.~lnncls,
---- -.
I ) t ~ c ~ : ~ol,l~or~vist:
.~~sc I.11t> vcry l.l~ic:lzI)ounclnry layers ivoultl nnacccpta1)ly rcclnce tlre
~

t JII orclrr t,t> C I I S I I ~t.l~itt

~ z flow xvit,l~s11ct,io11,or bIo\vi~rg,nt l,l~c~v:tll smt.isfii*st,llt\ s i 1 1 1 1 1 I i f ~ i t t ~
t~srl't~ l :I rt,:~. of 1,llc InsG sc:ctfion. I cot~tlit~io~rnwliinl~for111i.Ile I);~sinof bo11ndary-1:~yor t.l~cory,i L is Ilor.r.ss:try txj li111itI,llr: \~c.Iot:itY
,I ,Ilc rnol.llotl of 1)orindary-layer nont,rol Ijy s~lct~ion, t,ogct.l~crwith t l ~ cprevcrition
no at, Ll~cwnll to n rnagtlitutlc of Lhc ortlcr of I/,, R-112, \r.llt*rr: R -.
(I,,, 1 / 1 8 atltl 1 c1c.1t~1t.c.s :\
of t.r:lrisit,iori or1 I:l.minn.r acrofoils, Ilnvc t l ~ cgrc::~tcsl pmc:t.io:~liniport.:~.rlac:Lrnong all
t.lrt: rrlc:tl~otlstlis(:nsscd prc?viot~sly.lror this rcason vnrions ~~ia.t,l~crnnf.ic:nl rnc1.lrods
v, -
clmrantrrist.ic dinrc~lsionof i.I~c:nolitl 1)otly ~)l:~rt-tl
0.Ol)l 11,. Ll'l~ot~
to t ~ ~ g l ~ ctlic
: L Ioss of rnoss or c'~i~~k-cI~t!f:L"
in I.IIo Ilo\tr. At. R
011 1110rxlrr~i~tl
loRt,l~isr.1111cIil.io11 t:iyc.s
vcloc:il.y is of HII~:II n 411l:tlI orclt*r01' ~ ~ ~ : ~ . p t ~ i lill. ~ist ~11ossiltlc.
1.110 s~lnl.ic~t~
1 1 0 l ~ . n l i ! ~ l 110\~.1 1 1 ol.11c:r \101.114,
lc~,

for 1.I1t: c.:tl(:~~I:~l.ior~

of t,hc inllnorcc of s ~ ~ r t . oni o ~bonrltl:~ry-l:~ycr
~ llow have been t.11~potcnt,inl flow 111nyI)c :tasulncd to r c ~ ~ l aunnrfc:ctcd
ir~ Ijy sctc:l~I~lotvingor srtolion al~plicvl
at Lhc nurfacc of Ll~esolid body.
tlcvolo~~ctl, i~11t1 wc now propose t o mvicw Llrom Ijriclly.
384 XIV. Boundary-layer control

Assunring incompressible two-dimensional flow we have the following differential wit,h the boundary contiit,ions: = 0, v = v, = const < 0 for = 0, and ZL = U ,
ccinnt,ions for y =- co.It can be secn a t once t h a t t,llis system posscssrs a part.ici~larsolu(,ion
for which the vclority is intlcpcntlcnt of t,hn ci~rrctrtIctlgL,I~x [52, 781. l'~~t,t,it~g
a u l a ~zs 0 we sec from the equation of collLiriuity t h a t v ( z , ? l )= vo = eotrst. Ilcnce
the cqr~ationof motion bccorncs v, aulay =. v a27~/r??yz, wit811 t-hc solntiot~

wit,h the 1)otindary conditions

7r(y) = U , [I - exp (v,v/v)] ; v(x,?y) - vn < 0 . (14.6)
It is wort.ll noting that this sirnplc solut,ion is cvcrr a n cxnct sol~rtionof t l ~ ocoml~lctc ,
Navicr-St.oltcs cclrrat.iorrs. 'I'l~c tlisplaccmctrt thic:l<t~cssant1 t . 1 1 ~~nolncntl~ttl
t11it:l~rlrss
arc

lSvitlcnt,ly, the int,cgmtion of the above system of cqrlations for the gcncral case
of a r l ~ i t ~ m rbody
y shape, implying a n arbitrary velocity function U ( z ) , present-s anti the sl~earirigstrcss a t t l ~ cwall T, p (a~~/r?y),
7 bccornrs simply
no frwcr clifficult,ies tllnn does t h e case with no suction.
Nrvcrtltrless, the qnalitative effert of sr~ctionon separation can bc rstimat,ed
tcitlr the :lid of t,lrr preceding equations even without, intrgration. Along the stream- and is indcperirlenb of viscosit,y. The vclocit,y clistribution is seen plotted in Fig. I.t.(i,
lirtr a t t h r w:~Il (?/ -0). eqrlnt.iotis (14.3) ant1 ( 1 4 4 ) yield cllrvc 1 . Crlrve 11, dmwn for the pilrposc of comparison, rcprcsclitn the 15lnsins
\relocity distribution wit.llout suction. I t slroultl be notetl t,l~att,hc sr~ct,ionprofile
is fuller. The solution thus discovered can be realizcd on n flnt plat.e a t zcro ir~cidcncc
with mi form suctjion only a t some distance from the loading ctlge, even if suct,ion
is applictl fronl t h e lcatling ctlge onwartls. 'rho bor1ntl:~ry I:l.ycr, cviclont,ly, I ~ c - ~ i t ~ s
I t is seeti that, in a rcgion of adverse prossure gmdient (dpldx > O), t h e superpositiori t o grow from zero tl~icltnessnt the lcatlirlg cdgc ant1 conLinr~csdownslrcnm t.rntlit~g
of sunhion (vo< 0) rctluccs the curvature of the velocitfy profile a t the wall. According asymptotically to the valuc given in eqn. (14.7). The vclocit,y profile atjtpai~is thc
t,o the :irgumcnt,s adva~icctlin Chap. V11, this signifies t h a t the point of scpnratiot~ simple form given by cqn. (14.6) only asymptotically, i. c. from tllc practical point,
is tlisplaced rearwartls. Now, in accordance with t,he theory which will be giver1 in of view after a ccrt,airi initial length. For thcsc reasons the preceding particular
Chap. XVIT, t.l~ishas t,he additional effect of stabilizing the laminar houndary solut~ionmay bc regarded as the asymptotic suction pl-ojile.
layer. 'rhcse t,wo elTcct.q produced by suct,ion, rxamely avoitlance of separation and
t,he relrgat.ion of t,hc point of I a n ~ i ~ ~ a r - t ~ ~ r t,ra~lsit.iorr
b ~ r l c n t to Iligl~erReynolds ~rurnbcrs,
hn.\,c bcen c:onfirl:rctl hy t,hc rcsrllts of experiments.
A snlrlmary of mcthocls r~sctlfc~rt,hc: c:~lct~lat.ion of I)onntlary layers wit,ll sr~cLiorl
\\':is pnl)lisl~c~I I)y \V. W l ~ c s t[108].
Fig. 14.6. Velocity distrihut.ion i l l the boun-
1.2. Exnct ~nltt~inlls. 'I'II(: n~ct,)totlof l~singn ~~owc:r-soric.s
cxpi~.trxionin t.rrrrrs of tlary layrr on a flat plntc at, zcro incidence
t,lrc! lotlgt,II of arc li)r t.ltc: I,ot.cr~tinlvclocit,y (Illasins series) dcscribctl in Scc. I X c
(::In, in 1)rincipla. llc al)plictl in this case as well. IIowevcr, just as in the case w i ~ h o u t
snct,ion, the result.ing comput,ations become very laborious [75]. Reasonable sirnplc
s o l ~ t t , i ~can
n s t)c ot)t,aincci only in t,hc case of a flnt a t zero incidence.

FInt A st~r~)~.isingIy
S ~ I I I ~ I CsoInt,ion C:HI IN 0bt.~i110din the case of a JEnt
A more tlctailetl investignt~iorrirkto the flow in the initin1 kngth, i.e., brfo1.c
7,!,11c tr( wit,lr 7tu,i/o~.?n,~ u c l i o , ~Fig.
zo.0 itlc:it/e,tcr. , 14.5. '1'11c systcm oT tlilf(?rcnt.ial
the a s ~ ~ m p t o t istmate
c has I~eenreachcd, was carried out by R. Igliscll [40] who
c.cluat.iorls no\v rctl~rccstto I
has shown t h a t iflie asymptotic state is reachetl after a Icngtfll of about

'The vclocity profiles in the inilial lcngtlr are not similar among tlienisrlvcs 'rllcy
arc practically itlrr~t~ical
will1 tliosc for Cho cnso with no sl~rl.ior~
n t sliorl dist:~nrc.a
 30 -
Fig. 14.8. Flat plate wit,h
llliifortn liltctio~i; velocity
profilcs ovcr init,ial length,
aftcr lgliscli [40]

uibr Vig. 14 7. VI:L~plat^ \vII,II uni-

~ f l i l i i l l l l l l I t t ~ t i f I I l I 1 1(;,,y
Uro o 0 2 01 06 on to 12 tr rcr I R 20 2 7 ~ pnl (rrti ~ rrmtil-
r o r t ~ntlrtio~i; ~ t
ltncs

frorii ttli(; 1c::uIitig c<lgt! (l3l:tsi11s l)rofilc:, It'ig. 7.7). 'l'lic: ~ ~ a ~ l ~ ol ~r cs tr~r ri c ~ n r i ~ l i ri t~1 ct~, ls~ c >
ir~il,i:~lIcngt,ll is U C ~ I Itlr:lwl~ in I'ig. 13.7, : L I I ~ the:
~ vc:locilfy ~)rolil(:sa r c scorl 11lo1,l.c~l
cnso wil.11sllr:t,ion. 'rhis is %(:en~~lof,l,c:cl in Pig. 14.1). I n t , l ~ c -c:rtsc: of vc:ry I : I . I . ~ ~ ! I{t.yt~oltls
iri I'ig. 14.8. 'l'lio way iri w l ~ i c h1.110 I,or~ricl:~ry-layer tliick~icssinrrcsscs from
nuni1)crs I J , l l v , w l ~ c nt,hc ~ n n j o rport,ion of 1.11~plate fttlln within t . 1 1 ~rc:giotl of' t,hr
n.t, t h e 1cndi11glctlgc? t o it8 a s y m ~ ) t o t , i cvaluc given i n oqri. (14.7) is clo~cribotl hy
nsyrnj)t~ol,insol11Lio11,t,he tlrng is givrn by t h o simplc r q n a t , i o ~(14.9), ~ wl~c*t~c.c- I\.(*
t d i ~vnllles in 'I'nblc 14.1 wliinh h a v e bcon t n k c n froni I t . Jgliscli's pepcr.
can ot)t,ain thc: local d r a g cocffiricl~t
1'artic.rllar int,crrst, is st.t:~c*lirtl t o t h r nnvi*g i n drug ceusc.d by preserving
1:lmitlar flow wiCh f h r aid of si~c.tion,ati(l, thcrrforc, t o t h e Inw of frirtiorl for t h e

'r:t1,l1: 14.1. I)iti~c.ttsio~ilrsq ~ - ~ : r ~ ~ ~:rnd

~ , o l ~ l l t ~ : r r Ll~irlz~irss r sh:rl,o faofor R,/d, for t,hc vr1orit.y pro-
filc-sill t.lir* itlil,i:~ll t ~ t ~ ~011
t . lai I1:rt. plirll: :kt, n:ro i~r(:i{lcli(:t?
~it.11
1tttiror111~~~cl.iott,
:dIcr It. Iglisr:l~[40J
-- ~ l i s ~ ~ l t ~ ~ t.liirlzt~css;
~rtti~~~rt.
v ,?,- rnotiictil.it~~~
t.liinknr,ss

I'ig. Id.!). I)r:ia c*orflit~it.t~ls for 1111.

flat. pl:&tcat, zero itiri(1rt1cr wit11
~lnifortnsllrt.ion
r~ T- (-- r~.)/ll, = v o l l l l ~ l cf:opfIlrirljlof
srlcln~tl
(3) rcfcr ln n 0 a ~ ~ c : l i n n
( : I I ~ V I . R (1). ( 2 ) 8 1 ~ 1

( I ) Inlnienr
(2) trnub-ilit!~! f r n t ~ tI X ~ t ~ i n nI #r > l~~rlt~~lr~~t,
(3) fillly f~trl,~~l~.nl.

t of bisro-ily. IVitIi I )
This drag is romplrlcly iriclrl~r~~(lr~il - Q
r,, h l :111(l ,- ( J.,,) 11 1 fi11el
from rqn. (14.9) that
n eor~,,,.
,.
I l ~ i nis t l t t * (1~1.c i . ~ I,II~?
tlt~cto sit~l(it~g, . (1r:~goxli(*rir~~c~c(ll ~ y,I. IIOIIJ lvIti(~11is I , I : I ~ ~i t 1I ~ :L ~r ~I, i t , .
tiol~lrsrist.ro:~t~~ of vrlociLy lJm ntid whic-ll 's~nlIo\vn':I. q~tn~tI.il.y (2 oI' fltlitl. 'l'lrc. :rl)o\'t. ( * Y ~ I ~ ( . x .
aioti call bc: tletl~toctlvcry sit11~Iyby 1.11~np]~lit:atio~i (TI. I'r:tt~~lt~l-
of I . 1 1 ~I ~ I O I I I ~ ~ I ~ . I I.l~(.e~rt.t~~
IIII
'I'ieljerln, Ilyclro- 11. Aerornccl~nnik,vol. I I, l!):lI, p. 140, ISligl. t.rnllul. 1,~'.I. 1'. clrt~l ln.rl,og, 1934.
388 XIV. 13ountl:~r,y-laycr
conlrol
r ,
l he tlritg c:ocilit.ictlt, is Inrgor for small Ileytloltls ~ , u ~ t r t l ~ cbecn.r~se
rs, the sltearing
st,ress is groa1,t.r t)vt:r t11c front portion of t h c plnla, i. c. Illat which falls within
1 . h ~ittit,iill rc:gioi~ rtntl whore the 1)ollntlnry lilyor is thinner than firrLltcr tlown-
st.rcam. T h e tlr:~go n ;L p1at.c with a turbulent bountlary layer with n o sucbion is
shown plottctl in l'ip. 14.9 for the purpose of comparison. I t will be tliscussetl more
f ~ ~ linl yChap. X X I. 'I'llc s:~.vi~lg in tlrag can l)c dcd11c:ed from this diagmtn only if t,l~c
v:rlne of the stn:~ll~:st voll~tnc:coc:flicicnt, ofsl~c:t.ionwliit:h is capable o f c n s ~ ~ r i nlarnirli~r
g
conditions in t,hc bor1ntlar.y Ilayer a t large Rcynoltls numbers is Itnown. This prohlcm
will I)c invnst.ignl.c:tl in (:lln,p.'XVII, l,ogcrt,hc:r wil1h t11c ~)llcnorncnonof t,ransil,iott. It,
will t,hcn I)(: sl~o\vnLlt:tt I,llr.rc exisl,s a c:nrvc of 'most favor~ml)lcsr~ct~ion'; i l can 1)c
sc:c:rt ~)lottctl in Fig. 17.10. I t will 1x2 noticctl t h a t the rctlr~ct,ionin drag throng11 srrct~ion
is vnry consit1eral)lc atltl t , l ~ a t,he
t rcquirctl intcnsit.y of suct,ion is very small, a s i t
c*orrosl)orltlst o vnll~csof the order cQ = 10-% A soll~tionfor tltc flat plate with t~niforni
s~~c:t,ion in a c:orn~)rc~ssit)lc st,rcam was fonnd l)y 11. G. Lew antl .J. B. Fanltoci [47]; t11c
s:lntc prol)lt:nl for nylin(lri~aI 1)odit:s of arl)it,rary cross-scction was solvetl by Pig. 14.11. Velocity clistribution in the laminar hound:lry layrr on an acrofoil wit.11 srtct.ir)n
W. WIIOSL[107]. appliecl t.llrough its porous surface. Mea.qr~ccrt~c:nbpcrforrnccl by M. It. Ilcatl [XI: ccrtnl):iriso~~
with the tlleory drte Lo It.. Iglisch [40]
J . M . Kay [41a] undcrtoolt t o verify thcse theoretical results for the flat plate
a t zero incit1cnt:e with t,llc ; l i t 1 of cxpcrimcnts. The assnn~pt~ion
t h a t uniform snction
btbgirls a t the Icacli~lgctlgc, which formed tlic basis of Iglisch's theoretical calculations, Boundary layer with pressure gradient8 Acltlitional czncl solfrlionaof 1 . 1 1 bot~rrtlary-l:lyc!rcq~~a-
~
was not satisfctl in the kcst platc. The latter, moreover, had a portion near tllc tions (14.3) and (14.4) are known only for flow patterns wltich can bo msociaLt?cI'wit.l~ sintilar
lcatlirlg edge complct,cly devoid of suction. Fignre 14.10 shows a comparison betweell velocit,y profiles. The class of similar ~olrrtionsdiscussed in Clr:lp. VIlI can be cxknclml 10 inclutlc
boundary layers with suction and blowing. When the vclocity in the external strcan~can bc tlcs-
t h e measured a n d calculated displacement thickness and momentum t.llicltness cribed by the function IT(%) = 76, zm and when the sr~ctionvclociI,y ~n,,(a)is proportinnnl t,o
rc~pnet~ively. T h e asymptotic values from eqns. (14.7) arltl (14.8) are seen t-o have z ( ~ l ~ ) ( ~werecover
~ ~ - l ) . from the boundary-layer equations the alrcatly fa~~tiliarortlinary clilti:rt~r~i.i:rl
been confirinctl by tho measnremc.nts. Fignro 14.1 1 shows a comparison l~ct~wcen equation for t l ~ c~Lrcamfunction /(11), h s t tlrrivecl hy Fnlkncr ancl SIz:ln, ttarnrly ~ l t or;l~nili:tr
tl~oory and n~casurerncr~t for various valr~csof (; the mensl~retncnts have been equation (!).8) :
performed by M. 1%. Ilcad [36]. Again, t h e agreement is very sat.isfactory. Rlcasure-
monfs ~)crforrncd by P. A. I,it)by, I,. 1Canf:nann ant1 It. P. 1I:~rrington [48] con-
firm, in adtlil~ior~, tho strong stal)ilizing elTcct cansed by suction (increase in t h e in whic:h 71 has been clcfincd in eqn. (9.8).That this is so can \I(:it~forrctlt ~ yinspcctio~tfrnnt rtlrl.
(9.b.I n t.lte present case, t.he slrcanl frlnctio~l/('I) 11m a VLLIIIR w11icI1is dill't~rt:ntfro111zcr11 :LL
nrit.ion.l Ileynoltls n~rmbcr),a s will be reported more fully in Sec. XVITc. T h e t l ~ cw ; ~ l l\\.IIRII 11 :-
0.-This value is positive i n the tasc of srtol.iott :~ndttcg:tl.ivc Tor I~lo\\.i~~g.
large decrease in l,hc skin friction which results from t h e preservation of laminar
flow when suction is applictl, ancl which is stiowr~in Fig. 14.9, was confirtned by T l ~ rpart,irular case for 111 =: 0 wlucl~corresponds to a fl:~L \\.it11a nucf.ion vrlot:it.y
niensr~n:mcnts performed by M. ,Jones antl M. R. Ileatl [41], and A . Raspct [70].

Fig. 14.10. 1,aminnr bortntlary I:~ycron
a flat plate a t zrro inciclrncc wit11
uniform suct,ion. Displaccmcr~tblrickness
0 , anil motncntnn~t.hicknass (7, have been
meeured by J. M. Kay [41a]. Theoretical
curves afkr R. Iglisch 1401, 'hhlo 14.1
a = necLion a t which suclion begins
was i~~vcst,ignkd Oy II. Sol~licl~t~ing and K. 1111ssrn;tnn[7!), 801. The rcs~~ltitlp vc!locily prt,liilc.s
for scvrrnl values of l,l~cv o l ~ ~ ~ cocrficicnt
nc I~avcI)CCII ploLt,ctl in Fig. 14.12. 11, is worl,lt not.i~~g
tltnl all relocil.y profilcrr for the c..zsc: of tlisclt:~r~ch:lvo poin1.n of inllt\xion ~r.il.lr i)2i~/i'!y:! - - 0.
'I'l~isfart is i~l~portant for t,hc sI.rtdy of tmnsit.io~r(Cllap. XV1). Si~ttil:trvrlorit.y 1)rolilt.s :~rc.also
obtninrd in 1.11~case of l.\\-o-di~~~r~tsio~~al stagt~atiot~flow n.it.lr a vc:locit.y fi~t~c*t.ion O ( x ) -: 71, r
wiClt s11~1.iot1,~)rovitletIthat 11" - cot~st,. i t t 1.l10 1):rllt:rIIY I I . Sc:ltli,.l~-
This casr urnsalso invt~s(,ig:il~.il
ting :ltttl I<. I~~ss~tr~arrnnlrc.ecly tlr~okd.
ICxtct~sivt:tal)lc*sfor 1~our1rl:~rv
Iavc!rs on n 11l:lte wit11 s~trl~ion ( v t :-0) covvring :L will(:
range of values of the parameter C were calculated by II. W. ICrnmons and 11.C. Leigh [22j na
well nu by J. Steinhet~cr(rf. Chap. VII). For cnsw who11 ,,I +
0 I,lterc exist ndtli1,ionn.lnrlt~tcric-al
sollltions extending over a wide rango ol valucs of the pitrntrlckra [57J. '1'110 clingrlln~i n Icig. 14.13
presents the relation between the shearing stress at t,l~ewall \vhiclr is proportional tn1 I"(()), t.ho
sr~ctionvelocit,y - which is proportional to /(0) -- and the parameter p of the extcrn:ll How.
The position of the point of scpnri~tionis determined by t,ltc para~nckrfor whicl~To - 0, l.llrlt
i~ by the contlition that. /"(0) = 0. I t is c l c ~ ~
frotn
r Fig. 14.1:l that. ~cpnrat.ioncan be clinti~~:~tcd
by vigorous suction evcn in st,rongly decelerated flows (e. g. when 0 = - 1, i. e. a.ltert 111 = - j).
390 XIV. Ilo111111nry-lnycr
cor~t,rol

n) K. D. P. Sinhnr [86] stutlietl the ewe of nn infinitely long, ynwccl cylinclcr wit11 s~trt.ion.Tho
velocity rlintrib~~tion n.long the strcnn~wns nsaun~odlo 1)o proporlionnl to zm. 'l'he it~v(~u(~ig:~tiot~
Imu ROII\O I*onring OII t010 cvnt,rol of tho O ~ t ~ t ~ d nlnycr r y 011 R \ V C ~wingu.
~ ~
IJ) Whon t.llc Lc:rn[ic:ret~iroof Lhc fluid being 1,lown out, is diKerenl fro~nt,l~nLin CIII: cxtcrnrrl
flow, tho bonndary layer will develop o tcmpcrnturc profile; Lhc rCqnlt.ing t,l~t?rn~nl I)o~ttitlnry
layer \van cniclllntcd in refs. 1551 and [Ill]. 'r11c knowledge of the tcn~l)eraL~lrc distrihrltion
in t,he bonnclnry layer is of particnlnr importance for the 1)roblotn of cooling. I t tnrnn ont
t.hnt cooling 11y means of 1,lowing tho coolant, tlrrougl~a porons wall, so-cnlletl t.rannl~ir:rtiot~
cooling, is much snore eKcct,ivc than cooling t l ~ owall on t l ~ cinsiclo. J I I t l ~ i sronnc?xion t l ~ c
p:r~wrs1)y I). 13row11 [I 1, 121, p.1,. I)ono~lgheand .J. N. B. 1,ivingoocl [I!)] nncl W. W~tc:s(~ I 10!)(
nrny I)o conn~iltntl.
C) 'I'hc cooling prol)leni I~ccon~cs vory itnportntit nl, high vel~~cit.i~:n of flow. (:. hl. ls)w 151 1 forr;~cl
uoIut.iot!s for (,I\(? rnsc of r . ~ r n ~ ) r c ~ (IOW
~ i \ ~~l ev e nn
r isot.l~rr~n:~I 11Ini.c; RCO ~ I S O 145, 1101.
lI:~t~

Compressible boundary lnycrs will1 s u c t i o ~ ~I t: wns s l ~ o w rby ~ A . 1). \ ' O I I I I ~ 11 121

end H. G. L e w [45] t h a t a n a s y m p t o t i c solution c x i s t s also for t h e case of co7iapra.~sihlc
fiv1 a l o n g a f l a t pl;bt,o a t zoro inc:itlcnac i n tllo ~)rcsoiic*cof I ~ o ~ ~ ~ o g cs ~ ltcr- ol . ~i o~~ ~s .
'l'l~is (:mi bc: clotto ns follows: Acx:or(Ii~tg10 cqttfi. (13.5) :t11(1 (I:!.(;),lrl~c:c ~ o t ~ l ~ i ~ t ~ t i I ~ ,
Fig. 14.12. Vr1orit.y clistril~rtt~ion in t.hr ho1111cl:rry1:ryl.r on n ll:~l.~,lnl,trnt. '.or0 inritlrnrc wit,li sne-
tion ancl tllsrl~:rrgcnc:cordinp 1.0 t,l~cI:rw a,(z) -
1/1/ i from cqn. (14.1 I), :rflcr Jl. Scl11icht.ingnncl
I I I S I)(: wriI,t,ctt
ancl n t o n t ( ~ t ~ I , ~ ~t r: nC I I I ~ I ~ . ~ ~c:;t11
I<. Ilnnsn~nr~n 1791
*cly
3. " (14.12)

\,i1hrn thr III:LSS Ilo\v in hlo\ving in tn:itle Inrgr, i t iu ohscrvctl t,l~:itthe corresponding nn~ncricxl
c:nlr~~l:tt.ionbe(.on~rncliflic~~ll,. I I ( T : ~ I It.I~c
S ~ vclnrity p r ~ l i l encqnires n kink. 'I'lris (letnil ww lirst p " -cly
'"- '-
dy ( -&j
I'j.
clisc:ovrretl I I J~. I'r~ts1.11[fi!)] \vho derived it frorn n rotwiclrrnt.ion of tho wytnptotic solntion. 'rhc
nny~nltto(.irI~c.h:~vio~lr of t.llr prcccvling sinlilar uolntions for large suct~ionveloritien I I : ~ I)een
invt.sl,ignt.c:cl 11y 15..1. \Vnlstrn [IO2].
*1
I hc nolut.ionn for tJlr cxtcrnnl flow 1~orron1x)ntlinji1.0 ( I ( r )- 11, for111 t.l~cIxmis for :r
st*rirs of Tnrt.ltcr invrsl.igntionn iritncd a t din~ovrring:iddilion:~l r x n ~ tsol~tt,ionsfor latninnr
I~~ntn(l:~ry 1:lyt.r~ wit.11 n~~(*t,ion
nncl I~lowing:
tlu -
-.
71 - (Irn /L

Icig. 14.13. 1l.clntion bctwccn s h m r -

ing sl,rcs~a t Lhc? w:rlI, T,,, :tnd t.he
fi~t(:I.ion velocity, v,,, for 1n111in:~r
n r y with snction ~ I I C I I
I ~ o ~ ~ n t l lirycrs
tho extcrnal vclority is (J(z)=
- = 11, zm, :rftcr JC. Niclccl 1571.
'I'hc posit.ion of the point. of
srl~nr:~t.ionis dc?tcrtninctI by t.ltc:
c-onclil.ion that T, 0, i.r. I,y /"(O)
-1

-= 0. N o l ~I.l~nt

."I" ,!a . j/ljl ,! I-(",

.",I -
~ ~-

~-v r n ;!. vi;; I(").

/(0) > 0 tJcnot,m s ~ ~ c t ~ iI(0)
on, :. 0
clc*noh~n
I~lorving,nntl
392 XJV. I%out~dnry-layer
control

( P .- 1 ; atliabatic wall). When thc flow is incompressible, we have T, = T, , and I~urt.Ilrr,by eqn. (14.5) we havc a t y = 0 :
cqn. (14.18) rrc111ccs t o cqn. (14.6).
1.3. Approximate noltikiona. I n t11c general case of an arbit,mry hotly shapc
and ILII nrl~it,mrylaw of ~ u c t i o nwe must resort t o approximate methods based In t,llc caso ~tnrlcrcor~sitlerat~ion
(i)~/&/)~/),,
:= 0 ant1 (i12r~/i)y2)n 12 1J/,j2. 11(:11(:(% w(?
on tall(:morncnt~~lm cqt~at,iotl;t,ltcy wcro clcsc:ribetl in Chap. X. The momcntom ocluat.ion oljl,:tin from cqn. (14.21 ) t11nL
for t.Ile case with s~~(:t,ion is ol)t,ninccl in cx:~c:Llytho snrnc wny a s bcfore, cxccpt t-hat -

i t is riow ncccssary 1.0 take into account the fact t h a t the normal component of the
(- d U/dz) ' (14.22)
velocity a t t.lte wall tlilTcrs from zero. I'crforming t.he same calc~~lation as in Scc.
VI IT c, we f i r t t l l,llat, t,he equation for the normal component of velocit,y a t a distance and from eqns. (14.208) and (14.22) t h a t
y = h frorn t,hc wit11 now becomes

Vh = lJO - -
j --8%
ijz
( I .~
,1,his vclocit,y of suction is seen t o be just sufficient t o prcvcnt separ:~t,ion:LII :rlotlg
0

'She raIc111ati011is ~:oril,in~icd
in exactly t11c same way as in Sec. VTTTe, and leads
firlnlly to t.11~following tnornrrltt~mrcllt:~t3ionfor tllc bo1111dary I:tycr wit,h suct,ion
the- rnrrgy-itltcgral rqtt:~lion, arcording to I<. Wicgllarclt. [103], assuming t.he form :
The ndtlit,iot~:~l tnrms, as nompnretl with cqns. (8.32) and (8.35), represent thc change
in moment.nni or energy, rrespectivcly, due t,o suct.ion a t the wall
Equation (14.19) was uscd by L. Yrancltl 1671 t o make a simple estimate of
the s~tot~ion velocity wliich is just suffic:icnt to preverlt separation. Assuming t h a t
t h e vc!locit,y profiles along t,hc wholc Icngth are identical with t h a t a t the point of
sep:~r:~t.iorl,i. o. t h a t for which T , = p(a~r.,/ay),= 0, ancl that, as assumed by Polti-
lial~scn,A .-;.- 12, we can tleduce from cqn. (10.22) t h a t t h e velocity is given by
'I'he tfisplacrrnent ant1 ~ n o m r n t u m tl~ickncss follow from eqn. (10.24), and are,
rcspc~t~irely
2 4
dl= , a ; 6 2 --3 5 ,j '
Sltbstit.nt,ing this value into rqn. (14.19) and taking i1it.o account that dd2/dz = 0,
t~ccanseof the assumption of constant boundary-layer thickness, we have
Lhc wnll. Taking as a n example ttlle c:I.sc of flow past, n c-irc:trl:~rc:ylit~tlor 01' t . : l t l i t l s
11' \ v i t , l ~ (lfJ/(lx - - 2 7Jcy,/1< : ~ 1-hc
t ~ l o ~ v t ~ s l sIt:~gtt:t~iot~
~ r c : ~ ~ ~ ~point., : L I I ~ I :~.l~l)lyit~g
ccln. (14.2:3), we ol)t,:rin t h a t thr? volrrrnc cocficict~twltirlt tiinst Itc nscxl 1.0 l)rcSvc~r1t.
scpnrat,ion is givcn by
~)/5"=21/2 23.08.
TI. Sclllicl~tirig177, 81) intIicat,cd :In n.pl)roxitnal.c~~ilc!t.l~otlfor t . I ~ i * i::~l(*t~l:ll.iolt
of t.110 1)ountlary laycr on a body or art)itmry shapc, wiL11 ~~rl~it,r:lry s11(:tiot1I~,)(z)
aprdicd. The ~nct.l~od is similar to t l ~ cI<drtn:ir~-I'oI1il1nr1sr.11
nlc-t.ltotl antl is I):~.sctlotr
t h e use of the momentum equation. T. P. Torda [98] made improvemcrits in
this met,liod. Papers by L. Trilling [99], B. Thwaites [39, 961, ant1 F. Ringleb 1741
contain descriptions of procedures suitable for arbitrary pressure distributions
as well as arbitrary distributions of the suction velocity. I<. Wiegliartlt [I031
extended then1 to the case of axially symmetrical bodies and J.T. Stuart [88a]
solved the case of a rotating disk. E. Truckenbrodt [I011 dcveloped a n approximate
metltotl which is st~ital)lcin the two-dirncnsional as well as in tlle axially symrneLrica1
case and which cxcels thc other metl~odsin its outstantling ~implicit~y. l'llc wholc
problem has becn retlucctl hcrc to the solution of a n ordinary dilTcrcr~tialcqu:~t.iot~
of the first order. The equation becomes jdcntical with t h a t givcn by A . Walz
(cf. Sec. X b) in the limit,ing case of zero s~lct~ion, i. e. when the wall is impermeable.
The result,s of calculations for a Zhulrovskii aerofoil, ~ ~ e r f o r m cwit,h d the aitl of
this mct,hod, are represented grapllically in Fig. 14.14. I L is secil t,llat t.hc l~oitlt.of
separation moves towards the trailing ctlgc as thc intc~lsityof sr~clioni~~crc:~scs,
and t h a t no separation occurs a t a11 from a certain suction it~tensit~y onwartls.
R. ICpplcr [231 worlrcd out a n approxirnatc nictl~otl for the (::~I(:t~I~~t.iotl of
laminar and tnrbtllent, bor~rltlarylayers with suction which is well-s~~itcd Ibr pro-
gramming on a digital computer. Corrcspontiing approxitnate met,hods for corn-
prcssible boundary laycrs with suction arid blowing I ~ a v cI~ccntlcvclopctl in rc:Cs.
149, 55, 1111, witJl p:~rticular att,crltion givcn to t11c ;~ssoci:~l~ctl problctn in Iit::~(,
transfer is so in~port~arlt for cooling. Approximatre methods, a t least, for l1;~t
plates, are also nvnilalllc for tflc calctllat.iotl of tSr~rbrrlrl~t bourltlikry Iaycrs wil,Il
blowing arld suctfiori [14, 20, 761; they a11 niakc usr of I'm.tltlt.1'~ trlixirig longt,Il
 I). Ilotrntlnry-lnyrr s~rrl.iort 398

1 1 ~ q ) o t ~ h (rcs/i. ~see. XTX 11). W . I'ccl~au [Boa] published a n appro xi mat,^ procctl~tm course of a programme of rescarcl~ institutctl a t tltc Arrotlyttatniscl~c Vcrsucl~s-
for I,ltc mlc~ll:rt~iot~ of corn~)rcssihlc,Iatninar I)or~ndnrylayers witrh at1 arbitrary artst,n.lt in Goett?ingcn untlcr the dircctior~of 0 . Sc11ro11k.'I'IIO cni!ct, I I sttctriot~ ~ is
of su(:tfion, I)IJ~,for trhc RI)CC~RI OILS(? W ~ C I I
(.xl,c?rtt:tl st.rc:nn~:tntl ilrI)iI,rirry tIist.ril)t~t,ior~ 1.0 prc,scrvc tJtc pobent~ial flow pnl.t,crn nt ltigllcr nttglcs of it~eitlct~c:c t , l t i t , t ~ \\,n111(1

:.l~own.ll is ntli:~l,nt,icn.ntl wl~cttthc I'r:rntlt,l number 11:~sLhc value P - 1.
Fig. 14.14. 1,antinar I)o~~~lcl:rry
layer on n ~yt~~~ncLric:~l Zlt~~kovskii
norofoil with uttifc)rttr s11~1,iott;
a -
II,,(x) -- cott~l~,r~rtgleor it~e:i(Ict~ct:
0 , ns cnlct~lah:dI)y I':.'l'rt~ckc~r-
brodt [loll
ot,hcrwisc ho the case. 0. S c l ~ r e ~ lpublisl~cd lt a coml~rcl~cnsivc rcvicw of l.11is work
in ref. 1-84]. The scope of these cxpcrimcr~tsrcarhctl sl~clta tlrpree of ndvxncerncr~t.[8r,l
t8hnt,a t the end of tho t,ltirt,ics Oltc Insl,itnl,c in Goct,l.ingcrt was in a positiorl t,o I)tlilcl
l.\vo cxporimcr~t~al aeroplanes in which sr~clionwas applictl for tltc irnprovctt~ct~t of
~x:rforrr~ancc.A dct.ailctl clcscriptior~of these oxperirnerttp:rlacrol)lancs was givc:r~ 11y
.I. SLlrcpcr L93]. Phot~ogrn1)ltsof the flow ficltl on t l ~ cwings of o t ~ cof t.ltc:sc c:xl)cri-.
tnrrtt.nl acrop1:lncs :Ire sltowr~in Fig. 14.15. T l ~ ccfTc:c:t of s~lc:t,ior~, wltic:lt wits :t,l)l)lic:tl
in t.llr slit I)etwren t,he wing ant1 Lhc flap, cat1 1)c infrrrctl nlmrly frottt t,he I~t:lt:rviorrr
of t,l~ctllft,s ~ I t i c I tarc visil)l(: in tltc ~)I~otogr:~plts: Wit.Ito~tl~ s ~ ~ c l . i o(Icig.
~ t l.t.lr):t),
the flow is completely sepzmted from the flap; i t is t)rongl~t1)aclc c o t ~ ~ l ~ l c f . ~ l ~
(17ig. 14.151)) when sr~ct,ionis turned on. A. Gerbcr [301 invcst,ignt.cd sy~t~cr~~:t.l.ic::tliy
(*rrl,t~it~ H I I I L ~ Oor ~ l i t * q , 1.110 v ~ ~ l o ( : icI l- i. ~s l ~ t ~ i l ~ ~ ~ l ~ i ~ ~
I I ~ ~ X ! I , Sor u~t(:I,ion,s11c11nu 1,110 l)(*sl#
ttt-nr 1 . 1 1 ~slil., l,ltc prcsst~rc(listrril)tllliort t ~ r o t ~ t ill,
~ ( Irt.t:.

4, - mornenlr~~~b
I l ~ i c k s r r ;I'~ ; - 11:~ITlvrri-
hlorc rcccrttly, in Great 13ritairt [58, 591 and in I ~ I r t : [J.S.A. [88], cxt.c.rtsivc
cxporirncntal invcstigatiot~shave been carried out i t ~ t ~t,hc
o cfTcct of srtct.iot~on t,llitl

. - v, (x) =cons/ clt~rrclvnltttrtr cot:rflrlt:nl of . i u ~ . t i ~ ~ will^

n.
i. e. Tor r8'
i ~ t r r r w i t t ps1nct101~. , 1.18 ,,,,
wpnration VCCII~ nhll

2. Expc.rinlct~tnl ~ C R I I ~ L Roat ~ u c t i n t ~ AR . early n.s 1904 1,. 1'rantlt.l ptll)lisl~ctl

I ) l ~ o t , o p r : ~ lof
~l~
llow
s pntft.c,rns whic:l~tlcrnonst.rntc:d t h a t ~ u c t i o ncauses the flow t o
:rcll~crc:t.o t,ltc w:tll cvc:n in t . 1 1 ~case of not,-st,rcarnlir~ctil)lnnt bodies, such a s circ~tlnr
eylitttlnrs, i l l wltirlt 1,ltcre wottld ol,l~crwiscbe strong etltly formal.ion. Figs. 2.14 and
2.16 s l ~ o wt . 1 1 ~c.IP(,rt. of sllc:t.ion o n t,ltc! llow in a tlivergcnt, channel. Untlcr normal
cy>tl,lili,>lls.Il'ig. 2.j:J, (.It(. lIo\v i l l :I. r;tpitlly tlivcrgcnt c h a t ~ r ~ cscl)nrnt,cs
l violc~tt~ly
two slits on either siclc causes t . 1 1 ~
frott~(,he \v:tII, \ V ~ I V I ~ C ; I S st~(:tionnl)plic:tl Ll~rotr~lt
llow c*ott~~)lt~t,c:l.y 1.0 :rtlltc:rc: 1.0 it., J'ip. 2.18.
II'ltrr~srtc.t,iortis : ~ ~ ~ l ~t,o
l i nr twing,
l it is ncccssary to tliscern two distinct problcnls
\vItirlt t~tipltt~ :
:~t.is<:
1 . 11. 11l:ty I)(%(l(:sirrrI t.o itlcrcnsc t11c tnaxinlurn lift hy dolaying scpamt,iot~.
2. 11, nlny I)o (lnsil;rblo t,o m;~inl.nin1:rminar flow and t o avoid tsransitiotl in order
( ~ ( ~ friC(,iotl.\flc pro11osc t,o give a short account of the co~~sidcrat,ions
l o 1 . ( ~ t 1 ~ ~sI<itl
c.ottnt,c.t.c:tl witlt t.hrsc two pro1)lrtns.

2.1. [llc.rc.nsr IiTr. An i~t(:r<*;t.s(~ i t 1 t , I t ( - I I I : ~ S ~ I I I I I I I Ilift, of' :LII :t~\roft~il cn,tt

: l c - I l i c ~ v c ~ t l \ \ ~ i l . l t ~ , l l c %: t i t 1 of s~~c:t,ion :t.tttl 11Iowit1g wltcn trhc 1)01111<1ary layer is eil.hcr
I:tlllill:tr or t.~~rOttIt*~~t.. A I I :t(:(:ot1111.of SOIIID rc(:cnt, it~vcst,igat.io~ts will I)(: in
Sf%(::X S I I I, (i wltic:ll t.r(::tt.s t.ttrl,~~l(:ttt~ I~ottn(fa.ryliry~rs.At this point., wc shall, at, Fig. 14.15. I'low al)out thr wing of t.11~ Got:t,l,itrgcn cxl~crir~lcnl.nl
;u!rol,lnr~r;l.11~: II;III is in 1.11r
lirsl,, c*olllillt:orlrsclvrs t,o t,ho 111t:tti ion nf S ~ I I I Colclcr ex~~t:rimct~taI TP^SII~~.S. I':xt~ct~sivc
down ponit.ion; the two pl~otogrnplrsroprcucnt flow willtout ntld wit11~11c.I.iot1. 11) witl~oltl. st~c.I,iorl:
c ~ x l N ~ r i l l lIll:l(,c!ri:tl ~ ~ l l t : ~(~o~~ccrtlittg
~ 1 . 1 1 ~ itl~:rc:rst: i t t t.11~ lift, cocfli~iont~ tluo l,o snc-f.iorl
t,hr flow is cletnctted from the flap, b) will1 artction: the flow adheres to t,lto flnp
w:~sc~olloc:l.c~tl :I(. 1,Itt- rntl of t.hc: t.wcn18ics:rut1 a t 1,11(: I)cgitl~~ir~g of t.hc Lltirtics in bha
396 XIV. Boundary-lnycr control b. Boundary-lnyer suction 397

extent of t h e porous surface and, even more significantly, o n t h e Ileynolds nunlber.

Fig. 14.16. Incrrascin thr ~ n n x i -
tnirrn lift, of n ~ w e p t - l ~ n\\ring
t~l~
1)ys~~ctio~~.Cornpariso~~ brt\\.c~rn
ror~tinuoussection nntl suction
applied tl~ronghslib, ns Inca-
uured 11y 15. D. Popplct,on 1661
Ileynolds n ~ ~ r n b cRr =. 1-3 x 10';
r r l r l i v c widttt o l slits rll = 0-004
This, of course, is a very important consideration when results of model experiments
are applied t o full-scale arrangements. Some d a t a on t h c depentlcncc of t,he mass
flow on t h e Rcyrloltls number are shown i n Fig. 14.18. 'J'hcy arc based on mensurc-
mcnts pcrformetl b y N. Crcgory a n d W. S. Walker [32] o n a thin symmct,rical
acrofoil. 'l'l~c graph shows thc minimum volumc flow of suction rcqnirotl to avoid
separation for a fxetl anglc of incidence or a = 14O plottctl in terms of t l ~ cRcynoltis
number. Several curves of cQ 0
= const, wlticll were obtained from t,hc theory
of ~ ) u r c l ylaminar flow, have also been plotkcd for comparison.
2.2. Decrease in dmg. An exprrimcntal proof of the fact t h a t i t is possible t o
maintain lnrninar eontlitions in t h e bonntlary lnycr with t h e aid of si~(*t,ior~ wns
first, givcn by 11. Ilolst,cir~[37], ancl short,ly afterwards by .J. Acltcrct, M. ltas

:~c:rolhils. Sin(-t: :11. high a.t~gltbsof inc:itlonc:t: thin acrofoils tlcvciol, n s11:~rl)nc.gn.I.ivc.-
prt:sst~rt:pt%:~.lc nc::lr 1,I)c: ~ ~ o son
t - tl~t!t11)l)t:rsitlt:, it, is nt:t:t:ss:~.ry1,o:~pplyst1(:1,io11
l,l~<:rt-.
I I I (.his c:onr~cxiorlit is i r ~ ~ l ~ o r l .tlo
ar~know
l , wl~ctllcrt o apply s ~ ~ c t . i ot,hrough
n a porous
wall ( ~ ~ n i f n rsl~rt.ion)
m or t.hrotrg11a systcrn of slits. T h e tliagram in Fig. 14.16 shows
;I, compnrison l~c:l,wccnt,he results of cont,inuo~rs suction and suction applied through Fig. 14.18. Minimum suction vol-
slit-s on n swr,pf,-hack wing a s measured by E. 1). Poppleton [66]; see also ref. [38]. ume required for tile prevention
11, is c.lc:~rt,hnt t h e snmc incmnsc in tho lift coefficient can be ol)taincd with n much of sc*pnrat,ionn~ n filncbion of l l ~ o
rccl~~cod mass flow when c:onl.inuolts strc:l,ion is usctl. l'hc tliagrnrn i n Fig. 14.17 I<rynoIds ~ ~ ~ i r n lfor
) e ran angle of
t~on1,:iirlsinformnl.ion on the most favoitral~lcposition of t,he suction zone a t the
incitlenre of u = 14", after Gregory
nos(:. 'l'hc mcnst~mmcnt.scarrictl o u t on a n 8% thick symmet,rical aerofoil seem
ant1 Walltrr [32]
t.o ir~tlio:~.t,c ~ J I : Icont,inuol~s
.~, stlettionis most cfTcctivc when i t is confinetl t.o ttltc npper
sitlt: or t,hc wing ant1 when i t cxi.cnds over a region of 0.15 1 approximat,ely. 'I'he
t n i ~ ~ i r n ~mass
~ r n flow rt.clttirrtl t,o avoid scpnrntion dcpentls on t h e position ant1 t h c

ant1 \IT. Pfenninger [3]. W. I'fenninger [el] cardcct o u t o ~ t ~ e n s i vcxperirncr~i~s c on

tJtc problem of reducing d m g I)y t.11~application of stlc:t,ion t,llrough which In111in:~r
Ilow is maintained. Spignre 14.19 reproclnccs some of his results, ol)l.ninctl wit,h a thin
:~crofoilwhich was provit1t:d with a largo n ~ r m b c rof strct.ion slit,s. 'I'hc gr:~1)11in lpig.
14.l9a sllows t,hc o~)limrrrnvnlucs or Lhc sltin-fricljion c:ooflicit:nt plotl,c:tl i l l I.c:r~nsol
t,l~cIleynolds number. I t is sccn t h a t t.llcrc is a largo saving in tlr:rg, c:vct~ if tlle
power consumption of t h e suction pump is dcbitetl against it. 'l'l~c gmpll shows,
I'url.l~cr,t h a t , a t moderatc values of t h e lift cocfficicr~l,,cvcn a t largc I ~ ~ Y I I o I ~ I s
~ ~ r ~ ~ n l ) cthe: r s ,vnlrres of t h e skin-frictpion coefficient arc r ~ o tnllrc:h l~igllcrt.lln11 1.llosc
for a flat ~)lat.ca t zero incitlcncc. Moreover, Fig. 14.1!11) ticmot~sl,rnl,cst11:~tt l ~ c s c
I'ig. 14.17. B:lTcct, on in- low v n l ~ ~ persist, rs over a ~011si(lcr:~1)1(: range of v n l ~ c sof t11c l i f l (:ot:flit:it:~li,,c,,.
c:rmsc i l l lift, coefficient of J ~ t ~ ~ i ~ lt,hc
t t : r ,expcri~nt:r~l.s tlo~~~o~rsi,r:~l.c:tl
1.11:~t1.I1t: tlct:rc::rsc i l l l , l ~ ctlt.:~gt ~ f T t : c ~ l , t ~ tI)y
l

cl~:uigingt.ho posil,ioti of tlie ~ ~ ~ : l i r l t : ~ i na i nI agt n i ~ ~ nI)ol~ntl:~ry

1)orons si~ctionsnrfacc for
nn S :(, thick aerofoil at. an
angle of incitlcnce ofa - 15"
r I:~,yc:rwiLh l,hc :~.itlof s11c1,iontlcl)t:~~tls I:tt.grly o n
n rnrrfttl shaping of slit,s. If t.his proc:~nt,ionis not t,al<c:n, I,l~cflow may I)(. so ~ n t l t - l ~
nlli:ct,ctl by the presence of t,l~oslits l,l~:cl,Lr:~nsil,iont,o l.t~rl)t~lt:nt llow oc:t:llrs rc%:~tlil,y;
in t,l~iscor~ncxionscc also N. Grrgory [33]. I n a n Amcricnn pnper [lo], t,he possil)ilit,y
of using conl.inuous srtct,ion through a porous wall t o ~n:iint:iin 1ami11:tr Ilow t o
consitlcrably larger Iicynolds numbcrs (of the order of R = 20 x 10" was c a r c f ~ ~ l l y
 cB. 1njc-cl.io11of a dilTrrc.111,gns (Ili~lirry1)01111d:iry
lily(-rs) :!!I!)
itlvc?st.igai.ctl. 111 t.llis c:~scI,oo, slll~st~:rnl,i:rlrccluc:t.iorts i n tlrn,g were achicvccl, allowing i t i s possil)le t,o s e c n r c a l a m i n a r bonnda.ry Iaycr 011 tliiclt nerofi)ils as f a r as t h e
f o r l,lle mcclrnriic::~l work roclrlirctl t o m a i n t a i n it. lit ant1 separat,ioll i s prevcntctl 1)chirid it. B. Itcgcnscllcit 171, 721, a n d B. 'l'l~wait.os
WI1(?11 a n n.t.t,cmpt is m a t l c t,o prcscrve a l a m i n a r I~olinclary l a y c r cilJllcr by [94j proposcd Lo 'regulate' t h o lift o n v r r y t,lliclc norofoils b y v a r y i n g t h e
s u c t i o n , o r , as a l r e a d y rncnt,ionctl, m e r e l y by p r o p e r slln.ping, i t is v c r y i m p o r t a n t , int,cnsit,y o f s l ~ c t d o nant1 s o t o obt-air1 a lift which is intlcpcntlcnt of t h e angle of
t,o h a v e a gootl Irnowlctlgc of bllc potcrltfi:~lvelocitcy clist.~.ibl~tion. 111 ~ i t ~ h ec ar s e i t itlcitlrncc. I n m o r c r e c e n t t i m e s t h e r e n c r c m a n y proposals to u s e t h o air srlclretl
is ncccssn.r.y tt.o a r r a n g c for t,Ilc I)rcssltrr 1.0 t1c:crcnsc o v c r as Iargr. a port,iorl of t h e aurn.y f r o m tJic 1)ollntlnry l a y c r f o r t h e p u r p o s e of irlcreasirlg t.hc t h n l s t of :t j a t
section as possible. V e r y oxt.cllsivc c x p c r i n ~ c r r t so n t.llis slll)ject were carriccl out, a.ircraft [87].
b y S. C;loltlst,cin 1311 n.ntl Iiis coll:tl)or:tl,ors. 'I'll(: cnlc:l~lnt.ionslccl t.o bile tlct.ernlinat,ion '1'11~ pap(:rs 1j.y F . X . IVort,rnnnn [I051 a n d IV. l'frnningrr 102, 631 rrport, on rnorc
o f t.l~c% sl~n.l)c of t.llc? sec:l,iotr of t,llo :~.c:rofoilwllicli wot~lcl1)rotltlcc: n ~)rcsc:ril)c~l pot.cnl.inl rcc(-ritl r ~ s ~ t l(:orlc:c:rni~~g
t,~ tlic design of latliinar ac:rofoils a n d of tltc tlcl:ty of t,r:ttl.-
sit.io11 0 1 1 xwc:~~t,-l):tcrlcwings.
A c:otnprc:llc.llsivc rnvicw of ~)roi)lcriisconccrnc:tl wit.11 :~irc:r:~ft,const,rttct.ioti :111(1
- I n y r . r 11:~sbee11 g i v e n rc~cc:nt,Iy b y (:. IT.I,i~(!t~nrntin
l ~ o ~ ~ ~ t ~ l : ~ r ~ ycoiit.rc)l :I,II(I [sf:!],

C. R. I'anltl~llrst [50]. A p a p e r by M. 11. Slnit,li 1881 cant-ains n comprelrcr~sivc list

r(,f(:r~v~ccs.
,I ,llo ~ ~ O ( : C S S01' t.rn.risil,ior~frorn 1:trninnr t o trrrl)t~l(:i~l~Ilow i n t,llo I ) o t ~ ~ r ( l : ~ r y
l a y e r \vit,l~s~i(:t.ionwill 1)r. stlldicxl i n (lrt.:til in Sc:n. X V l l c:.

U-
.
urn

Fig. 14.20. Tl~rorrticnl : I I I ~ rx~~eri~~~rnl.:~I

vrlovit,.y clislrit)r~t,io~~ on n symmol.ricnl nrro-

c,, - 0; R -
foil \viI.h R I I C ~ , ~ O I:rfIcr
I
3.85 x 10'
0 - - rrwns~trctttrsa( will~r,,ll,
(:01~1st~i11[RI]

st~rli#,r~:
- I I I I . R F I I ~ ~ I Iwilll
I~II~ sclrliol~

Vig. l4.1!). l)t~crc:~si! i t 1 I,IIv ( l r ; ~of

, ~:LII:t(*rnfi,il in \vl~i(!l~I,rnr~sil.iot~
is ~lc*l:~yr(l
11yS I I I ! ~ ~ ~t,l~ror~gl~
II
c. Injcctinn of a diflcrent gns (0i11nry boendnry layers)
n It~rgr!tn~n~l)c*r of slils. r ~ f l Mr. ~ ~ I'fc.~ll~ir~grr
r Iiil 1. 'l'llr rnnrgy connl~~r~pl.ion of t l ~ cprlrnp I ~ a sl ~ c e t ~
i11(.111clt~d
it1 I,II(: 11r:tg cn(*fficit*~~l, 1. Tl~eore~ical results.
:I) O ~ I ~ ~ ~ IV:LIII(.R
I I I I Iof I ~.II(:clr;~gc.oc.ffiei~.l~l, i l l tor~rlsof lhe lt(-y~~nIils n11rr11)erR 1.1. The fusdamenml equations. W l ~ r nR spnco-vcl~ic:lrr o b r ~ r ~to~ sthe tlcnaor layers of t l ~ c
(:I) Vlnl
l ' t o r v m ( I ) , ( 2 ) :&nd ( : I ) willwt!al q ~ ~ v l i r b t n ;( I ) l p l : ~ l , lvl:tlr, 1:ttnin:tr; (2) Vl:tl, l ~ l n l v ,lr:~r~~ili~I~t:&l; lll:&Ic, rlllly nt~nonpl~rre, t.11~ ~l,zjinnt.ior~ cfTccct wllirl~is ~)rotll~ortl nt l.l~c? t~oneor in 1,110 I)o1111~1:iry Iny~>rs along
~ l v r t ~ l o n l w t111111111v11t.
l 1,110\vn.lls givt:8 risc: t,o vcry I1ig11t.c:t~~l~cr:il~~~rt*.q.111 ortlc*rL ~ rc:tIl~rt?
I 1 . 1 1 ~q~~:inlit,y of I I C I L ~lr:~nsf~*rrvd
to the vehicle 1.0 s ~ ~ t e~)roportions,
ll i t is possil~let,o i ~ ~ j c cnt ,ligI11.g:ts or a llltitl tl~rorrglra pororls
I,) I'olnr tlingr:~n~xF I I ~t.jvr, rlilli.rr~~l. Ilc~ynr~l~ls I I I I I I I ~ ) ~ 'l'l~n
~ ~ . cxtrer~~c*ly
low i1r:l.g corffirirl~tn well. l ' l ~ clight gns or t.11~v:rponrizing fluid thns rrcnls n thin fill11 nlnng tilo wttlla. A nirnil~rctli-ct
rxisl, for :III~ I I ~ ~ I -r:l.tl;:f. of I IIC lifl, (,i>c4(i(.ir11t~
: I S I ~ofI V:I.~III*S rf, call :also IN: prm111nc.tl il 1.11~:mn1nri:rl of ~.III: wrill (r.g. grny~l~iln. gl:wn, or n ~ynt,ll~!t.i(: ~n:il~.rinl)
f i~nllowctl Co s ~ r b l i t ~ ~tI111s
: ~ t crrc~l~cing it8 tl~ickness(n.blat.ion). 111 :dl snc>l~ onnrs, I~o~rnd:iry Ir~yc!rsarc
For1nc.d in whiclr two or morc gases mix wit11 otlr anot.lrer 11y din'~~sinr~.
vc.loc.it.y clisl~ril,ttl.ior1. I I I ort1t.r t o ol)t.:r.itl :tc~roli)ilswlliclt nlnint,nitl n. Inrninar 11o11n- I n R sl.rcami~iggnscons rnixlnrc, every c o ~ ~ ~ p o nic movos nt with a nrc:rn vc1ocit.y w f wlricl~
tl:l.ry l:~.yc:r :IS 1:t.r :IS lilt- t.r:lilillg c~ljy: it. W:I.S s~tgg(~st.ecI1.0 ltsn slinpcs sliowing a differs from sl~ccit:~ to npecics. In order Lo dr!scril)r t.11~vrlocif.y firld, it, is ronvcnicr~tLo introdttc-c
dcerc;:lsc: i l l prc-sstrrc: (:ill itlc.rr:lsc: in vc-loc-il.,y) o v v r l . 1 1 ~wholo I o ~ i g l ~n.r~tl ~ ~ , otrly n Pnrtrn or htrr!/ccnlric vrloc,it)y w = L'pr w , / Z pf, wl~crnZ p , -- p clo~~ot~:n 1 . 1 1 ~tnt,nl donnit,y. 'I'll*
(lisl)l:~.yi~rg : ~ t , on(: posil,iotl, n.s SIIOWII in Vig. 14.20.
:IWI : I . I P ~ I I I I ~p, r ( * s s ~ t r ci~~(~r(x:t,sc dc*l):i~1,11re of:i vt:lt~(.ily,w f , fro1111,110 l)nry(.(v~l,ri~:
\rvlof,it,y,w, is I<IIO\VII 11s l.111ifIil1'11~io1) vt.l,)t.il,y. W,.
of 1.111:~ ~ ) e e i cSO
s , t,l~nt
If ~.II(. slils arc? nrr:~.t~grtl nt. ~.II(: j)ointt of prcssllro j u m p , n.s snggcst,ctl b y (:riflil,l~ 1731, w, 5 W, I W.
400 XIV. Bonndary-layer control

Owing to the definilion of w, we must have Ze, Wc = 0, and for each component i we may
write 6he law of maus conservntion in the form
div (er wi) = div (e{ (W -t W{)] = 0 . (14.24)

Upon sttrnming ovcr all components, we obtain the continuity equation

tliv (e W) = 0

whirli has the faruilar form of eqn. (3.1).

111 the rrbsonco of nxtcrt~nlficlds, tho cliffuuivo flow is driven, csnenLially, by conccntration Ilrrn R st:intls for l . I ~ t ?~ittivrrsrrlp i s cnt1~111t1t~. If Ill~rr~tt~i1 (lillrtni~~tis ~l~filt!t:t.r(l, ~.II(! titt~l~~rlitt(.~l
grndicnta a s well a s by t.l~crtnaldiffttniot~whicl~prorluces a flow of mnssca in t h e presence of a trrntrr nrc tlclotod. 111 (.he tlcrivaLiot~of t,ltis c q t t a l i o ~IIsrI ~ 1111sljr(:t~111:1dt!of Ot~~llg(!r'spri~t(:iplo
te~~ipcrntrtregratliont.In the case of a binary mixture, we may write tlie low of tliffusiot~in the form nrrorrling l o wl1ic11 tho corfficirrtt of Wle oonccntraLion grnrlicrlt in Ulo IrraL-fltrx vrctor in tlto
c, W , -- Dl, (grad c, -t kT grad In T) , (14.26) sntnr :IS t.11nt of t.ht: t r ~ n p c r a t ~ r gratlict~t
,1l1e
~re in t.he mans flux.
. Irottndary condilions for velocity ant1 ~ ~ c I I I I ~ c ~ R:IT(:~ I ~1.1~11:( :R:LIIIC : ~ in s I)otr~td:~ry 1:1yem
wltcrr I),, clonotes the coefficient of bir~arydifflrsion, kT is the thermal diffusion ratio, and c, = el/e ronsist.ing of singlo gxscs. 'I'llcsc must be s~t~~pIctnetltctI \vili1t I.WO 1 1 t b~ ~ ~ t t t d a r:ot~(Iit~it)~~s
ry for tllo
is tho masq conccntration of lhe first gas, assntncd t o be the one which emerges from the wall. coi~crnt.ral.ion.At a lnrgr tlist.anco f r o n ~t.hc wall, there is 11rcst:r11only tlrc c x k r ~ ~g:rs a l wl~ic:l~
'J'ltc c:orflicintlt of binary tliff~~sion
dcpends only litllc on concentration and is affected by tempe-
r n t r ~ r rin tho samo way as the kincmntic viscosity. The thermal tliffuaion ratio, kT, depends essen-
rnr:iris t , l ~ : l.hc
srrontl bort~~clary
~ t cot~rc111ri~l~io11 C, of LIIC S J I P C ~ C Rcm:ltr:rt.i~~g fro111t.lre ~vallvanisl~osa t
rolltlitiot~111us1hf: prrnrril~(:dnt t.11~; w:lll. [n rno8tr rases i t is parmisail,lcr 1.0
- m. 'L'lie

tially on concont.rntiot~ant1 is froqr~onllynpproxirnab~lhy the ratallorcrude relation nss111110 t.l~ntt,Ii(? rxt.crnnI $:IS r n n ~ t o tpas^ lIltro~tg1~ 111~all, f.ll:~I. is, t.ItaL t,110 (lilr~tsir)~~ vr1ocit.y
kT = a c t (I -c,) (14.27) (11.l11(! rxl.~!rt~:il gns is rt1111iI:i11(1 opl)osih in sifirr I,II t,ltt! ittjt*(:t,io~~ vrlo<.il,y,TI,,,, trt, t,lit! IV:III. Si~tt!(>

duo to Ot~sagcr,Furry and Jones. Here, thc coefficient of thermal diffusion, a, is assumed to be
a ~ o n s t : ~ nfor
t evcry specific cornbination of gases. anrl in view of oqn. (14.20). \vc o\)Lniti l,l~cconrlit.iot1 t,lt:rl
Inserting cqn. (14.26) into thc law of mass conservalion, eqn. (14.24), written for the first
component, and taking inlo x c c o ~ ~ ncqn. t (14.25), we obtain (grad cl -I- kT grad 111 7')

W r may now introrlure tlie normal honndary-layer si~nplificatiollsinto the right-hand side of this
rqrtai.ion t l ~ n st ~ r g l r r t i lk~r i~n s in alax wit11 respect to those in a/&~.I n this manner we obtain
1 IIC ro71rr11lmlionrq7folzon

A corrcs~)ontlingoqualiot~is valid for t l ~ csc:concl compotlcnt,; I~owcver,this second equation

brconlcs t,rivi:il wlmn (.he ~notlificdform of cqn. (14.28) is used b c c a ~ ~ sc,c 4- c, = 1. For this
rr:~son.t.11~S(:COII~I (:qtl:it,io~~
is rry)l:lc.crl by t,hc continuity eqr~:btiorl(14.25). Fig. 14.21 Binary boundary Iaycr on a
rono in laminar flow witallsu~~ctrronic vclo-
'I'IIc tnon~rnt.rttnccltt:llions for :I gas rnixluro :Ire identicnl with those for a sir~glegss ant1 are
rsril.tn~~ city M, = 12.9 in the presence of 1l1c
injection of helium into air,afterW. Wuest
[I 101. Velocity distrib~~tion, 11, temporat-

ure dist,rihution, T, and concentration

a7' rlistribotion, el, for diffcrrnt rat,ios of wall
=0, (14.30)
a!/ t r n ~ p c r : ~ t ~7
t,r r , t o external t c ~ ~ ~ p c r a l u r e ,
'
\vl~rronow Q 111rr1/ t clc~pcntlon roncc:ntr:lt,ion in addition t.o their fatniliar d c p c ~ ~ d c n cone tetnpc. TI. 111jcct.ionvelocity:
.
rat.~~rr.
I,Itc rncrgy cqnat,ion for a gaseons mixt,,lre must bk formulated with due regzrd being peid
~ . ~ ( e ~ / e , , , )RLj3
V I U ~=
..
TI = 1/3 R,/2 (yls);
/Ji ;
R, = u, sir,;
tm I.hc r ~ o r n ~ atltorni:~l
l t o t,ho transfor of h6at by tliffusion, and to t h a t by thermal
oo*~~lnction,
di11'1tsior1. Itc~t~ricli~lfi our ~011si~~cr:lt,iolls
11, pcrfi:rt plsos, w ~ I I L ~ O ~ I I ~C Ch mixb~tre
e ctitl~alpy M,,,-- 12.D; 7',,==-60°C;
(14.31) MI = 5; T I = 1023°C.
1~ = c I 11.~-{- C, h , .

Sincv: 1.11o tloriv:rl.ic~tlin Irngl.l~y,wc rncr(:ly qnot.c t,hc rrtutlt, in wl~ichthe boundary-layer approxi-
111nt.ionshave :rlrc:ntly I~ecnintrotl~~cod:
402 XIV. Do~~nclary-layer
control
Rrfcrrncea 403
1.2. Exact solntions. In order to solve the coupled partial difFcrct~tinlcquntiot~sof the para-
bolic typo we Iinvo, nt. prencnt, nt our diuposnl n variety of riu~nericalmethocts [97, 421 as well e s
fast rleot,ronic con~ptitcro.With tho aid of thcoo, it. ~ R C O I ~ RPRO U R ~ ~to~ Oobtain ahnost nrhit,rarily
close approxi~riat,ionnto the cxnct solutiotia wit.11 n tolcrahlc expenditure of t.irnc. The properties [ I ] ~Ickerrt,d.: I)ns Rotorsrhiff~~nd sritic pl~yuiknlinc%l~r~~ (Ir~lncllngc~~. Vn~~elt.r~l~ot.ck 1111el1{11y.
of the Il~iidcan be co~~ccivcd as quant,ities that, vary wit,11 position, rind arbitmry boundary r~recht.Got tinnrn, l!)25.
rorlditiorm en11IIC 1)rencribnrl. I t is posnihle t,o obtain si~tiilnrsolutions if the external velocity, the [?I ~ r k c r e t , J.:
, ~ : ' ~ e n s s r ~ ~ i c h t ~ a h s a8. g ~ ~ t70,
~ ~V1)l i g . 115:s - 1158 (1!)20).
blowing vclocit,y, n.s well RR tho t e ~ ~ ~ p r a t011 u r t11c
c wall, arc prescribed in a dcfinitr: manner. I n 1.41 Ackeret,, ,J., Rns, M.,rind Pfcnt~ingcr,W.: V e r l ~ i i ~ d e r udrn ~ ~ g' J ' I I ~ . ~ ~ I ~ ~ ~ : Iriner
I ~ . I ~Jtci.
C~(~~IIS
R I I C ~ I oases, t.11~ sy~lr~ ofn~ > ~ r t i(li(rt:rclitiitl
aI C ~ I I : L ~ ~ O Ir IeRd ~ ~ c tcos n ~ynt.c~n of or(linary clilTcrcntinl h ~ ~ ~ ~ g ~ s ed11r(:11
l ~ i r lA~ItI,R R I I ~ I N I InI t~~. ~ r w i s n e ~ i ~ ~ ~ ~622
: t f L(1!)41);
c i ~ , net: itlno Ilol\z. I)llyn.
equations, ant1 tho InI,hr can IIO inhgratccl nrr~ncricnlly.T11e:ro exist R I I C ~ I ri~~nioriral rcnulb for Ac1.n 14. 323 (1!)41).
incomprenniblo wedge-llows (inclusive of stagrintioii flow [102,29]), comprrmihle flow over a flat
plntc nL zero incidctim, nntl o u p r ~ o n i cbo~lndnryInycrs on wcdgeo and cones [IlO]. 'l'ltc tliagram
in Fig. 14.21 illu~t~ratr:~, by wny of cxnmple,tpho1n111inarvclocit.y, te~npcrnt,r~rc, nritl conc~iit~ration
bounclnry layor or1 n cone with llclirrm injection. [GI l$:tro~;, . I . R . , and Scot.t, I!.E.: Sotne rnnns t,mr~sfcrrcs1111~\vit,l~exter~ial~ I o \ v I I ~ ~ R R I I ~ C
A tnct.liocl tlcoigncd to cnlculnte I a ~ n i ~ ~hyporsonir, ar, hinn.ry-n~ixt,ureho~~ntlnry layers was gradientan. J A S S 27, 025 --ti26 (1960).
givnn by ,I. S k i ~ ~ l ~101 c ~J ~
whoe r applied it to t.he exan~pleof cooling by a b l a t i o ~with ~ tho aid of 171 l$etz, A.: 1)ic IVirkungs~vaiae von ~mt.crtoill~en I'liigclprofile~~.Ilcric:l~t.rI I I I C ~I\I)II. Winn.
pyr~)\izi~ig t<>l\oi~. Gencllnrhnft f. L~~ft.fnhrt, No. O (1922); NACA 'I'M 100 (1!)!!2).
[a] Uet.z, 8 . : 13eeinfl1irwungdcr ltciburig~scl~icl~t n ~ ilire ~ d prnkt.iclcllc \'crwcrt,~~~~g. Svl~rift.ct~ tlt.
All of t l ~ onr~~ncric~rl ralorilnt,ions mont,ioncd RO far ~leglccttlie brnms which stern frorii thern~nl Akad. f. Luftfnlirtforsohnng No. 49 (1939).
t ~ , is t.hc terms wl~ichItavo been untlcrli~ictlill eqn. (14.32). Sucli a siml~lifioationis
d i f f ~ ~ s i o(.hat [!I] BeLz, A.: J1intor.y of bor~ndnrylnyrr cont,rol roscnrch in (:c:rmn~~y.111: I%o~ctlcl;~ry I;tyt.r rrlltl
aonletimcs pcrn~i~siblo RR far nu tho c o ~ n p ~ l h t i o ofnnkin fritrtiou and Jicnt-trnnnfcr rate in ronccrt~cd. flow cont.rol ((:. V. Lnclirr~nr~r~, cdj, 1. 1--20. I m n d o ~1001. ~
Expritnc~ltnshow that I,IIc eqnilihrirrtn ter~~l~crnt,c~re on an nclinbatio w~rlldocs not cle~nroarroill [I01 Ilrnnle)w. A. I. .. 1111rro\vn.I). I,., 'l'ol.(:rvi~~, N., 1t11tI Vin(:o~~I.i. I?.: I d x l ~ t . r i ~ ~ ~IrI ~I I ~, ~t.l~(:ot.t:(it:~~I
t.i~.l
the prrscrlce of thcr~rraldi(r11sio11,but c:rlcuIatio~iu bancd 011 t.hin nin~plificd~(:IIOIIIC a l w a y ~predict stritlic~of nrm s11ct.io11for t,he cont.rol of the laminar bol~ntlnrylaycrr. NACA JLcp. 102.5 ( I!)51).
olteh n tlcc.rrasc. ( 1 11 I$ro\vn, 15.: Exnot solr~tionuof the In~ninarbou~~tlnry layer cqunt.iot~nfor a ~ ~ o r o n~ n~ l : wit.11 r~c
I':xact, t::rIc:~~I:i.t.ioi~~
on t , ~ ~ - s u l ) n t ,h~o~~~ir~. ~ r .t llayers
n r , ~ wl~it:I~ occ11r ill flows ~vitlievapornt~ion variahlr fluirl ]~rol)ertiesnnd a. prrssurc grarliont in 6110 I I I ~ ~ utren~n. II Proc. I'irnt US Nut.
or ~ ~ ~ l ~ l i t i ~)resrt~t. ~ wit,h v011~itlrr:thlrdiffi(:~~lt.ic~.'l'l~cclist.ril~~~tio~~
~ a t i o r11s of vclority oFt,hccvsjtorat.- Congr. Appl. Mcch., 843-852 (1951).
illg nl~l)nLnn~:c (i. o. of t.11~velorit,y of blowing) :tnt1 01 t e ~ ~ i p c r n t ~i~t, c :c~ I I L R Cho~~li(lary
~ ~t lr ~ in L11c [I 21 Ilrown, Mr. 11.. nncl J)or~oughe,1'. L.: 'J'nblc of cxnct ltrminnr 11011ntlnrylnycr uol~~t.iona w11e11
flow clirootioii c:nn no Iongar hc prrncrihctl :~rbit.rarily.I111l,htli~t~ril>ut~io~is :brine s~)011~.a110011~~y nl tlie well in porollu and flttid properties are vnrinblc. NACA '.L'N 2479 (1!)5I).
a rcqult of t l ~ ccoupled I~cat,and Inwa t.mt~sfc:r nntl ncit,hcr is known n priori. I n tlris c l o ~ n a i ~ ~ , [12n] Cliang, P.I<.: Coiitrol of flow separation. IIernispliere 1'11blisl1ing Corporat,iot~,\ V : ~ n l ~ i ~ ~ g t o ~ l
W.s l ~ l c t k t o n ~ n[00] r r calculntcd n large nnmber of solutions in which theevnporation rateas well 1)C (1976).
:m t,l~oloc:rlly snlisfirtl energy hnlnnce Iiavc I ~ m nevnl~~ntctl on tile basin of' eqn. (14.53). Carriiro, 1':. and Eirhcll~rct~ncr, E.A. : Theory of flow rm.l.trrvlirr~ent.by a tangc11t.ii11 jrt, din-
F. I':infcl(l 1211 ~ml)linl~crl solrit~ic>c~s for flon.n of binary inixt,~~reo t,l~:rtn.risc in ttlle prene~~cc of clinrging ngninst a ~ t . r o ~adverseig prcns~lrcgrntlic~~t. 111: J!o~ltltlrrry 1:rycr 1t11t1Ilo\v (:o~itrt~l
( G . V . 1.ncl1111ann.ed.), 1, 200-231, London, 10(il.
t.hc aclial):tt.ic: c ~ n ~ ~ ~ r of ~ ra t lilni
i o ~ofi c:trl~ontlioxitlc wit.11 a special n~at.hemnt,icnlform assrrt~~ccl
Clarke, J . I i . , Xlenlres, H . l t . , and Idbl)y, I'.A.: A provinio~~nl annlynis of t ~ i r h u l c ~ho1111dnry ~t.
for t.11~ law of ovnpornt.ion. 111 t.hin work, he clincovcrrtl t.l~ntt.11~ proccm of ntlinhntic cvn.pornt.ion layers with injection. J A S 22. 245-200 (1955).
of a 111nr1cfilm lc:uls to self-si~nilars o l n t i o i ~ s , ~(/ h. p . VIII. 111 s11c11canes, it t.~trnsolltl t.l~ntt.11~ Curle, N.: The catirnation of laminar skin friction including clTcctn of tlistrih~~tcd n~~ct,ion.
locnl rrrte of evaporation ~ t i u r tfollow a l / ~ z - t y p elaw. Thin in Llto tlinLrihution of Ll~onormal Aero. Quart. 11, 1-21 (1900).
vc~lc,c.it.yi l l o11vt,i011 or hlo\\'i~~g 011 a flnt. 11li1.k it( zt:ro i ~ ~ r i c l t.11at r ~ ~Irn(ln
~ c to s~lF-si~nilnr soI11tionn, [10] Culick, F.E.C.: Integral n~cthotlfor c:tlculnti~~g heat and 111wnI.rn~~nfrr in Iii~ninnrh o ~ ~ r ~ c l a r y
nn il111slrnt.ctlin Vig. 14.12. :I'llc I , C I I I ~ H I ~ ~ ~1111t1 ~ . I I ~t .Co ~ i ~ ~ ~ ~ t r :at.
t t .1.11~
i o ~u~~rfn.c(?
t of 1.I1olil111tl1r118 layers. AIAA J. I , 783-703 (ll)T,:1).
out, to he I I I I ~ F ~ ~ I I I . [I71 Dn~~ner~horg, It. E., nr~dWciberg, J . A. : ISlTcct of t,ypn of porolrs s~~rf:tc:o nntl suct.ie)r~ve1onit.y
1.3. Approrimate mlutions. J t in possible tn simplify t.lin prol~lrmhy nsq11111ingI.l~ntthe d~stributionon the characteristics of n 10.5 per cent thick airfoil \vit,h area n~~ct,ion. NACA
rrat~tlt,lI I I I I I I P.
~ ~rrntl
~ , Ll~nSc.htniclt, ni~~iihrr.S, -- r~ll),,:rrr o q ~ ~to a lu11it.y :ri~tl(.lint the viscosity T N 3093 (1953).
i~ n lir~enrft~not.ionof tr:~~~por:tt.~~rc:. Wit11 t,l~cnoans~itnl)t,io~~n,(,?.I t . k'anldcm 1251 oalcr~lnhdthe [la] VOII l)oer~hoff,A. E., ant1 Jmftin, L.I<.: PrescnL stntr~sof 1rscarc.11on bormtlnry lnyrr rontrol.
sl~rnring~t,rcwa t Lllc wnll wl~clin liglit RZR in injcctcd: lie c011~itlcrec1 ~ I W C R of v n r y i ~ ~
ri~otccr~lnr
g J A S 16, 729-740 (1049).
n1:rRq ratio will1 rrspr.ot, tn) t.lto II:L.C g.1~. More grncrnl rwcs 01 oxtcr~lal-velocity(111~1it~jecl,io~~- [In] I)otlooglie, P.L., nnd l v i n g o o d , J.N.R.: Exact aol~itionnof lntrriinw I,oi~nelnry Inycr rqua-
vr1orit.y clist.rib~tt.ior~n rnli IIC nn:tlyzrtl with 1.11~aitl of t,11c integral cq~rntions[log].
I229 (1055).
.~ t - "values for porous wall with varinblr krnnrrat.~~rr.
tiorls with c o n ~ t a t nropertv NACA llcn.

[20] I)orrancc, W. H., arid .Dore, F. J.: T l ~ clTcct e of maw t.mnnfcr OII t.l~croi~~prcsnil)lc~ t,nrh~~lent,
boundnry lnyer skin friction nntl hcnt trnnufcr. J A S 21. 404---410 ( 1054).
Moat, nxlwrit~,cr~tnl ir~vcnl.igntio~io illto t,l~oproblct~iof irijcal.itig n foreign g i ~ sinto n Isminnr [20n] Rckcrt,, JC.12. (:.: 'J'hart~~otly~~n~)iiscl~c I < o p p l r ~ ~v~o g~ iSt.oll' I I I I ~\Viir~~~riil)c.rg:~~~g,
~ I~'orn(.l~g.
s ~ ~ i ~ . r s o1101111tlirry
~iir 1:tyt:r ce~~~t:cnt,rnlc :~11i1ost~(~xt:I11nivcIy 011 t.hc ~ i ~ m . s ~ ~ r cof rr~ Ll~e
c . t~: ~q t~ i l i b r i ~ ~ t ~ l Ing.-Wes. 29, 147-151 (1963).
tttnp~.r:&t,~~rc: on at11 :rtlinI~:tt.ic:\vnll. [21] Eisfcld, F.: Die B c r c c l ~ n ~ cdcr ~ ~Grcr~zncliirl~te~i
g fiir g c k o p l ~ r l t c\Viir~~~ciilie>rg:t~~g
~~ I I I I ~ IS t o r -
\\'I~(.II tl~t,I , ~ I I I I ( ~ : I I:~yc.r
~~ c.onl.niiin novrrnl eo~nl)ol~ct~t.s, I,l~crune-t nnlculnt,ion 1,ecomrs nuata~isclihri Vrrtl~mol.~tng oincn l'liinniglceitrnfiltns iibcr eitirr ~):irrrllcln ~ ~ g r n l . r i i t ~ I'1~:rLt.o
lr~~
te~clio~i~ II~:(.~~IISI$ t 111. 1111s01. t ~ 1 c . 1 1 C ~ > I I I ~ I O ~ I ( ~ It11?111.11els
II 011 1 . 1 1 ~I ~ I I . Y ( ~ ~ a l l t11t- ~t,l~(*ro. A (~onni(1(:r11I~lc ~ ~ r ~I3oriic:I~~i~~l1l.i~11tig
ter vt:rii~~tlt-rIi(:l~c~r
Sl.olTl~t.i\vt:rt~~. lnl.. . I . I I ~ I I I LMILHH'l'r:~~~~l't.r 11, l!i:!7 .
s i ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ l i t,c.~.l~rx
l i ~ ~ :n.11t.11
~ l i oI I~ ~norlc.l
~ ! \ i l . l ~ ( Y ) I I R ~ : I I I ~ , ~)ro[krl,i(*n ~ . ( I I I I I I ~ I I ( Y I ill^ I I I I I ~ ~ ~ ( ~ O I I I ] I ( I I I C I I ~ ~ 1550.. 110711.
,- -3

tlifl~~sior~ ~ ~ c ~ ~ ~ ~ l rc.lc-rr~.(l
i ~ ~ i l ~ t,o l l alt .n~~rcilit!cl
~ H I : I , I ~is :~clc~~~t~!(l. SIICIIn 111odr1gives very goo(1 agree- [22] Emmons, H. W., and h i g h , D.C.: Tnbrilnt,iori of Illnsinn fr~rtat,ionwit,l~\)lo\vit~g;rnd ~ u c t . i o ~ ~ .
I I I ~ I I ~wit11
, ~:x:tctsolt~t,ionnrvon ill the c.:rsc t i f strongly vnrinble propertim 197). ARC CP 157 (1954).
. (:onnitlrr:rl,ly Inoro nrltncrortn rxjwrilnr~rkhnve been p c r f o r ~ ~ ~wit11 c d t , r ~ r l r ~ ~ lbountlnry
rnt - - Epplnr, R..: rrn.kt.1~~111)
r231 Borccht~~ '
~inn~irinrcr
ng I I I I ~~~ . I I ~ ~ ) I I I AII~I~II~(~-(:~(~II~,R~~II
~IIIPI.
1nyc.r.s ( r / . (:II:I~I.X X 11). '1.11~ clctniln of 1 . 1 1 ~prorcnn elf nbl:~t.ionnro only pnrt.1~r~r~dcrstootl anti for I ; ~ . - A ~ ~$2,
I I . 221 2 4 6 (I!wB).
t.l~isrt.:rso11, :$ e~:~lv~rl:tl.io~~ of :1.111:11.io11 I~t~itt.-l.~~:t~~nfrr I I I I I S ~ ,sl,ill he? 111tsc(lon r r ~ ~ cn(?t~li-r~~~[)irit'nl
lc 1241 lCjil)Irr, It.: (:cr~~citin~tt)~o ( ~ r c ~ ~ z s c l ~ i ~ ~ l ~ tfiir ~ a lllo~~I~:t~~St.rit*l~
~ o a ~ ~ g ~ ~ ~ I~I IgI ~ ! S ~ ~ I I I I ~ ~.Ih II~III~.
c t ~ ~ ~ : t t ~[:!:rl.
ie~ns WGl, 140---149 (1962).
404 XIV. 13011ndnry-laycr control References 405

Ihrtltlers, C.11.: A notc on 1;irninar Inyrr skin friction under the influence of foreign gnn 1821 Meredith, F.W., and Uriffith, A.A.: in: Modern developlncnta in fluid dynamics. Ox-
injnction. .JASS 28, I(i6 - 107 (I!WI). ford University Preen, 2, 6.34, Oxford, 1938.
Ihvrc, A,: (:ot~t,ril~~~t,io~t h I'6t1tcle cxpi:ritnent;rlo des ~nouvctnentnI~ydrodynarniques~dcux [63] Mickley, H. S., Rose, R.C., Squirw, A. I*., and Stewart., W. E.:Heat ~nnss,and t n o t n e n t ~ t ~ ~ ~
elitnct~sie~t~s. 'lXhesis Univcrsit,~of l'aris 1!1:38, I-- 192. transfer for flow ovcr a flat plate with blowing or snction. NACA TN :l208 (1!)54).
I?lnt.l, .I.: 'I'he I~ieLor~ of boundary Iqycr cont,rol rcsearch in t,he United S t a h of America. [54] Miles, E.Q.: Sucking away boundary laycrs. Flight 35, I80 (I!):!!)).
In: l301111tl:iryI:ivcr ant1 flow control ((>. V. I,achm:bnn, cd.), 1, 122-143, London, 1961. [55] Morcluchow, M.: On heat transfer over a swcat-coolcd sorfaw in Irin~inar comprcssiblo
l?liiecl. (:.: I C I . P ( ? I ~BUR I ~ ~deln
R ~ CS l , r i ~ ~ n t ~ i ~ g ~ i tdcr
i s t i'~cchnischcn
L~~t ~~ochschnlc? Thnnig. .Jb. flow with pretwurc gradient. J A S 19, 705--712 (1052).
~cl~~ffl;arttcc:l~;;. (:rsollsr:li:ift 31, 87 -- I l:f (l!)RO). [A61 New, N. : Foreign gna injectior~into a co~nprcqsiblct r ~ r b ~ ~ l ebotlt~dnry ttt lnycr on :l flat p1a.h.
Fox, Fl., ant1 I,il)l)y, P.A.: I l c l i ~ ~injection ~n into the boundary layer a t an a x i ~ ~ m t n e t r i c J A S S 28. 645-654 .. 11961\. 1 - - - I -

stagnation point.. JASS 29, 921 (1962). (571 Nickel, I(.: Eine einfache AhschLtzr~n fiir Crcn7srchicl1trt1. 111g.-Arclr.31, 85 - 1(M) (l9ti2).
(:c~R~.cII, I<., : L I I ~(:rOss, .I. IT. : IPlorv :inel l~r:it,t,rattsfor alongaplanc wall with p n r i ~ d i c ~ ~ ~ o t i o ~ i . (581 i~altlcl~nnt, LC., ftaymcr, w.G., a n t ~ ~ r c r o u A. x . N.: W ~ I I ~ I - ~ I ~ I Ib!sh I I ~ ; I of 1,11c! slihllit~g
ZAM I' 25, :I!)!) 4OS (l!)74). propc:rl.i(*u of JLII 8 Ilcr c:ot~tl~11ie:lt~ y ~ ~ ~ r ~ ~ cncc~l,iot~ : ~ ~IlI ~ I U ~~! I I ( : ~ I, , ~I I ~~ ~I III I ~ I II I O V O I I H
~ l . r i ewit,11
(:c:rl)c?r. A,: IIIIICI.HIIC:IIIITI~OII iihc:r C ~ ~ : I I . I . R ~ : ~ I ~ ( : I I L I I ~Itt:~).
I H I LInnL.
~ I ~ Uof
I I ~AcrocJy~~nttlie:~,
!. 811rfacc. AILC 1tM 2(i(ifr (198:I).
(:oldstcin, S.: Imw-drag nnrl suc:l.ion airtoils. J A S 15, Is!) -220 (1!)48). [59] l'ankh~~rst, R.C.: Il.ecet~tnritislt work on rnct,hoda of bo~~nclrlry layer oo~~l.rol. I'roc:. Syrr11).
(:rcgory, N., nnel Wrillrcr, W.S.: Wind-lunr~eltests on the NACA 63 A 00!) aerofoil with at, Nrrt,. Phys. J a b . (1!)55).
tlistributod 611ct~ion ovcr the nose. AltC 1tM 2900 (1955). [GO] Pnppns, C.C.: Effcct of injection of forcign gases in thc skiti friclior~n11t111c;~t. 1.1.1~11sft:r 011
(ircgory, N.: Jtenoarcl~on s~tct.iorisr~rfaccfor lan~inarflow. In: Boundary Iaycr and flow tho t~rrbulcntbo~rnclnrylayer. J A S I'al)or, 59-78 (,Ian. 1!)5!)).
t:o~~trol ((;. V. I,nc:l~rn:~nn,ctl.), 11, !)24-- 960, London, 1901. [6011] J'ecl~nll, W.: ICin Niil~cr~~t~gsvcrfriltrct~ zur I % C I . C C ~ I I I I Ie11:r
I ~ kc)tn~)r~ssil~lol~ I I I ~ I I ~ I I : ~ ~ ~(:rc:~~ir.-
:II
(:rosu, .J. I?., Iliirtnctt., J . ,.'L Mawon, I). J., and Gnzlcy, C., Jr.: A review ofbinary bonncl- arhicht, rnit kontinuierlicl~vertcilter Ahaangr~ng. Ing.-Arc:l~. 32, 157-- I8A (I!)(i:%).
:Iry lrlyor chnractcrist.ics. J. Heat Mass 'l'mnsfcr 3, 198-221 (1901). [GI] I'fct~ninger, W.: Untersuchong iibcr R c i b ~ ~ n g n v c r n ~ i n ~ lan o r l'ragfliigclt~.
~~~~g it~sl)cno~iclorc
Ilrntl, M.I<,.: The bortntlt~.ry1:iycr with dist.ribr~tcdsucLion. A1tC IZM 2783 (1955). rnit ltilfo von Grcnzschichtnl~sn~~gut~g. 1Zcp. I t ~ s l .Ae!rotly~~atnics,15'1'11 Ziiric:l~, No. I:!
JIeacI, M. It.: History of rcsor~rchon bottnclary layer cont,rol for low drng in the U. K. I n : (1946); see also J A S IG, 227--236 (1'349); NACA TM l 181 (1!)47).
l l o ~ n ~ l a rlilyer
y and flow control (G. V. L I L c I I ~ ~ I Ied.), I I , I , 104- 121, 1901. [62] Pfenninger, W., and Bacon, J. W.: Aboi~tthe dcvclop~iicr~t of swept lati~ir~ar u u c t i o ~ ~In: .
I-lolntrin.
-. . - 11.: Mcssonecn zur I,aminarl~alttrng - der Grennscl~icl~t an einern Fliigel. Lilienllinl- Boundary layer and flow control [G.V. Lachmann, cd.) 11, 1007-1032, L O I I ~ O I1901. I,
Jlericlrt s 10, 17--27-(1940). 1631 Pfenninger, W., and Groth, E.: JJJWdrag botlndary layer snct,ion experi111et1t.q in IIigIlt
Ilolzha~~scr, C.A., ant1 Jjray, R.S.: Winel-t,nnncl and flight ir~vcatigat~ions of t.lw usc of a wing glove of a n F-94 A airplane with suction through a large numllcr of 1i11eslotsr. ill:
leiidir~gctlgc arca suction for 1.11~pttrposc of incrcil~ingthe maximum lift cocfficiertt of a Boundary layer arid flow control (G.V. Lachmann, cd.) 11, 987-999, I,ondo~~, I!)c,I.
:)So swc~)t-.rvingairplane. NACA Rcp. 1276 (1956). [6&] Pientka, K.: Theoretischc Untersuchung der larninnrcn Z~~istoff~rcn~,scl1ir,I1tn9t
Hurlcy, I). (:.. a r ~ dTliw:iitcs, R.: An expcrirrientnl investigation of the boundary Iayer on liings ciner benetztcn Plntte b ~ nicht-adinbnkr
i Verd~tnstttng.D~RR. J~mllll~(.~l\vcig 1!)77.
a porous c'iro~larcylinder. ARC ItM 282:) (1955). [64] Poisson- Quinton, l'h.: It6chcrcl1cs th6nriqnca ot cxphrirrlc:r~tnlcrcR I I ~lo c:rjt~~,roIc: (1,: ~ : i r ~ ~ l l l r l .
lfilis(.l~,lb.: 1':xnktc ~ r r e c l ~ n r ndcr ~ gIan~inarenReibnt~gsschichtan dcr liingsan ~ s t r o m t e n tion par soufflage appliquk aux ailcs d'avions. ON IClZA 1'11hlication, N o h rI'oc:I~l~icl~~c: N~,.
cl~c?~tcn I'lrbl.l~~ !nit. I~oti~ogrncr A h s a ~ ~ g ~ Schriften
~ng. dt. Aknd. d. l,uft.falirtfors~~~ng, 8 B, 37 (1956); see dso J b . WGL 1956, 29-51 (1957).
No. 1 (1944); NACA IZM 1205 (1949). [65] Poisson- Quinton, Ph., and Lcpage, 12. : Survey of ITrench rcsearclt on the control of I ) o ~ l ~ ~ c l .
.Jones, M., nntl Head, M.It.: Thc rcduction of drng by distributed suction. Proc. Third ary layer and circulation. In: Boundary layer and flow corttrol (C.V. Lachtnann, erl.) I,
Anglo-Amrrican Aeronautical Confcrenco, Brigliton, 199-230 (1951). 21-73, London, 1961.
J h y , J.M.:I5011ndnrylayer along a fiat plate with ~tniformstjetion. ARC ItM 2628 (1948). [GG] Poppleton, E.D.: Boundary layer control for high lift by suction of thc Icadi~ig-ctlgcof a
I<nr<l~nlls W... and Will. 1.: : l'aneentialca Ausblnncn von I-lcliurn in larninaron Hyperschall-
~
40 degree swept-back wing. ARC RM 2897 (1955).
grrnzschicl~tr.~~. Z1'W 22, 295--:jb7 (1974). [67] Prandtl, L.: The mechanics of viscous fluids. In: Acrodynaniic thcory (W. F. D ~ ~ r a n ted.) l,
Laal~tnent~, (:. V.: I5ountlary layer control. J . Jtoy. Aero. Soc. 59, 163--198 (1955); see also 111, 34-208 (1935).
Aero. Kng. Ibov. 13, 37~--61(1954) and J b . WGL 132--144 (1!154). [68] I'reston, J.H.: The boundary layer flow over a pertiicablc srrrf:bce tltrongl~nrl~ic:l~ sr~ct,ionis
. >
I,:rch~na~~n,
l!)lil.
(:. V. (cd.): I3onndary layer and llow control, I and 11. Pergarnon Press, London, applied. ARC RM 2244 (1946).
[69] Pretsch, J.: Grenzen der Grenzschiclltbeeinflussung. ZAMM 24, 204 -267 (1944).
[45] IEW, 11.(:.: 0 1 1 tho corr~prcusiblcboundary laycr ovcr a flat plate with uniforn~suction. [70] Raspet, A , : Boundary layer studies on a sailplane. Aero. Jlng. Rev. 11, 6, B2 (1052).
ltrissnor A n ~ ~ i v e rVol. s . (:ortl,r. Appl. Meclt. Ann Arbor/Mich. 43-60 (1949). [71] M e n a c h e i t , B.: Eine neue Anwendung der Absatlgttng erlr Steigernng tlca A ~ ~ f t r i r b eittcs cs
1461 Lcw, 1I.G.. anel hfathic~t,It. D.: 13onndary layer control by porous suction. Dep. Aero. Tragflugels. F. B. 1474 (1941).
Eng. 1'ennaylvania St,:ite Ui~iv.Rep. No. 3 (1954). [72] Regenscheit, B.: Absaugung in der Plugtochnik. J b . WGI, 1952, 55- 6:) (]!IT,:)).
[47] l a w , Il.(l., :~trd\':tnncci, J. B.: On the laniinar compremiblc bour~daryIaycr ovcr a flat (731 Richards, E. J., Walkcr, W., and Grectning, J.: Testa of n Qriflith ncrofoil in 1.l)~13 . 9 f t
plate will1 s ~ ~ c t i oorn injoclion. J A S 22, 589--597 (1955). tunnel. ARC RM 2148 (1954).
[48] J,il)by, P. A,, I<auf~n:~nn, I,., and Hnrrington, R.P.: An experimc~italinvcatigation of the [74] Ringleb, F.: Conlputation of the lalr~ir~ar boundary Iaycr xvithst~ction.JAS ID, 48--54 (1952).
isoll~crn~nl ln~ninarbonndary laycr 011 a porous flat plate. JAS 19, 127 (1952). [75] Itheinboldt, W.: Zur Berochnung stationiircr Grcnzscl~icltt~cnhci kontinuicrlic:l~cr Absau-
[4!)] I,ihl~y,1'.A., and I'nllonc. A.: A method for analyzing the heat insulating properties of t h e gung rnit unstetig veriinderlicher Absa~~gcgcscltwindi~keit. J. JEnt. Mcch. Analysis 6, 539-
Irtrninar cornprc4sible boundary layer. J A S 21, 825'834 (1954). 596 ll956l.
(501 l i b b y , 1'. A,. n ~ Crosci, ~ d It.,J.: Experimental invevt.igation of the down-stream influence [76] n u b k i n , M.w.: An analytical estimation of the efTect of trnnspiratiot~coolit~gor) LIIC Itcat-
of ut,agtlat.ion point Inass transfer. JASS 28, 51 (1961). transfer and skin-friction characteristics of a comprcssiblc, turbulent ~ O I I I I ~ : L ~ ~
150n) I,il,hy, I?. A. : I-1nn.t.anrl tnnss transfer a t a general thr3e-dimensional stagnation point. AIAA NACA T N 3341 (1954),.
J. 5, 507 -517 (l!)li7). [77] Scltlichtit~g,11.: Die (,rcnzschicl~tan tior c:l)ctlc:n I'l:it.l.o nil, A l ~ u n t r g ~I I~I tI ~ ~ AIIHIII:LR(~~~
~
I50l)l I,il>l)y. I'.A.: 1,:rtninar flow I L ~a tl~rcc-dimcnsio~i~rl sI.tgnabion point wit11 large r a h of L~~fI,f~rhrtforscI~~tt~g I!?, 203 --:I01 (1941).
injcc:l,ion. A l AA .I. 1.1. 12731- 1279 (1976). [78] Schlichting, H.: 1)ie Grenzschicl~tmit. Absnllglll~gnntl ~lnsl)In.~er~. I,t1ftf;~ltrt,fornc~1111t1fi 19,
151 1 I.o~v,( 2 . M.: 'l'l~c: e:on~prmsihlrIan~inarhor~ndarylager wit.11 fluid injection. NACA TN 3404 179---I81 (l!)42).
( l!t55).
 [7!)] Sc.l~li(:l~t.i~~g, 11.. ntld I $ I I ~ S I ~ I I<.: ~ I I ~15xnklc
II. I,iisl~ngen fiir (lie Inn~innrcI l e i l ) ~ ~ ~ ~ g ~ s ~ l i i c l i t [I061 W u e ~ t ,W.: , F,t~t\viclrlungeincr lan~innrcn(:rct~z~rl~icIlt. Ili~~t(?r 0i11cr Ahsn~tgrst.cIlc.l I ~ g . -
111it.A ~ R : \ I I ~t111d I I I II \~I I S ~ ) ~ ~ G R C .SI ~c. h r i l t ~ ~(It. n t\kntl. cl. I,~~ft.fnI~rt,forsrl~~~,g 7 fJ, No. 2 (1!)43). Arch. 17'. 190-206 (1940).
[801 SrI~licht,i~~g. II .: I)ic I5eritilln~sungtlcr (:rrnzncl~irht.t l ~ ~ rAr l~~I R I L I I t~~I nI Id,\nsblnsen. I~ .Jb. (1071 W~lcst.,W.:A ~ y l ~ l ~ ~ l o t~i ~~ cI ~R l~c I I ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ I1111 I z ~Ri i(~.~Ig ~s ~~ ~~ ~~ ~Ig(c~s% It ,yIr il ii t~i i~I ~t l~r~i ~s ~ ~
clb. r\knd. rl. 1,1111f:~lirtfor~rlitrnp IIO- -108 (104:%/44). I < ~ ~ I ) c l~ig.-Ar(,l~.
~II. Z*?,198- 208 (l!)55).
(81 1 S(.l~li('l~t.i~ig. 11.: 1';in N i i l ~ c ) . t ~ ~ i g ~ ~ r r Zllr f n ~ l~r% l'~ e rl c i ~ ~ i l ldlrlr~ In~ninarcn
ig IZrihl~~igssrliicllt [I081 W u c ~ t ,M'.: Sl~rveyof cnlrl~l:~t.io~~ IIICI,IIO(IR of I n n ~ i ~ l nI ~ r o : ~ ~ l d n11tyr.r~
ry \\.ill1 s11c1.io11 ill
111it.Ahsa11g1111g.111g.-Arrl~.16.. 201 --220 (1948); Ni\( :r\ 'J'M 121(i (1!)4!)). inconiprcssible flow. I n : I~oulrtlnrylayer ant1 flow conlrol ((:.V. I , : ~ c l r ~ i m ~rrl.). i ~ ~ ,11, 771 -
[&2] Sc;l~li(;l~t~i~~g. 11.: 11ljstt11g111ig in clcr 1\rro11)'11:1111il<. tJb. \\'(:I, 1056, 1!)--29 (1957): ser also: 800, I,ontlon, I'orgnmon Press, IO(il:
J,':~sl,iratio~l11c I:% cot~(-licI i ~ ~ i i en t e tl~r\l~iiqllr a6ronti11t~iqt1c. 'rrr111iiq11ret, Svicncc t\6ro- [log] LVrlrsL. W.: 1,nniinnrc (:rcri78cl1ic.l1trn bri A11s1>1nncnrin(>s nntlrrct~ Mrcli11111s(Z\vc~isl.olF-
nnl~t.iqt~c L':trt, 4. 14!)- 161 (1!)5li). grenzsrl~icl~lcn). log.-Arch. 31, 125 --I43 (Lg(i2).
[8:51 S r l ~ I i ~ ~ l ~11.: t i ~ ICiriigc
~ g . ncuerr lCrgrl)~~issr ii1x.r ( ~ ~ P I ~ Z S ~ ~ I ~ I ~ ~ I ~, -~\ ~I ICv~~~I IIin ~~T~s ~ I I S S ~ I I I ~ . 11 101 \VIICR~, s s i b l c ( : ~ C ~ I I Z S ~ ~ I I ~ ( ~ I I ~ hri
\ V . : J < o ~ ~ ~ ~ ) r ( ~In~iiin:\r~ A : I I 1111sl)l:~nc11 ci111,s: I I I ~ ~ ~ . ~ (h, lI It - t l i ~ ~ ~ ~ l s .
i\c.r~ti;urtic.nlSc>it:ncm. 1 1 , I'ror. liirsl I ~ ~ t r r n t ~('ol~gr. t,. in t11r t\crr)~~:i~~t.irnl Sc~ienrcu ill ZFLV 11. 3!)8 -409 (l!)l3).
hl:t(lrid I ! W . I , ~ I I I ~ ~ 563 I I , 58G (l!t5!)). 111 I] \ ~ I I : I IS.W.:
~, 11t.:1.1. (.r:~nsf(*ri l l li1111i11:tr ( ? r:I I ) O I . I 1 I I H I I : ~ I . 1 ~ 1 : ~ ~ ~ :
( . C I I I I I I ~ ( > S H ~ ~ )I~)( I? ) I I I I ~ I ~l I: ~~~, ~ 1111
(841 S<.II~~.III<. 0 . :\ ' c r s ~ ~ c l ~nit t . i \ l ~ ~ i t ~ ~ g l l i i g~ t,*t I~~f~I .f ; ~ ~ ~ r t f o 12, r n rI0 l ~ ~27~ ~(l!):55),
~g will, I l ~ ~ i injc.c<lion.
tl .IAS lfi, 741 -- 748 (I!).&!)).
[X5( S c l ~ r o ~ ~ 0k. .:'I'txglliigcl ~ i ~(:re1i7,nrllicl1l:tI1sn11gr11,g.
it I,ulCf:1lrrt1orscl1ung 2. 49 (I!)P8): sro , I). : Note ~ I t,Iw
[I 121 J ' O I I I I ~11. I vcIocit,,y atnil t~(*~nl~(:rnI,t~rc (lisl ril,~~l.io~is :ttt:ti~i(*(l\ v i t 11 st11.I io11
also ZI'hl 22. 2%)( l!fiI): I,r~ft.f;tlirt.fors~'~~~~~ig 12, 10 ( I!l:lr)); 1,11ft.\vissen 7. 409 (1!)40): nlno I nI tI : of i ~ i ~ ~e i t cx I r o ~ i ~ r s s iI l l : ~ rI . .I . I .I I 71) 75
Ni\('A 'rM !)74 (1!)41). 1 1 Q4RI
,-'---I'

. . Sinlinr. I<. I). I'.: 'I'lle 1n111in:trI,ot~ntlnryI:%?cr i ill^ clintrib~~trtlsl~ctionon an infinite yn\\rd
1861 [I 131 J'ol~ng,A.T).. and Znn~ir,nI.:Siniilar nnql nnyn~j~tol.io s o l r ~ t i c of ~ ~t.l~r~ s i ~ ~ c * o ~ ~ ~ l , r rI s) s~ iI lI~I lI l~. ~ -
ryIin(l(~r./\I<,(: (!I' 214 (l!)5li). I I n e q t ~ ~ t i oI n ~ t i o i ~ . I 1 I 120 (l!)(i7).
[87] ~ n ~ i t I\.M., h, :ctltl Ilobrrts. 11. 15.: 'l'l~r jet :tirl)l:ltic 11t.ilizingbonnrl:~ry I~tyrrnir for ~ , r o l n ~ l -
won. J A S 1.1, 97- - IO!) (1047).
(881 S~rtibl~. hl. 11.: IlibIiogrn.l,liy "11 l ~ o t ~ n d ; ~Inycr r y ront,r01. Iritcrntl~~re Senr(.I~NO. (i. I.il)rnry
I111llrtin.'I'IIV . I n ~ n mI:orrentnl I l c s m r r l ~('rntcr. I'rincet.on IJniv. (1!)55).
[X8;11 S111:lrl...l.'l7.: 0 1 1 1.l1c~ITcvl.nf 1111iforn1 s~~cl,ioti 011 t l ~ rst(!ncly Ilo~vd ~ 1.0 ~ nr rotating disk.
Q I I : I ~-1.
~ , .hl(-(,l~.i\ppI. hlnll~.7, 44ti-457 (1!)54).
[8!)1 S ~ n i l l ~t\.Rl.O..
. ~ t n d.InlTr. N.,\.: (:rnrrnl I I I I - ~ I I ~for ( ~ sol\'ing llie I I I . I I I ~ I ~ Rt1011~q11ilil)rit1111
~
l)n1111~1:1ry 111ywrt111:1.tionsof :I ~lissori:~li~tg gats. ,\I;\,\ * I . .I. (il I - (i20 (IINX;).
[!lo\ S~~Icttsliissr:r, \\I.: L l ~ ~ t ~ ~ r s (ICY ~ ~ rI : I~I I lI ~~I I :tI ~t~ ~I I ~
Z \gv ( * i s l o l ~ l r r ~ ~ ~ b ( ~ l ~ i ~ l liitigs ~ t d t rcinrs ij~~~t~~ig
v e r t l ~ ~ ~ ~ n t rI'liissigkritnlil~~~~.
nrlc~~ I)iss. I l r n ~ ~ t ~ s c l ~ n1974. - e i g \\'iirtno- und Stoffiibert,rngtcng
8 , 71 . 81; (l!l75).
[ 0 l ] SIr~inlic.~~r*r, .I.: I % t . r r r l ~ ~ ~tlrr ~ r n gIntninnrr~~ Z~vristofl-(:rc~~zsrhirht in d r r Iiyl,ersonisclien
S t : i ~ ~ l ) r ~ ~ ~ l c l s l rtiii it.i ~t~e ~~ ~~ ~~ tl ~ i gc . r ; ~ t ~ t r ; ~ l ~StolTl)c.ia-ertrn.
l ~ i i r ~ g i g r t ~ Iliss. Ilrn~~nscli\veig 1!)70:
Z,\hl hl , T I , 20!l- 223 (1!)71).
[!I21 SI11:irl. .1.'17.: 0 1 1 t l ~ cc.lkrts of rtniforni s c ~ r t i oon ~ ~tlic strn(ly flo\v rlr~eto 1% rot7ating disk.
Q11nr.1.,J. Mccl~.A ~ I I Ih. l s t l ~ .7, 441;- 457 (1!)54).
[!):4( Sliil)rr. .I.: I'ligl~t rsl)c~ri~iicnts i~niltrsls on l\ro nirplnnrs \\-it11 811ctinn slotn. N;\CA 'l'bl
l2:12 (1!)50). 1511gl.tr:tnsl. of %\\'I1 I ' o r ~ c ~ l i ~ ~ ~ ~ g s l ~No. c : r iIW21
r I ~ l . (1!)4:!).
(!141 'I'l~\~:rilrs, 11.: ' 1 ' 1 1 ~ l)ro(111(.lio11 of lift. ~ I I C ~ ( ~ ~ I V I I I I ( 01 ~ I I in(.i(lrn(.c.
II~ .I. lZ.oy. ,\rrn. SOC. 52,
1 I7 l2,f (I!).lH).
1951 'I'lt\~:iit(-s. 11,: l t ~ r r s I i g : ~ l i oinlo ~ ~ sllic rlrrrts of r n n t i n ~ ~ n s11ctio11 t~s ntl In111inarI>ot~n(lary
i:~yvrlion I I I I ~ I ( ' :~<l\.(.rs('
~ I I I . ( * H S I I ~ C ~ gr:~cli(%~it~. ,\I<(' IZRI 2514 (l!l52).
(!)I;\ 'I'lln:titc~s, I(.: 0 1 1 1111. I I I ~ I I I ( . I ~ ~ I Irt111ati011 II~ i l l I : I I I I ~ I I : I ~1)o1111(1:1ry l t ~ y r rIlo!r. ,\ IIP\\- tnrl110~1
of I I I I ~ ~ I : I ~ : I ric
I I I ~r~i~~ l t ~ ion. ~ ~ l ,\; ~l<r l l{hl 2587 (l!)52).
(!)71 '1':1itrI. \'.. :111rl ' l ' i t ~ ~ t i t . ,;\.: h l ~ ~ l t i r o ~ ~ i jI)oi~n<li~ry ) c ) ~ ~ ~ ~lnyrr ~ ~ t cli;~l~:ivtc~risti(.~. L~SCof t l ~ c
r(*f~r(-n(.r st:~lv.1111. , I . 11~~:1t. hlasn 'l-r:~t~s(i.r IS, 123 129 ( l!)i5).
(!)Hi 'I'orcl;~. 'I'. I'.: I l t > ~ ~ ~ ~ tl li :~i~ r y- (ro11tro1
.r 11y (listril)~~lcd s~~rf:tce st~rtionnr injr(.tion. I$il)ar~-
~ ~ ~ ( s tg~-rtvr:~l
rit, so111tio11. , I , hl~illi.1'11~s..72. 312 314 (l!)54).
I!)!)\ 'I'rilling, I,.: '1'11,- i ~ ~ ~ ~ , > ~ ~ i ~l)o1111(1:1ry ~ r t ~ s s il;iyrv l)l(~ wit11 l ) r ~ ~ s s tgr:~rlierit~rv nn(I S I I C ~ ~ ~.Ii\S I I , 17,
:535 :54 I ( I!l50).
1 I I ) I ) I 'l'rit(~l<~~~iI)~otlt. I(,: 1)iv I : ~ I I I ~ I I ~ ~I <C <! ~ ~ I ) I I I I ~ s ~ ~t111 ~ I I rinrr
~ ~ I I I triI\\-eisr i t ~ i t l ~ c n r g t rIiings- n
; ~ l ~ x ( . s t r i i n(*III,III.II
~ l t ~ ~ ~I'li~It(~. ,\l)Il. I ~ ~ : I I I I I s ( : ~ \\'is$. I ~ ~ ~ ~(:rs. . , I , llql l!)5 (l!l52).
( 101 I '1'1 ~ ~ ~ . l i t . ~ ~I+:l. ~: rI oC ~~I Il~inf111.11rst, Niil~t-r~~~~gsvrrfnl~rr~~ ~ 1 1 1 1 1 l $ e r ~ r I ~ n(Icr r n I I I I I I ~ I I ~ T P I I Ilri-
I ~ i ~ ~ ~ ~ s s niil c l ~ .i\cI l) S ~R l I I ~ I Iliors(.I~g. II~. I~lg.-\Ves.22. 147 I57 (1!)5li).
1, llV2l, \ V : I ~ S ~ ~ I . '1'11~ ;isy~nl)toli(~
lC,.l.: . . I11r11ryof I)o1111(1:1ry . IAyrr . Ilo\v wit11 s i ~ r t i o ~r\l<C i. lthl 2610
(l!)52).
1 lo:!I \Vi~.gl~:~rfll. I < . : % I I ~ ~ ( ( T ~ ~ ~ I I I I( 'I1I1 1I ~~ 1 1 ( ~I I I I ( ~ i I r c I i s y ~ ~ i ~ ~ ~ ( ~ t(r~i sr rr~l ~i ~( ~s r l ~ i r lniit i t c nkon-
f i t ~ t ~ i ~ ~ r. l\ iI ,~~Sl:~I I~I~~rI II II I.-. ~~\r1,11.
. 22, :!IN 377 (l!)5$),
( I ( 1 I I '\\'illi:ltlas. .I. : . \ 1,rit.f I.{*\ ivn of Iirilisl~r(.sl,:trc.I~O I I O O I I I I I ~ : Il ~i t~y ~ r(~011lroI for IiigI~lift.. 111:
1:111111,1:11~ 11,)l.r i l l l f l 1111\\ 1~1)1lI1.1)l ( t i . \ ' . I,il~~lll11:~111l. 1.11.). 1 . 74 lo:!, l,0llfll111. l!ll;l.
/I1151 \\'or1 I I I ~ I I I I I . 1". S . : 1'1.o~rrssi t 1 I IIC 11csig11 of 1o\v (Irilg nrrnti~ils.111: I{olln(li~ryInyrr a1111flow
1~1~11Ir01 ( ( : . \.. I,:I(~~IIII:IIIII. (41.). 11. 748 770. I , O I I ~ ~ O I I , l!llil.
 n. Genernl remnrks on the ralculntio~tof non-steady borlndnry Inycrs 400

CIIAPTER XV

Non-steady boundary layers t

The boundary conditions are :
a. Gencrnl remarks nn the cnlc~tlntiottof non-wteady boundary layers

The oxamplos of solut,ions of the honnrlary-layer equations which havc been

consitlareti until now referreti t o stcady mot~ion.'t'hcy arc by far the most important
cases cncountcrctl in pmct,ic:al applicat,ions. Ncvertl~eless,in this chapter we propose
t o consitlnr scvcrxl examples of motions which tlcpcnd o n time, i. e. of non-steady
l ) o ~ ~ n t l aIaynrs.
ry
The most comnlon oxnntplcs of non-stcatly bountlary 1:~yersoccur whcn t h e
motion is slnrted /rom rest or when i t is periodic. When motion is started from rest
bot,l~t1he body antl the fluid havc zero velocities u p t o a certain instant of time.
T h e motion begins a t t h a t instant a n d we can consider either t h a t tJhe body is
tlraggc?d t.hrong11 t.hc fluid a t rest or t h a t t h e h o d s is a t rest a n d t h a t t h e external
fluid motion varies with time. 111 this latter caqe a n initially very thin boundary
layer is formed near t h e body, and the transition from t h e velocity of t h e body t o
t h a t in t.he ext.crn:~lflow takes place across it. Immediatcly after t h e s t a r t of t h e
motion t.ltc flow in the whole fluid space is irrotstional antl potential with t h e excep-
t.ion of a very thin Inyor ncar the body. Tho t,l~icknessof t h e boundary layer increases
with time, and i t is important t o investigat.~a t which instant s ~ p a r a t ~ i o(reverse n I n complete analogy with steady boundary layers, it is possil)lo 1.0 dcrivc. iiltc*grnI
flow) first, occr~rsa s tho I)orintlary 1:~ycrc o r ~ t , i r ~ ~t o~ cbuilt1
s up. One s r ~ c hexample
was :rlrc:atly consitlorccl in Src:. V 4 ; i t was t,he exact solut,ior~of the Navier-Stokes
c q ~ ~ a t i o nfor
s t,he flow noar a wall which is aceelcmted impi~lsivelyfrom rest and
IIerc, 1/,(1) denotcs the velocity of t h c wall il'it is i r ~motion, alltl iJ(z, 1 ) r c l r s t o
t h e non-viscous exbrn:d motion ; the I:lt.t,er is rclat.rc1 t,o ~ , I I ( -prossrlrc by t h e tvll~:~t.iot~,
which follows immediately wllen tllc viscous terms a r c ornitt,ctJ from cvln ( I 5 2).
Generally speaking, i t will be convenient t o choose a syst.rm of c.oortlir~:~t,t.slir~ltcd
with t h e stationary, external flow. As far a s incom~)rossil)lr
Ilows arc? collccrnrtl, t,hrsc.
different systems of coordinates arc eqr~ivalcnt(cf. 1271). 'Vhc tlcfinit,ion of t,hr point
of separation i n non-steady flow is also closely relatcd t o tllc choice of t h e system of
coordinate axes (cf. [33]). Tn what follows we shall consitlcr t h a t separation occurs
a t t h e point where (aulay), vanishes i n a system of coordinates lil11zc.ti with t.11(. solitl
surface.
relations from t8hedifTercntial equations of non-stoatly t ) o ~ l ~ ~ t l ; ~ r y - flows.
l r ~ y c r'l'llcs~.
are :
m

rnovcs in a clircct,ior~p:~rallclt.o itself. Also, the s t a r t of t h e flow in a pipe (See. V 6)

I)elongs t,o thc sanlc category.
P"~rt,hrrcxnn~ltlrsof non-stjcady I)or~rtctary1:~yersoccur when either t,hc body and
m
performs a poriotlic* motion in a fluid at, rrst, or whcn t,he body is a t rest a n d t h e
fluid c-xoc:ut.t-s a ~)criocticmotion. T h e motion of a fluid ncar a wall which oscillates
in its own plnnc: (Srr. V 7) :~ITordsa n example of this t,y~)eof problem.

1. Iln~tndnry-lnycrcquntintis. 'l'hc f~rntlanlcnt~al equations for rion-steady boundary

layers Ilavc already Occn tlcdi~cetlin See. V l l a . I n t11e general case when t h e flow is
c:on~prc:ssil)leant1 iron-st.c:itly I)nt two-tlimcnsional, ,we must resort t o t h e following
for t,ho vcloc*it.y n.rlcl t.rmpcmt~ureficltls (cf. eqns. (12.50a to e)):
ccl~~a.f,ions Here denotes t h e displacement thic:kncss, 6, the momor~t~irn (.hic:knc-ss ant1 O,, t,11ts
cnthnlpy thickness tlcfinccl enrlicr in cclrls. (1:$.74), (1:!.75) r ~ ~ (1:!.77),
~ t l rt-s~)c*c~l.ivc~ly.
.~ - -- Further, t h e quantities U(x, t), q,(x, 1) a n d 17,(x, 1 ) rcfrr t o t h c Sricttionlcss ext,rrt~al
1. I nlll illtlrl,l.rcll.o I'roScssor I<. (:t:r~tcr~ wlio rt:vi~otltliis ollnpbr for tho Piltlt Edit,ion of tliirr flow. I n t h e special case of a stationary flow, we recover t.he relat,ions known t,o 11s
book.
110 XV. Non-~teldybortndnry lrlyers n. General rcmarka on tho calcolntion of non-st.cady boutlclary layrrs 41 1

Srotn cqtts. (13.80) nntl (13.82). Whnn the: flow is itlcomprcssiblc, these relations 3. C. C. Lin's metl~ndfnr periodic exlert~nlflows. At1 all(-rn:ttivr tnrl.llotl 11:~s
simplify t.o: hcetl dcvised by C. C. Lit1 [28J wllo tnotlcllctl i t 011 t l ~ ea~)pro:l(:l~ cnll)loy(:~lFor f l ~ o
B ac~ a st.rttly of t,urbulcrlt flows, t40 bc tlcscribt!tl itt CII:L~. X V l l l . It. (:at1 I)(: 11sc:tl l i ~ r(.II(!
at ( I l d , ) -1 IJ ax 0, -1- ax (IJ2d2) = -4 e '
(15.0) solut,ioti of problems itlvolvitlg pcrioclic tnof.iorls in t.ltc Srco st,rcnn~: ~ l l t l rc,lic$s on
anti forming suitable averages of thc quarlt,itic.suntlcr invrsl.ignt,iot~an(1 0 1 1 a lit~o:triz:~tiott
i I a ad air of t,lrc equation wllicll tlcscribes thc osd\lat.ory c:otnponnnt, of t.11~velocil,y in t,ltc:
1 j J 2 ;,/ ('J2(12) I ( 1 I 3 (rR 53. == 1)01111(1ary I:~yer.011t,lle ot,lt(:r JI:LII~,
I.lt(? fnll (:~rl:tl.iot~\vliicI~(I(>s(:ril)(:sI,lt(: ? I I ~ ( I ) I IIOW
is rct.:linctl.
- --
--

0
1 P (;;jZ
(I!, If 1,Ilr free-s1,rca111vc-loc.il,y[I (s,1) 11:~s ntl oscill:lt,ing c.on~lw,~~c~nt., it, c::w I)(. \\rril.t.rn

\\'llcr~ 1.111: flow is sl.mtly, oqn. (15.9) I)c:cotnrs itlrttl.icnl wilfll oqn. (8.35), \vlt~rc:~s
eqn. wlicrc tllc I)nr clcr~otts:LII avrrrlgo v;~lrlcwi1.h rc:si)c,c:t, 1.0 t.itl11: ov(:r ottv ptsriotl. 1 ICII(.I:
(15.10) t,rn.nsSortns int,o cqn. (8.32). the average of the pcriotlic cornpotlcttt., fJl (z, t), vanisllcs. 'l'lllls
M'c I~cgitt ortr sttltly wiL11 tdrc ~ n n l g s i sof non-rttcncly I)onntl:ary I:~.ycrs i t t a n
it~cotrtprrssil)IoIlltid. SccOion S V f will cor1lf:~insontc sol111.ionsof t,ltc I)o~ll~tl:rry-lnycr
cq~tat.iot~s
for co~n~~rossil)ln non-st.cn.tly flows.

2. Tlln I I I C ~ ~ I #,I'O ~n ~ ~ c c m s i v npproximntinnr.

r 'rile int,cgr:~t.ionof t.ltc nor~-st~c:atl~
l~o11t11In~r-y 1ny1.r o(11t:tt~ions(15.1) t 8 0 (15.3) (:at1 l)c (nrrie(1 ortt, itt I I I O S ~onscs ~ 11y :I, TL(Z,y, t) = T?(x, !/) 1- Tl.,(%,?/,l ) ,
procrss oS s~t(:(!vssiv(:r r ~ ~ ~ ~ r o x i t ~ t : ~1,111: ~ l ~t~t(~t,ltotl
i ~ ~ t t s . 1)cittg l):ts(:tl on t,lt(! roIlo\vit~g I>(:?, ?/, 1) := 6(Z, !/) -1- f I t ( Z , ?/, t ) .
pItysic:~I rc:~sot~ittg: I t 1 1,Itc first. itrst,nnI,, :rll.c:r 1.llc tno1.iot1 11:~tl start,ctl frotn rest., t.lte
p ( x , 1) = ( z ) 1- p1(", 1) ,
1)outttln.r~~ layor is vcry tvllitlnllcl 1.11~viscorts term 11(i?~it,/r3?/2) in cqn. (15.2) is very
In.rgc, n.llerrn.s t . 1 1 ~ronvcct,ivc t,crms rct.aitl l,ltc,ir nortnnl valtlns. Tltc viscotts t.rrni is
t,l\rn I)nlnncotl l ) j ~(.lie notl-st,r:lily arcclcm1,ion r31s/i# 1,ogctltrr wit,l~tile pressure t.crln
in wlric:li, :[I, lirsl.. t,ltc. cotlt.l.il)~lt.ion of alI/ill is of major i~nport~ancc. Selnct.ing n syst,e~n
of roortlinnl,rs \vl~ic.l~ is al, rrst, witlt rcsy)c>c:bt.o 1,Itc: I~otlyarltl assrtming t.I~att.lir ll~titl
tliovrs \villt rc~sl)c%c.l, t,o 1 . 1 1 ~I)orly a t mst-, I\.(. C:I.III I I : I ~1.11~
~ ass~~ml,lion t.l~:~t.
I,he vrlocit,y
is r o n t l ~ 1 ~ 1 ~ 1.1~0
of' ( 1 1.rrtrts

ITttcl(xr lsl~rscc*otltlit.it>ns1.hr first, n.y)~)rositrt:lt.iot~,

it,,, snt.islics t.ltc 1incn.r tliITorct11.inl --
(v111:tt.iotl
But _+_
--
a1
a[',
al 1- UI
ati
,, all,
-1- UI a u , - {I, O.r
-
-
I if]?,
p i'r . (l5.1!))

nntl

\villi (.It(, I P O I I I I ( I : I ~ ~(.ot~tliI~iotlsIL, :- 0 :I.(, y - = O a n t l f ~.-. ~0 w t ?j =m. 'I'lris, boo,

is :I lirtc-:tr c~lt~:~t.iott. I t t :~(l~lil~iotl
1.0 ~ ( ~ I (15.12)
Is. and '(15.13) wc: have tlto eotll.irt~~it,y
rclr~:~t.ion for ir,, I>,, rl.tttl TI.,,v , . 1li~tlc:r-ortlrrnpproxitnat.ions ~ t . us, ~ , . . . cn.n I)c ob-
t:li~tf>tl ~ sitltil:~rtn:lttnrr. 'l'11c s:ltnc n~cl.Ilotlc:bn 1)c n.pplictl t,o t.ltc s1,ritlg of pc,riodic
i t :I,
I~ottt~(I:t.ry I:C~(.I.S. IIo\vcvt:r. 1,Ito (~otnpl(*xil,y ol' t.ltc: t~lrt~liotl
oS R I I O ~ ~ ~ ~ :tpi~rositn:r-
S ~ V O
t iorts itlc.rcv~st-sr:lpiflly :IS Itigltcr n . l ) l ) r o x i t i t n :rrc rol~si(lcrncl.
412 XV. Non strarly I~onndnryI:bycrs a. General remarks on the calculation of non-steady boundary laye 413
'J'ltc c~sont~ial
simplification of t h e theory consists in retaining only the threc under- from t h e outaet. The difference is clearly brought into evidence by tlte appcarancp
linetl tnrrns in ctlrl. (16.22), which is t.hereby linearized and reduces t o of t h e function F ( x , y) ;i t has its origin in the non-linearity of the differcnCial nquatiori.
611, -
-
av, -1- v azu
-2 It will be stated later in Chaps. X V I I I a n d X I X t h a t the essential charao-
at zt ay2
teristic of a steady turbulent stream consists in t h e faet t h a t on the mean velocity
of flow there is superimposed a random, three-tlimcnsional, quasi-periodic oscillat,iol~.
Ry rstimnting ordcls of n~agnit.ntlcit can I)c shown t.liat t h e preceding approximation
ckmscquently, problems involving turhulent frce slrcnms c x l ~ i b i ttlln same featrlrcs
is a valitl ant? if the r:~tioof the so-callcd "ac" boundary-layer thickricss,
a s those being discussed now; they irlvolve changes in direct,ion a s well a s in t h e
magnitude of t h e free-stream velocity I J . Tn most cases i t is crlst,ornsry t,o tlcglcct,
t h e free-stream oscillation and to calculate a s if t h e flow wore st,c:ady :III(I :LR if tllc
potential velocity were given b y 0 (x) instead of lJ (x, t). 'l'his is cclr~ivalcntt o omitting
formrtl wit,l~the frequency n of t h e oscillation, is small comparetl with t h e steady- t h e additional term F ( x , y) in eqn. (15.20) a n d necessarily leads t o a n average velocity
stat.c 1)oundary-layer thickness 0 which would exist if IJ(x, 1 ) were equal t o T J ( s ) . profile which isdiffercnt from ti (x,y). Tho ~)recccling remarks show clearly t.11:~t~tltc order
JIcncc, for tltc approximation t o bc valict we must have in which t h e two operations, averaging ant1 solving idle c:cjn:~l.ions,arc ~~t:rSortr~c:tl is
not imlnatcrial and aKccts t.hc final msult.

4. Expan~ioninto a series when a steady stream is per~~~rbed rliglntly. Vc:ry oftr:~~, ~)r.c)l~lnn~s
in non-steacly bonndary l~iynrsinvolve an c:snonl.ially nfencly flow c r l l \vl~ic:h I,l,t.r~: is n~~l~.ri~t~l,c~srt
a small non-stondy pcrlurbntion. If i l in I L R R I I I I ~lhnl
~~ 1110pcrL~~rI):aLio~~
is RIII:LII t:o1111):ir<:(lwiL11
wltiol~,in ~r;lc!l.icc,rcstrict.~the t,hcory to vcry high frcqllcncics. I t will be recalled thatt the steady basic flow, it is porisiblc In split the cqr~alionsinto a non-linG%r bo~rnclnry-layircquat,ion
t h e quantity a,, cqn. (15.24), occorcd in tlio sol~lt~ion t o t h e problem of a n oscillating for the steady pcrturbetion. A well-known exatr~pleis that for wl~icht . 1 ixternal~ st,rr:l~n11n.s tllo
plate which has been considered in Scc. V a 7. form
Rquatrion (15.23) which is linear a n d related t o the so-called heat-co~itluctio~i U(z,t) = d ( z ) -1 s U,(z,t) + . . . , (15.28)
oqu:~t.ion(6.17) describes t h e oscillating component ul of t h e boundary-layer profile
whcrc E d e n o h a very stnall nntnbcr. T l ~ crnosl itnporL311t~j)oc:i:ll cilst: \\,IICII t . 1 1 ~rstrt.~~:ll pt:r-
arltl can t)c solvctl in terms of the given oscillating component U 1 of t h e potential tarbation is purely harnlonic wa.s st~rdiidixlta~~~iivcly by M. .I. I,igl~t.l~ill127).'I'll(: S : ~ I I I ( \ t , y ~of) ~
flow alone, b c n a ~ ~ st,lic
c process of lincarizat,ion has made i t independent of t h c nlcan linrarizalion can be c111ployecIwhen the i ~ n ~ p c r n le~t ~Lhe
r e wall is rr~~rosc:~~lntl I)J. l.ht: c:xl)rcssio~~
mot.iorl. T h c normal componcnk of t h e flow can be calculated from the equation of
cont.it111it.y(15.1) ivliich can be split into a n average part (z,t)
lTw = pw (z) + E TTw, (z,t) (15.29)

or ~vhenthe wall iknlf performu small, nor,-steady. pcrt.t~rl>ing

rnot.ions (~scill:~ting
1)oclics).
In such cases we start \vilh tlli r~ssnrnl~lion
t.l~:rl t l ~ sol~~t.ion.q
i fi)r t.llc (lyn:~n~it.
:LR \~~cll
as
for the thermal boundary layer nrc of the following fornls:

y,, l ) , n,(x, y, 1) we can rctnrn t o eqn. (15.21)

1l:tving solvotl for t,hc oscillation ? I , ~ ( X
iflie function F ( a , 11) which appears in eqn. (15.20). Tho lattcr now
nricl c:~lcr~lat,e
dcscrihcs tho mean notion d ( z , ?I). 'J'lie postulated forms from eqns. (15.30) arc introdneed into eqns. (16.1) to (15.3) anrl Lho losr~lting
terms are ordcrcd with respect to t.he powers of E. From the rcquirctncnt that, the tlill'ircntial
l t should he rlotctl t h a t t,hc cq~lat~ionfor t h e mean flow, cqn. (15.20). has a expreaaions which mult,iply enell power of s lnuut vanish singly, we obtain a msc:rtlo nf cliffcn.ntinl
form wl~ichis idcnt.ical with Lhc steatly-state version of t h e boundary-layer equation. eq~~ations. We list them for t.he cmc when Q = const, wlicn tthc cxtert~alllow is of 1.11(. (i)rn~of
eqn. (15.28), and lvlren the wall temperature is given by eqn. (15.2:)):
1 ' 1 1 ~only tliirnroncn consist.^ in the a.ppearance of t h e acl(litiona1 term F ( x , y); t,l~is
now plays tfhc same part, a s t,lit: term If . tlV/dz which originates in the pressure gra- Equations for zeroth order (steady bmic How):
clicrit,. Bot,l~tt?rms mprcscnt, known f~ltict,ionsin tlie diffemntial equation. The only
tIifirrric:c consists in tIlc fact t,Iint, t ~ i cmc;cn pfcssure grntlient 17. dIf/(Ix is "irn-
pressc(1" 011 t.hn hor~nclarylayer and is intfcpentlcnt of tlie trsnsvcrse coordinate 11,
wl~crcast.hc :rtldit.ional t,crm F ( z , y) dcpcnds on it,.
Owing t,o 1.11~ existence of oscillatory compont:nt&, the average flow is tliffcrcrit,
from l.hnt. whic.11 woi~lrlbe ol,t,aincd if Llie potential velocity I l ( z , 1 ) were avera.getl
414 XV. Non-st.cncly ho~~r~tlnry
Inycru h. llorlntlnry Inyrr for~nnt,io~i
nltrr i~npr~lsivc
utnrt of rllotiot~ 415

n.it.11 t.110 I)o1111(1nry

rontlit,io~~s 5. Sinlilnr mid ~emi-similnrsolutions. When we strrclictl t,he t,lrcory of' st.rntly,
,J- 0 : 16, -. a, -- 0 ; 7'" = T-'," ),( , two-dimensionel boundary layers (see See. VIIIb), wc clcscri\)otl a s similar tJint,
1, - m: ', .
U" = (7 (z) ; T', = T
class of solrltions for which t h e depcntlenco on the two vnriablcs 3: :~ncly c-or~ltlI,(:
rcdl~cctlt o t h a t on n single variable 71 hy t h e npplicnt,iorr of a sr~iL:~l)lo silnil:~rity
tran~forrnat~iorl. In s.11analogous manner, we say t h a t a solr~t~ion of a iton-steatly
ISq~~ntionn
of firut ortlor (p~srclynon-stcndy):
two-dimensional problem 1)elongs t o the class of similar solutions when tlrc t,llrcc
independent variables x, y, 1 can be reduced t o n single variable TI. 11. Sclir~lt1461ant1
Th. Geis 1101have intlicat,ed all such solutions for which a rctlrrct.ion t o n single v ~ r i n h l c
is possil)lc, t.liat; is, s i ~ c as
l ~ arc of tho form

For example, cxtcrnal flows of the form IJ (z, 1) = mx/L and tlrc cascs when IJ (x, 1) .- (=tn
mentionetl in See. X V c belong to this class. T h e similar solutions for ctrr cxtfrrnnl
st.rcam of tho for111 1J (2, I ) -- x/(n - 1 Ot), whcrc a ancl b a r e cotistn~lt.~, wcrc: : i ~ i : ~ l y ~ c ~ l
by K. T. Yang 1711.
I f a t,ratisformat,ion can he f o ~ ~ nwhiol~
d reduces Lhe tlllrcc indopcndcr~t,vn.rial)lcs
x, y, 1 t o t.uro, we say t h a t the resulting solution is semi-similar [21]. I n particnl:~r,
when tthe vnriablcs are r c t l ~ ~ c etdo y and x/t, t h e solutions arc also called pseutlo-
st,cacly ( r / . 171). A soll1t6on of t h i ~t,ypc was tliscovorctl by 1. Tani I.561 for t,hc (::tsc
wlterr tlrc cxt,crnal flow is given by U (2, 1 ) = ( l o- x/('Z' - - I ) , with 11" and rl' tlonoting
1irx" -1 !z'
dy
_ "' constar1t.s. A wider class of semi-similar solutions W:LS consitlcretl by I f . A. Ilnssar~
[In]; scc also rcf. 1211.
a-..~ ,; . 11,) '7u. -
2
-1. -i'u , -1. au, -1.
I/, -;-.. .
all-2-1.
6. Approxirnnle soli~tior~s.At.t,cnil)t.q 1.0 solve t.11~ c:o~nl)lrt.osrl, of cc[l~:i.t.ionsfor
i'l i\r: ilx OX " .?1/
t h e general case when t h e cxt,ernal flow, I 1 (x, t), is a n arbil,r:~ryfr~r~ction of t . 1 1 ~vnri-
ablcs wor~ltl1r:~tl 1.0 very great. tliCiicrllt.ins. For tsllis rcasoll, one nrrtst, of't.c:n rcsort t,o
approxi~n:~t,c nict,lrocis, for cxalnple t o n.nnlogs of tllc I<:irr~i:i.~r-I'oIill~ar~sc~~ proc:ed~~l.c,
tlisc~rnsctlin Cl~np.X . Srlcl~l,roccclurcs 11n.vc1)ccrr tlcvctlopc:tl in tlct,:ril for incom1rrc.s-
: ~ r y I)y 11. Rrlrr~lr I:.lfi], I,. A . ILozin [J2]. :r.11(1 Ii. '1'.
s i l ~ l r ,rlon-sl.c::itly I ~ o r r ~ ~ t I In.ynrs
Yarrg [72]. Itcfcrcncc 1721 tloals also wil,li t.l~orriial I)ourlcl:~ry Iaycrs. 'rlic irlt,cgr:~l
rclat,ions ~ i v c nin cqris. (15.9) and (15.10) fc~rnr Irrrc t.l~ostarting point. Since t,l~e
proc:css of irrt,cgmting over tile bo~iritlnry-1:i.yr.rt,lli~knossc/in)iti:~t,csonly one vari:~l)lc,
?I, onc is strill Irn, wit.11 n pn.rtin.1 tlilPcmnt.i:il (:qr~:~t.ion.

, .
I Ilr c . q ~ ~ : i t i r ) ~of~ r 11igllc.r
r tirtlrrs I~nvc:corrrupo~~~linp nl.r~lrt~l~rrrt.
'rho prccoding nyst.cl~~n ofrqr~nt~ionn
I.:III I)(* rolvrd o ~ ~:Icl'lcr . I . I I ~ ?ol,l~vr,
it, I~c>i~lg
11ol.t.c1LI~rrttrll, oxccpt tl~oncof zc.rcrt 11 ortlnr. nro 1itlr:rr. \\'r ~ i o wproposc 1.0 n.nnly~(:tllo first ~)liasrsof t,Ir(: 111otionn.ft.c.r it. h:ls I)(TII
I l ocl~~:llior~s (15.1) t o (Ir;.:!) \rrrrct,o j~osscssrsnc-t solutionn of t.he postul.zktl lorn1 (l5.:!0) I I ~ ILo
orilrr cn, t.11r11, g(!~~cr:tIIy
sl)mlting, Hlc sollltiorrs nrrivctl nt hy t,l~cprccrtlir~gscl~c~ne
~vorlldtlill'er st2nrl~c(l froin r(-st,.'l'l~rprol)lc~ncn.rl IN: sitnpIific(1 co~rsi~l(:r:~,l)ly, I I I.
:I.S S I I ~ ~ ( ~ S I ( - IIty
I'roln t.l~r.( * S I L I ' ~sol~lt,io~~
I I ler1118
~ of or(1cr 1 4 1 I I . I3l:~sirrs181, if it, is n.ssr~rnctlt.lint t,he I~otlyis ;lcc:c.lcr:~tctlvc:r.y r:~pitlly,1 . 1 1 ~I l ~ ~ i I,c%ing tl
a t rrst,, or, in o t l ~ c ~wortls,
r t.1in.t if, is st.:lrt,c~tlinlprllsivt-ly. 'I'l~r~s t.ho 1)otl.v :rssrlrr1t.s
i t s fcill \~eloril,y tliscntit.i~lrloc~slyanel t.Itc vrlorit,y r r n ~ n i ~ rc:oltsl.nrtI.
s :if't.c~r.\v;~rcls.
I n tlic sgstcln ofcoortlin:~t.rswlric~llis, :LS nssnrnc-el hcforr. lilrltrtl wil,lr I.l~cI~oely.1.I)(,
pot,c,ntriaI flow is ~lrfinc.ti1)s t,hc cor~tlil.ioris
416 XV. Non-steady boundary layers b. Boundary-layer formation after it~~p~tlsivc
ntnrt or tlrotiot~ 417
where TJ(x) tfcrrotcs t h e potential flow about t h e body i n t h e steady state. I n this with t h e boundary conditions 5, = 5,' = 0 a t 17 = 0, alrrl to' = 1 a t ?I =- oo.
p a r t , i c ~ ~ lcasc
a r we have aU/al = 0, and equation (15.12) of t h e first approximation n C,' is intliratctl in
Equation (15.42) is identical with eqn. (5.21) and tlre s o l ~ ~ t i ofor
hccornt.~sitn pl y eqn. (15.39). The function 5,' is shown plotted in Fig. 15.1.

at
- va2L1,
av1
=(, (15.37) Combining eqn. (15.13) with (15.40) we obtain t h e differential equation for tlre
second approximat,ion C1 ( 9 1 ) in t h e form :
wit,l~11,~ 0 li)r - ~ =0, ; ~ . t r t l ?I,,) = ( J ( x ) for ?J -= m. ' l ~ l ~ etlu;~tion
is is i(lc~rt~ic:~l
wit,l~ C,"' -1- 2 q el" - 4 el' = 4(5.,'2 - ~ O ~ O-" 1) ,
t.Ilat, for one-din~ot~siorrd ltcat contll~ctior~. I t was solved irr See. V 4 for the casc
of a ~~lnt,r, st.;irt,ctl i n ~ ~ ) ~ r l s i vin
cly
its own plirnc, while t,ho lluitl was a t rest a t a large
tlist.:~ncc: frotn it,. It, was t,l~crr possi1)lc to inl.rot11lco a new tlimcnsionlcss varin.l)lc
wit,l~the bounclary contliLions C1 = 5,' = 0 a t 11 -= 0 ant1 [,' = 0 a t 11 -- m. 'I'lro
solrrt,ion tlcrivctl 11y XI. 13l;~siusis:
(sl:iniltrril~yImn,s/orn~,crlion.) :
!I
'l=21/;i. (15.38)

I r r t.lris nl;rnnor w c ol)t,ain t,he solution in t,hc form

IL,(Z, y, 1 ) = U (x) x Cljt(q)= U (z) erf q . (15.39)

'I'his is l,hc first, ;~pproxirnnt,ionbotjh for t.hc two-dimensional and for t h e axi-sym-
~nct.rirnlc:nsc. I'nrt.lrcr, if t.he pot,crrt,ial vn1ocit.y is inclopenclcnt of z , i . c. if TJ =
: (1, :- const (II;rt,plate ;~.t,zero incitloltc:c:), oqn. (15.39) constitr~tcs the exact solution
of ( : ~ I I . (16.2). sinc:c t.hc: c:onvoc:t,ivc t r r m s in ecln. (15.13) vanish together with the
prrssurc t,orm so t , l ~ aTt I , E 0. I Iowcv(:r, t h e solut,ion arrived a t in this way does not
c:onst.it.t~t.c t,he complcta s o l ~ ~ b i ot.on t h e prol)lc~nand applies only sufficiently far down-
st,rc!an~wl~crcthc inflt~atrceof tito ctlge is negligible and where the flow behaves a s if
t.11~: ~)lat,cwcrc infinitely long. St,rict.ly spraking, t h e complete solution must also Fig. 15.1. 'l'llc fttllctions t;l n l ~ t l =
snt.isfy t,hc condibion th:rt ~ ( 0?J,, 1) = 0 for all values of I/ and 1. T h e complct,e solution and t i b For t.llc velocity distribution in tlro
is givc:ll in ref. 1541. 11011st,cndy hortrldnry Inycr, cq~ts.(15.41)
111 tfhc gonrrn,l casc, wl~c:n Llrc external flow Zl(x, 1) tlcpends on t h e space CO- 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 LL 16 1.8 2.0 (15.50). for ilnp~tlsivetrlo(.ion
;&~ltl
Y
ortlin:ktn, i t is Ir(?(:(:ssaryt o make a d i s t i n ~ t between
i ~ ~ ~ t h e two-dimensional and the 7= -
2fi

The function (1' is shown plotted (as funct,ion (I,') in Fig. 15.1. 'I'lrc initial sl01)cs
I. Two-cli,t~enuionnl cnue. Wc shall begin by considrring the two-climrnsiot~al of the two functions, required for the c a l c ~ l a t ~ i oof
n , sci)nrat,ior~
arc given 11.y
c.:tsc. 19,r this r m o wc assllnre a power series in t,imc for t h e stream function ~ t i p u l a t i n g
t,It:rt, it, has t , l ~ t , form

An exact expression for t h e next term of t h e expansion of tlrc stream ftlnolion

itr t,nrms of time was obtxinctl by S. (:oltlst.cin ant1 1,. 1Loserll1r:rd 1141. I<. I<olt:xo
1'31 ~w(:viouslyderived a lcss :~ccuraLcsoll~tio~: when Iro consitlcrctl 1,lro : ~ x i ; ~ l sym-
ly
metrical problem (see succecding section).

.
,I h c clucst.iotr of t , l ~ cposition of t.l~t:110i1rtof scj)ar:t.t.iot~(-;I.II l)c RIISWO~(:~I
the aiti of the second xpproximat,ion. J 11 this corlncxion we shall consi(lcr the c;~scs
wit.11

of t h e circnlar nnd t , l ~ eelliptic cylinder. 'C'hc condit,iot~for the p o i r ~ tof s r p : ~ r a t i o ~ r

is given by ali./ay = 0 for ?/ --- 0, wl~ich loatls t o Iho followitlg cot~tlit~ior~ for t.l~u
~rrs;*rl,irtgt.hrsr cxl)rc-ssions into ccln. (15.12) we obtain t h e ~IiKcrer~t~ial
equatiol: of t,ime of sepn.mt,ion I , :
t III. first approxi~nnt.ion:
5;' -1- 2 '][,,"= o ,
418 XV. Non-slmrly l~orrtr~lnry
Iayrr~

ICc~~t:~Iiort (15.45) : ~ l l o w s11s t,o c-nlrrtl;tt,t: 111~: i t ~ s I . n t ~nf. t , \rlric.lt s r p n r a t . i o ~I)cgins

~ nt n
g i v c . ~ 111:1rc.
~ S c p a r n l , i o t ~occ:rlrs o n l y ilt. p o i ~ l t s\vIrrrc tllI/tl:r is rrc'gntivo. 'I'ltc p o i ~ l t Inserting tho vnlucn from cqnn. (15.47) intorr(n. (I5.45), wr fintl 1.l1at1.l1ct i ~ cln11sq.tl
~ ~ r I I I I I ~ It,lie
o f r:~rlic*sl, sel)nmt,ion occurs n.t a \ll:lcc \vltcrc t,lre : ~ l l s o l t ~ vnlrlc te of tlTJ/tlz in Inrgcst. onset of ucpnrntion is
11, tlors n o t Sollow I.hnt t.his c o i t ~ c i t l r swit.lr 1 . 1 1 ~tlowtist.rr:~tnst,ngnnt,iot~poitlt ns will
I)(. t l t ~ r ~ ~ o rat.(-tl
t r s f o11 t.lrc cxntnplt: of t,l~t:r l 1 i p t . i ~c.ylirltlcr.

I5 x a 111 1) 1 t- . (:i~c~tltrrr!/litctlar

I'or t.lto rirc-t~larcylintlcr of rntlitts 11 i n n strcntn of vrlocity I/,, we o l ~ t ~ i n :

\vllcrr n tlcnot,cs t.llc: arc: ~ ~ l c ~ : r s l ~frrcocm

l t,Itt. ~rpsbrca.mslmgtrnt~iot~ poirrt. 'l'lrc :rl)olrrtc
valtlr of t,llc gmtlic:t~t cllJ/tl.r: I I ~ Rit.s m n x i n t ~ l r nat t1ho tlownst,rcnrn stngnat.iorr ~ ~ o i t l t ,
:rrttl s t ~ ~ ) : ~ r n t .oi~t:rtl-s
i o t ~ at, :I, t.irnc

I'ig. 15.2. I)int,:rtice .q

a s st,rtt fro111 rrltl. (15.45). 'l'llc tlist.nnco covrrctl ~ ~ t ~ scl)nrxtion
t,il begins is R,= 1, I/,, t.ravrrsccl I)y elliptic cy-
st, t.Ir:~t, lirrtlrr r1111.il Llrc: onset of
sr:l'nration in t.hc vnuo
of i~nl~nlsivc? :~.c(.c.l(.r:~t,ion
. I,Ilc. I , o r ~ ~ ~ t l1nyc.r
; ~ r y i t 1 t Irt. ~~c~igl~l,orrrl~ooll of 1 . 1 1 ~do!rnatrc:inr ~ t : ~ g ~ ~ :I ~I Ot ~i IoIof
~t ~:I t.ircrll:lr
fro111red,

t.ylintlr:r II:IH 0t.t.11(.:~l~nli~tt.tl IIJ' I. I ' r o n ~ l n ~I:IiI ~I ~~II(. l l r ~ l ~ r [:)5:i]

~ n o ~for
~ t,lrc r,:i~cof fir~tldcn:~(.(.clt:r-
R I , ~ O I I : t,lit:y n~Ivt.tlt,lre prohlcr~ior) t.11~ Onsi~of t.\rr N ~ ~ ~ ~ i e r -eqllntiolls. ~ t o k c ~ (:I. M. I<ntngiri 125x1.

I,st t.lrc! st~tni-nxmof 1 . 1 1 ~ollilltio cylirrtlcr 11c a and h, :ind Irt k -. 11/n 11n t,licir ratio. t ~ o
s -
The dinhncc 8 t,ravcrscd Ily t,l~ccllipl.ie cylintlcr n ~ ~ t 1,110i l onnc:t. of sc11nr:~t.i1)11, iind fii\w~Ily
1, Urn, is seen plotted in Fig. 15.2 in terrnn o r tlrc rnt.io of t.hr zxcn k - h/rc. 'l'lrc: ~II;L(.(! !rlrt.rr
.sepirr:tLion occurs firnt i# givrn 11y
: I W I I I I I ~ it111
~ :II)CIII~.
t,l~t,ir I ~ ~ U tnnrlt:, so LIr:il. (1. 2 1). 'flrc oqnnI,ion o r I,lrc rllil~nc
rcl~tl,ivcI I I : I ~ I I ~ ~ , I living 4
-ran IIC w r i l , t r ~nn

l l ~ xin
~ 22/1r2 -t !/2/h2 -7

c ~ 6n :111t1 !//h - R ~ I I4. and : \ S S I I I I I ~ I ~t.hnt.

~
I I ~ atrgnlar coordit~ato6,dclir~crl by x/a =
I . I I I L ~ O ~ I I I C ~ tltc
LIIO t:ylin(lnr is ~LartetIirnpt~lnively\vit,lt n vrlocity
, n clircotion parnllcl to t.11~ nxin a, wc aan write for tlic velncit,y ili~Lri1~11t~iotr along the
y, = 0 for P x < ---
3 '

For k = I cqn. (15.48) t,r~~nnfortrr~ inlo cqn. (15.4f;) for 1110(:ironI:ir c:yIit~(lt*r.l!t:git~r~i~~g ~vit,Ir
tlris vnlr~ot11c t i ~ n nL, for tho onset of sc[)nrirl.ion clccrcn~aswill1 ~ I I I : ~ I : : L R ~ I I ~ : k
-7h/tr. I I I I ~ I1.11~.
position of tho point of nepnrntior~move8 Crom t l ~ ccntl of &xisrx t,ow~lrtIn&\I(: nrrtl of nxia b. 111
t.lre litnit D/n -+ m, i.e. b r a plate a t right angles 10 t l ~ etlirrc~tionof notion, wc II:IVC I ,
and !I, - 11. Iirnce the onset of scparat.ion is i~r~~~tctlinl*? for !.Itt? c.:rst: of a fl:lt j>l:lfn ~wrl,c*ntlit.~~inT
10 t.hr rlirrction of rnot,ioti, n.ntl i t tnkea ~llrmc:nt t,l~sctlgc.

'l'lrc format.ion of t.11~bo~lnclnrylrl,yrr on n rol.n.(.iltg c*yIi~ltlrr st.:rrt.rtl i l ~ l l ~ t t I s i \ . t ' l ~

l W. T o l l n ~ i c r i[GO] by n n a n a l o g o u s n~c:t,l~otli l l 11is Goc:131,i~~gc~r!
wns r a l c t ~ l n t ~ r t1)y
420 X V . Non-~l.rntlyI,orlt~clnrylnycrrr b. Ttoundary-layer formation after impul~ivc~ L n r of
t mol,ion 42 1
t.11rsis I,rrsc~nl,rtli n 1924. 111 t,his cnsc sop:~ml,ionis s ~ ~ p p r e s s con
d t h a t side of t,ltc I n accordance with eqn. (15.50) the onset of separation is tlrfincd 1)y t h r contlit ion
t:ylintlc~r\\~ltcrc$
(.It(: t.nnpc~t~t.i:al
vrlorit,y has t.11~
same direction as t.hc velocity of flow. ( B U / ~ ~ Y=) 0~ which
-~ gives
'I'11r 1)roc:ess of n(:ccI~r:at,ionfor an elli1)tic cylindcr a t a n angle of incidence has
\)ern trcnt.c:tl in a j):apcr
t.11~
11.J. 1,ugt 128al. In it,, the aut,hor succeetletl in calculating
rortnat,ior~of t,ht: st.art,ing vort.iccs at. Reynolds nnml)crs in the range R Vd/v = -
Cnzacu lOnl whic:h tliscusses t,llc same problem 1,ut for a flat plate a t an angle of
ant1 M.D.
IT, to 200. Wo w i s l ~to rc:fvr 1.11(? rcntlcr also t,o n ~,npc:r by I). 1)11mit,rcsc:11
or, wiLh tltt: prccctling nuinerical va~rresof C", (0), TI," (0) - [," (0) :tt~tl (,,,"(()),
incitlcncc. Scc also Via. 4.2 for (.he plat.(: a t right angles t o ttlle stream.
2. Axinlly sy~t~tl~ctricnl
prtrl,lcrti. 'I'll(: procrss of l)ountlnry-l;~yt-rfortn:at.ion 1 - 1, [ (1 - ) -1- 0 5 -1J
r tlx
tlr
-
1 =0
a.l)o~~t, :an xial ally syn~n~cl,rica.l I)orly accclcr:~tcd imp~~lsively wa.s iiivcstigatetl by
15. l%oIt,7.(:I!)] it1 ltis (:oct3tingctl t.11osis. We corlsitlcr the 1)onntlary Ia.ycr on n l)otly E. Boltxc calclilated two further terms of the expansion for the .st,rr:ltn fi~nct~ion
of rc.volr~t,ior~ whose s11:~peis tlcfinccl by r ( x ) , Fig. 11.6, and which is set in motion in eqn. (15.49).
at, t - 0. '1'110 accclcrat,ion is impulsive, ant1 the cylintler moves in the tlirection
ofi1.s :tsis. '1'11~ rc~lcvnr~t nilrt:~~l.iortsan: now ccins. (15.2) ant1 (1 1.27b), antl the sol111.ion
(::I.II :rg:lin I,(: rc~)rrsc:~~t,ctl
RS :a slltn of n first, :~pproximat,ion, u,,,antl :I. sccor~tlapproxi- By way of rx:llnplc 15. Bollzc c.ornpt~totl1.110 prorc-ss of I~o~~ttcI:~ry-I:t,yc~r
li)~.tlt:~f
iotl
rn:t.t,iotl. 7, tic-lirlc:tl 1)y cyns. ( I f , .12) anti (IR.1:l) rcspc(:t.ivcIy. in view of the (:11ango(l on :L spl~crcwlriclt is st.artcd in~pulsivclyfrom rest. 1)crtot.inp t,ltc r:ttlilrw of t,ltc sl)I~c-rc.
Torn1 c , l t.lto c.onl,itl~~it,ycvlr~:at,iotlwe it~t.rotlrtc~c x tlifli~rcnt,sLrc:arn f ~ ~ n c t i io~~n~n ,~ c l y by Il ant1 tllc free-stream vclocit,y by I/,, wc Itavc i n t.llis c::~sc

3
r = R sin -5
R
; U (z)= -2- U , sin R
:~ntlwr nssnmr it. t o IIC or t.l~t:form The beginning o r separation now follows from cqn. (l5.52), or

Separation sets in a t the stagnation point down st re an^, i. c. a t a placr whcrc

cos (s/R) = - 1, so t h a t j t s U,/R = 111.873 = 0.635. ' h k i n g into acc-ount the
two further terms of t h e expansion for the stream function calculated by li: Boltze,
.
,I hc. variable 17 l ~ a t.hc
s sarne t n c a ~ ~ i nasg in t,l~ctwo-di~nctisionnlproblem, eqn. (15.38).
we obtain the more accurate value 0.589 for this constant. Tltr~s,the i n s t a ~ ~oft
separation for a sphere started impulsively bccomcs
Tllr rlilFrrrnt,i:al equatiot~for [,rcsolt.ing from cqn. (15.12) is identical with equatiolt
(15.42) for t,ltc two-dimcnsiot~alproblern, as alre:ady mentionccl. F o r t h e sccorld ap-
proxirnat,iort it1 t,Ile expsnsioll in t.crn~sof time we now obtain from eqn. (15.13) tmllc:
following tIiiT~~rcnlrinl cqnations, clefining C,, nrtd i,,:
r
l11c cIistance covered in that, time is s, = U,t, = 0.3!)2 R, or, in ror~rltlfig~rres,
7

40 per cent of the radius of the sphere. The point of separation moves from -- n, +
+
a t first rapidly, and later slowly, towartls m 110' which is its posit.ion ill st,c:;atly
flow, and reaches i t only a f k r a n in fin it,^: tirnc. Pig. 15.3 rcprescnt.~t.11~p:~l.t.c?rt~ of
strr:atnlir~cs antl t h e ~ c l o c i t ~distribut,io~~
y for a n infn:rnictli:rtc inst:~rr(,,wl~ic.ltc:orrcs-
pontls t o a dist,ance of 0.6 R covcrccl by bhc sphere. 'I'his corresponds to :I t . i l ~ ~ ( 01' :
0.6 see, with a ratlius of R = 10 ern (:&bout4 in) ant1 :a vc1ocil.y [I,,, -:10 c:tn/sc.c:
(about 0-33 ftlsec). The streamLines :Lrc scen plott,ctl in Fig. 15.3 in wl~icht l ~ clincnr
scale of the thickness of the boundary layer has been exaggeratctl for tllr sakc of
clarity. For water with v = 0.01 x 10-%n2/scc (about 0.1 x 10-Vt2/scc) t,l~cn~:r.gni-
i o n CIS is itlenttical with t h a t for
'rhi: r c l ~ ~ a t ~ for of the two-dimensional problem, ficntion factor is about 30. The magt~it.~~tlcs of tltc volocit,icx in the? closc:tl vorl.c.x
ant1 the equation for <la was solved r~urncricallyby E. Boltze [9].Thc character of CIS' are very small and the velocity gradient anil the circtllnt,ion a.rc greatest, or~t~sitlc
and tlh'ran be ascertnined from Fig. 15.I . The initial slopc of (11,' is Clb" (0) = 0.169. p =- 0 a t the point of s ~ p a r a t ~ i o n .
t,lit stprc.ztt~linc
422 XV. Notl-st,cndy hoixnd~ryInycrs t:. Bollr~clsry-lnycrforntnt.ion it1 arrrlcratccl n~ot~io~i 423

' I ' I i t ~ ic l t - : ~1izt.t l ~ ~ ~ . o r col'

* s ins1
s :LII t.n.nroi~s:l.~(:rlrri~t.i~n
a.s~ltnle*tlin t,ltt, 11rt'(.rtli1lg
t.ltc-ory is :c gootl :~l)l)rosilt~:tt.io~i to itc~trrnlcases if t,ltc (.inlo of accrlcration is sniall l'lics proccw of bor~n~lnry-lnyrr forlltnlif~nill f,wo-tlintt~~~sio~~:~l Iltlw fi)r t,ltc c m c : ol' ~c~lil'ortrt
c~otnl~:trt~(i wiLI1 t.ltr time whiolt clnpscs I~cforcscpar:~t,iorisct,s in. ncct:lcrnt.ioli of Lllc body Itan bcrll cnlct~lnLcdby 11. 13lnni11a.'l'hc rmitlta arc*vary si~ltil;irto (.llc,nt?
for a n it~il~lllxivc st.nrt,of t.hc ~liot,io~i.
'l'llr ~ ) o k t ~ l . i vrloc*ily
nl of I.lio I ~ ~ c lixy tlow givt.11 i l l 111,:
'1'11~ proc(,ss 01' t 11c. forln:~t,ion01' it Ito~~ntlnr~y I:i,yt,r on n rol.nt,ing tlisli \vas st.r~tliccl form
I)y I < . 11. 'l'liiriot [68] in Ibis tllrsis I,rc~sc.nt~ctl t,o 1 . 1 1 ~ Ul~ivrrsit~y 01' (:ocI,t.ingcn. lit*
cor~sitlt*rt~cl tllo c:nsc of :L clislz a c t : ~ l t ~ ~ ~ ;i ~t nt .lt~~ ~t ll s i ~in ciy
a. flnitl a t rest, t,o n unilbrnl
~ , as t . 1 1 ~c-:lsr of :I. tlislc rot.n.t,ing \vit.Il 1.11c Ilnitl nntl sr~cltlnrlly
:tngttl:~r~ c ~ l o t ~:ISi l .\\rrll
iLrrostt~eIin it.s n10t.iot1.'I1I1t? 111t.intnf.c st,:l.t.c'of rliot.ion For tllc first. case is t,lle soltll,ion
for :c tlislc r o t : ~ t i t ~ing n I l l l i t 1 nt rrsL g i v r l ~I)y \V. (:. (!ocl~lnrlant1 tlisrttssr(I in Snt'. \' 1 1 .
.IIt.Ilrsr:
is :tg:iitt possil)ltxto a%9illltc srries t.t~r111s
: t ~ ~ ~ r n x i ~ n : iI.llon
t i o ~s:lt.isfy
:l ~ f n l ~ c c r s ~n~)])roxi~~tnt.it~ti.
ill ivc giv011I)y rt111.(15.l I).
~ s cqlls. (15.12): ~ r i c l (15.1:)).Ass~~ttlitlg oxl)n11sio11
a
q
o f t.11t: nlrcnrn
:111
f ~ ~ t t t . t i oi lt l~ t c r ~ t i sof t.ir11t: oC IIlr rorlii
'l'l~c final stat.c of rnot,ioti for tllc sccoritl problem is given by tilt? solt~tiondlle t o
(1. 'r. Ijocclcwntlt. :~titltliscrtssctl in Scc. X a . I t cottcerns t l ~ crotation of Lllc fluid
1,otlp over a fixcti plnnc. A gcncmlizatioti of all thesc cases has been discussed by
J<. 11. 'J'hiriot I57J in a fitrt,l~crpaper, w l ~ c n11cconsidered the casc of a disk rotating
wit11 tlic fltritl I~o(lya11d in~prllsivclyncnclcrat,ed, or decclomtctl, so tllat its angular
velocity is cllnngctl by a small cli~antit~y compared with t h a t of tJlc fl~titl.It is note-
wort,Ily tllat x st,nt.ionnry hotlndnrjr layer is tllcn formed in t h e tteigl~honrhood of c ~rlt:rll~r:r Lllo follo\ving clill'crc~nt.ialcqlrntionn for (,(,/)
it, is ~ ~ o x s i l ) lt.o altcl C, ( 8 , ) :
t.11~rotnt,ing tlislz. Tllc dct.ails of t,Itc growth of a l ~ o r ~ n d layer a r ~ on a disk started to'" -t 2 '1 Co" -- 4 5,' = - 4
impitlsivclg were cornl)~lt,ctlby S. I). Nigam 1341. (15.51;)
15. nT. Sp:~rrowant1 ,J. I,. Grcgg [51] solved tllc problem of x disk w l ~ i c lrot.atcs ~
wit.lt a non-1111ifort11 :1,11grilarvclocit,y; (:. R. Illingwort,l~1251 ant1 Y. I). M'stlhwi~[G4]
t,rc:nl.c.cl t.ltc [,rol)lon of t,ltc growt,ll of a Iton~ltleryIaycr on a rottatsing1)ocl.y of rcvollr-
t.iott. 'l'lto cast: considcrctl 11y 11. Wuntlt, [70J,rlalncly tllnt of n ynwccl cylinder acccler-
at,rd i r ~ ~ ~ ) ~ l l s i v~:otist,it~~~t,t?s
cI~v, anot.11cr oxnml~lcof a t,llmc-dirner~siot~al, tion-steady
I ) O I I I I I I R ~lli~ycr.
~ Atltlit.iotia.l solrtt.ions for t.lircc-tlimcnsional, non-stcatly I)or~ntlary
Tor thc funcliott I,,' givrrl by 11. nlasiun is of tho forrtt:
'rl~csoltttio~~
In.ycrs cbnn I)c fo1111t1 in rcsk. 120, 21, 22, 62, anti 631:
W. Wtlcst If,!)] ol)t,ainctl solrrt.ions for tehrcc-ditncnsio~~al rloti-st,catly bouritlnry
layers on l)odics whicl~prrform non-st,cndy tnot,ions a t right angles t o t,llc main
How. One cxsmplo consitlc:rctl was t l ~ : ~of f , a nylincicr in stcntly cross-flow wllicli is lllanir~swan slno able to give n solutiol~for cl' in clonrtl fornl. Tltc illilial ~lopcsw11ic:li sire rrtlllircd
made t,o 11crform axial prriodic oscillntions. Tllc case of a wedge ~ v l ~ i coscillates l~ for tllc calculation of scparntioh nrc:
11nrmonic:nlly in a direct,ioti parallel t.o its leading edge, also considcrctl. contains
as slxbrinl rnsvs tltosc of :I. 11:~l.plat.c and st,ngnnt,ion flow.

T l ~ cheginlril\g of srpnmt,iot~in tllis cmc in givrn 11y rqlr. (LT,.RR), and whnl orlly LIIC first.
two terms of t.he cxpan~ionnrc tlsctl we obtain

of t,,"(O)nil11CI1'(O):
or, witdl 1.11~prccotlinl; nt~nlcrivnlvitl~~cs

1,
,dte .-- - - 2.34.
tlz
424 XV. Non-atearly boundary layers d. Experimental investigation of the starting proeem 125

[Jpon cornparing wit.11 cqn. (l5.45), it in seen that for equal values of dU/dz separation occurs H. Goertler 1151 extended the t,llcoreticnl calcnlation of the proersn of bo~t~idnt~-ln,yc.r for-
rarlirr whrn t.hr n1ot.ion is startrd irnpulnively than whrn the acceleration is uniform. mation during acceleration nssr~niinga potetit,ial flow of tho form IJ(z. t) = u r ( z ) t n , wit,h n = 0,
ll. Illasias mlrtrlnt~rlt.wo fnrthcr tt.rrns of thr t.xpar~sion,and with their aid the eqrlation 1, 2, 3, 4. For n = 0 and n = 1 he obtained the preceding cascs of in~l)r~lsivcar~clrn~iforrnncc.cInm-
for 1, is ohtninrd i r ~Ihr follo\ving ~notliliedfortn: tion respectively. H. Goertler gave explicit expressionn for tile first term in Lhe expn~~sion of t,lic
stream function in powers of time for the vah~esn = 0 to 4. The second t<ertr~ uos cv:~lrlnt,~tt at
the wall toget,lier wit11 its initial slope 80 that tho instant at which scpxrnt,ion brgir~sand t,lle
distance roveretl, e. g. by 11 cylindcr, can Ite con~l~~~tcrl.
In this cnn~~cxioi~
a pnpcr Ijy l:.,I. \Yat.sotl
[65] may also be consulted.
For t . 1 1 ~c.:isc. of :i c,ylin(lrr \vhirh is 111:ioc:tl symtnvt.ricaIly with respect Lo the direction of flow the
last tnrrn v:~~~isl~t*s :I(. Iht. clownsl rc.;un sl.ngr~nLiol~
point, anti we oht:~in

1,2 --
dru = - - - 2.08 . d. Expcriracrr~tnl invesligntinr~of tlrc s:nrti~~gprocess
dl.
,.
1 hc process of honndary-layer form;tl,ion earl 11c st.~~clit:tl \r,il,l~t.11~rticl of I,llo
l s i t cntinot I)(: c*arric-11vcry 1111rc:l1 I)c*,volltl
prcvio~rslycliscnssctl arinl,yl.ic:nl ~ n c t l ~ o tI,~rt
the I)cgitining or se1)arat-ion. 'l'hc flow p:~lt.t:r~r o~rt.si~lc1,11cI~o~rntlnry Iaycr I)c~t~o~nt!s
markctlly ch:cngatl aftcr tell(: onset, of scpnr:~.l.ion,p:~.rt,it!~~l:~.r.ly 0 1 1 tJit- ~ I O I V I I S ( I . ~ ~ : I . I I ~
U ( T ,1) = 1 III(T)- - 2 6 1 sin eitle of 1)lllnt t)odics srlcl~a s :Lc*ira~ll:~r cylint1t:r. (:ot~socltrc-nl.ly,c.;~I(:~~l~~l,iotts I ) : t ~ v c I OII
R'
llic lhcorct,ic;~lprcssr~rcdist,ril)rrlio~i tlcrivotl I'roni pot,cllt,inl 1.lroory give :LII i~~iic.r:~~r:~(,t:
wl~rrr?
h clerlol~:n1.11t: c:ot~st:int:ircrlrration. I-lcnce
rcprescntat,ion of tllc flrrLhcr course? of 1 . 1 1 ~proccss. 'I'llc ~)l~ot,ogr:xj)l~s in I'ig. 15.5
z dw -2b z jllustrntc t h e dcvclopment of t l ~ flow c pntt,crri arour~tla circular cyli~rtlcr.I'igrrrc 1 5 . 5 ~
1 ) - - 2 b sin -;
R dz R-R' sliows t h a t a potcntial frict.ionless flow-pattern tlocs exist tl~rrir~g t,l~cfirst irlst,n.nt.s
aftcr st-arting. Figurc 15.5b represents the ~norncritw h c l ~soparalion l ~ a jlrst, s brg~~r~
'I'ho jboint :I& \vhi(:Ii sc?p:tr:~t,ir)l~
oct:nrs firs1 coincidwi, in this cMo too, with t.hc downstream
st.:ifinnt.ion point. c.03 (1//1) - - I . '1'1111sfrom eqn. (15.58) we ohtain a t t h e tlownstrcam stlagnattion point, ancl in Fig. 1 5 . 5 ~tlic point of sep;~ml,ionII:IS
already moved a considerable distance upst,rea.~n.T h e ~ t ~ r c a n ~ l it n, le~ r o n g lthe ~
point of scpamt,ior~cncloscs a region w l ~ c r ct.l~cflow vclorit,irs il.rc very srn:~ll.'l'l~e
vorlicity is largest orilsitlr t01is st.rcamlinc; it* forrns :c vorlcs shcttt whiclr curls
up a s t h c p t t e r n cor~t.ir~ues
t o tlcvelop ant1 forms t\vo conccntmtctl vortices, Fig. 15.6el.
-
The dist.nnrt! covrrotl hy t-he cylindcr 1111t.ilseparation begins is given hy s = $ b tS2.which then
I,econ~rsn 0.52 11, and is also grcnhr Lhan that for the ewe of impulsive niotton. Theargt~rnent
in See. XVb, concerning the point a t which separation fir& occurs, remains valid in the present
I n the tree stream belrintl thcse vortices i t is possit)lc t o clisccrn the cxistcnt:c! of a
st,agnnt,ion point which coincides with the jrrrlctiori of the two streamli~rcsthrougli
rme. The pattrrn of at,ren.mlit~esfor the case ~tnclerconsideration is given in Fig. 15.4, which is llle points of separation. Fig~rrc15.5e shows t h a t the vortices continnc t o grow. 'I'hey
1,mcd on 131xii11s'swork. This pattern corresponds to time T = 1 1 / bjfi = 1.58, the distance Occolnc ~lnstal)lcwitli t h e course of time icntl are carrictl away frorri lhc: I ~ o d by j~
covered hy the cylintlrr hcing rq~lalto 1.25 R. Ass~ln~ing II = 10 em (about 4 in), b = 0.1 cm/sec2 thc cxt,ernal flow, Fig. I5.5f. 111 t h c stcadyst.atc l h c motion oscillates :~ritl t h e
-
(about 0.04 inlsccz = 04083 ft,/see2),we obtain 11h / =~ 0.1 scc-l, and the time elapsed since the
heginning of th: nlot.ionis 1 15.8 scc. Figure 15.4 shows the shape of the resulting boundary layer,
linear scale having hccn inrrrascd in the satne way as in Pig. 16.3. For water with v = 0.01 x
t,l~&
pressure distril~utionnro~rritltlie botly cliffcrs corisidcrably from t.liaL st1iprrlatcd by
[~otent~ial-flow theory.
10 4 ~nz/sec(aI)o~tt0.1 x lo-' ftz/sec) the linear facf.or is cqllal to abolrt 418. The phenomena untlcr corlsitleratiori hnvc been invostigittcci in morc tletoil
on a circular cylindcr by M. Schwabe 1471, who measured, in particular, tllc pressure
distribution around the cylinder during tlie process of acceleration from rcst.
Pressnre-clistribution curves a r o ~ r n dthe cylinder contour for scvcral phases of ~ I I C
process arc given in Fig. 15.6. T h e distance between t h c cylirrder ant1 t h e stagnation
point in l h c free st.ream 1)cliincl tlie two vortices is clcnotctl l ~ e r cby d. I t is sccn
t,lrat the measured pressure distribution is vcry close to tlrat in potcntial !low in
Fig. 15.4. 15oundary Iaycr on the dowt~stream (.he early stagcs of t h e proccss b u t deviates progressively more from i t a s t,imc a d -
uidc of circnlar cylindcr during start witli vances. H. Rubach 1431 attempted t o dcscribe this type of flow al)out a oire~~l:rr
llniform ~accelornt,ionaftcr t.he heginning of cylintler witti thc aid of potential theory, assurning t h e cxistcncc of two syrnrnct,rical
separntibn (BInsius) point-vortices downstrcam from the l ~ o d ya t a position rorlglrly corresponding to
Vrlorily: ll(l) = b x 1; t * l ~ ain
t JFig. 1 5 . 5 ~ .Tt is, l~owcver,necessary l o remarlc Iiorc t h a t t,hc rcscrnl)l:~nc:o
at
17nt.trr~b ti1r18 T - 1 J6/1i - 1.53 ; l,o n pnttrrn wit11 I.wo R I I C ~ Ivorticcs is only t,rt~nsilory.Vc.1.y c*xl.cnxivc:c : . u ~ ~ t ! ~ ~ i ~ r ~ r ~ ~ ~ l ~ ~
Svpnrxlinn Orat orrulrs nt Ts ;- ls l/iL/n - 1.02 invrst,igations of thc wake formed behind a circular cylindcr in the range of Itoynoltls
nnm1)rrs 5 < R < 40 Iinvc recent,ly been performed by M. Cont,nriccn~~ ant1 R. Ilonartl
 rl. Exprimcnt,nl invcstigntion of tho ~tnrtingprocess 427
420 XV. Non-nl,mdy
[9b, c]; t,he preceding two pnpers cover t,hc steady as well na thc nonstcndy case.
Reference [9c] estnblishes the limits of t,he Rcynolds n11ml)c.r mngo in which t.hr
"twin" vortices, showr~in Figs. 16.6tl c t ~ i t l 16.6c, cnn cxisC n~ltlr~tlhcrc1.0 t.llc%I)otly.
Separation: Thc process of scpnrntion is much morc difficult, to clescrihe in t.hc
case of non-steady lnrninnr boundary layers nntl in the cnsc of moving walls than for
sten<lyflows along n solitl, stationary wnll. 1x1 1.11~
lnttrr casc, srpnrntion is tlctcr~ninrtl
by the simple condition t h a t the shenring stress a t the wall must vanis11: t o =
,u(au/ay)o = 0. It was shown in a paper 1)y W. Srarz~and T1.P. l'rlionis [47n], ns
~ I r r d intimnted
y in earlirr papcrs by P. JC. Moorc [33] nnd N. R o t t [38), thnt in non-'
steady flows separation ocrrlrs when the shearing stress a t a n internal stagnat,ion
point vnnisiles. Thus, for sepration
u = 0 and au/ay = 0 in the interior.
Fig. 15.58 Fig. 15.5b This condition is known a s the Moore-Roll-~S'earscriterion. l'hysicnlly, this condition
describes a blow-up of the laminar 1,onntlary Inycr. Such n ~opnrnt~ing, non-st.c:ntl,y,
two-tlimcnsionnl I)oi~n(I~~,r.yIr~ycr(:xlriI)il,~, I,III> H I L I I I C (!IIII,IVLV~~.I.
I,II 11. ~ ! ( : ~ I , I L ~ (!xI,(*rrl,,
II ~ 11
threc-clin~cnsionnlbountlnry lnycr li)rtr~cclin ~11c:nnglc 1)t:lwc:cn n flat, plr~tc:r i r ~ r l11 H I ~ I I J L I .
body mountcd o n it. In this casc, shown in Pigs. 11.20 and 11.21, Lllc Ilow t'ortrrs n
separation surface; see nlso refs. [47 b, c).
An extensive review on the unsteady flow around blunt bodics with many cx-
cellent flow pictures has been given by S . Taneda [66n].
I n conclusion, i t may be worth mcntioning t h a t thcsc separntion proccsscs
occur on a much reduced scalc in the casc of slcndcr bodics, such ns c. g . slendcr
elliptical cylinders, wllosc Iongar axcs arc p:~rnllcl t20 Lhc dircctior~of Ilow, or or
acrofoils, Consequcr~t~ly,t h e cxpcrimcnt.al pressurc tlistribution around SIICII bodies
agrees, in most raqcs, vrry c l o s c l ~wit-11 t h a t given by potcntinl theory (sco also
Fig. 1 1 1 )

Pig. I5.5d

Fig. 15.6. Prcssl~rrtlrst,ril)l~lion rncn-

srrrcd nronnd a cirrl~lnrrylintlrr tl~trirlg
t,lrr ~tnrtingprocrrm, :hffn.r M. Srllwn-
bc [47]
 X V . Non-str;~dyborltltlary layers c. I'criodic bolrndnry-laycr flows 420
e. Periodic hotrndnry-layer flows with t,he convention t h a t only t h e real parts of thc complrx quantities in cjuestior~
hctve physiral meaning attarhcd t o them. l r ~ t r o t l r ~ r i nng dimrnsionlrss roordinnf,r
1. Oseillnti~tgcylialder in flt~ida t rest. 111orrlor t o givo a n cxarnl)lr of a prriotlio tlcfinrcl by
I,or~ntlary-layer flow n.o now propose t,o calcr~lat~e tphc bonrtdary Iaycr on a botly
whicl~p c r f o r t ~ ~as rcc:il)roc:rt,ing, harmot~ioo~cillat~iorl of smnll amplitrldc in n flrtid
:I{, rvst.. 'l'his is :in (:xI,cnsion of t,11(: proltlnn~of tho I)ol~ndarylayor on a ll:~t~ ~,lnt.o
s 1)I:ino wl~i(:Iiwi1.s :tlrc::lrly tliscrrssotl i l l Soc!. V 7.
~)c\rfortnin,qh:irlnonic ~ s ~ i l l : ~ t , i oinr li1,s :111tl assr~mingt h a t tjhc firsf,approximation t o bl~astream f r ~ n c t i o y,,,,
~ ~ ,is of t , l ~ fornl
r
Tt will 1)c shown in this scotion l,llatt small osrill:~t,ionsof a body in a fl~lida t
rcsL in(lnce c11nmct.crist.ic srconclary flows whosc n:lt.urc is such t h a t a stcnd?/
r~~ot.ion is in~part~etl tto t h e wllolc flrrid in spitre of t h e fact t h a t t h e ntotion of tho
body is p ~ l r c l yperiotlic. EKcct,s of this kind occur, c. g., when d ~ r s tpattcrrls are
and henre
-
s (x, y.t) =v+ u 0 ( 4 i o ( n ) eln1 ,

c-rtrat,ctl in a Knntlt tnbc arid arc of somc importance in acoustics.

Snpposc t11at the l)~t,(-ntiaI v010cit~ytlist,ributfion for t h e cylindrical body wl~ich
wc sl~:l.llnow ronsitlcr is givon by fJ,,(x). '1'11~ 1)otfonl.ialflow in the oaso of periotlic: wr oljtc~infrom cqn. (15.12) t81~cfollowing (lilT~:r(-t~I~irtl
I * ( ~ I I : I . ~ . ~ ~for
) I I (t1(7,):
osc:ill:~l,ionswil,l~n c.irnrll:ar frrclr~cnc.~ 11. is 1.l1or1given I,y
i [,,' (lj"' == i,

\Vc. sltall rtow :tsstrrno :a syst,cn~of roortlinnt,es linltetl w i t l ~t,hc solitl body. 'l'l~us
\rit.h tile b o ~ ~ n t l a rrenditions
sol111ion is
y to - (,,' - O a t 11 -- 0 atttl to'= I :it 11 m. 'I'II(>

c - q ~ ~ (15.1)
s. xntl (15.3) rnny I)e :ipl)lic!tl. 1.110 ~ ~ C S S I I~listriI)r~t,iott
~ C being givcrt I)y Cot = 1 -rxp{-(1 -i)77/J2).
ccln. (16.0). 'I'ho I)o~tntl:lrycondit.io~~s arc: 7~ = 0 for 9 -;
. 0 artti 7~ = IJ for ?j = 00.
p t solvo t.liis prol)lom by t.11~mclhocl whicl~was ltscti
I t is possil)lc to : ~ t t . c n ~ 1.0 Itrvrrting t o tho real n o t a t i o n t we obtain tho functio~l
i r l t,lrc*cttsr: of :tccalcrat,ion from rest,, i. o. 1)s c a l c ~ ~ l a t i r sr~occssivc?
~g approximations
lor I,IIc v ~ ~ l ~ ~ ~ : i l , y - ~ l i function
s l , r i l ~ ~:is~ cI~:fint:(l
t ~ i ~ ~ ~ in
~ oqn. (15.1 I ) :in(l \vit,l~t,hc tiid llo(., y,t) = lJo(x) [em (nt) - c-XI) (-- ,1/1/5)cos (nl - - ,,/1/2) 1 ( I 5 62)
of (:<jtts.(15.12) ant1 (15.13).
n.llic.l~ rcprcsent.~the first a1)proximation tjo the ~ c l o c i l ~ ~ - t l i s t ~ r i't~nct~ior~.
i I , ~ ~ ~ i o'l'lbis
~~
'I'his rnnt.l~otlappc:ars t o 1)c ntlmissihlc if :.
is ~ I I Ps:bmc ~ o l n t ~ i oans t.11at for the oscillatirrg fl:tt. 111nl.c in oclrl. (5.26:~)
If tho second s ~ p p r ~ x i n i a t ~ iicl(x,
o n ?/,1) is now cnl(:~~l:tt.cd
from rclrl. (15.133), i t ,
t oonvcc1,ivc tcrms on the right.-l1:intl sitlc ol.t,hc oclni~t.iot~
is scrn t . l ~ atlic will c~ot~t,ril)~~t.o
- -
Now 11 i)(I/an: 1Jm2/rlwlioro tb ~ C I I O ~ . C aS linc:~rtlimcnsior~o l t,11c I~ocly(e. g. t.hc:
tlintnc.t,c:r of 1.11(: o,ylintlor). On t.hr ot,l~orhancl ~?(l/at (I,,, x ?r, wl~erc(I,, d c n o t c ~
l.vrrns wit.11 cos2 7 t 1. Thcsc, in t ~ r r r ~ can
, bo rctlr~cctl1.0 tcrmx with cos 2 71 t , s i l l 2 71 1
nntl stcntly-sl,at.c, i. c. t,ime-intlrpcndcnt t.orms. 'L'&kittg int.o I L C C O I I I I ~t11csc (:irt:~ltl~-
st.anrc3swe can oxprcss t h e streant frlnctior~of t,11(: src:or~d:rl)~)roxi~nat~ion fhrn~
i l l t,l~r
thr ~ r ~ n x i t n ~

* ao /a;
~ r r ~ of t,hc body. 'l'111rs wo have
vt:lonil,y

81
- urp1
7Id '
:111tl Ilc:llcc
y ~ (x,
, ?I,t ) :--= f: [J,,(x) till" I
clz n
--
-I- (11,(11~
{ ( I ~ ( , , )e2i111 ) ,

'I'l~rI I I : L ~ ~ I I I I Ivrlorit,y
~I (I,, is proport.ior~alt o n x s, where s is the amplitude, so t h a t

' 1 ' 1 1 ~ ~)r<:crtling: t r g ~ ~ t n c shows

nt t , l ~ : ~1.11(:
t ~)ro~)osetln~ct.llotlof solut,ion nlay bc nscd
in r:~s(-swllcn t . 1 1 ~:~tnplit.l~,lo of os(!ill:tt.ion is s p a l l colnj)arcd wit11 t h e clirnensions
or t.llc 1 ~ ~ ~ 1 ~ .
'I'll(: calcrll:iI.ior~ was pcrlitrtnr,tl I,y 11. S(:lllichting 1441 (see also ref. [ S O ] ) .
Sirlac the: tliKcrcnt.i:~.loqt~nt,ionsarc: linwr, it sccnls aorlvenicnt t,o nclopt hcrc lfho
c:ornl)lox not,at.ion :rr~tlt.o write cqn. (15.59) in t,llr form : It ~houlflhc tlol4:tl L1j:~tI~orc.as rlist,itlc:t frorn See.. 1'117, b11r sgslc:r~lol. c.oortlin:llrs is linl<c:tl
will1 tho body; frlrtllrrlnorr, t l ~ rtlitnrt~sior~lossr~oortli~lt~lr 2, tlilli,rs fro111 l.l1:11.usctl Illr*re

U(x,t) - U0(x) elM, 11.y t i ftirtor i 2 .

 XV. Non-utcncly booi~clarylnyers e. I'eriodic ho~~ntlnry-lnyer
flo~su 43 1

whrrr tltc bar ovcr tltc symk~olstlcnotrs the rcspect,ive conjugate complex quantit.ies.
'I'hc nortnnl nntl t,sngcnt.inl c o m p o t i r t ~ tof
, ~ t,ltc prriotlic cor~t.ril)~~t.ion
must vanish
at. t,lto w:~ll, \vhercns : ~ t:L large tlistnnc:c! from it only the tangential component
vanisl~t-s.lPrttt,ir~g11' -- r / l / 2 we ot)t.:~in
i i-l
I ' = - x ( I i) 2 I 1 t 1 ( I I i) I,'] - 3 ?)'rxpl - (1 1 i ) ~ ' .]

ltrgartlirtg t>he steady-stnle cont.riht~tioni t is found t h a t only the bounclary

rontlikions a t t,hc wall can IIC satisfictl, ant1 t h a t a t a large distance from i t is possible
t,o n~:tkc t , l ~ ctnligciit.ial component, finit.0 b u t not zero. T h u s Fig. 15.7. l'n1,tarn of ut~rcnrt~linru l'ig. 15.3. Scconclary flow i n t.110 nt.i~lil,o~lr-
of the fitcnily uccontlnry tnolio~lin llootl of n.11 oac:illnI.ing circ~~ler
c:yli~~clcr.l'llc
Slb'
3
=-; t + 1
-- exp ( - 2 77')
4 4-2 sin 71' cxp ( - 17') -k the nc.igl~I,onrhoodof no osrillnt- cnmorn r~iovcswiL11 t l ~ cylilidor.
c 'l'hr ~rict.n.llic
pnrtpicltxnwllicl~sorvc to rcl~tlrrf . 1 1 ~flo\r. vi-
ing rirc~~lnrt~ylind~r uihlc sl~ow111, n.s wiclc bands owitla tn t,llc
long exposure tilllo nl~clto their rccipror.:~ting
motion, nrtcr Scl~licl~l.itlg (441

'I'hr srrontl npproximat,ion is seen t o rontnirl a strady-st,ab tvrm wliicl~does not Tt is import,nl~tt o notticc hare t h a t tllo first npproxi~nnt,iot~, 11, itt ctltt. (16.62),

vattislt nb a Inrgc tlisLntice from t,hr bocly, i , c . oltkide tho boundary layer. Its magni- shows t,lti~t,t,ltc tliffcrct~t layers in t h e fluid oscillab with clilTcrcnt phase shifts
t.utlr is given 1,y co~npnreclwith tltc forcing oscillations, and t h a t their amplitudes dccrmsc ont.warcls
3 t1U, r c s cxl~il)it.cdhy (.It(: sol~~I.ions
from t,lic wnll. 'I'l~c sn.tnc f ~ a t ~ l ~ were tlisi:~~rtsi~tl
in
u2 (2,00)= --- ( I 5 63) (:ltnp. V. 'l'llc first approximntion, u,, as wcll a s t.he so111t.ionsin Chap. V wi:rc 01)-
4 n '0 dz .
t,ninctl from c1ilh:rcntial eqttntions wl~iclttlitl not, contain the convcct.ivc tnrlns
,.
I itc precetlit~gnrgitnlcr~thas t , l ~Ircl ~ ~its
s t,o t h e remarkable result t h a t a potentrial
flow wItioI~is periotlic with respect to time induces a steady, secondary ('streaming')
mot,iori a t a Inrgc dist.ancc frorn t h e wnll a s a result of viscous forces. Tt,s magnitude,
givrn I3-y rqn. (I5.63), is inrlrl~cntlcntof t.11~viscosit,y. T h e steady-stfate c ~ m p o n c n t ~ I t . m n , t,l~creforc,I)c s t : ~ t c dt.ltnt y-dcpcntlcnt. ~)Itnscshilt.s :rntl arnplitiitles tlrc.:\ging
of t.11~vc~locit,yis s11c11t , l ~ ntlltiil
l 1)nrt.iclcaarc sccrt t o flow in the direction of decreaqing with distance from the wall are cnusctl cxclrrsivcly by the act,iorl of viscosit,y. O n
nnil~lit.ittlcof t h a t component of the potential velocity which is parallel t o tJic wall. t , l ~ other
c hand, in tho second npproxirnat.io11, ul, there appcnrs a t,crrn which is not,
An t~xntnplc:of SIIC~Ia niot,ion, viz. the pnt,t,rrn of streamlines of t.11~stcatly periodic anti which rcprcser~t.~ stcntlg st,maming s r ~ p c r i r n l ~ o sor1
~ l t h e oscilln.t,ory
flow al)o\rt a riroitlnr cylinrlcr which oscillntes in a Llt~itla t rest, is show11 in Fig. 15.7. rnot,ion. Ilcncc, i t can also be st>atcdt , l ~ asccontfary
t flow has its origin in t,l~erort-
I'igt~rc- 15.8 cont.:~it,sa phot,ograpl~of t,hc flow pnttcrn a l ~ o la~cylintler
t which performs vcctive tcrms a n d is due t o tire interaction bct~weeninertia ant1 viscosit.y. TL slto~llrl
a11 oscil1nt.or.y mot,ion i l l a tank fillet1 wit,h urxtrr. 'I'hc camera with which t>hephoto- be i~ornein mind t,Iint simplificat,ions in wlticlt (.he convcct~ivcterms 'tavc I)ccn on~it.t.t~l
grnl>li was t.nltrn iilovctl wit.11 t . 1 1 ~c:ylintlcr nnd t,lic surfz~.ccof t,he water was covcrcci lea~tl1.0 solul,ions whiclt arc frce from strca~itingant1 itlay, thcrcforc, give n rnislcailir~g
\rit,l~fine ~nct.n.llicI,nrt,iclcs which rnrttlcrctl tlte m ~ t ~ i ovisible.
rl Thc particles s l ~ o w rcpresentatio~~ of itlie flow. Streaming docs, in general, appear only wlicn t,ltc? solut.iot~
i ~ pas witlc 1)nrltis in t,hc pict,ltre owing t o the Ivng exposure time ant1 t o their is carrictl t,o a t least the seconct-orcter approximation.
rr!ciproeat.ing ~not.ion.'l'lle fluid partic:lcs flow t,ou~artlsbhe cylinder from above and 'I'hc phenomena under consideration offcr a sirnplc explanat.ion of I<ttntlt,'s
fro111 I~rlow,nntl move nwny in bot>l1tlircrt.iotls pnrxllnl t,o t h e reciprocat.ing motion c l ~ ~patterns
st which are used t o dcmonstratc the cxistgcnt:eof st,:~ndil~g sortnd wnves
of t.hc cylintlrr. 'l'l~is is in good agrccn~rrttwil.lt t,hc I,l~corct,icalpattmn of streamlines in a t,~lhe.TIICso~lndwaves in q~iest~ion arc longit.~~tlittnl onrs nncl t.hr ~ n n x i l r ~of
n
sl~o\vtiin Fig. 15.7. Siniil:~rr)I~d~.ogmpI~s urrrc also I,lll,lisl~cd hy 15. N. Antlradc [I], I.ht.ir nmplittrtlcs arc loc!n.t,t:tl rct. poil~tsof' r n t ~ x i ~ n ~:~ml~lil.t~ilo
tm i l l t,ltc: ~I.:~.t~clit~g
who it\tlrirc.tl st.:~n(lit~gso1111t1
~ : ~ v c s a O o;~I circi~lat
tt. nylintlcr and rcnclcrctl Lhercsulting waves (I'ig. 16.9). Thus a secontlary flow is ir~ducctlin (,he pipe and i b vc1ocit.y
secontlary flow visil)le I)y tlic injectio~lof smokc. near the wall is directed from t,lte point of maximuni amplitude t o the nodcs. A t
 e. I'criotlic botlnt1:try -l;iyrr I l o ~
s 433
432 XV. Non-ntcndy boundary layers

a Iargr rlistat~rcfrom t h e wall t,hc vrlocit,y must, evidently, change sign t o satisfy
tho rot~t~ir~rriLy rcq~lircmcnt,.'Phis intll~c*cs'streaming' effects, t l ~ csl~ift~ing of t l ~ r
part irlrs of c111st,,ancl causes t l ~ r r nt o form lit,t,lc heaps a t tho nodes.
l t is clear from t h e prcc:ctling t1csc:ription th8.t t h e quantity of d u s t used t o
protlucc I Z ~ ~ n tpxt~1,crrls
lt is of grcat i r n p ~ r t ~ a n cAc . large quantity of d u s t will become A cli;igram of this frinct.ior~is seen plotlctl in Fig. 15.10. 'l'l~cc~xj)rrssiott( 1 5.6fi) s l ~ o w s
n.git,.zt30tl; ~ r ~m;ry
t l rc::~c:ll the rc-gior~of i r ~ r ~ oflow r when vil)mtiorls of the tllhe arc t,hat tlcviat,ions bct.wecn t l ~ true
e mean vclocit,y pr.ofilo 77 ;incl tht: q~lnsi-st~c.ntly vc.1oc.il.y
cxc*il,crl.(~or~sc:c~~~c~rlOly it may not, be possil)lc t o cause t h e tl~lst,t o move away from profile 7 ~ , which wonltl cxist if we were t o asslimo F ( J , 11) = 0, tlrl)crld cssnnt.i:llly 011
1,lln p o i ~ ~ tof
. s n i ; ~ x i m ~ ~amplit,r~tlc.
rn If, howcvcr, only a small quantity of i t is taken, t . l ~ can~plit.~tdc
CI, (z) of t,l~coscillation ~ L I 011I ~ i1.s vi~rint.io11tllIl/tl:r: :~.lot~g t,l~rIlo\v. 111
t.110infl~tenc:c:of the flow Ilc:Lr the wall mill t ~ cstrorigcr n.ntl t l ~ cpoints of maximum p:l,rt,io~tl:rr,ovcl~a I;~rgcn~nplitntlcof oscillnt.ion will ~)rorll~c.c: 1111 c:ll:al)gc: i l l (,II(. vc.lot.it..<
nrt~i)lit.~~clc: will soon Itocor~roI'rc:o of c111sl.. 1'rol)lcrns c:or~t~cclatl witah st,cacIy n~ot,ion profile if i t rcrnaitis c o ~ ~ s t a nalong
t t,ltc flow, i. c. il' I / , - c:o~~st.. ICroln t . l ~ t !tli:1gr:1rri
whic:ll :wconlparl.v os(:illatio~~s l ~ a v cI~ccnt,rcntrctl in grcat,cr tlot,ail in publicnt,ions on in l'ig. 16.10 iL cn.n bc tlctlucccl t , l ~ a tllc
t I:~rgostrc~lnl,ivcn~otlilical.ionof 1,111: vc~loc-il.s
;~.c:o~~stic:s,c/. 1081.
profilc occurs near t h e wall, bccausc F(y/d,) 11ns Ll~cInl-gt.s(. V:LIII(: F ( 0 ) - - 1 t.I~rrr.
AII nn:~logorls invrsLign.tior~of t,l~cflow a l ~ o ~al nt axi:illy symmetric ellipsoit1 Sincc tfhcfluid part,iclas nearest t o the wall niovc r~nclrrrrl;~t.ivc~ly sln;~ll;~cc:clr~.;tt ior~s.
w11ic:ll ost:ill;~t,c:snl)ollt its axis of symmct,ry i l l a fltlicl at rcst was carrictl o u t by ~ , I I : I . I I ~ ~I >I ( -S; I V 111c: 1v:111.
1,llcntltlit,ionnl 1)rrsstlrc gr:~tlit:ntwill 1rrotl11c:c:1.111: g~.t:r~tt-st,
A . (:oslr 1171; c / . :tlso I). Iboy 1-40,411.

2. C. C. I,i~l's tlienry of h o r ~ t ~ o ~ oscillntio~is.

~ic section wc:
111 1.111: p~.c~c:t:tlit~g
h:ivo c:orlsitlc.rrtl Ly1)ic:;l.l ox:~~irl)lcs ol' osc.ill;i.lrionsinvolving fluitis a t rest. I'rohlcms
i r ~wllic.l~1,lrc: osc*ill;~t,iot~ is snl)eritnposctl on :L strr:l.~nare t n n r l ~more import.:Lnt in
:~l~l)licn.t~ions, t,o an:~lysc. A certain insigl~tinto this
I J I I ~ . n.lso 1n11c:l1Inorc tlif'lic:~~lt,
t.yl)c: of 1)roc:rss c.:rtl I)(: ol)l,:rinctl witJ~t.ltc :tit1 of (!. (:. 1,in's t l ~ c o r y1281 tlcscril)etl
i l l Soc:. XV;I.

Fig. 15.10. PloL of ttllc f1111ot.io11

F(!//6,,) fro111 cqn. (15.67) for n
(J (:I:, t ) :~= (J) -1- l J l (2:) sin w, t , ( 15.64) single, lisr~nonic component in
t l ~ ccstcrnsl strcam
\vc: ca:trl f i t ~ t l frotn rcln (15.23) t.lla.1. t,hc: osc:illn.t.ing component, of Lllc l o r ~ g i t ~ ~ ~ t l i r ~ n l
vc~loc~il.y 11 is givc.11 I)y

If t l ~ c r cwere a spectrum of harmonics of frrqucncics kt!. (k = 1, 2, . . .), i. c.

for a frcr-stream velocity
I l . is ~~ol.c:wort.l~>~ t,l1;11, l,hc: ~)l~:~.sc: sl~ift,of 1 . 1 1 ~longit,~~tlir~:r.l
~ ) c r t . r ~ r b n tco~nponcnt,
,II,(R.,11, I), \vit.I~rrs~)(:(:t.10 l , l ~ ccxt,rrrln.l flow again clrpcntls on tho t.ransvcrsc co-
io~~ U (x,t) = u ( z ) + Ck U l k(x) sin (klet) , (15.(iH)
orrli~t:rt,r,y. 'I'Itc. t.r:l.nsvcrso ro~nltor~ent,, v, (z, y, t), can hc ol)t,nit~ctlwit,h t l ~ c: l i c l of wc wor~ltlobtain simply
t 3 i ~ c ,r o n t . i t ~ ~ ~rtl~~n.l,iott
il,y (15.27). ant1 it., too, trxl~ibitst h r t:ypic:n.l phase shift. LI:!. 1 : , >
sc:c:~rrotlosl)rc?ssiot~s lijr (:I:, 11. h ) :I.III~ ill (J, 11, t), we can calcr~lirtct,hc apparent pros- y) = C
F (z, 4
k
SII~P gr;~tlic*~~t, l<'(:c.y ) fro111 t:(111. (15.21). 'rl~is~ S S I I I I I P St l ~ rI'ortn

,o, =
434 XV. Non-st,cxcly boundary layers
r. Periodic bountlary-1nyt.r flo\vs 435
F r o m w h a t h a s I ~ e c nsnit1 hefore i t i s clear t , l ~ a t h e position of t h e p o i n t of
Iamirrar s c p a r a t . i o ~is aKcct,ctl b y t h e cxt,ernal osciliat.iona n n d t,hnt t h e p o i n t of
s e p a r a t i o n 1n11st o s r i l l a t , ~it,sclf. Finally, C. (1. I,il~'s mcClrotl lentls t o t , l ~ ev a l r ~ a b l e
- (1 - rn)€@{Ot
c o n r l t ~ s i o nt , l ~ ;t,llr
~ t f ~ r n c l ; ~ ~ n e n Ioscill;tt.io~~
,nI ilrtlrlcrs 11iglrr.r h a r m o n i c s i n t11c b o l ~ n t l a r y -
layer o ~ r i l l n t ~ i o ~ l . with the bonndnry conditiorls
I]=0 : @=* d ,@-0,
3. Extrrnnl llnw with ~tnnll, l~nrlnonicprrturLntins. The c ~ when
c t.hc extcrnnl flow
perfor~nssn~all,hnrn~or~ic oscillnt~ions1111s bcctl tronbed in n nrctnher of publicntions. 'Fhe method y = m : aq=l; @=O.
employed was lhnt of a scrirs cxpnnsior~in t,hr pcrturbntion pnran~etcrdescribed in See. XVn 3.
We nnsnlne t h a t the extcrnnl flow is of t,lle fort11 The precwling clilTcrmt.ixl eqnntions arc, normnlly, aolvcd in t.hc forin of series cxpnn.sior~s.first.
for slnnll vn111esof F nnd then for large vnll~csof F. Asa~llr~ingtl~nt
IJ ( x , 1 ) = Tf (XI - I - rr, (x) ~ ' " l , (15.70)
nncl note t.l~nt,,for it, no st, investigntions rest,rict t,l~c~nselves t o the cnlculnt.ion of t,hc first
s~~proxitnnliot~, , the fnt~ctionsnl,ol, ant1 l', from eqn. (15.30). M. J. I,ighthill [27]
tllxt. i ~ of
f o r ~ ~ ~ r ~ lan
~ r npproxi~nnt.e
tcd rnetl~otlfor tlrc solr~tionof eqn. (15.32) for arbitrary forms of the
ftlnc:t.ion o ( s ) and iJl(s). The particular cnse when bot,h functions can be represented in the for small vnlues of t, we ere lerl to onlinnry dilTerentinl eqnntior~afor tho fttnctions a k ( t / ) nntl
forin of power series ltnn been c.onsirlcred by 1';. Hori [24], wherens N. Ibott and M. I,. Itosen- Or(7). The clerivnlivm a t q = 0 mrvo to cnlculnb 1110sl~enringulrenn n t t.Ite ~ n l IIR
l wt!II IIH 011:
xwcig [3!)1 c~itn~inc~el t.110 C X R I I I ~ ) I O WIIOII the t.wo Ft~nct.ions#(x) nnrl #,(z) nro ui111p1epowers locnl Nnssolt nntntmr. In (.his mnnncr we: csnn clc!rivo Ll~nt,
or r. 'l'llc c?xrltll~)~o of st.;igllat,ioll flow st.lldiccl by kt. I$. (:lnllcrt 1131 nlld N. 1Lot.t [:!)I
as tlrc: Ilow along n Il:lt, plate n t 7,cro inciclcrlre dincnssccl by A. Gosh (171 nnrl S. (:il~bc:l:~lo11 1, 121
oo11s1it.1lt.c s111)-c:nsc.sof t.11~1nt.tc.r. Finally, A. (:tmIl 1171 nncl 1'. (:. Hill ant1 A. 11. Strtlnit~g12.71
pcrforn~edexpcritncnt~nlI I I C : M I I ~ C I ~ C I 011 I ~ ~ non-steady I ~ O I I I I I I : Inyers.
~~~
81s wc?II
I
....
- . - 1" ( 0 ) -1- F eln'
<>,

k-0
tk'DL1 (0) , (1~.8~~)
IS
I

If the oxtcrnnl flow is of the form and that

U (r,t) - csm (1 + E einl) = if (I + 6 ei1I1) (15.71)

then rqns. (l5.:11) It-ael 1x1 I,IIc familiar d ~ ( r r r r ~ ~ trqtlntions

iaI for uin~ilnrsohrtions, C(11lR. (9.8) nnd
(!).Rn), ~~ntnc-ly, Arcortling to 1'. K. Moore 1.711 (am nluo A. (:on11 [17J nntl S. (>il,l)c.lritn 112]), 111c. r:rsc of t.l~c.
flat plntc a t zero incidence is reprcacntcd by the expression:

nntl
with

Asn~~tnir~g
in cqns. (1G.32) that SubstiLlrting n = 0, wo rewvcr tho uasi steady eolution, whicl~sigrlifioa thnt n t every inst,nnt
u, = & ei"' v a , , ( 6 , 7,) , the solution bel~nveslike the s h a d y J u t i o ; for tho instantnneous external veIooity The a penran-
co of an imnginnry term n t n ==! 0 moans t h a t the bonndnry lnyer aulrers n phase shift wit( respect
to the external flow, the shift being diflereut for velocity nnd b~npcmt,r~rc. Wllereas the rnxxirnn
in shearing st,rcsa lcnd the tnnxima in the cxternnl flow (in the litnit n x/IJm -+ CT 1.11~pl~nse
nr~glek n d a to 459, t9hc mnximn in lnmpcrnturo Ing hchintl t.l~rrn(in t.110 linrit, ?l,:r/!~,., - t m~
tho p l t ~ t ennglo tetldn to '30"). 111ntldition, iL turns ont t.l~trtn t Inrgt! VIIIIIOR of n ~ / l l ~t .. 1,1 ~11111pli-
tudc of the ahenring-stsrr*ls oncillntion incrcnaca withont bound, wl~crenst,l~nLor I.l~cI~nnt,l l ~ ~ x
slowly dccnys tm zero na n %/Urn is made t~ incrcnae.
When the solution of the system of eqttntions (15.33) is corricil to second ordor, it is fonnd
wo nrc Ircl 1.0 t.hc following tlilTcrer~l.inlcqnntir~t~n fitnetions a ( € , 7) and O (E, 7):
for t.l~crt~~xilinry thnt tho functions r~,(z.y,t), v,(z,y,l), and l',(z,!/,l) cont,nin n Irnrtnonic pnrt of do~tl~lt: ~~C(~IICII(:~
and n ~upplnmnntnry,a b n d y pnrl wlliclt in inclopontlonl, or 1.itrto. 'l'l~c~ Inl.lr.r ~notlific*~ 1.l1e1 1111sic:
+
fDqqv ,-
nt 1
-- - / en,,, - ( € t 2 71r/')a, -I-
2
~n -1- 1
2
1" @ - ( I - 7n) 1' E QqE 4- flow and cnn I)o i t ~ t c r l ~ r c bRR
the nolutions of tho pmwding section.
t l a secontl~lryflow in coti~lrlnhr111111Iogy ~ . I I I ~ I I I I I I I ( ~ ~i lI l~ ~ I
wi1.11 1.1111t,

+ (1 - m ) / " € @ t + [ .I-2 m = 0 , (15.76) For stagnetion flow, we hnvo Ul(a) = const, anel it in fo~lrltl t.llnl. t.lrnrl u,,o, R I I ~all
higher-order terma vanish, a s demonstrated by M. R. Glnuert [13]. Conneqnently, the basic
436 XV. Non.stmdy bortndnry lnycra e. Periodic bot111dnry-lnycr floe.^ 437
fie)\\- n l ~ g ~ ~ c * r ~ tI)y e ' c It.l~c: t.rr111st t l :1.11c1 i j l rot~stit~l~trs RII exart ROIIIL~OII, one, ~ ) ~ o r ~ o v \vl~irl~
r r , is imposed for different frcqnencies. A full discussion of this ~ q n n t ~ i ofor
n nrl)it.rnry
:~lscrc - s : ~ r , l for I I I ~ ; e~ottl[~l(.L(~ Ntivirr-Stolirs cqllntions ('/. also rvf. [67]). I$y :t ~llit~I110 I.rR114- values of n is somewhat tcdiol~sowing t o tllc prcscncc of t,he Bcsscl ft~nrI,ior~ \vit,Il
f i ~ r t t i : i l i e ~ot ~f v:iri:~l)lrs, t,ltc. lir~*rrcli~~g r:isc c : i t ~ bv I I I : L ~ C tn yield l,lto solt1I~ion8for st,agt~aliot~
IIo\r el11 ; ~ l l first. givct; in rrfs. 11:). 67, 21. A solt~tionfor tlto caso of rill itilitlite
: ~ I I o s c . i l l : t t i ~ \~v ~
n complex argumentr, b u t i,ltc two IimiLirlg cnscs of vory Inrgc nntl vcry stn:lll c.irc:tllnr
ll:it 11I;itt. \ v i t h s~tt,t.iol~ tuicl ~ ~ c . ~ . i c , ~ l irstrr11;~1
c: 'r.
Ilo\v obtninctl hy J. S1.1lnrt1521, ~indnxtcntlecl frcqt~encics,7 t , rcspeot~ivcly prove t o be extremely simple.
IjZ. . I . \\':11sot1[(iO]i n i111 ir~~:ilc.lg rc.l:~tc.elIn, t.l~c: fortl~rr.'l'l~oflotv :blo~lga 1l:lt 11l:~tx: nt zrro i~tcidr~lrr
\\IIIIs(- c ~ s l < ~ r l~l c~~:\ vt lis l~(:rl~~rl~rcl I)? :i tr:~\,t.lli~~g
\V:L\T was l,rr:~trtli l l (l(:I,:til l)y .J. l<rstit~, Expanding the Bcsscl function in n sorirs nntl rct,nil~it~g only i.11~cltint1r:~tia
1'. Is'. Al:~c.tlc~r: I I I ~ 11. ~ 15. \\':IIIC1%(;1.'I'lic: t>:isco f t.I~rr(~-dit~~c:~~siot~:~l IIo\v i n 1,110 11c~ig111~o11r11ootl torrns we ol)tnir~arr cxprc:ssion whic:lt is vn.litl for i , l ~ ccnsc* of w r y snt:lll v:tl~~t.s
or
C I C :L c.iri.~tl:~rc~ylit~tli~r \r l l i c 4 1 e~sc.ill:tt.c~sit1 I.llc tlircrlio~~ of it,s :isis \v:ts solvtrcl by \2'. \Yltrst [6!)]. the tlimensiortless group i n / ; II (vory slow oscill:~i~ions):
I . O ~ i l l : ~ t iflow ~ ~ g111r01igl1 pipc.. 'I'll(: (.:IS(,o f t , l ~ t ?flow of n ll~litli.l~ro~tglt :I
1)il)e. t111tle5rl I t t > ~ I I ~ ~ I I I * I I (01.. ~ S :I. p(lrio(lic 1)rc~ssIlro(liIl'crt~n(~(- :tlT'ortls nttoi,l~(*r
(>X:LIII[)~<:
e l f ; I I I o s c , i l l : ~ i iflow ~ ~ ~ i l l 111~: I I ~ ) I I I I ~ ~ : I ~ ,I:IJYT,
V 'l'l~isi,ypr offlow o(s,cllrs,c. g., 1111dcr
( I I ~ . i t ~ l l ~ t t * l ~ ( aoft . :I, r.t.('il)t.o(.:t.Li~lg I I ~ S ( . ~ I I :III(I
, ils i,Itf?ory\Y:I.S giv011 I I '1'11.
~ St:sI 1481
or, rcturrung t o tllc real notation,
:IIICI S. tJc.ltitl:~(631. It, will ttow 1i(t :LSSIIIIIC(I 1.11:1.t. t.11~pipc is vcry long ant1 circulnr
i t 1 c.ross-sc~t*I~ion. \\'t. sl1:1ll el(.~~ol.t. i.l~oroortlit~:~.i.c: in I,l~otlircc1,ion of i,llc axis of t.llcx
1)il)v l)y ;r, tlvt~oiit~g l.l~t,r:~(Ii:~l (lisi,:~t~(*(- Pro111 it, 11sr. Un(1c:r I,11c prcvio11s nss1111ip1~iorts
I IIV f l c ~ \ \ r n1:I.y I)(, i.nlrr.11 t,o 11c intlt~~~cnclcrtt, of z. W11ct1 t l ~ cnxinl velocity cornportcnt,, The velocity distribution is sccn t o be in phnsr wit11 t h r rxrit ing I)rc,ssurr tlist,ribui.ior~,
o , cvcs:tsc,s 1.0 ( l t l l ) ( ~ l l ( l0 1 1 .r, i.11c o i . l ~ r rv ~ l o c i i . r~o' n ~ ~ ) o n c nmnst t, vanish togct,ltcr wit11 the amplitude being a parnbolic function of tltc nttlius :LS \v:ts tha case i l l sit~:~cly Ilow.
t,ltr: c.o~~vc*c.i.i\~e ~ , ( ~ I . II):rr:~,llvl
(3.36) : I S S I I I I It .~1 ~1 ~Sfor111
IIS 1.0 i.11~t.~il)oaxis. 'I'llus i , l ~ cNavicr-Stolres eq~~at.ioti
Using tlre asymptot ir rxpnnsiori of 1 ltr I3c.ssrl Trr~lrtiott .Io(z)
we obtain nn cxprt.ssion for vcr.y 1:~rgrvnlttrs of 1 / ? ? / 1 1 11:
- 1 ' 2 1 ~2 PI I -I!:

\\.l~ic.his vx:~c.i,:IS il. irt111lic.s no ntltlii,iol~:tlsimplilicnt.inns. 'Thc I)or~ntlnrycondit,ioll

is 1, 0 t i / I :!I, i,It(. \vnll. W r s l ~ : ~nsstltttc?
ll i,ltn.t,t,llr prcsstlrc grnclirt~tcn.ttsetl or, in t,he real notat,ion, (I5.SH)
i)y t11t. 111otiot1ol' i . 1 1 ~1)isiott is l ~ : ~ . r r ~ ~nntl
o n i vis givort 1)y

e
3' = I {
ax
cos nt ,

The second tertn is qllicltly tlnmpctl orlt, :IS tllo tlist,anrc? from t.hr \vn.ll, II - r ,
w l ~ t ~ r/ :I r o n s i ~ : ~ ~I t~. tis,
cie1c~l1oi.r~ . . again, c o ~ ~ v r n i rt o~ ~11sc
t , romplrx notratmionand
incre:~scs,proviclotl t,11at,]'Ti/; R is largr, ( ~ o n s c t j n ~ ~ ~ ~:I.t , I:~rgc
ly tIist,:inr(: ft,e)nt ~ I t r
1-0
,.
1)11t,
wall only t h e first term is imporlnnt; it is scan t.o I)c iritI(~l)c~t~tlt:trt of i.l1:1.1,
tlisi:incc.
lltis sol~lt,ior~
has a form typical for 1)otlntlnry I:~ycrsI)rc.n~tsc:n0 n I:~.rgoclistnt~c*c: frotn
t.llc \?all tho fluid moves as if i t were frict,ionlcss arttl, rnorcovrr, iis ~~ll;tsc:
is sl~il'lvtl
: ~ t i r i l ~i ~t ~l gi~)l~~wic.:ll
signifir:~r~c.c
only l,o t l ~ rrvnl 11:trt. by half n period with respect i,o the rxciting forrr.
A s s n n ~ i ~I.h:11. II:IS t,ll(?form I ~ ( I . I, ) = / ( r ) ei"L,ant1 referring
l g 1.l1~:vc-loc.il,y frtt~ct~ion Tile skctcll in Fig. 15.1 1 r r p r e s r n t , ~t h r veloeit,y profile for nn inic,r~ncvli:tit?
to (,clt~.(I5.S,[), \v(- ol)i,:~ir~i.Itt: follo\ving t l i l l ' i ~ r ~ ~ t ~ t ~ i : ~ l for tJto fnn(:t,ii)ri / ( T I :
rqn:~t,ion freq~lcncy(]/%/; R = 5) of oscillet,ion :hij tlilTcrrnt inst.nni.s of onc ~ ~ r r i o t \\'II(\II l.
a comparison is ~niltlel)ct,wceri t,hc v c l o r i f , profiles
~ anti ~.II(: tli:tgrnm of 1.I1c. v:~ri:~l.ion
of t,Itt>prrssnre gr:uIit:ni, \viI,l~l,i~nt>,
i)loI~i,c~l t , l ~ I)oi,l,ot~~,
r it, (snlt>rgt%s
i,l~:tl,i , l ~ c , llo\v
on t11c axis oP the pipe lags bel~intltlmt in t , l ~ layers c n r a r i.lto w:~ll.I t sllonltl I I V ~toi~otl
t h a t in line wit,h our remarks in t h e preceding scctiott, i,lrc, ~ ~ r c s t soltti.iott~nt is frcc
from secondary flow hecn.use the non-linrar irlcrt,in t,crrns tlitl not npl)c,:tr in t.ltt?
clifferent.ia1 eqnat.ion (15.84). On t l ~ cotllcr l ~ n n ( l ,t,Ilc c.1lnmrtcrist.i~pllnst: sltifts
and antplitutio dccays can be clearly tlisrerr~crl (rf. rrxf. 1271).
The preceding typc of flow was invc~si.igntfctl ~ n lR.
c ~ x p r r i ~ n t ~ t ~ i1)y l y (>. I!ic:l~:~r(l-
iion and JC. 'Tylcr 1371 who mcasrlrctl
- tllc rnc::Ln wii.l~raspc.c:i, l o i.ilnr: of i,11(: vt,loc:ii,y
Ilt.rc: .lo tlc-t~ol.c.sl.11(: Ilc~ssc:l Tt~ttc:l.iot~ of i.It(? first, Itind :1.11(1of zero ort1t:r. Owing i,o 1)e ~ I ( : I I O I , ~ ~ by
~qtl:~.r(:el, CI w 2 . 111 i . 1 1 ~~ : I , S C or r:lsi, e)s~~iII:t~t,ic)t~s t ~ t ~, I ) I , : I ~ I II I . O I I I f s 4 l I l .
1.0 ifllc 1int~n.rit.yof ~ Y I I I . (l5.84), I.11c solni.ions ol)i,ninctl in cqn. (15.86) can bo supcr-
( 15.88) the expression
438 XV. Non-atcndy boundnry inyer~

,IIto
, rortt,c:tn~)ora~ry,first d o v c l ~ > l ~ i n of
r ~ ~stt~~crsotiic:
l, n.c-rotlyttat~iirsc.rc.:tI.c*rl :r
fig. 15.11. Velocity dintri5rtt.ion in growing it~lnrcslin corn~~rcssiblr!,tion-sleo:ctly I~ot~nclnl.y I:~~c?rs. I~onttclaryI:ipt:rs (11'
oacillrd,ing pipe flow at ditTerent ins- this kit~tlarise, for cxnlnplc, Iioliind sl~oclrwaves or cxpnrision tfrtiit~sit1 sltoclc t.ttl~r?r
tnnta of one period, after S. Urhitlo or similar inst.allat.ions nsccl in acrotlynamic rcsonrch. A good ltr~owlotlgeof not)-
[G3]. steady, comprcasiblc boclndary Inycm is nlso rcqt~irctl for the c;llc~tl:rt,ionof t , l ~ c
dm.g ant1 a m o ~ r n tof 11cat transfcrrcd by a fast-moving I~otlyw1tic:lt ma.y 11c tlrcclo-
ml.c:tl or accolc:rxt,ctl i n it8 flight,, ant1 wl~oscs~trf:tccl.ctnl~crnt,~tro tnny v:t.ry wil,lt
t,irt~oowit~gtn :~cro~Iyn:itnic lt(::~l.ittg.111 wl~iit,follows, wo s11:iIl cx:itnit~et,wo si111()1(:
rxnlnplcs of non-stcntly, Inmina.r, con~prcssibloI~olltltla~y 1:tycrs. 'l.'lto first c s : ~ t n l ~ l c
will tlisc:ttss t,hc fortnal.ior~of a I~onritlaryIxyor I ~ c : l t i t t t l n t.r.zvolling, t~orm:tl sltoc:lc
wave. '1'11~ sccoti~lcxatnple will concern it,sclf wiL11 a fl:it plate a t zcro itic:iclont:c
in norl-i~niformmoLion and wit11 a varying surface tempcratr~rc.Rcatlers who wisl~
t o ~ r n d r r t a k cs clcepcr study of IIOII-steady, c o ~ ~ ~ l ~ r c s Is )i lo~~l~o n ~ lI a~ryyc r :I.I.I:
s r(*f~~rr(:(l
i ~gw sl)y 11:. l%(:(:I{(:rI(il :itt(I I(. SI,(:\v:~rI.sort16~1
1.0 l.ltc s ~ t t ~ ~ n ~ : t r irxcivt ~ 1.
Icor t i t ( : s : ~ k col' simplicity, we slt;rll rcxt,ricl o~lrnclvc:~ 1.0 I.ltr: col~sitl(:t.:~l.io~)~ of
a p(:rft,cl g:ts svl~oscspecific 11cnta ant1 I'r:\~~dl,lI I I I I ~ I I I:).re ~ ? ~ c o ~ ~ s t , : ~ ta~l t~. tsl\vI~osc.
viscosity is proport,iorial lo al)solut.c tctnpcraI,~tro ((11 -- 1 in cqn. (I3.4a)). 'l'l~c
I f the distance froni the wall y = R - r is small compareti with t.he pipe mdius R, two-dirnctisior~aldynamic and tl~crtnal 1)ourtdary layers arc now tlct,crtninccl by
t h e mt.io R/r can IIC rcplacctl by unity. 'rhlts, introducing t h c tlirncnsionlcss dist,nnce eqns. ( I 5.1) t o (15.6) togebhcr witit tJlc bonndary conditions listed :&long witit
--
f r o n ~tlic wall q = ( R - r ) 1 / i / 2 Y = y 1 / 4 2 Y , we have t l ~ r l n .Tltc oqual.ioti of contir~uit~y can bc sal.isfictl 11y tltc it~t~rodnct~ion of n sLrcnln
fr~nc.t.iony~(z,!y,l),ant1 the velocit,y cotnponents arc then mlnl,etl to it by Ll~cc q ~ ~ a t ~ i o n s
P(!/)
n 2 = 1 - 2 cos q cxp (-
K212 - 7)-tcxp (- 2 '1) . ( I 5 80)

'I'hr vnrintion of t,I~ismean is seen plot,tc.tl against, in Fig. 15.12. '1'1te maxirnuni
v a l ~ t rdnrs not roit~ci(Ic~ i t ~t l. 1i1 ~axis of t I ~ cpipe (large distanrc), brtt occurs nrar
1.11~wall a t I/ - 1, )/it12 11 r - 2.28. 'I'ltis vnl~ica.grccs very well wit11 rnc?as~trcrnenl
(E. G . I~icl~arclson's137). "ntrn~tlar nKcc:t"). In this connoxion the reatlcr is also
refcrrctl to M . Z. J<rzywoblockils cnlc~llntionsfor compressil~lcfluitis (Cliap. X I [GI]).
Recent,ly I t . R. Icinney a.nd hia collnl~ornt.orcr[26a, b ; 44a] aucccedcd in calculating
the unsteady viscous flow around n lifting aerofoil. Thie includes the process of develop-
n ~ e n oft t,he vort,iccs wltich stmart. a t t,lie Icatling ant1 trailing edges.

I. Ilor~ildnryInycr bcl~ittcln tt~ovingtaorittnl sliock wnvc. 'l'l~n lit,sl. ~~rol,lc.tt~ of

Fig. 15.12. Vnriatiott of t.110 moan wil.lt
rr~pcct,htime of the velocit,y sqltared for
pcrioclic pipe flow (E. G . Ilirl~nrclaoii'r,[37]
"nnnulAr eKect")
i r ~ t ~ r c sist , tlclinctl in Fig. 15.13; it concerns t l ~ cl ~ o ~ r t ~ t l alayer
r y wl1ic.11is for~nccl
bcliintl a norrnnl s l ~ o c kwavc tnoving n1, a cotist,ant vr1ocit.y (1, inlro a lluitl a t mst,
nntl a t n stater:tlcscribetl by t h e sul)script. 0. 'lll~cst,attr of tJlc gas bcltitttl t.l~cs l ~ o c k
\\.nvc, l)nt o r ~ t ~ i dtfhc c bor~ntlnryInyt?r, wilt I)c tlcrtol.rtl Ily tho sttl~cril)t,oo. \Vn s11:~ll
s i t n l ~ l i l j1.111: prol~lrttt 11y ass~tlning1.I1;t.tLhc: l)nr;~ttiel,(-rs
in l,l~noxI,~:rt~:il
IIo\v It('l~in(l
t.l~t?sl~oc~lc wavc arc: i~tdcpcrldcntof n: nntl 1. ?'his is cqnivnlcr~tt,o ~~rgl(:c:t.ing t.11~
clr(:ct of I.lt(: growing 1)ortntlnry 1;ryc:r on t,ltc: cxl.rrnn.l flow w l ~ i c lt~~ i ~ t sl)cl , rst~:c.l,c~tl
t,o nialtc itself felt in a shock tube. I t Lnrt~sout, t,hnt, the? p r o l ~ l o nso fornirtl:~I.rtllratls

"1 1 1 iei----l--~l-
,06
0 tO LO 3.0
-- - -. -
*O
-.
5.0
-
yII,,,' d-i;s lKr9n/e2~ mcnn
rrnm Lhs
n' wall or Lhr
wllll ~ C I O Ppip?;
vt~lorllys q l ~ n r r da t large cllstanrc
C L 10 llzne
rrotn wall
OT Illc
l o n s r t of similar profiles ancl r c d ~ ~ c cits 1.0 ono in td~csitiglc: vn1.ia11lv
440 XV. Non-st.cncly bortntlrrry lnycrs f. Non-steady, cornprr*rsiblo bourttlnry Inyorn 4,ll

whir11 rr1)l:irrs tllr original, three varinblrs z,IJ, t. Assriming t h a t the stream fr~nction
is of t l for111
~ ~ - .--- - - -

(15.93)

Yt 11-shockwave

n) Urn 1,) ' .I (.)

Fig. 15.13. I'ortnntiort of a 1)ortrlclilry I:ryrr Fig. 15.14. i1(*It~~~il,yJ L I I ~ I l~(?ttr[:~rnl,ttr(* i t ~ ~ ~ ~u Y ~ I I S(15,!),l)
~ l i s l ~ r i l : ~ ~ l .1.ro111 , 1 1 t 1 t l (l!;.lOli) i t )

1)chintla ~iortnalnllock wnvr tnovil~gwill1 Ian~innrI)orrncl~rryliryrr Imhillcl n ~ior~r~trl ulioc.lc wrrvc of ~ O I I R I I L I : ~ v(.Ivt.ily,
~ nf1.1.r 11. hlir1.1~
ir vrlocil.y /Is T l ~ ep:tranrctcr /Im/(ls cltnrnctcrizcn tlrc ~l,rctrjil.l~ of 1.11~W R V C

Sec. V n 4) which tlenls wit11 t l ~ imprllsivco shart of n flitt witll. 1 tfis sccn front Pig. 15. I.In
S~tl)sl~it.ttt.ion
of tltc irl)ovn fort11 for tltc: stmatn ft~nc:tion together with the corrcs- t h a t t h e tlticltrless of a boundary lnycr bcllintl n r~orrnnlsltoclr cxcortls t,I1:1t, li)r tltc
1)0110irtgform so-cnllctl IZnylcigh ~)rol)lcm. This mcn.rls 1.11at.I I ~ O I t.11~
I I:LI)SI:
of n c('rt.ni11(,inlt*1 . r / I l , y
T - 7'm0(~l) (15.95) after t l ~ c~):~ss:~gt: of t.11~sl~oclrwave, tPllc borlndary 1:iycr :LL n givcli ~)osil,iot~ 11:~s
grown tJlliclrcr t h a r ~or1 a n i~npulsivclyst$:~rt~ctl p1at.c a f t m t.11~s:tmc 1)t:riotl of t.irnt:
for t.ltt- l ~ ~ t l ~ p ( ~ r :~~lIi.~r ~I .rrci l ~ ~ ~
int1o
l~ioeqrts.
r i (15.1) t o (15.5) allows us t o (lorive the has lapsctl from start,. The opposite is t.rnc for nsp:~nsiotr wi~vos.
folIowinx, ortlinnry tlifTcrent.i:~lrclrrnt,ions for tlrc fl~rlct~ions / ( q ) ant1 0(7]). 'I'11r.s~a r c : ,,
1he s o l ~ t t i o for
~ ~ st,lte lirlcrtr tliffrrcrlt.inl rcl~~:ition (15.97) for 0(?1)~ : L I II)r rrl,rcsrr~(-
cd in t h e form of a linear c*o~nbinationof t,wo basic sollrt.ions, tlrfirlrtl :IS li)llous

Thc frinctions r ( q ) and s ( q ) arc solutions of the following ordinary dini.rc-~~t,ial

equation :

'1'11~: solittiot~sfor I I / I J , . ,--:/ ' ( r l ) rrotn ~ Y I I I .(15.!)(;) i r S~C O ~ I r)lnlttc~li r k lpig. 15.14a.
'Is1r(. r):tr:inirf,vr I r , . , / / l , I;)r t.l~cIiimily of c-rrrvos cKar:tct.crizt:s t,ltc st,rcngtfi of the
sl~ot-li\v:L\.r. 'I'IIo I~igllcs(.~,ossil)lcvnlr~c:for ~J,,./u, is (iJ,,/fJ,),,, = 2 / ( y t I ) ant1 together with t h e boundary conc1it.ions
rot.rt-sl~o~rcIs I,o it11 ittlirlil.c.1y sl,rortg sltnr:lc ; wil.11 = 1.4, t,his yicltls (fJ,,/lIs)t,,,z = 0-83.
N~'g:~.ti\.i- V : I , ~ I I I , S of I ~ , . , / I J(~orr(:s11ontI
S 1,o lit:l.iI.iot~s,11011-st~ra~Iy.
~ o n t ~ i r i l ~cxparisiott
ot~s
I':IIIS.~ Y I C I I irt~:~git~i*tl i ~ i ~ t ~ i ~ ~ ~ in
~ ~ nl ,sit~gl<-
~ t l , t front..
~ ~ l In tile p:~rt~ieitlnrcase W ~ I C I I
I . / - \vt. art. Ivtl t.o t.lln so-c:allrtl 1t:cylt:igll prol)lom (Stokes's first problem,
442 XV. Norl-stcady boundary Isycrs

'I'hc so111t.ionsfor P -= 0.72 have i)crr~plotrt.ctl in Figs. 16.14b ant1 a. The nr~n~ericnl where for cornpression waves (lJ,/lJs >0)
vnlnr r ( 0 ) is x mm.sllrc of t , l ~ crccovory t.empcraturc, TI,, th:rt is, of tlic temperatrrre
a.t.t.11c:s l ~ r f n rof
c nn ntlinl):btficw:~ll.111t,l~is we have O'(0) = 0 , ant1 l ~ c t ~ o e s (=
CRSC:, ?~0 ).
It, follows frorn cclrl. (15.95)) tJiat t,he adinhatic w;rll t,cmpcrature is

ant1 for cxpnnsion uravcs (lI,/lJs < 0)

\Z'hrn P -r I, \vr have r ( 0 ) - I, anti t,hc ntliabatic wall t.cmperatVnre1)rcomcs iden-
tical with the stngn:~tiont c n ~ p r r n t u r rIc/. rcln (13 17)] Wlicn the Prandtl nombcr
of t h r gas difrrrs little from unity, it is possible, according t o H Mirels 1291, t o
rniploy t h r npproxirnnt ion t h a t
r ( 0 ) = P" ,
wit11 The I)o~it~dary-1:~ycr thickness exccccSs t-llo so-nnllctl Itnyloigli v a l ~ i cwl~cnt,hc
a-039- - 0'02 for urn :--
0 (comprcsaion waves) (15.104) wave is cornprcssivc; t.l~iaen11sc.4tlhc s 1 1 0 ~ r i tahrrus, t~ TLIICI
I,II(! ~ k i t ~ . r r i ( : t , (:ot:l'fi(:i(-t~t,
io~~
I -- (U,./Vs) (1.9 t,ho Nt1ssc11, r ~ ~ t l ~ t l )1.0( ! rII(:(.OIIIII XIIIILIII:~ (:ott11)1~rc!(I
wit.l~1.11oir l C ~ ~ y I t : VTLIII(*H.
i ~ l ~ 'I'l~t,
opposita is trlio for c x ~ ) i ~ n s i oW:LVCS. n In t11c spnci:bl c;rsc when P - - I , t.ttc: Ilt::rt.-
0.13 Urn transfer formulae rctl~lccto Chc simplc Itcyriol(ls al~alogy
a: 0.50 -- -
I -j
for
u, < 0 ( c x p r ~ s i o nwaves)

,.
I hns, finally, t h r t,ctnprmt,~lrcd i s t r i l ) ~ ~ t i obecomes,
r~
known t.o tthc rcntlcr a s oqn. (12.55).
r .
1110 precrtling pro blot^^ w l ~ i c lcliscussctl
~ t,hc hont~cl:rry layer brl~itrd n shock
wave of const,ant velocity c o ~ ~ s t ~ i t ,a~nt bidcnlizccl
s special c:rsc in thaL iL call bv
mduccd t.o a stoatly problcm 1)y the fr1i~it.011~ c11oi~cof :L coor(1inato syst,rm in wllic11
the shock wave is at, rest. More genrrxl sol~rt.ior~s of tJic s:rmc proi)lc~nhave beon
trmtctl in t,he worlts of R. 13ccltcr 13, 4, 0, 71 ant1 11. Mircls and .J. I l a m m n r ~[:301.

2. Flnt plnte nt zero incicler~ccwit11 vnriable free-strennl velocity nr~rlsllrfncc

temperat~~rc.In our sc,c:ontl rsatiiplc wc collxitlc~rtlto cotnprcssil)lc I)or~nrl:~r,y Inycr
~ frcc-sbrcnm veloc:itty, 11,(1), a s wcll a s tho tcmpcmt,~lrca t
on a flat platc w l ~ c rt.hr
the surfacr, T,(t), vary in t21tccorlrsc ol't,imc. 'l'hc strc:brn rt~ncl.iony) rrorn cqn. ( 16.90).
a l ~ dthe t~rtnl)cr,zt.nrccIist.ribntiot~

:we now tlctcrminctl 1)y thc ~ q l i a t i o n s

Onrr ngnill. nc.c.o~elil~gto 11. Mirrls [29l, whrn t,Ilc. Prnntltsl n11ml)cr is near to unity,
it, is possiblr t o rrsort to Lhc following approximations:
in which the prnss~lrc-grntlicnttcrrn lixs I)e>crldclotatl. 'rho variablc has I)rcn elc-fir~rd
ill cqn. (15.9l), : L I I ( ~ (I,, anti 7', tl(*nolo the tlcriv:rtivos of ~~C(:-S~,I.~::LIIIv,:lo,'il,.y
R I I ~s\lrface
I t,rmpcri~t.ur(:yitlll rcs~)cct.t o t,inl(:, rc:spc~t,ive:ly. 111 orclcr t,o :rrrivc' :if.
solrrt.ions, the following series cxpnttsions arc post~~lal.ctl :
444 XV. Non-st,mdy 11o11ndnryInyora Itcfcrences 445

T h e t h e o r y of latnillnr, n o n - s t e a d y b o u n d a r y l a y e r s has been dcveloprtl c o ~ l s ~ t- l e ~

a b l y i n t h e l a s t years I n f o r m a t i o n o n t h i s phnac c a n 1 ) fortntl ~ i n t l l r r c volrttnrs of
0 00(71) I P I ~ I ( v )I P z O z ( ~ 1 ) I - . . . I ColbO(q) I ( l ? t , ( ~ ) J - ( ~ ? L ~I ( ~. .) g s . fitst, rtlilrtl Ity 15 A 15icl1rll)rrnttrr, rc%l)otls011 1 1 1 ~
c o n f c r c n r c p r o ~ ~ ( ~ r ( l i t r '1'11~
IU'I'AM S y m p o s i t t m " l t c r e n t R e s e a r c h o n UnsLcady I3ountlary Layers", Qrlc-l~rc1072
rJ zw
- 2c 7 - 7- k ) { S ( r l ) k 1'0"n(7) I- +
~ ~ ( 7 .) . }. (15.117)
[74]. T h e s e c o n d , e d i t e d by R R. K i n n ~ y[75], concerns a symposirtm o n "IJnstcndy
Aerodynamics" held i n I 9 7 5 a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y of Arizona,. l'hc tlrirtl is tlcvotcd t o n n
AGARTI m e c t i n g lrcltl i n 1077 [7BJ. A rcvicw p n p c r fly N l t i l r y m a y also tnct it c o m -
Urn2 parison [37a].
r] = --
22 voo

[I] Ar~dratlc,E.N.: On tho airc~~lnt.ion musotl by t.110 vibr1lt.io11of :rir in 11t.11111..I'rot.. 1111y. St~v.
t" -
(Im ( ) = ( ) . , etc
(15.118)
A 134, 447-470 (1931).
12) Arduini, C.: Strnto lilnite incomprcnail~ilcInrninnro t~cll'int.ornodo1 pnnt,o tli rist.ngtlo t l i 1111
cili~tclroir~tlofi~~ito ouc:illanlo. I,'Aorotnc:nii:l~.I/, :I4 1 :I411 (l!)lil).
etc
[:)I I)cc*kor, I?:.: 1)m AIIW:L(:~IHO~I dcr C~OII~.H(:II~(:II~~ i l l I I I I ~11i11t.c:r (:illor I ~ ~ x ~ I I L I I H ~ ~ I I I H ~ v IIIU.. ~~II~~.
Arcll. 25, 155.- 10:) (1957).
[4] Reckor, E. : lnatntiorliirc Crcnzscl~icl~tcn llintor VarrlicI~tr~~~gsst.iinn(!t~ 11t1t1 I':x~I~IIs~~IIH\v(~II~:II
ZFW 7, 61-73 (1959).
r 7
I h e lwc(:c(ling fortns a r c snl)st,it,~~lntl i n t o t h e d i f k r c t l t i a l c q r t a t i o t ~ sf o r t h e b o u n t l a r y [5J Bccker, E.: Dic lnminnre inkomprcasible Grct~zscl~irl~t nn ritlrr tlr~ral~ I:rr~fr~~tlc \Vrllc~~
Inycr ;~trtlit, is li)rttl(l t h a t , tlrc futlctiotis F ( q ) , /n(tj) , . . . ~ a t ~ i s f y o r d i n a rdiITcrentia1 y deformierten ebenen Wnnd. ZFW 8, 308-310 (1960).
[fi] Bccker, E.: Instationnre Grenzschicl~tenhintrr Vcrclictttr~ngsst,iiaset~ rlt~rlEx~~nnsio~~sa~c~IIet
cclrtnt.iot~s.S o l r t t i o r ~ sf o r tlrcrn wlrcn P .-. 0.72 11avc beerr g i v e n i n refs. [35, 491. Progress in Aero. Sci. I (A. Ferry, D. Kiichc~nnnn,nrld L. I<.Stnrrlc, od.), 104 - 173. Lo11tlo11,
'I'lro f r ~ n c t i o t t sF ( , , ) , O,,(T]) ant1 A'(71) a r c i d e r ~ t i c a lw i t h t h e solutiorls f o r tlre s t e a d y 1901.
.
~wol~lt-1x1 wil.lr CI,., in(.rrl~rc:t,c?tl as tlre itrsl.arrt,aneo~~s vrlocil,y ( q n n s i - s t c a d y flow).
,I Ire rcrn:iinitlg l.c:rt~rs tlcsc:ril)c t.l~c!c l o p : ~ r t ~ t r cfsr o m tlto ( I ~ ~ : ~ ~ i - ~ sl l~~l ~: :t ~f ~diyo t i .
[7j Jlccker, R.: Anwot~dut~g
k o ~ ~ ~ p r o m iI lt ~
r ~l n
c in~~
rlca nt~n~orisnhm
(;rt>nzscI~icl~t,
rc
Fortsctz~tngnverf:rI~r~:t~n
in ~ ~ I I C I Stow\vrllc~~rol~r.
II
[7nl llnrgrr, I<., nnrl Willo, 11.: I'orioclic: flow I I ~ I ~ I I ~ ~ IAIIIIIIIII
nuf tlio ~ ) s o ~ ~ t l o ~ t : ~ ~ t ~ i t t ~ ~
Z I W 10, 138 1.17 (l!lfi2).
I ~ * I I IIZ.c~vi(:\v
L. of I P l l l i ~ l bIt.t.11. . I ,
r
I IIC r:~l,io<)I' 1 . 1 1 ~s l ~ ( * : ~ r i tsl,rt*ss
3
~ , y :it, I,IIc \v:ill, T",, I,(> I,l~:ibfor ( l ~ ~ : i s i - s l , ~ ~I\o\v,
:~(ly :Il3 - 340 (1!)72).
T,,,,?, is giv6.n I)y [R] lflasius, H.: Grenzacl~iclttenin Fliissigkeiten tnit klrincr l<cib~rrlg. Z. hl:rtl~.I'l~ys.5fi. 1 : ) 7
(1908).
[9] Boltze, E.: Grcnzschicl~tenan Rotntionnlriirporn in Fliissigkrit.?~~ nit, kloinor H r i l ~ ~ ~ tllins. lg.
Gottingen 1908.
[Dn] Dumitreacr~,D., and Cnzac~i,M. D.: Tl~corct,iscl~c l ~ t ~rx~tcrirnrt~tnllo
tl 130l.rnrl1t1111gr11 iibcr
dic Striit~rnttgziillcr I'liisaigkciter~ a111cine I'ltrtto bri Itlrit~ot~ I I I I ~ tI t t i I t ~ l c ~l~r~1101~1~7.:t11lr11.
~(:~~
I ~ , m l i o of I ~ c v ~ fbi r ~ x r s :iL tltc wall for P = 0.72 ( c / . 1501) is
( : o r r c ~ s l ~ ) ~ r ( l i r t gI,It(- ZAMM 50, 257-280 (1970).
[Db] Contnncenu, M., nnd Ronard, R.: Expcri~ncnb~l dctcrtr~innt~ion of t l ~ ctnnin frntrtros of the
drscril)rtl I)y
I ,.. viscous flow in tlrc wnkc of a circular cylinder itt nt~ifornltrat~nInt.ion.P a r t 1 : Stct~clyflow.
J F M 79, 231-250 (1977).
[!)GI Contnncen.~,M., and Bounrd, It.: Rxpcrirt~ot~t.nl d e l r r r t ~ ~ i t ~ aof t , i tho
o ~ ~111nit1frnttlrc!~of tho
viscons flow in the wake of R circular cylit~derin ~lniforn~ t,rat~slnt.ion. Plrrt.2: Uttstrntly flo\%,.
JFM 79, 257--272 (1!)77).
[lo] Coin, T ~ I . Jlon~erltr~r~g
: zn dell "iil~nlicl~e~~" innt,nt.io~~iiro~~ 1r1111i111rrtrn (~rot~~~nc:~~ic~~l~nt~
gctl. Z A M M 36, :J!)Ii- :)!I8 (1956).
[ I I] (;il~cllnt,o,S.: SLr:ito 1i111iLo nttorno tic1 I I ~ I :lust,r:b
~ pint~tbi11v(*8t,it,tr(I:& 1111 l l ~ ~ i (il~o~ c ~ o : t ~ l ~ r ( ~ ~ s i
clot.ata di untt vclociti cllc c sonrtnn di rtnri I~nrtcrot1~1:111to o (li nnii pi~rtc:~ i l t t ~ r t t i ~;\(ti t:~.
dclln Accadctr~intlcllc Scictlsc tli Toritlo 89, 180- - 1!)2 (l!)54 I!)55) trncl !)I),I:) 24 (I!l55
1950).
[12] Gibellato, S.: St,rato litnite terrnico at,tort~on utla I:~st,rapi:ttln invcst,it:l dn IIII:I e.or~.(*nto
licvcmcnte p~llsnntedi flr~idoincotnpressibilc. ALti dclln Acc~ntir~llin tlc:llo Srirnzc. t l i 'I'oritlo
91. 152-170 (1!356--1957).
[I:!) ~ l i u c r t M.H.':
, l'lle 1nrni1;nr boutrd:~ry lnycr on oscillnt,it~g~~lnt.c,s :itltl c-ylintl(:rs. ,Jl~'RI I .
\Vltc?rr f,hc tnrt,lrotl jrtst, tl(:s!.ril)ctl is I)c.itrg 11sct1, it, slrortltl b c rcnlizctl, iis l ~ o i t r t c d 97-110 (1956).
[I41 (;ol(lstcin, S.. nntl Ilosc~tl~cntl, I,.: I$o~~t~tl:iry I:~yc:r ~ r e ~ \ v I .I'ro('. l ~ . (!:LIIIII~. I'l~il. So(.. .l'!
o r ~ tI)y I l . 'l'st~ji l(i21. 1.11:iI~1,Irc oxl)rrssions for (,,, ( , , . . . , P I , /I,, . . . :ire, gctror:illy :$!12- .40l (l!):)fi).
s~)(':~liittg, i t ~ I ~ ~ ~ t ~ ~ l ~ even
: ~ ~ ~ for ( l r t ~ ( . fortxrs of I I , ( L ) nncl 7'11,(1). Sot: n.lso the
~ t ~I)~.csc.ril)r.tl [I51 Giirtlcr, 11.: \'c:rtlrii~~g~~~~gn\virk~~t~g (lvr i : r t ~ ~ i ~ ~ :( ~: rn~: n: t ~ x x ~ ~111111l ~ i tI~) rl ~~~l( . l ( \ \ . i ( l t . t . ~ t :1 ~1 1~~~: ~ l .
~I:L~I(.I,b y 1 1 . 1). 1I:trris :I,II(I A . I). Yorttig 1731. Arc-11. 1 4 , ZHli- 305 (1!)44).
440 XV. Non-st,rndy bo~lnclnrylayers
/I61 Oiirt,lcr, 11.: (:rct~~sc~hiol~tc~~t~t~:l~~lng nn Zylindern bei Anfiahrt nrls (lor Ituhe. Arch. (I.
Math. I. 1:IX---147 (1!)4H). (39:l.J Il.ot,l..N.: 'rl~eoryof t i ~ ~ ~ o - d c ~ p rIntnil~nr
~ ~ t l c t flow.
~t I'ri~~col.ot~ IJ~~ivemit~v Srrirx. IligI~Sl~ortl
(171 (:osl~. A,: (7ont.ril1ut.io11A I'6b11clo dc In cor~rlrelinlik lnrninnire inst,nt.ion~~:~irc. I~t~l~lirnt.ions Aorodyt~nlniosant1 ,Jot Prnp~rlsion.I'rincct.on University Pros, Vol. i If. :)!)5 - 438 (ll)li4).
Scicntifiq~trsr t ' ~ ' ~ C I I ~ I ~ ((111 ~ I IMi~xistAro
C~ de l'Air NO. :$HI (1961). [40] Roy, D.: Non-~tendyperiodic hor~ntlnryInyrr. .I. Appl. Mrrt.11. P11ys. 12, :lti:l-- :SO6 (I9iil).
[IS] (iribhrn, It. .I. : 'Pilo Intnin:lr I~or~ntl:~ry lnyer on n I~okcylinrler fixer1 in n flr~ct,r~nt,i~~g st,mnm. [41] Roy, I).: 01% t.he non-rrkady hoontlnry layer. ZAMM 42, 252-256 (lO(i2).
J . AppI. Mr.rh. 28, :%:<!) -- 340 (l!)<il). 1421 Jbonin. I,.A.: An npproxitnnt.ion ~nct,l~otl for the integrnt,ior~I I t.11~ ~ cq~lnl.ior~s of :a IIOII-
[I!)( Ilnsn:in, II.i\.: 0 1 1 I I I I ~ ~ C : Intnin:ir I ~ ~ ho~n~tliiry lnycrs. .ll'lM I) . --:104 (I!)(iO): see nlso
:%OO st,:~t,io~~sry lnrlli~~ar I)onn(Inry I:tycr i t 1 an i ~ ~ c ! o ~ n p r c ~fl~~itl.
~ i I ~ NASA
le 'I'cchtl. '1'r:~nnl. 22
J A S S 27, 474 --476 (I!)fiO). I wn)
1\.. ".,,.
[20( 11:1ynsi, N.: On si111i1:irso111tit111s of the I I I I S I C : I ~ ~ I ~q~~:~qi-t\vo.(li~~rc~~sit~t~:il inco~n~~rcssiblc (431 Jl,~~bncll, H.: Uber die F,ntAbh~~ng r ~ n dVort.bcweg~lr~g des Wirl,olpn:lrcs I~cinylirrtlrisc:l~e~l
1n111in:irl ~ o ~ ~ ~ ~ ( l : ~ . rrqn:tI,iot~s. y - l : ~ y e r ,I. l'11.y~.S o c ~J:I[):~III6, 2:%l(i--2:<2!) (l!)lil). Kijrpern. Diss. (:Bt,l.ingcn 1!)14: VDI -For~chung~llrI(, 185 ( I!l16).
(21 ] Il~aynsi,N.: 0 1 1 n(:t~~i-si~niI:~r sol~~tionn of 1,111: ~~nst.r:arIy q ~ ~ : ~ . ~ i . t , \ v o - i l i ~ ~ ~ ir~
~ i~riosni o~n~n) rl r s s i l ~ I c [44] Srl~lic*I~Lir~g, H.: Uorechnnng cl~encrpcriodiocl~cr(:renzsc:l~irl~t~triit~~~~~lgt:t~. I'l~ys. %. 33.
Inn~inarI~o~~n~lnry-ln.yor eqnnl.inns. .I. I'l~ys. Soc*.Jn11:un 17, 1!)4 -20:1 (l!)(i2). :197 --- !mi1, I.n:tm
...,- ,.
(221 Iln.ynai, N. : 0 1 1 t.l~e:~plrroxinrnlas ~ ~ l ~ ~oft ~ t.11~
i o~n~ ~ ~ s t rqi t~t ~l y~ ~ i - t \ \ ~ o - t l i ~~~I ~I Pc~ :I ~I I~~ ~~ i( ?r U~ -t ~ n l (44nJ S n l ~ ~ t ~ nIf.l lA,,
, nntl Kinncy, It. 15.: N ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ cst,t~tl,y r i c : i lof IIIIR~A.:IC~Y V ~ R C ~ I flo\v
IR 1):1st.n lil(.tnp
siblc I:~.tnin:~rI~o~~r~cInr~-I:i?/or eql~n.t.ions..I. I'l~ys.SOC., J I I I I ~17, I I 203 -212 (l!)li2). plntc. AIAA %J. 1%. l560.--1573 (l!)74).
[2:<\ Ilill. I'.(:., 0.11cl Stcnning, A.11.: I,nn~innrI~or~nclnry l n y e r ~in oscillntory flow. ,J. Rnnic [45] Schnh, H.: Cnloulnt~iotiof rln~tendy1)orlndnry l n y c r ~in two-cli~nc~~sion:rI I:LIII~II:I~ flow. %lp\V
JCII~ $2,~ .nn:, cioa ( I!)c;o). 1 ,. .
. 122-1x1
-- ,- . ...,.
- .- iI!I!i:lI
(241 llori, 15.: llnstcntly bo~tncl:rry lnycrs (4 rrporb). 13ullct,inof JSh11S 4, 664---671(1961); li, [46J Scl~tth,H.: Oher die "Rl~t~lichen"Iiisu~lge~r (lor instnt,ioniircn lntninnrcn G r e n ~ . s ~ I ~ i ~ ~ l ~ t -
57 -ti4 (l!)l;2): 5, 64--72 (1!)62); 5, 4(il- -470 (1!)62). glciclirlngen in inkomprco~iblcrSt.riit1111ng.lqifty yonrR of I~o~~t~tlnr.y-lr~.yt~r rt.nc.~irt-lt (11.
125) Illing\vort.l~, (:. It.: Ronntlxry lnycr prowl.l~ ~ I :an~,inning
I I~ocly.I'l~il.hhg. .I5 (7). 1 H (1954).-
(:ijrt.lor nnrl \V. 'J'olltnic:~~,etl.), I~rnt~~~cral~wcig, 147- - 152,.
(25nl Knkgiri, M.: U ~ ~ ~ t mhounclnry-lnycr cly flows ~+nst. nn i~~\l)\tl~ively st.nrted c,ircrrlnr cylinder. (471 Scl~wnbe,M.: Ubcr I ) r r ~ c : k n r l ~ ~ i t . ifl.l l dt:r
~ ~ ~ ~~g~ i c l ~ t ~ k i t i c~tr~~ci ti~rStoi:~.~r~~
i i t ~ ~ ~I ~) i tr ln~~. (:iiI..
.
J . I ' I I ~ R . Sor. .I:rpn.n 40, 1171 1177 (1!)7(i). ~ ~ I I KI (!):J5;
~ I , lng. -Art:h. fi, 34 -50 (l!l:l5); NACA 'VhI lo:!!) ( l!)4:!).
(21;1 l<c*nt,ill,.I., hl:l~drr.1.. I?.. nrl,I \ V : I I ~W. ~ . lC. : On 11o1111dary Inyen assoriatatl 1vitl1osrillnting [47nl Smrs. W. Jb.. nnd 'Pelionis, I).P.: Ilonndnry layer ~opnrnf.ionin nn~lcnclyIlolrf. S l Ah! .I.
xl.rt-iltns. r l l ~ j ~Svi. l . J1.c.s. A 10, I 22 (l!)(il). . . Mntl~.28. 215-235 0!)75\.
AIIIII. . ,
[47b] Tclionis, 1). I)., nr~d'I'snllnlis, I).'I'Ir.: Unnkrir1.y tnrbr~lontbo~~ntlnry In.yc:rn at~tlae(?1)~rnt.i011.
~

(2(i:r] I<innt:y, It.. I%.,:ind Cirlnlc. Z.M.: At~nlysisof ~~nst,c:rcly visro118flow pasf, nn nirfoil. l'nrt I: AlAA -1. 1 4 , 408-474 (1!)7(3).
'J'hcorctit::~ltk:vclopn~ct~ta. AlAA .I. 15. 1712- 1717 (1!)77); I'nrt 11 : N~~~nc:ricnl fonnulntion
(47cl 'I:snlinli~,J).TII.: l,nn~innrI~ocintlnry-layer urp:lrnt.iot~frotn nn nl)ot,rrn~\\ tr~ovingwrll. A1 AA
ar~tlrt!s~tlla.A I AA .I. 16. 106- - 1 10 (1!)78): st!(: nlso: AGAlZ.1) C. 1'. 227, 2i;/l to 26/14 (IU78). J . 15,501 -506 (1075).
(27 ( I,igIiLl~ill,M . ,I.: 'l'ho rcs1,onse of 1nlnin:tr skin frictinn and hcnt tmnsfcr t,o Ilr~ctr~ntions in [48] Sexl, Th. : v b e r den von E. G . R i c l ~ n r d s ocntdecktcn ~~ "Annnlnreffckt". Z. Phys. (i1. 349
t.l~enbrcnt~~ vclocil,y. I'roc:. Itoy. Soc. A 22.1, 1-23 (1954). (1930); see n l ~ o Tollmien,
: W.: Hnndh~lchder Exper. Pl~yaikI 1', Part. I. 281-- 282 (1!):11).
1281 l,in, (:.C.: h1ol.ion i l l bl~chountlnry In.yc?r ~c-idl~ n rnpiclly osc.illnting externel flow. I'roc. 9th I491 Spnrrow, E.M., nnd Gregg, J.L.: Nonstcndy nnl-mcc tc~nprrnt~tre eni.c:tn on forced cotl-
I n t ~ r n (longrr-9s
. Appl. hfcch. Rrt~ssrlsI!M7, 4. 155- 167. vectiotr hest, transfer. J A S 24, 770-777 (1957).
128:1] l,ngt., H. ,J.. :u~tltlrl.l~~~lillg. H. ,J. : I.n~nil~:~r flow pnnl, :rn n11r11ptIyncrclcrntcd cylirrrler a t [t,O] Sllnrrow, E.M.: Combineel elfecta of unstcody flight velocity nnnd snrfnoc t.c:n~jwr:rt,trrroti
45" inc:irlrl~ce..I PM 65. 7 1 1- 734 (1!)74). hent t.rnnsfer. J e t Propnlaion 28, 403--405 (l!)58).
(28111 hlcl11.n. V. I!., :111(1 I,:Iv~II,Z.: SIriirLing vorI.cx, scl~nrntiolrl111hb~r8 nnd stall: A nr~n~oric~nl [51] Spnrrom, E.M., nnd Gregg, .J.I,.: Plow nbor~tnnu n ~ t r n d yroLnt,irrgdiec.JASS 27,252-257
str~tlyof I:tnii~xnr~ I I I R I G : flow I . ~ I ~nronntl nn airfoil. .J TM G7, 227-256 (1'376). (1960).
.[2!l1. Mirela, if.: I $ o o t ~ t L I:iycr r~ bnl~inclsl~orkor t.11i11oxpnnslori wave rnoving into st,ntiot~nry [52] k q ~ ~ i I,.(:.:
k, Ro~~nrlnry lnycr growth in tltrrc dirner~siot~n. Phil. Mng. .I5 (7). 1272 128:l
t111i~l.N,l(:,\ 'I'N 37 -12 (1!)5{;).
(301 Mircls. I I .. : I I I ~ I~:IIIIIII:III,
~ .I. : I,:~~nir~nr I)o~~tlrlnry lnyer t~eliit~tl ntrong shock moving wit.11
(,1954). .
[RR] Squire, 1,. C.: 'l'lie tllree-din~ensionnl 1)onndnry lnyer e q ~ ~ n t i o nnntl s s o n ~ cpower scrirn
I I ~ I I - I I I I ~ ~ vrIocil,y.
~~III l'l~yfiics of 1rI11icls,5, !)I --!I5 (l0fi2). 8ol11tions. AJtC RM ROOF (1955).
1311 Moorr. 1.' I<.: Ilnntn~ncly,I : L I I I ~ I I ; ~1101111tlnry ~ li~ycrIlnw. NACA TN 2471 (1951). [54] Sbrvnrhon, I<.: The tlleory of nnsta:~dy Inrninnr bont~rlnry1:~yrra. A~lv.rlppl. h1rc.h. 6 ,
i32i hloorr. I?. I<., ant1 Ontri~<:11, S. : Avrrngc I ~ & l ~ r t , i of
011 :t tI:~t 11l:rtr \vit.l~ rnistc:uly flight, vel~~cit.y.
c s co~npreruriblelntnit~nrh o n ~ ~ d n rlnycr
NA(:&\ TN :<486 (1!)5(i).
y
.
1 -~37 (1!)6O\. -,
[55] St.t~nrt,J.T.: A sol~ct,ioll of the Nnvicr-Stokes ntid energy eqr~nt.ionuillustrnting t.hr rrspnnsc
[:%:I) Moort.. I'.K.: 0 1 1 t,l~e~rpiirnt.ior~ of t.he 1111st,cw1~ ln~ninnrI ~ o ~ ~ n t l nlnycr. rg IUTi\M-Sym- of skin friction nnd tompernture of nn inlinitc p l n t ~tlrertnot~~cter to fl~~r(.t~nt,ions in t,he
~ ~ o n i ~I%onn~lnry
~in. Inycr~.I'rcihurg 1957 ( H . GBrl.ler, etl.). 206--311, Hcrlin, 1!)58. st,renin ve1ocit.y. I'roc. Roy. Soc. A 231, 116.- 140 (1955).
IN)S~IIIII. I ! o ~ ~ t ~ ~ l n r y - l :rmcnrcl~,
~ym I'rcil~~~rg 1957 (H. Ciirt,ler. cd.). 290--311, Iserlin, 1958. [55n] Stt~nrt,,J.'P.: Unstendy houndnry lo,yers. L. Itoclenl~end(ccl.): I , n r ~ ~ i ~11o1111tl:try ~xr layers.
1:14] Niga111. S. I).: ZciLli~I~cs
pliil.zlic~l~c:r~~
, ~ I I W ~ ( : ~ I R C Icler
Ilrginn drr Jlottit,ion. Q~~nrt..
I ~:rcn7.*rchichtnn eincr rotierenden Sclreihe boi
Arner. Mntl~.9, 89--81 (1C)fil).
Clnrcndori P r e s ~ Oxford , -.
1903. nn. 349 -408.
[56] Tnni, 1.: An exnmple of rtnetendy lnrninnr bo~~nclnry lnycr flow. Inst.. ITniv. of T o l ~ y llrp. ~~,
(3fil 0ut.rn1~l1. S.:Conr~~rrnniblc lnminnr hor~ncl:arylnyer and heat t,rniisfer for r~nstmdymotions
No. 331 (I!)58); nt!tr rilno: ~ ~ ~ ' P A M - S ~ I I I ~ Ilo~t~~tl~ir.y.I~~yor
I ~ N ~ I I ~ I I . ~ ( , H V I I rt.11. I'.r~~il~nrg l!l57
of 11 IIIII, plnt,(%.NAq!A 'I'N R5f\!I (1!155).
O I I ,I!OIIIIC~:I~Y l:l,yor gro\vt,l~n(::\.r :I r(:nr st:ag~~ntiottl~oint,.
I.,~ tI I~I I.~ I . J O ~ I I I ~ I(.: (11. (:ijrllvr, ctl.), 347, l5(!rlin, l!)fi8.
.[:%5:1,l
. I'rou(lt~~~
[5(ia] Tanctln, S.: Vinr~nlst.r~tlyof unxtc:uly sepnrnl,ecl flows nronnd I~i~dins. I'rogrmr in ~\crosl~:~,rc
,I P'hf 12, 161 16'8 (l!)62).
I3fil I A I ~ I I Il,:aylt.igli: On t,llc rirc.111nt.io11 of nir ol~srrvctli t 1 JZr~nclt'str11)es nnd on xon~cn.llicd Scicnrcs (I). I<iichen~ar~n, ccl.), L'orgnn~on I'ress, JAondor~, Vt11. X l i l l . 2H7 :148 (1!)77).
:irc~~txl.it!al I I ~ ~ I I I I ~ I I I I'l~il.
S. 'I'r:ins. 1l~)y.Soc. I,ontlot~ 17.5, I --21 (1884). [57] 'Pl~iriot.,I<. 11. : ~ I I I ~ < : ~ R ~ I c ~iil~vr
I I ~ Idie
~ ~ I(:rr117,~cl1ic:l11
I t!inrr i~liiwigltcit iil~vrt:inr*r r d ivrvtt-
clcn Sc:l~cil)cbei klninc!r Winkelecscliwinfliekeit~ii~~tler~lne. ZAMM 22. 2:1 -- 28 11!)42).
\ r

[58] Thiriot, 1Z.H.: Grenzsrllirhhtromr~ngk u n n n r l ~dcnr pltitzli<.l~et~ Allln~~f h7.\v. rll)sto]~prr~

12. 1 15 (1!)2!)). eines rotierenden Bodenn. ZAMM 30, 3!)0-393 (1!)50); Rrc ~ 1 4 0I)~RR. ( : i ) I t i t ~ g r ~1!)10:
~,
( 3 7 ~ 1Ililry. N.: IJnslc:atlp I:r~lrinnr11111tn(lnry Ingrm. STAM lbeview 17, 274---297 (1075). ZAMM 20, 1-13 (1!)40).
(:In\ I<.t~tt..N.: Ilnstx~ntlyviscc~usIlo\v ilr t.hr vit:i~~ity of n nt.njinntion 1)oint. Qnart,. Appl. Mntlr. [591 ' I ' ~ ~ ~ I I IW.:
~ c I I(~rr117~t!t1i(:~lIctl.
, ~ ~ n l l ( ~(It-r ~ ~~ l~l~~x ~~ ~ rl r . - I~ If, y ~ i Il, r27,l (l!l:lt).
' l ~l*:~rl,
1.3. 444 451 (I$lMi). ((ill1 'I'ollnric~n,W.: 1)ir 'cit.licl~o I+~ntwiekln~~g rlr?r ltrtni~~:~rcr~ ( : r r ~ ~ z ~ o l nrtl
~ i crotit.rcr~tlc:~~
I~~, %gli~~-
[:%!)I 1lo11.. N., ru~tlI<oacvrz~~~c*ig. M. I..: 0 1 1 I I I ~rc.nlwnsc of 1111,l:tl~~it~nr
I~o~lnrlnryInyrr 1.0 snlnll cler. I)iw. (;iif.tingen 1924; ace nlso: Hnnclb~~cl~ dcr IPxper.. Physik f V. I>nrt I , 277 (I!):%\).
I l ~ ~ r ~ l ~ t iof~ It.I~r. vrIo(:it,y. .IASS 27. 741 --747. 787 (I!)(;()).
i ~ nfrrt:-sI.rt!:~~~~
s
448 XV. Xon-stcady boundary layers

[GI] 'L'ri~r~pi, I t . I,., itntl Col~er~, N.B.: An intcgral solution to the flat plate laminar boundary
I:lyrr flow cxint,ing insidc and aftcr cxpan~ionwavcs moving into ql~icucentfluid wit,ll par-
t1cu1n.rnl)plicnt,ion t.o the coinplete ul~ocktube flow. NACA T N 3044 (1057).
1621
. - Ikuji, W.: Not,c on the uolr~tionof the unsteady laminar boundary layer equations. JAS 20,
z:)r,-znn ( m a ) .
1631 Urhitln, S.: 'l'he p:~l~nt.ing
t ~ o n ~ l ) r ~ ~1l11itl
viscor~sflow superposed on t,hc steady laminar rnotion of in-
pipn. ZAM1' 7, 403---422 (I!)RO).
u ~ i li,nl ~n ~t:ir-t*r~lnr
Part C. 'rransition
[ti41 Wnrlh\v:t, Y. I).: Ilonndt~ry1ayr:r growt.11 on n u~)int~ing body; accclcr:~tc:tl n~otion. Phil.
Mag. 3 (8). 152-- 158 (19.58).
[(is] Wnt.son, 11:. .1.: Rountlary Iaycr growth. Proc. I t o ~ Soc. . A 231, 104-1 16 (1955). CIIAI'TEIt XVI
i(i61 Wnt.son, . l . : A uolution of Llle Nnvicr-St,okes-equations, illnst,rat.ing tho recrpo118c of n
Isn~innr1,onntlnrv lrtvrr t,o a aivon chnngc in thc cxtornal strcarn velocit,y. Quart. J. Mcclt.
nljld hfllt~l 1 1 , '805-326 (1658)
1671 W:~t.son,.l. : l ' l ~ rtwo tlitnc~~sionxl l a n i i ~ ~flow
a r ncar the stagnation point of a cylinder which
11m an nrh~trnrytrnnsvcrsc motion. Quart. .I. Mcch. Appl. Math. 12, 175-190 (1959).
Origin of turbalencc I
. . \Vcntrrvclt, P.J: The theory of steady rotntio~lalflow generated by n sound field. J. Arouat.
1681
Soo. An~cr.25. G O - - 67 (105:i).
.I691. \Irr:rst. \\I.: (:r(.ni..uchi(:ht,cnnn eylintlriscl~cnItiirpcm nlit nichLqt,ationiircr Qtrerbowcg~~tlg.
Zhhlhl 32. 172 --178 (1!)52).
[70] \4r~~t~tlt., 11.: \I'nchnt.11111 tlcr l:linir~nrnn(:re~lznchicllt an uchrLg nngc8t.riimte11~ ~ l i r ~ t l hc ri n
A~~r:tl~rt,
~.~
:IUS tlcr I ~ I I I IIn~.-Ar~!li.
~. 2.7, 212- 230 (1055). Introduction. 'I'l~is ant1 t h e succectli~tgchapt.er a r c dt:vot.ctl t o a p r c s c t ~ t : ~ t . i ooft ~
17 11 Vane. 1<.'1'.: 1JnnI,c:1tlyl:rn~in:trbound:~ryInycrs in nn incon~prcssiblestngnat,iotl tiow. J . t h e conlplex of problems w h i c l ~relate t o t,ransitiorl frr)tn 1:srninar t o t n r b ~ t l r t ~flow. t
~ ~ : 25. 421 -'427 (1958).
A ~ I Mrch.
T h e first, erperinrental results o n this problcm wcrc oblainrtl 11y 0.1Ecyttol~lsi l l t h e
Ynng, 1<.'1'.: IJnntmcly In~ninxrI)onr~dnry1:~yersover ;LII arbitrary c ~ l i ~ l dwith e r heat trans-
fer in nn irloorril,rt-stiii,lc flow. J. Appl. Mroh. 26, 171 - 178 (l!)50). cighties of t h e preceding c c n t u r y (Itcynolds's clyc experitnct~t,),a s rnc:tltionctl in Sc.c.
\.o~~ng, A.0.. nntl IInrrin. F1.11.: A set, of sin~ilarsolntions of the coniprcssible laminar I1 c a n d illustrated in Fig. 2.22. T h e principal thcorct.icnl itlcn for t , l ~ canalysis of this
bonnclnry Iayc?r cqn:~t.iot~n k)r ~ l i cflow over flat plate with unstcmdy wall tetnperat,ure. problem was cor~ccivcdb y 0. Reynolds a n d I,ortl R a y l c i g l ~; t.his is 1.0 t.l~(>c*lli*t:tt 11:tt.
1 l ! 301 (1!)07).
transition constitulcs a problcrn it1 t,hc st,:~l)ilit,yo r I ~ ~ I I ~ I I R flows
I. ( I ~ c ~ I I ~ I ( I s 'ltypt).
s
13icl1rll)1~rnner. 15. A . (ctl.): ll.crcnt, rcscnrrh o ~ r1111stmdybonntlary layers. lUTAM Sympo-
sii1111l!\7i. 1 :i11cI 11, l'rc,ssr (I(! I'U11ivr.rsilC. I.:lval, Q,ucbcc, 1!172. 1,llesis). T h e theoretical investigations i n t o t,ltis problcrn wcrc crowt~ctlby a tlrc,isi\re
I<innry. I<.R. (ect.): Unst.cndy acrotlyn:rr~lic.n.Proc. S y ~ n pUniv. . of Arizona, March 18-20, breakthrough which occurred half a c e n t u r y later a f t c r tlecadcs of fut,ilc c:lli~~,t.s. '1'11is
w a s accomplishecl in a b o u t 1930 in tlic f o r m of t h e st,al)ilit,y t,ltcory fortnnl:~.tctlOy
P r a n d t l ' s school in Goettirtgen. I n t,he l i r r ~ cinterval I ) c t w c c ~1930
~ :mtl 1970, t,lle
whnlt: body of Irnou7ledgc regarding toransit,iorlwas s ~ ~ c a o s s f r ~t.nlargctl,
lly I)ot 11 c-sl)c't.i-
~nent.allya n d theoretically, a f t e r t h e a b o v e tllcory hat1 bccn I)rillii~.nt,lycot~lirtltrd
wit11 t h e a i d of very carcflll cxperirnents performetl i n I940 b y Ii.1,. I)rytlrl~:tntl llis
collaborators.
,l ,h e l a s t t w o decades s a w t h e appcnrance of a large nurnber of summaries of t h e
field. T h e s e were, in t h e order of their a p p e a r a n c e : 1969, I1.L. L)rytlen [ 2 0 a J ; 1959,
11. S c i ~ l i c l ~ t i n1703;
g 19G1, 14'. Tollmien a n d 1). Grollnc 11021; 1963, ,1.'1'. Sttltxt.t,
[Ol]; 1964, S . F . S h e n [86aj; 19G!), I. T a n i [IN]; 1969, M.V. M o r l t o v i ~161 ~ a ( ; I!fT6,
E. I t e s h o t k o [70a]. I n m o s t rccent times, t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y s t a t u s of rescarell in (.his
field was t h e s u b j c c t of a conference of t h c A G A R D Fluid I)ytrnrl~icsP a ~ l c o l t ~"I,;t~tti-
nar-t.urbulcnt transition". T h e confercrlcr: w a s hcld i n (:opcnllago~t in M : L ~ 1!)77,
ant1 i t s proceedings a r c s v i ~ i l a b l eas AGARI) Corlf(~rcrlc(:I'roccctlings No. 224 1 I :LI.

a. Sonle experimental resrllts o n t r a t ~ ~ i t rroln

i o ~ ~Jnnlinar t o t o r b l ~ l e i ~
flow
t

1. Trnr~sitinnin pipe flow. Vcr.y oft'l.cti t.ho Ilows of rt%;~I l l ~ ~ i t t1ilL.r

ls 11.0111t 1 1 t .
1amin:l.r flows consitlcrccl in Lllc prcc:ctli~~g cl~:~.l)tn,rs.
'1'11t!51 ~r?cl~il)if.:L ( : l ~ : ~ . r : ~ t . t ~ t ~ r i : i t i t :
featurc? which is tt?rn~ctllurbi~le?rce.W l ~ e ntlic Itcyr~oltlst~ntnl)c:ris irtc:ro:~.sotl,ii~t.c:r~~:u,l
flows : ~ n t lb o ~ l r ~ t l a rlayers
y formctl o n solitl I)otlic!s r~ntlergo:I rc~n:~.rk:~bl(. t.~.:~~tsit,iot I
from tlie 1aulina.r to t.11~ t u r b u l c r ~ trcgirnc. T h a origin of t,r~rl)r~lcttrc :sr~tlt . 1 :1(-r0111-
~

450 XVI. Origin of tnrhltlence I
p:t,t~yit~g trnnsil.ion from I:~tiiitin,r1.0 l ~ t ~ r l ~ ~ r lflow
c r i t is ol' fctntla~nc?nl~a.l
i~iiport,nnc:c
for I.hc whole snirncc of flnid ~ncchnnics.'rho iricidcnrc of t,~rrl)r~lrnc:c was first, rocng-
niZcc1 in rclt~t~ion tlo IIOWS tl~rotrghsl.rn.iglit pipes n.ncl clln.ti~iols.In n flow a t vcry
low ltcynoltls rii~rnl)rt.t.l~rortghn st.rniglit pip(: of uniform cross-sccttion a~iclsmoot.11
wn.lls, every llnitl p:irf.icln tnovrs wit,lt :I unifor~n v r l o ~ i t ~long . ~ a sl.rnightf pat.11.
Viscous forc:cs slow tlown the p:~rl.iclrsno:w t.hc w:1.11in relation t o t.liosn in t , l ~cxtcrnnlc
core. 'l'lic flow is wcllortlcrctl ancl pnrtic:las 1,rnvcl a l o ~ l gnoig11l)oirringlnycrs (In.niiriar
llow), Pig. 2.22a. Ilowcvcr, obscrvat,ion shows t , l ~ a tthis onlcrly p t t c r n of Ilow
(:oases t o cxisl, a t liiglicr Itcytioltls r~rttnl)crs,lcig. 2.22b, :~titl t,h:i.t sl,rotig ~iiixing
of all l.lic par(.iolcs occurs. 'l'liis rnising ~)roc:osscnri ho mn.tlc visil~loin a flow t , t ~ r o ~ ~ g l ~
a pipc, as first shown hy 0. I ~ o ~ I I o I ((711, I R hy fcc<liriginto it, R t.liit\ t.l~rci~cl
of li(\uid
dye. As long :LS t11e Ilow is 1arninn.r the l.lrrcatl maintait~ssharply drfincd I ) o ~ ~ n ~ l a r i c s
all nlong t.hc sl,ro:i,~n.As soon a7. the flow 1)ccomes turl)ulont the tfl~rcacl diffuses into
bttc stream ancl t l ~ cflrrict appcn.rs ~triiformlycolonrctl at, a short tlist,nnce clownst~matn.
In this case tltcrc is supcrimposctl on t,hc main motion in t,hc cliroct,ion of the axis
of t,hc pipc a snt)sitliary motion at, right nnglcs t.o it wltinlt clli?c:l,s mixing. 'l'hc pa(,t,c.rn
of st,rci~rnlincsa t a fixcrl point bccomcs snl)jcotccl to cor~tirrrrortsfluctnot,ions ant1 t l ~ c
sul)sidiary motion causcs a n exchnngc of momcnt,nm in a t.ransvcrse direction beeausc
each particle sul)stantially r o b i n s its forward momcnt,tim while mixing is taldng
place. As a conscqiicncc, (,lie vclocit.y tlistlribntion ovcr the cross-section is consider-
ably morc i ~ t i f o r r ni n t u r b ~ l l c n tthan in larninar flow. The m c ~ u r c dvelocity distri-
bution for these two types of flow is shown in Fig. 16.1, where t h e mass flow is t h e
samc for both cases. 111 laminar flow, accortiing t o t h e Hagen-Poiseuille solution
given in Chap. I, t h e v e l ~ c i t ~tlist,ribut.ion
y ovcr the cross-section is parabolic (see
also Fig. 1.2), b n t in turbnlcnt, Ilow, owing t,o t.hc transfer of rnomcntnm in tho tmns-
verse direction, i t becomes considcrnbly more uniform. On closer investigntion i t
appears t h a t t.hc most, essential fcntr~reof a turbulcnt flow is the fact t h a t a t a given
point in it,, the vclocit,y and tlic pressure arc not constant in time b u t exhibit very
irregrilar, high-frcqucncy flnctuations, Fig. 16.17. The velocity a t a give11 point
can only be consitlcrcd constant o n the average a n d ovcr a longer ~ e r i o dof timc
(quasi-steady flow).
Thc first syst,cmatic investigation into t8hcsctwo f ~ ~ n d a n ~ c n t ntliff~rerit~
lly patkerns
of flow wcre conduct.ccl by 0, Rcynol(ls [71]. 0. Rcyr~oldswas also t h e first t o
investigate in grcat,cr tlct.ail t h c circnmstn.rrcns of the transition from laminar t o
tnrl)nIrnt flow. l'ilc ~)rc:vionsIy mcntsionctl tlyc oxperimcnt was itscd by him in t,liis
coru~cxion,ant1 he discoverctl the law of similarity which now bears his name, and
wliich states that, trnrlsition from Intninar t o turbulent flow nlways occurs a t nearly
talie samc Roynoltls nnniher 171 d l v , wlierc t3 = (;)/A is t h c mean flow-velocity
(Q volrtme m1.c of Ilow, A = cross-sectional area). 'rhc nlrmcrical value of tho
-1
R.c>ynoltls n~inibcr at, wliicli t,m.nsitiot~occurs (critical ltcgnoltls number) was
Fig. 16.1. I'rlority di~t,rihtll.ionit1 pipc; n) Inminnr: h) ttrrhl~lrnt
a. Solne experin~rnI.alrrrrrrltn ott transit ion frorn lnr~~ittar
to turl)t~lrntflow 45 1
~ s t a b l i s h c da s bring apl~roximatcly
Accortlingly, flows for which the Itcyrioltls nnml)cr R < R,,,,, arc s n p p o s r ~ lt.o he
laminar, ancl flows Ihr which R > R,,,,, :trn cxl)cctfctl t,o IIC t.tlrhrrl(.t~t,.'l'li(: t~ittii(~ri(.:i.l
valtlc of the criCical Itcy~ioI(lsnurnt~crt l c ~ ~ c t i ~ l s st,rongly on t.11(: vo~~tlit~iotin
vcry
which prevail in IJic inil.inl pipe lcrigtl~:cs ~ r l as l i l l t,lic n.l~l)roac-l~
1.0 il.. l':\~c.~r Itc~~t~oltls
tlioitgl~t~ t h a t the cril.io:tl ltcynoltls r i ~ ~ t t i l ~inc:rn:~qc.s
cr a s t.hc tlisI,itrl):~r~c:c.s ill t.Ii(:
flow bcforc tjhc pipe arc tlccreasctl. 'l'liis fact was c o ~ ~ f i r ~csprrimc~ll.ally ~~cd I)y
11. T. 12arnes and 15. G. Coker [I b], ant1 latcr by L. Scltillcr 1801 wlio rc-nc.hc:tl
critical vn.llrrs of the Itcynoltls nnml)cr of up t o 20,000. V. W . ISlrtnan [24] succ~:ctlcd
in mai~it~nir~ing laminar flow u p t o a critical Itcytioltls ~ i ~ r n ~ of b c 40,000
r by pro-
vitling an irilct which was mnclc cxeept~iotinllyfrcc from tliat 11ri):~nccs.'1'11t: 111)1)(:r
limit t o wliich ttho critfical lteynoltls nr~mhnrcan Ijc: tlrivcn if cxtrcmc: cnro is !,:II<(?II
t o frcc tllc inlct from tlisturbnr~ccsis no1 Ict~ownn t r)rcsc:r~t.'I1lic:rc C X ~ H C S , 110w(:v(:r,
a s dcmonstmtctl by niitncrons cxpcrimclnts, a lower bor~ntlfor R,,, whicli is appro-
ximately a t 2000. I3clow this valuc, the flow remains laminar cvcn in the 1)roscrIce
of vcry strong tlistnrbnnccs.
,
,Iransitiori from laminar t o t u r b i ~ l e nflow
t is accompnnicd by a noticcal)le cltnnge
in t h e law of rcsistancc. I n laminar flow, t l ~ clongitudirtnl prcssirrc gmclio~ttwliich
maintains t h e mot.ion is proportional t o the first power of t.11~ v c l ~ c i t ~( (yc f . See. I d ) ;
by contrast, in t , i ~ r b i t l c flow
~ ~ t this pressure gradicr~tbccorrirs ncnrly prnport3ional t o
thc squn.rt: of bhc rnran vclocit,y of flow. l'ltc incrcasc in t.hc rcsisI,ancc t o flow has itts
origin in the t.r~rl~i~lottt tnixing mot-ion. 'J'liis changc in t,hc I:LW of 1)ij)cfrict,ioii c:tn be
inferred from Fig. 20.1.
Detailed invcstigntions oftllc process of transit,ion rcvcnl thnt in a ccrtain range
of Reynolds niimbcrs amond tlic critical thc Ilow t~ecomca"intcrrnit,tcr~t." w11ir:h
means t h a t it alternates in timc bctwccn hcing laminar or trtrhrtlcrit. 'l'lic vari:lt,ion
of the vclocity of flow wit.h time in this rangc is shown grnphicnlly in Pig. 16.2
which represent8 t h e results of mcxsurements performed by J . l t o t t a [75] in 1!156
nt diffcrent clistances along a pipe radius. The velocity plots dcmonst.rab t h a t
periods of laminar and turbulcnt flow srrccccd cach d h c r in n rnndorn sequence.
A t positions closer to t.hc ccntrc-line, the vclocity in tlic laminar intcrvals cxccctls
the t,crnporal mean valuc of the velocity of flow in thc tturl>ulctitint,ervals;at posi-
tions closer to thc pipc wall, conditions arc revcrscd. Sincc during thc cxpcrimcnts
care was taken t o maintain a constnnt rate of flow over long intervals of timc,
it is concluded tliat i n t h e region of intcrmittcnt, flow thc velocity distriht~t-ion
alternates between n corresponding dcvclopcd laminar distribntion, nrltl n corrc-
sponding fully developed turbulent distribution, a s shown in Fig. 16.1 a and 16. I b
respectively. The physical nature of this flow can be aptly ciescribcd with tlic aid
of the intermittency factor y, which is defined as t h a t fraction of time during
which t h e flow a t a given position rcmains turbulcnt. 1-Icnce y = 1 corresponds t o
continuous turbulcnt flow, nnd y = 0 dcnotcs c o n t i n ~ ~ o laminar r~s flow. The inter-
mittcncy factor is shown plottctl in Fig. 16.3 for vnriol~sRcynol(1s nnnihcrs in
terms of tho axial distnncc z. A t n consf,nnt Itcynoltls nirrnl)c:r, tthc ir~l.crr~~it,l.c:t~c:y
factor increases continuously with t h c distance. Thc Reynolds numbers cover tho
452 XVI. 0rigi11of trtrhr~lcncc:
1 a. Some exprrirricn1:~lresults on trarlsition from laminar 1.0 L~~rl~ulrnt
flow
453
important ones being the prcssure tlistribution in tllr rxtcrnal flow, tthr rl:rf~lrc-or
tllr wall (ronghr~rss)and the nature of t h r disi.nrbanrc-s in t,hc frro flow ( i r ~ i c ~ t i s i I j ~
of tfurb~tlcncc).
B l u ~ Ilodies:
~t A pnrticularly rcvn:lrkal)le ~rherlo~ntviorl c:onrlrnt,c~tlwit,l~i,rt~nsilit111
in t.hc hour~tlarylaycr occurs with bllrnt l)odics, Tor c x n l ~ ~ p spl~cros lc or (:irc:~tl:ir
cylirltl(:rs. It, is seen fro111Figs. 1.4 : ~ t ~1.5 t l t,llat t h c r1r:i.g c:ocflicic~rlto r a sj)l~c:rr:or
cylindcr tlccrcascs : ~ l ) r ~ ~ j ) ia, It yItcyr~oltlsr111mbcrs R :-:I r I ) / v of al)orlt :1 x lo5.
,.I his aljrupt drop in t h c t l r : ~corfficic~~t,
I ~ l~oticctllirsl, 11y 0. 12ifli.l [231 i l l rc~l;rtion
t.o sphc:rc?s, is a conscc~~~ctic:c of Lr:lrlsiUor~it1 t,hc I)o~~r~tl:lry 1:iyc:r. '1'r:l.tlsii.iotl t.;tttsi*x
tllc ;)oirll. o f scp:lr:lt.ion t o move clow11st.rcar11 wllicll consitlrr:~l)ly tlt:crcx:~sos i,l~(:
witlt.11 of t.he walrc. 'l'hc t r u t l ~of this cx~)l:il~:~t,ion was tlc1nonsi.r:il,nt1i ) y I,. I'r:r11111.1
1411 w l ~ onlor~ntctln thin wire Itoop sotncwl~:~t .-llrntl of 1,ht: cc~uatorof :b si~llorc:.'l'liis
causes artificinlly tile b0undar.y layer t o 1)ccomc turbrllcnt a t a lowcr Ilt:ynol~ls
n u n ~ h r rant1 protluccs i,hc same drop ill tlrag a s occurs ~v11c:li I,lic Itoyt~oltlsI I I I I I I I I ~ > V
is nlatla to it~crrasc.'l'hc stnolrc photogrii~)l~s in l'ig. 2.2.1- n11tl 2.26 S I I ~ )~ ~ I ~, * ~: I V ~ ~ ,
tltr c x t c ~ of ~ t t,hc waltc on a s p l ~ c r cit1
: t l ~ csub-critic:ll Ilow rcgirnc t,llc \v:~ltc is uitlt.
arid t l ~ drag
c is large, ant1 in t-bcsupcr-crit,icnl regime i t is narrow nntl t h c clrag is sltlall.
T h e l a t t r r flow rcgimc was here crcatctl witll-the a.itl of L'ratitli.l's 't,ril)ping wire'.
These ex1)eriments show coriclusively t h a t the jump it1 tllc drag curve of a sphrrc
ITig. 10.2. Variation of flow vclority in a pipc i n the tranuition range a t dihrent distances r is due t o n boundary-layer cKect atld is caused by t m r l s i t i o ~ ~ .
1)y .J. I<ot.ta [ i s ]
f r o ~ npilw axis, as 111cns11rrt1 Flat plate: Thc procrss of transitio~ron a flat plate a t zrro incitloncc is sonrc~~vhat.
]If> I I O I I I ~n ~ t r n o ~A r = ii.d/v = 2 5 5 0 ; axial t l i s t n n ~ ez / d = 322; E x 4.27 m/scc ( P 14.0 ltlsec); vclocitien given simlrlcr t o understand t h a n t h a t o n a blnrtt hotly. T h c prorcss of t.r:rl~sit.ionin t.lrr
in n r l s r r . .rhr.rr vclorily plols, o b l n i n n l witlt t h o nicl o l n Ibnt-wire nncmomatrr, rle~nonstratethe i ~ ~ t e r m i t l o naluro
nt
n l aurcerrl crcll othrr In time
vf lltr. I l o w i n f l t x l pcrindr n l Inrninnr nntl l t ~ r h u ~ l r flow
bountlary layer on a flat plate was first stntlictl by ,J. nl. n r ~ r g r r s161. 13. (:. vat)
der IIcggc Zij~tcli1411 ant1 Iat.er by M. ITanscn anti, it1 grca1.c.r clrt,ail. I1.y 1 1 . I,.
1)ryclrn 116: 17, 181. According t,o Cl~:lp.VlT, t,llc 11o1111tlat~y-layer t.l~ivlztlc~ss
on :i flat
Fig. 16.3. Intermittct~cyfactor plntc iticrcases in proportion t o j/z,
w l ~ c r cs tlcrtot,cs t l ~ ctlistancc from thc Ic:atling
y for pipe flow in the transi- edge. Near t h e lending etlgo the bountlary Iaycr is always I a m i t ~ a r t ,l~cnorningi,rlr-
tion range in tern18 of the bulent further dow~istrcam.On a ~ ) l ; ~with t c a sharp lratling edge ant1 in a. tlormal
axial distance z for different air stream (i. c. of int,crisit,y of turbulcncc T = 0.6 %) t,mnsit.ior~t.:il<c~slrl;~t.c> at, :I
Itrylrolds llurnbers R, as rnea- distance z from it, a s detcrminecl hy
sr~rpdby J. Rotta [75]
I l r r c y = i dcnotcs r n n l i n l l n l l ~ l ytllr-
I ~ I I I P I I L , IIIICI y = 0 1 - ~ ~ n t i 1 i u n l l 5 la-
~y
rnlrlnr Bnw On a Axt plaLe, in t h c same way a s in a pip(?, the c:rit>ic:il Itcyt~oltlsn111i11)c.rran 1)r
incrcasctl by provitlitig for a dist,urbancc-frcc cxt.orn:11 flow (vc.rp low ir~t.c*~lsil,y or
d
c / . Scc. XI1 tl 2.
t,llrl)~~lcnct,),
rango frorn R 1 2:!00 t,o 2600 ovcr wllicl~ transitpion is oompletctl. A t Rcynolds
rtllmhc.rs rlcar i , l ~ lowcrc lirnit, t,he process of tmnsit,iorr t o f i ~ l l ydcvclopcd turbulent
Hr)li(:J1 1,l1(, (lO,,r pS~,t:tl(lS ()v(,rvery Iwgc tIist,anccs mcasurctl in thonsa~idsof tlialnctcrs. incrrase In t h e boundary-layer tliick~lcss.111a lalnillar l)or~~iclarv
Mc~asrlrc:tnt~nt.s ol. i,llis kind Ilave been reccr~t~ly amplified by J. Meseth [GO].
. .
-. . .. Iavor
.. t.lrc tli~nc~nsion-
less I~our~tlary-1;~ycr trhickricss, d / i v :,;/Urn, rcrnnins rorlst,:~nta l ~ t lrtl11;11, :I l ) p r o , ~ -
imatcly, t o 5. 'I'he dimcnsiortlcss boulidary-layrr t01icknrss is scc11 ~)lot,t.c~tl :~z:~ir~st.
2. Trnnsitio~l in tile bor~nclnry layer on n solid body. As alrratly stat,eti, the t l ~ clength Rcy~iolds nrimbcr R, =-: U , z/v ill l'ig. 2.2:) nlrmtly tnc!~li,iotlt~tl::I(,
Ilo~vi l l a. I ) o ~ ~ t ~ t lI:rycr : ~ r y (:an also or~tlorgot,mnsit;on, a fact whicll was tliscovered
R, >. 3.2 x 105 n s~ltltlcn incrcaso i l l 1.llo I ~ o ~ ~ t ~ t l : ~I.l~i(.l<lt(-ss ~ r ~ - l : is
~ ~t.lt~:11.1~
~~r
I I I I I ~ ~I:~i,t:r
I ~ , I I : I I Ii.r:111sii,ionin a pipe. 1 ' 1 1 ~WIIOIC field of flow a l ~ o r a~ tbody irnmcrsctl visil)le. 'I'r:ltlsil,ior~ also involves a r~ot,icc:ll)loc:l~:rrlgc: i t 1 ~ . I I v sl~:~l)tx
of i.Itt: vc-lt~t.ii~-
i r ~:I. si,rt.:l.trt, a.tltl in p:l.rt,ic:itlar, t , l ~ cforce cxort.etl on it, are strongly dcpcndcnt. on
\ v l ~ ~ ~ i1 . 1l1~~Ilo\r. c ~ ~ i l l t.11~l)otlr~tl:~.ry 1:lycr is larniriar or t,llrhnlcnt,. Transit,ion in a t Rx(:ept for Ic~clitig-rtlgoscpnrat,ion wl~irhn1:ry orrrlr or1 a II:II. 11l:~loof fi11i1ct l 1 i ( , l i 1 1 ( . 8----
~ if 110
I ) ~ I I I I ~ I :I I: ~~ y~ r r0 1 1 :I.solit1 1)otIy i t 1 :I, st,rr:~nlis ar&ct,t*tlI)y mn.t>yparamctcrs, trllc most prccaut.ions lravc h c r ~L:~kcr~
~ to sr~pprrssit,a s c x ~ ~ l : ~ i t1:ltc.r.
~c~tl
454 XVT. Origin of turbulcncc I n. Some rxprrirnrnt,nl reuulte on t,ra~~sitio~t
fro111l n ~ ~ ~ i rto
l n tr ~ ~ r b ~ ~flow
lctll 455

Fig. 16.4. Vcloc:it,yprofiles in n

boundary lnycr or1 n flat plate in
the trnnsit,ion rcgion, as n1c:~-
unrrd by S r l ~ i ~ b a ~
nnd
~ c l(lc-
r
1,nnoff [83] Fig. 16.5. Cl~nti~c i n L11c s11nj~cfactor
(1) laminar, I ~ l a ~ i upronle;
a (2) Ler- I l l z = 0116~ of t,lle J)o~~ntlnry Inycr for n
ballcnl. '1..-111 law. d = 17 lnln L6
. llowcr
. flat plnte ill tllc t,rnnnition region nu men-
( = 1.30 in), ex1.ornal vcloci1,p (1, =
! 1 27n1/scc (89 lt/scc); t11rl,111cnce inlen- uttrctl by Schuba~~cr and Klcbnnofi [R3]
'+
0 0.1 dZ 03 0.4 a5 06 a7 sity T = 0.03% qllot.otl fro111[ti51 f l 125 1 175 !75M EEI LW
ypnrh] .lhll/

tlisI,ril,~~l,ion
curve. 'l'l~cchanges in t-he velocity profiles in the transit.ion region have
becn plottctl in Fig. 16.4. They arc based on ~noasurcmcntspcrformctl by C . R . Scliu-
bauer ant1 1'. S. IZlcbanoff [$3] in a stream of very low turbulence i n t e n ~ i t ~ancl y
i t is seen that in this case the t,ransition rcgion cxtcntls over a range of Reynolds
numl)ers from about R, = 3 x 1 0 V t o 4 x 10" I n this mngc, the boundary-layer
profile cl~angcsfrom t l ~ a of t fully tlcvclopccl laminar flow, as ealcnlatecl by Rlnsius,
to fully tlcvclopctl turl)uloit flow (see Cl~ap.XXI). The process of transition involves
a large tlccrcnsc in t.11~ shape factor lIlz.-.. d,/d,, as seen from Fig. 16.5; here dl clenotcs
tile clisplnmmont thickness anti cSz is the momentum thickness. I n the case of a
flat plxta, t,hc shape factor tlecrca.~csfrom IIlzw 2.6 in the laminar regime t o Illzw 1.4
i n t,lio f.~~rl)~~l(?rlt,
rcgirnc.
'I'his change in tdie velocity di~tribut~ion in tho transition region can be ~itilized
for t.11~convcnierit tletcrminntion of the point of transition, or, rather, of the tmn-
sition region. rl'l~c principle is explained with the aitl of Fig. 16.6. A tmtal-hen11
t,ul,c or a I'itot tribe is moved parallel t,o 1,I1c wall a t a distance which eorrespontls
Fig. I6 6 . Erplnnntion ofthe rnrll~oclofclclrrrnining Ule
pn~itionoft,Ilr pointoftrn~~dtin~~ with tho nicl ofn total-
I1I /
'w--w
1 I
7w
1
W'rrn/
t,o t l ~ clnaxin~r~rn tlifirc~noe bctwccn tho velocities in the laminar and t n r l ~ r ~ l c n t hend tube or n Pitot tube I- bm~nar /ras,t~an - /u~bu/en/ -
rrgirrtcs. On I,cit;g rnovctl cIownst,rca~nacross the t,ransition region, the tul)o sl~ows
a fairly s ~ ~ d t l cinc:rcasc
r~ in the total or tlynamic pressure. in shape, whicl~then travels downstream in a wedge-shaped rcgion, as shown. Sucll
'I'mnsit,iorl or1 n flat platre also involves n largo change in tile rcsistanrc to flow, turbulent spots appear a t irregtrlar intervals of time and a t different, mntlomly
in this rnsr in t.11~sitin friction. In laminar llow the skin friction is proportiorinl clistribnlad points on tho plntc. I n the inl,crior of t,he wodgc-liko tlo~nair~ t l ~ ollow
1.0 I 111. I .5 p n w t ~
of vrlocil,y. cvln. (7.3:3), \vIir~-asin t,~lrl)~~lrnt,
llow the ~ O W inrrrnsrs
C ~ is p r c ( l o ~ n i ~ ~ n ntt~lrl)~ilentt,
tly whorens in t,ho atljoinir~gregions i f , nlI.crt~irt,osco~~t,it~r~oirsly
to :LI)OIII, 1.85, as shown a long time ago by W. I'ror~tlc (2!)1 who p r r f o r r ~ ~ ctowing~l het,wecn being laminar and tr~rbulcnt..In this conncxior~sco also rcf. I I:)]. A 1)a.pr.r
t ~ plates a t very high Itrynol~lsrininbers In this eonncxion the
~ x p r r i m e r ~wit11 by M . E . McCormick [57n] deals with l.hc problem of t,hc origin of sr1t:11 tturl,r~lt3~~t
I
reader may also wish t o consr~ltFig. 21.2. spots. S t turns out t.hnt an artificially creat,cd turbulent spot docs not persist w11r11
hlorcrcrcnt cxpcrimrnb performed I)y 11. W. Etnmons [25], arid G. 73. Scl~~rbaucr the Rcynolds number has a va111e lower than Ril = GOO; I,llis is c o l ~ s i s t . cwil.11 ~ ~ l ~t,ltc:
and 1;. 8. Itlrbanoff [83] hnvo ~ h o w nt*lliIt in t.hc case of a flat plal,c tfhe process vnlnc of the criticnl Itcynolds 11111nl1cr cnlc111nl.ctlwith 1,11(1 nid of 1.110 li~~tsnr#I.nl~ilit,y
of tr:~nsit,ion is also intrr~nitt~ent ant1 rorlsists of a n irrrgular scqncriro of Inminar t,heory, cqn. (16.22). Vcrg dctnilcd cxpcrimcnt,ml invrstigntiotls t,~~rl,ril~trt,
sl,ot.s,
ant1 t,11rI1111rnt. rrgions. As cxplni~i~cl in Fig. 16.7, at. n given point in the boundary ancl in particular of the velocity dist,ril111t.i011 in thorn, have l)ccn cnrricd out by
laycr there occurs sudtlcnly a small t . ~ ~ r h n l c narea t ('tur1)nlent spot'), irregular J. Wygnanski e t al. [lo$].
 b. I'rinriplrs of tho tl~coryof ntnhi1it.y of I : ~ r ~ ~ iflows
r~ar ,167
flow. 'l'llc theory entlcavo~trst,o follo\v up in titno t . 1 I)c-l~:rvio~~r ~ o f s n t ~ ht l i s t . ~ ~ ~ ~ l r : l . ~ ~ c
wllot~t,ltcy arc! supcrim~~osctl on t,hc main (low, I)r:lring in tni~ttl t,l~:tL t.l~(:ir~ ? L : I c ~ .
f o r n ~stmillremains to be tletcrmiued in part,ic~~lnr rascs. 'rho tlroisivr cll~c~stiol~ 1.0
answer in this conncxion is wllctl~crt,hc ilist,urbnllcca incrrnsc or tlir ant, wif.11 t.imc.
If the dist.rrrbnnces tlecny witaht,irne, t,llo 1n:cin flow is consitlrrotl st.:~l)lr!;o11 t,l~oot,llcr
11r21111, if 1 . 1 1 ~( l i s L ~ ~ r l ~ nincrcnse
t ~ ~ ( : s witrll t.irnc Lhc Ilow is c:o~~si~lt:rt:tlr ~ ~ ~ s l ~ :III(I
: ~ . ll.l~or(b
,l~~,
cxist,s t.l~epossibility of transition t o :t t.url)rtlor~tpnt,l.crn. 111 f,l~isw:~.y:L L/IPOI.!/ o/
slnhilit?/ is c:rcnt,crl, ant1 its o1)ject is 1.0 prc:tlict t,l~cv:lltlc of f.h(- c:rific.:~l I < . t ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ c ~ l t
uun11)cr (ix :L l)roscril)ctl main flow. 'L'ho bnsis of' tho t , l l c ~ r yof sf,n.l~ilit.y (:an I)(. f r:~c:e:tl
Lo 0 . Itrynoltls 1721 who s ~ ~ p p o s cl.l1:1L (l t.l~t:I:ln~it~nr~:LI,I.(TII, I ~ r i ~ t:Lg s o l ~ ~ I , 01' io~~
tlro diKcrcntial eqttntions of fluit1 d y t ~ i ~ m i c nlw:cys s, rc:l)rrst:nf,s n possil)l(: t.,yi)t: of
flow, l)nff I)(:comcs r~nst.nbl(:above a tlc:firlit,c litnil, (~)rcc-isc.ly 111)ovc:f , I ~ t a c.rif.i~.:ilI I t t j r -
nolds number) and changes into tho tfurbulcrlt ~):ltt,crn.
Much worlc has Itccn tlot~n on I . l ~ t r ~ r r ~ ~ I . l ~ c ~ t n r fc ct .~i ~t:t~~~~. lt l r ~of
. I . li to.~( .~J~. ~ ~ ~ , l ~ l ~ '
Ily1~)thcsis(luring rnnny clt~c:i~tlcs, first 1j.y 0. Ik~~y~toltls I~irnsc-If: t t ~ t l I:L~.~-I.. IIO~:II~I~.
by Jiortl Raylcigll (701. Thcsc cKort,s, wllicl~lo11 Lo vrry cornplic:~tctlc*:llt:~tl;lt.iol~s,
have remained for n long time devoid of ncl~icvcrncnt,.Al)oliL 1930, 1,. I'rnrltlt~l
a n d his collaborators slicccetlctl in at,tair~ingthe irlit.i:ll o l ~ j c c of t prcdic:t.irlg t . 1 1 ~\.;~luc!
of tllc critical Rcynoltls rlr~rnbcrin s sntisf:tct40r.y\v:~y.'I'llc c?r[)nrin~crlt~nl vc~rifiral.iorl
of t h e st,nl)ilit,y bhcory cnmc somc t.cn ycnrs I:~t.c:r w l ~ c rI~I . I,. 1)ryllrrl with I)is
. <. co-workers were nl)le t o 01)t:~inbrilliant, agrrernc~lt~ I)cf,wct~r~ tllcory nntl cxl)oritt~c~r~t,.
q,t~.t(.r w I I ( . t l :I,, :trlili,.i:tl ,,r ttnI~sr:tl l ~ ~ r l t 1 1 1 1 ~ ~1 t1l 1 0 1Y W ~ I I I U ID?. 'I)irlw i ~ ~ l c r \I~.lw(.(.n
~:~l 111~rkrrtrn!.cs i u '/,. ser
Comprchcnsive accounts of t h e theory of s1,al)ilit.y were givcrl by 11. S ( ~ h l i c l ~ i . i n ~
[7H, 7!)], by R.. Rct,cho\~ant1 \TT.O. C~,i~ninnlc [ 4 J , : I I I ( ~ 1)). ('.(.'. l,in (561.
Slcncler bntlirs: It, 11:l.sI)con rst,:ll,lisl~rclt.l~;t.tt.hc prcssltrc gmtlicnt alotlg :I, wall
exert,s itn irnpor.t,ar~t,i l ~ f l ~ l r r ~
onc ct,hc positiot~o f t,hc point of transition in t l ~ c1)ound- 2. Forrnclatior~of tlre rr~etl~odof s n ~ a l lclist~~rbar~res.
'I'hc theory of stnl)ility of
a r y l:~y(:r. In rnng(>sof (Iccrcnsing IlrcsstIrc (nccelcrntod flow), tho boundary layer laminar flows dceomposcs t h e motion into a mcan flow (whose staI)ilit,y cconslitrttcs
r r t n n i ~ ~ gcrlcrt~lly
s, sl)c:nlting, Inn~in:rr, \\,hrrcns cven a very sslnall presstlrc incrcase t h e subject of t.lle ir~vestigalion)and into n tlistnrl~nnccsr~pcrimposrdo n it. Lct
nln~ost,nl\v:lys 1)rings t.r;~~)sit,ion with it. hlnltil~gIISC of this fact, i t is alwnys possible the mean flow, which m a y be rrgnrdctl a s st,mcly, 1)r drsc-rihrtl I)y i k C:artc.sinn
i,o rctlllrr t . 1 1 ~skin frict,iol~on slcndcr l)o<lics(:l.crofoils, st,reamlino 1)otlics) by dis- s , V, W and it,s 1)rcssltrc I-'. 'l'l~c rorrcspot~dit~g
velocity c o m p o ~ ~ c n tU qrrnntitirs
I)I:~t:ingi.llr point ol. t,ransit,ion as far d o w ~ ~ s t . r e ;a~smpossible; this is achieved by a for the t~on-stratlydisturbance will be dcnotctl by w ' , 17'. IIJ', ant1 p', rcsprctivt~ly.
s~lit,a.l)lo rhoic:r of shnpe or profile n.ntl of t , l ~ ccorrcspontling pressure rli~t~ribnt~ion. IIence, in the resultant motion t h e vclocity componrrtts arc
'S'llo sltin f~,ic.t,iotrof I,oeIics ~)osscssir~g s~tc:)~
long I n t n i ~ ~ ninit.i:rl
r Icngt.11~of 1)ound;iry
1n.gc.r (Inrninnr 1)rofilcs) IIC rctl~rcctlt,o ns Ijfff.lc a s Ilalf or-less of what i t woultl
I ) t on n more r ~ o r ~ n ns11:rl)c.
l and t,hc pressure is
p=I'-I p'
'I'l~o~x)si(,iotlof tClloltoit~tof trnr~sit.iorlant1 hcncc t,hc magnitude of t h e slrin
fric:t.ion C:LII be st,rongly aITcctlcd by othcr Incans also, for example by sucking away I n most cases i t is assumed t h a t t h e quant.ibics related t o t h c dist~irb:~ncc arc small
t11c bo~tntlnrylayer. compared with t h e corresponding quantities of tthc m:ain flow.
..
I h c i n v c s t i g a t i o ~of
~ t h e stability of such a tlist.ttrb(:tl flow onn I)e c:arric:tl otrt
b. I'riiiciplcn of the theory of stal,ility of lnrllinar flows wit11 the aid of eithcr of two din'crcrlt mcthotls. 'L'llc first rnct,hotf ( c ~ ~ , e l g711,clhod) ?/
consists ~ncrclyin t<hccalculation of t h c variation of tho cnorgy of t,hc t1istnrt)nncos
I. I r ~ ~ r n t l ~ ~ renlnrkn.
etor~ 15frort.s 1.0 c1nrif.y axil t,o explain t,ltoorrt,ically t,ho with t,imc. Conclusions arc tlrawn depcntling on w l ~ c t ~ l tt.I~t: c ~ cncrgy tlccronses or
rr~nlnrlz:~l,ltrproc:t:ss of t,r:~.nsit.ionjnst drscril~otlwcic initiated many decades ago; increases a s t,imc goes on. The theory atlmits a n arl)it#mr,yform of t , l ~ supcrirnposctl c
fltt~?;11:lvc: lctl t,o sncccss only in 1010 I:l.st, thirLy years. 'l'hese tl~eoreticalinvesti- motion a ~ t t ltlemands only t h a t i t shortl(1 be compntiblc wi(.h t J ~ ccqnnt,ion of roll-
g:~t,ions:rrc 11:lsctl or1 t,l~cn s s ~ l ~ n p t , it,hat
o r ~ 1n.minnr flows arc affected b y certain small trinuilpy.'rhc cncrgy mct,l~otlwas dcvclol~ctlnlainly I)y I I . A. I,orc:rltx 1571 : I . I I ~ ~r l i t l
clisf.~lronnt:c:s;in t,l~rrn.sc: of 11ipr: flow t,llc:sc tlist,llrl,nncos may originnto, for cxnmplc, not IWOVC s~tc(:(:ssf~~I; wc: s l ~ : ~ lthorcforo,
l, rcfr:~irtfrorrt c:or~sitlc:ringit, i t 1 tl(,I,:~iI.
i l l I.II(, inIt:t., wl~c:ro:~.s in t,llc case of a l)o~tntlarylnycr on ;I solid body plncctl in a Thc sccontl mcthotl accepts only flows which arc c:onsistcrlt wit,ll tJtc r c j ~ ~ a t ~ i o t ~ s
st.rcv~ntf,l~t,pn1n.y n.lso I)!, t l t ~ rt.o wn.ll ror~gltnessor t o irrcgurlarit.ics in tho external of mot,iotl ancl annlyzcs tthc manner in whic:l~they clrvclop in 1.11~ flow, I I roft:rcncc
~
458 XVI. Origin of turbulence I b. Prinriplr~of t l ~ ethrory of stnhility of l ~ i ~ ~ ~flows
ir~nr 459

t o thc appro~)ri;~l.o rlilTrrrr~tinlcq~~nLions.'rliis is tlic mrlhod of small dislur6nnces.
This scroritl nirtliotl has let1 t o complctr success ant1 will, for this rcason, be described
with somr tlrtail.
Wc s1i:ill now corisidor a two-tlimonsional incornprcssiblc mean flow ancl a n
cclually trwo-tlimcnsiond distr~rl)anco.'L'l~c rcsr~ltir~g motion, clcscribcd by eqns.
(16.2) a.ntl (16.3). sat.isfios tho two-tlirucnsion:~lform of tlic Navicr-Stokes equations
a,. givcn in rqris. (4.4a, b, c). Wc shall f ~ t r t h e rsimplify the problem by stipulating
tliat t.11~ rncari vclocit,y TJ dcpcntls only 011 11, i. c., IJ = U(y), wlicreas t h e remaining
two c:ompor~cr~i~ n.rc: s~rpposcdt o be xoro cvcrywhorc, or V W z Of. Wc havc
cr~c:or~t~t~crctls ~ ~ oflows
li cnrlicr, tlcscril~ingthcrn :IS p,rf~llel&o~I)R.111 tlrc cast of :L
chnnricl with parallel walls or a pipe, such a flow is rcprodr~codwith great accuracy
a t a aufficient d i s h n c c from tho inlet section. The flow in tlie bo~lntlarylayer car1
also he reg.anlcd ns k good approximation t o parallel flow because t h e dependence
of tlic vclocit,y U in tlie main flow on t.hc x-coordinate is very much ~ m a t l c rt h a n
t h a t on y. As far a s the pressure in tlie main flow is conccrncd, i t is obviously rlccessnry
to assume a dcpcntlcncc on x as well a s on y, i. e., P ( x , y ) , becausc the prcssurc gra-
dient i)P/ax mairitair~sthe Ilow. Thus we assume a mcari flow with
Upon the mcan flow wc nssnmc siiperimposcd a two-tlirnerisional tlisturbance which
is a function of time and space. Its vclocit,y componcnts and pressure arc, rcspec-
tivcly,
? ~ ' ( x , y , t,) vl(x,y,t) , p 1 ( z 3 y , l ). (16.6)
IIerico tho rcsnltnnt nlotion, according fn eqns. (16.2) and (16.3), is described 1)y
I t is ass~imctlt h a t t,lic nio:Ln flow, cqri. (16.4), is a solution of t h c Navicr-Stokes
equations, and i t is required t h a t t h c resultant motion, eqn. (16.6), must also satisfy
tlio Navicr-Stokes cquat.ions. The supcrimposerl fluctuating velocities from eqn.
(16.5) arc tnkc?ri t,o 11c "small" in thc scnsc t h a t all quadratic tcrrns in the fluctuating
cornponcnts may be ncglccted with respcct t o t h c lincar terms. The succcctling
scct,ion will corit,ain a morc dct,ailctl tlcscription of t h e form of t h e ~list~urbance.
Now, tlio task of tho stability t,hcory consists in clcbrmining whether t h e tlistur-
bancc is amplifictl or whotlicr it clccays for a givcn mean motion; t h e flow is cyn-
sitlrrctl ~inst.:rl)lcor stahlo tlcpcnding or1 wlicther the former or the latter is t h e case.
Sr~bstitutingcqns. ( 1 6 6) into tlic Navicr-Stokcs equations for a two-dimensional,
incomprcssiblc, non-steady flow, cqns. (4.4a, b, c), arid nrglcrting quadratic terms
in the tli~t~urbarice velocity components, wc obt,ain
wherc V 2 dcnotes t h c Laplacinn opcrator a2/i)22 a2/8!/2. +
I f i t is considcrctl tliat t l ~ cmrnn flow it,sclf sntisfics tlic Navicr-Stokcs oqrla-
tions, t h e above equations cnn bc simplificcl t o
Wc havc olltninotl ttliroe oqn:~i,iorisfor IL', 11' arlcl pl. 'l'11c l)01111tl11ry c o n ~ l i t i o ~spnvify
~s
t h a t tlie turbulent vclocity comporicni.s IL' aiitl v' vanish oil t l ~ cwtills (no-slil~cori-
dition). T h e pressure p' can be easily climinatcd from tho two cqaat.ions, (10.7) ant1
(1F.8), so tliat togctlinr wvit>litJic cqi~nt~ion of continl~il.ytflicro arc t,\vo cqn:~i,ionsfor
u' and v ' . It is possil)lc t o crit-icizc the n.ssnmrtl form of t l l c : riictLn Ilow, ~ ( 1 1 1 .(I(i..l), or1
tlic ground t h a t the variatiori of thc coniporicnt l I of t.lic? vclocity with x :LS wc:ll :I,S
t h e normal component V havc hccn ncglccbtl. Jn this conncxion, howcvcr, .l. 1'rct.scli
[44] proved t h a t the rcsult.ing terms in the eqnations arc unimportant for t h e
stability of a boundary layer (see also S. J. Cheng 171).
3. The Orr-Sommerfeld equation. T h e mean laminar flow in the 2-clircction
with a velocity U (y) is assnmcd t o be influenced by a disturbance whicli is composetl
of a number of discretc psrtlial fluctuations, cnch of which is said t o consist of n wave
whicli is propagate11 in tho x-direction. As it, has already bccn assrirnctl i,li:tt tlic
perturbation is two-diinensional, i t is possible t o introtlucc a stream I~nct.ioriyi(z, y,t)
tlins integrating t h e equation of contin11it.y (10.9). Thc st.rcam furletion reprcscntirig
a sirigle oscillation of tlie distnrbnnce is assumcd t o bc of tlic form
Any arbitrary two-dimcnsiorial d i ~ t ~ u r h a n cis
c assrimctl cxl)nntlcd in a I'ouricr
scries; cacli of its terms represent8 such a partial osc:illat,ion. In cqn. (16.10) a is n real
quantity ant1 A = 2 x / a is t h e \vavclcngt,l~of t.lrc clislurb;x~icc.T h e q~iant,il.y is
complex,
P = P, I- i PI ,
where p, is t h e circular freqlrency of t.he pnrt.inl ~scillat~ion,
wlicrcas P, (amplification
factor) ctctermines tlio clcgrec of amplificnt.iori or dampirig. The tlist,~~rl)nnvns arc
tlanipocl if P, < 0 aritl tsliclaminar mcan flow is st,al)lc, wlicmas for PI 0 i~~st,:~l~ilii.y :.
~ c t in.
s Apart from a a.nd it is convcnicr~lt o introtlr~cct,lic,ir ratio

C = ' -=e, -1- i c , .

t Tho convenient coniplc?r noLrrt.ion in r~ortlIlnr. l'l~ysivnlrnr~ulingis nt.trlc.llt.tl o ~ ~ tl oy I.hc rral

part or the ~t,rcanir~n~ct.ion,tllr~n
t 'J'hcrr arc rrmt)rls In nopponc, a4 sl~n~vri I)y (:. 1%.S C ~ I I ~ Rnntl
I I P.
C ~S. IClobnnofT [831, that
t,llrnc t : o r ~ ~ l ) o rnrt:
~ c ~~I\V:LYR
~ I ~ l)rt*sc1itri l l rcnl IIOWR, particularly in flow^ J I ~ Rflat
~ plntcl~.I'hcir Re(tl7) - - rkil I.+,ron (~3: /?,I) .+i (m:r -- /l,t)l
t~~ngnit.r~tle is r~t.gligil~lc for tno~LlIrwl)t>scs,1)11t thcy Reem tc) play n elart, not yct fully clucidatecl. whrrc q5 - q5, -1 i is 1,110 complcx smplit~rdc.
i l l thc proocas of trn~i~it.ion; RCO nl~nfoot.~iotc 011 p. 468.
 4(iO XVI. Origin of turbuletlce 1 1). Principles of the tllcory or stability of Inrllinar flows 4G1
JIerc c, t1cnot.c~t.11~vclocit,~of p r o p a p t i o n of t,hc wave in the z-dircction (phase When tehcmean flow IJ (11)is specified, eqn. (IF. 14) col~t~ains four pamrnnt.rrs, t t : ~ n ~a, cl~
vclooity) wl~crcasc, agair~doLertnincs t,l~otlcgrce of damping, or nmplificntion, t1cpcit1- R, c, anti c,. Of t.hcse tjhc rtcynoltls nrlml)or of t h e moatl flow is liltcwiso spccill(:d
ding 011 it,s sign. The arnl)lit,~~tle fr~nct,ion,4, of t,hc flnct,llation is ass~t~nccl
t o tlcpcntl and, f ~ ~ r t , h cthe
r , ~avcl011gt~11 i= 2 n / a of the disturb:~n(:cis t o bc consit1crc:tl givcn.
on y only ~C(:ILIISC tltc mcn.11 Ilow tlcprnds on y alone. I'roni cqn. (16.10) i t is possible 111 t.his rase the tlifferentia,l equation ( I F . l 4 ) , togcthrr witJh the I)orlntlary c:ot~tlit,iorrs
f,o ol)t,ain 1.11(: c:ornl~oncnlSs of t.hc pcrt,rrrl)nt.ion vcloc:it,y (16.15), f\rrnistr onr oigc:nf'~~ncLion + ( ? I )ant1 one cornplcx c i g c n v : ~ l ~c~ =c= c, 1 i ci
t)l/, a , R. I Ivr(! cr r t : ~ ~ r ~ : s I,II(:
for (%:tt!lt 1):tir ol' v:~l~tt.s ~ ~ t~)II:LSC
~ I ~ s v(:lot,il,.y 01- I.II(: l~r(~s(:ril~t:~l
11,' - - : ,#,'(?/) (."a' PI' , (10.12)
i)y t1isturbnncc wltcrcas t l ~ csign of c, tlcLcrnlit~cswllctllrr bho wavt: is aml)lilictl (ci : . O )
or tla.tnpctl (ci < O ) t . For c, < 0 the correspor~tlingflow ( I J , R) is s t a t ~ l cfor lllc givcn
1) -=
Ry1 --
ax
i u +(?I)& m y PI) . va.lllc of a , wllcrms c, > 0 tlcnot,cs il~stabilit~y. The lilnil'ing case c, : (1 corrcsporlds.
1.0 nrnLml (i~rdiPFcrrnt.)distrrrl~ar~ccs.
Irlt.rotl~lc:ir~g
I,l~c:sc-valnrs il~l,orqrls. (16.7) ant1 (10.8), we obtain, after tlrc clirni-
nat.ior~of prrssnrc, 1,11(: following, ordinary, fourth-ortler, tlifferential equation for t h e T l ~ crcslllt of such a n analysis for a prescribcrl Iamirlar flow U (?I) can be rcprc-
n.tnl)lit,utlc4(?/) : scntrd grnpl~icallyin an a , R diagranl bccausc cvcry point, of tllis plane corrcsl~or~tls
, . - . .- ._
-.-.- I t,o a j):tir of valucs of c, ant1 c,. In particular, the loc:~~s c, .=0 scpamt,c:s Lllc rcgiou
of st3:tl)l(:from lfl~all of ~lnsl,:rl~lc 'I'his loells is c:tcll(:cl 1 . 1 1 ~ot,roc o/ )~rv~t/rctd
tlisl~~rI):~tlc:c:~.
s/r~bi/i/.~/ (l?ig. 16.8). '1'11~ 11oinL on trhis (:rtrv(: n,t, \vI1i(:11I,IIc lt(!ynoItls I I I I I I I I I ~ ~11:~s
~
'I'llis is t,tlc fnl~tl:~rncr~t.nl rlil/erc71,tiral cq~urtionfor thc! distl~rbrr.n,ce(.stnhilit~cquotin~s) iLs srnallosl v a l l ~ e(tarlgcnt parallel Lo tltc a-axis) is ol' grn:tt,osO illl.orcst sitlcc: it,
\vllic*lt forrns 1,11(? point ol' clrl):~rt,urefor I,hc st,abilily t.hcory of lan1in:lr flows. I t is int1ic:atc.s t h a t vnlrre of' the Itrynoltls nr~rnl)erbelo\\. wllicll ;LII it~tli\~itlir:ll oscill;lI,io~r~
c.ort~nlol~ly rc:fi:rrcbtl t,o :IS (.he Orr-Rom,mcrlclrl eqlmtion. I1:quation (l(i.14) has been tlccny, whereas above t.11ntv s l ~ l ca t least some arc atnplificcl. This smallest, Itoynol(ls
c:ast i t 1 din~c~nsionl(~ss form in Lllat all lengl.11~have been divitlecl b y a stlitnbtc 11nm1)cris tile critical Rc?jtrolds nuin0er or livnil 01 stobilily wit,lr rt:spcct t,o t,lrc t.ypc
rc~li*rc~ncr IcllgI.11h or 0 (\vitlt.I~of c:lt:rnnrl or 11ortntln.ry-layert3lricltncss),ant1 vcloci1,ins of I a n ~ i n a rflow rlntlcr cot~sitlcrxlion.
II:LVC I~retlt l i v i t l r t l I)y I,II(: n~;lxitnrttnvrloc.it.y I / , of t,hc main flow. 'Uhe prilnes denof,c 0 0
I~orcrcIini~rcttt~i:~.I~iot~ wit.lr rcs[)rc:L t o tthc rlimensionlcss coortli~~atcs 2/16 or ylb, ant1

Fig. 16.8. Curves of neutral stabi1it.y for

tl(.l~ol.c:sI.l~cItryttc~lrls111tln0c:rwl~ic:l~ of t . 1 1 ~tnc:Ln flow. 'rhc t,crrns
is a c:l~:rra.c:t,rrisl,i(: t~vo-dilnensionalborlntlary layer wi(.tr
two-dimensional disltlrbanccs
0 1 1 t.ho Ic:l't,-l,:~.n~l sitlt: ol' (:(ln. (I(i.14) arc: tlcrivcrl from t.hr inrrt.ia terms, ant1 t,lrosc (a) "non-visrolls" insla1,ilily; i n t h c rnsc nC vclo-
011 I,hn rigl~l.-l~:~.l~tl sklr f'rotn I.hc \~isr.n~ls l.(:rtns in t.11~
cqrlat,ions of lnotrion. I3y way city ~ ~ r n i l l or
r s 1y1m :t wilh poi111 *,f i l ~ f l r x i o n
:,
I ' I , t h r rllrrc or 18r11Irnls l n b i l i t y is or t y p c
of rx:ltnl~l(:. 1.11~: I ) O I I I I ~ ~ : L ~ , Vcon~lit.iol~s li)r a I)o~~r~tlary-layer llow tlcmar~tlLllnt the (1,)"visro~~q"Instahllity; in I11e raw or vriorit,)
~ ~ O I I I ~ N N I of I ~ , ~l~:rt,urt):~t~ic,r~
~ I l.l~(: vc.loc:il,y n ~ ~ l svnnisl~
t, n.t. t,llc wall (11 -- 0) and a t a proIllrr nl type 8 uilhotrt poi111of lnflrxion, lltr
rllrve o l erutml sl.nbilily is or l y p c b
I:~rgt,t l i s l . n . r l c ~ cl'rorn
~ il. (h(vs1,rc::ttn). 'I'IIIIS : T l ~ nnryrnplot~rsTor l l ~ nrrlrvc or rtrulral stnbility
a al. R - - + r, arc ohlxincd rroln lltr "rrirlionlrar"
slallilit?. rrlllalio~i(16.16)

At, I , l l i s sl.:~gc.i t , is ~ ) ~ ~ s s it,o l ) lr:tisr

( , l01r ol)j(!c*t,iot~ l.l~at,tlist.~lrb:~nrc~s s ~ ~ ~ r r i n ~ l )011o s r ~ l r ,
I he rxprritnrnt,:~~I rvi(lrncr con(x~rnit~g t,ransit,iot~fro111 l:~n~in:t,r 1-0 I , I I ~ I ) I I I I ; I I ~ ,
:I l,\vo-rli~n~~ltsioll:~l IIo\v 1);11,I.rrn~lrtttlIIOL I)r I.wo-rlin~olsiot~al, if n, cornl~lctrnnnlgsis flow rrfrrrrtl 1.0 ~)roviorrslyI(.nds 11s t,o cxl)cc:l, t h a t , ;LI, SIII:LIII b ( ~ , y ~ ~ o111t111l)t~rs I~ls for
of' l.11c. tl11('st,io11 01' st,:rl~ilit.yis 1.0 I)(: :\c~hit~vc~tl. 'I'l~iso\)jcrtio~lw:~srcrnovotl Oy II. I{. wl1ic.11I:~minnrllow is ol)servc-tl. :LII \v:rvrl(~r~gt.l~s wo~lltll)rorl~~c*c> o t ~ l gsl.:rl)lr tlisI.rlrl):~lr-
Stlrtircb ( 3 7 1 \r.l,o 1wt1vt-tI. Iry :~ssrtlnir~g tlisl.~rrl):l.nc:(:swltic:h wcrr pc-riotlic: :~Isoin c ~ s ,wl~rl~rn.s :lip I:~r.gt-r ltc:g~~oltlsrllln~l)c~rs, l i ~ r\vllic~l~I . I I ~ I I I I I ~ : I I I IIo\v
, is o11s(~r\~1~1,
I ht* z~tIirc.t.lio11.l.lt:~.I. :I. I ~ \ v o - t l i ~ ~ ~ c . r ~Iloa~ s i o ~ ~ ); ~: ~l t , l . cI)t:c:o~nrs
~n ~~t~sI.:sl)lcat. :I 11igllc.r ul~st,:~l)lc ~ t lat, I(,ast, sonto \ V : L V ( ~ I ~ I I ~ ~ , I I S Ilo\r.(:\,(.r,
tlist~rirbarlccso~lght,t,o c o r r c s ~ ~ o rto .
l{t.yr~oltls111i11111t.r L I I ( ~ ( ~t ~ l ~ r r ~ - t l i t ~ ~ ( : tl ,~l ~s: il to) ~\VIT(\II
\ V I I ( ~ ~ ~I . I I ( : ~ I ~ s ~ . I I I . ~is) ;:ISSIIIIIP(I ~:~I it is ncrrssnry t,o r c ~ n n r ka t tallispoitlt t.l~:rt~t.11~:vrit,ic:n.l I<c~yt~ol(ls I I I I I I I ~ ) ~c~:~lrrtl:~.t.ncl
:~
it, is sr~lrl)ost.rlto l . \ v o - r l i ~ ~ ~ c ~ l ~ sI Ii Io ~I,l~is
~ ~ : scllsr
~I. t . \ v o - t l i n ~ c ~ r ~ s~lisl.~rrl~:~.nc~c:s
io~~:~I frotr~ st.nl~ilil~g c:otlsitlt:r:lt.io~~srxnnol. Irc: c:sl)c:al.c~tl t,o 1 ) ~ . tv111:11t,o !.IIo I<.(~y11o1tls
: I ~ I %" I I I O ~ I * t I ; ~ i ~ g t ~ r oVor ~ t st"~ \ r . ~ - ~ I i ~ t ~ ollo\vs ~ ~ s it,l!n,t~
t ~ r ~t :, l~~l r t - r . ~ l i ~ ~ ~ r t t~lsi si o
t ~t ~ :~~r lk ~ a t ~ c r s .
I I ( . I I ( ~ ~ LIhr v:~lrlt.01' I l l ( . c*rilic.:~lI1,(?y11oItls n r ~ r n l ~ cor, r , tnorr prccisrly, of t.hc lownst t On t,he ot.l~rrI~antl,it, is also posnil)lr t.o rrgnrtl R alld 1 . l t-irc-lll:~r
~ frc.qllrllry /I, :I.S fixcvl. I I I Illis
l i t ~ ~ i (t3 1. ' st:~lrility.is olrl.:rir~c.tlI)y cwnsitlvring two-tlir~~rtlsionnl clistrir0:~ncrs. ensr tjhr eigonrnlt~ei)rol)lr~nd c t r r ~ ~ ~ iat ~ t~orrespo~~tlir~g
rn v:1111r? of a ( I I)(: wnvt:lr:~~gl.l~) :111t1 I.l~c:
corflit:ir~~t, /I,. 'I'ltvs(: wrrt: l,ltt> (:o~~ilitit~ns
of a~~~l)lifit:%t,iot). ~ ~ t ~ i s l 11. l I ~ X ~ I ~ ~ ~ I1.:~rri1.11
i ~y vl,l)o I I ~ ~ I I ~ S
o l ~ tI)y 11. I,. I)rytlctl ant1 Itis collal~or:~t,ors, ns (lcsc:ribc:cl i l l St.(.. S\'ItI. w11o11 n r l :~rliliri:tl
distl~rbarlccof a tlefinite froqrrrtlry wn.s ~t~prritnposctl OII :t Inrl~ill:rrflow will1 I.11etritl of n sui-
tably rxcitrd strip.
462 X V I . Origin of tnrb~rlmco1

numl)er obscrvctl : ~ t.110 t point, of l,ransiffion. If al,ttcnt.ionis fixctl on t,hc Ilnw in the The n ~ a j o r i t ~of
y cnrlier papers on tllc theory of sttal)ility usctl t h e frirt,ionlcss
honntlary In.yrr along a wall, ~ I I C It,llc ~ tllc:orct.ical critical Itcynoltls nnrnl)er indicates equation (10.16) a s their point of tlcl~:l.rl,~rrc. 111t.his mannc>r, cviclrn(,ly, no c:rit,ic::ll
the point. on t,111. wall at. u ~ l l i r l:~niplific:nI.ion
~ of somc inciividual tlisturbances begills Itcynoltls number can bc o l ~ l a i ~ l c brlt
t l i t is ~ ~ o s s i b lt,o
c :Lnswrr tllc clrlcst.ior~of
ant1 I r o r r e d s clow~~stroam of it. T h e transforrnat,ion of sl~cli;~~nplificd dist~urbances whctller a givcn laminar flow is st,ahlc or n o t t . Tllc co~rlpletce q ~ ~ a t ~ (16.14)ion was
i11t.ot.nrI)nlrn~:rt,altrs I I solnr~ timc, ant1 t,hc unst~al)lctlist,ltrl)nncc: llns hatl a chancc: arialyccd much later when, after many failnrcs, critical Itcyr~oldsnnrnI)crs wrrc a t
t.o t.r:tvel sonic tlist,n.nrc in the tlownstrc:sm clircct.ion. I t must, therefore, bc cxpcct-cd last s~~occssfrilly cv:~l~~atccl.
tllnt, t.hc o1)scrvctl posit,ior~of thc poinl; of transit,ion will bc tlow~lst~rea~n of the St,art.ing wit,h the above frictionless sl,al)ility cqr~al.ion, cqn. (lG.IF), I x r d
calcr~lat~ctl, t,hcorct,ica.l limit of stability, or, in otller words, t h a t the experimental Raylcigh 1701 s~iccrcdctli n clcriving several importcant,gcncral tl~corenisroncrrning
critical Reynoltls nr~mhcr cxcccds itFl t-hcorctical value. This remark, cvidcntly, the sI8abilitfyof larninar veloritty profiles. ~ U valitlity
I ~ of t81~csc Iln,s lator I ~ c r ncon-
applies to Rcynol(ls nr~mbcrs1)asctl o n t11c curmnt lcngtfh a s well ns t o those bsscd firn~c.tlalso for tllc cnsc when t l ~ cclTcct of visco~it~y is t.:tlccn into aoc:o~rnl,.
on t.11~bour~clary-layertllickness. In order t o distinguish bctwcen these two vall~cs T l ~ c o r c mI : Thc first iruportant,, gcrlc:ral t l ~ n o r c nof ~ t,llis Ititltl, t,llc so-callctl
i t is usual t o call t h e thcorctical critical Reynolds number (limit of stability) t h e point-of-i~ilZcsion&cxioz criterion, asscrts t h a t vclocity profilcs whicll posscss a poirlt of
p i n t o/ l:nstabilit?y whcrcas tile experimental critical Rcynoltls number is called inflcxion are unstable.
the point o/ t r n n ~ i t i o n t . I,ortl Jtaylcigl~was a i ~ l ronlg t o prove ttllaltttllc cxisl.olce of a 1)oint. of infl(:siol~
Thc st,nbiIitg problem, briefly describctl in t,hc prccctling paragraphs, leads t o const.it2iltcs a nccessrrr!/ co7rdition for t,llc? occllrrcnc:c! of inst.r~l)iliI,y.h111e-11I:I.I.I:~,
cxtremcly tlifficr~lt mat,llcmntical consitlcmt,ions. Owing t o tllcse, sricccss in the Mr. r l ' o l l t ~ ~IiI (O~O~j ~R I I C ( ~ ( ~ ~ i~l l~ Isl~o~vitig
V~~ ~ I I I L I , I,Ilis ( * o t ~ x t , i 11,Iso
i ~ ~ ~,I ~.v,I//;(;;cI,~
~s (:,,,?-
calculat,ion of t11c critical Jtcynolcls nnmbcr e111Jccl t11c workers in this field for dilion for tile arnplificnt.ion or clist~url~:~ners. Thc ~ ) o i ~ l t - o f - i ~ l l l o xc:rit,trrio~~
im is ox
several cleoatlcs, in spite of t h e greatest efforts clircctcd towards this goal. Conse- fundamental itnport.ancc for t h e theory of st,ability because it provides -- except
y , what follows we shall he unable tx, provitlc a complete presentation of
q ~ ~ r n t l in for a correction due t o t,l~comission of t,llc influrncc of viscosity - a first,, ro11g11
tile stal)ility t.hrory nrid will be forccd t a restrict ourselves t o giving a n account of classilicat.ion of all laminar flows. From the pmct.ic:ll point of view, (.his oritcrion
t h e nlost i n ~ p o r t ~ arcsul
n t th?only. is important owing t o tllc dircct conncxion between the cxistcncc of a point of
inflexion a n d t h e presence of n prcssr~rcgradicnt. 111 tile case of co~lvcrgcnt~-cllnr~ncl
5. Geniernl properties o f the Orr-Sommerfeld equntion. Sincc from experi- flow with a favourablc pressure gmclicnt, a s seen from Pig. 6.15, the vcloc!it.y profilos
mental cviclcnce t h c limit, of ~ t a b i l i t ~ c, y = O is expected t o occur for large are vcry full and posscss no points of inflexion. Jn contraclistinction, in a tiivcrgent
values of tllc Itcynolcls ~ r i ~ m b cirt, is ~ i : ~ t l ~troa lsimplify tllc eqnation b y omitking cllannel with a n adverse pressure gradient,, thc vclocity profiles arc pointed anti
the viscous bmms on t.hc right-)land sitlc of it, a s comparctl with t h e incrtia tcrms, points of inflexion are pmsent. Jdcnt.ica1 differences in the geometrical fornr of the
b e c a ~ ~ sofe t,llc smallness of t h e coefficient 1/R. The resr~lt.ingdifferential equation velocity prof lea occur in t11c laminar boundary layer on a body inimcrscd in a stream.
is Icnown as t.110/rictionlr.~.~ .~lnhilil!j ~q7mlion,or Ru?jIri~~A's equntinn: According t o boundary-layer theory, thc vclocity profiles in the interval wl~crcthe
( I J - - - c ) (4" - a 2 4 ) -- I / " $ = 0 . (16.16) pressure decreases are free from points of inflcxion, wllcreas t.l~osein thc intcrv:~lwllcrc
the pressure increases always posscss tallem, see Sec. VITc. IIcnce, thc point-of-
It, is i~nl)orl,:~.r~t. 1.0 rlo1.c Ilc-rc: t.11at of t.hc four bor~nelaryeont1il.ion.s (16.15) of the inflexion criterion becomes cqr~ivalcntt o a ~ t a t n m c n tabout , the clTcct of the prcssurc
cornplctn equat.ion i t is now ~)ossiblct.o satisfy only two, bccat~scthe fricl ionlcss gradient in the external flow on tflc st,abilit,y of t,hc rc:sr~ocl,ivchorrrltl:try I:l.yors. As
stal~ilitycq~l:~t.ion is of t.ltc sccotl(l ortlcr. 'IYlc rcmai~lirlgb o ~ ~ n c l a rcorrditiorl
y t o bc applied t o boundary-layer flow, i t amounts to this: a favourablc pressure gmdicnt
sat.isfic(l is t , l ~ cvanishing of t.hc normal componrnt,s of vclocity near tllc wall of st.al~ilizcst h e flow, wllerrns a11 adverse pressure gradient cr~llnrlccsinstabilit.y. I t
a (:II~,IIII(:~, or, in l)o~~r~(I:~.r.v-l:~y(:r flow, t,I~(;irvanisl~ingal, l , l ~ cwall nn(I a t infinity, follows t l ~ a t h e position of the point of mirlirnr~m pressure on a body placcd in
,.
I IIIIS,in t.11~I:~l.l.crcase, wc 11avc a stream is decisive for t,hc position of the point of transition, and, rougllly speaking,
y=O: +=O; y=m: +=O. (16.17) we can say t h a t t h e position of tho point of minimum pressure determines t h a t of
, I
Lllc onlission of the viscous tcrms constitutes a tlra,st,ic si~nplifirat.ion,h c c ~ r ~ stile e the point of trar~sit.ionnntl causes t h e latter t o lic close bcllind t h e former.
ortl(.r of t,l~occlnn.t,ion is rocl~~rctl fro111 four 1.0 Lwo, ant1 t,llis may result in a loss Tllc irlflucncc of viscosit*y o n tllc solntiorr of tho st,ability c r l ~ ~ n t ~ i wl~ic:l~ on, 11:~s
of i~r~porl,:~.nO prol~c!rl.irsof tho gnnom.1sol~ll.iorlof l,hc complcl,e cqnnt.ion, as cotnparctl bccn rlcglcctccl u p to this point, cl~angcsthe prcccding corlcl~lsior~s only vcry sligllttIy.
wil,ll its s i ~ l ~ p l i l iv~:rsion.
~tl Ilnrc we n1n.y rc~pcn.l.'t,l~o
rom:~.rlesnol.c:cl provio~~sly
in I l ~ c~)rcactling ii~st,al)ilil~y
, 7
of ~cloc:i(~y profilcs wit11 ~ ~ o i n of t ~ sinfloxioll is IISII:LIIY
C1ln.p. IV in conncxion wit11 the transition froi? the Navicr-St,okcs ec~r~at~iotis of refcrrcd 1.0 as "frictionless ir~st~ability"because thc laminar meall flow proves t o
a viscor~sIIrritl Lo t.hosc for a frictionless fluitl. be unstable even withorit taking into account thc effectof viscosity o n the oscillat-
- ~-
ing motion. I n tile diagram of Fig. 16.8, t.hc case of f r i ~ t ~ i o r ~ linstability ess corrcspo~lds
t nlrrrltly cxplnirtrcl in Src. XVIn, rocn~~t, expcritnrntnl rcsr~lL~ (11. \\I. ICrnrnons 1251, and to t h e curvo of type a. Evcn st R = oo tllcro exists alrcatly n certain ~inst,abl~: range
.
hvll~~l)n~tor a11t1J(ICO.ZII~IT[H:IJ) indi(::tll(: l.I~at,Ll~crcis rlo wnll-delic~etlpoint of transition
l)lit, 1.11:11, t . 1 1 ~ I~rocc?nn
of I,r:111~it,io11
fro111lrunin:~r1.0 f ~ ~ l ltlc?~clopoeI
y turb~~lcrltflow extendr t With the rc~ervntionthat the influence of viscosity on tho dintrtrbnncc itRolf Ilns been left
ovcr a li~~itn cli~tdl~~m. out of considcration.
d(i.4 XVT. Origin of L~lrbulcnceI

of wavol(:ngblts; ill t.11~tlircction of (lc,rrcasing Itoynoltls numbers, this rangc is enong11 t,o cvsluato U (y) wit11 sllfficicnt dcgrcc of accnrnry 111tt.i(,ssrcorlcI ( ~ r r i v a t i v c
scpnrntc:tl frotr~t l ~ cst.nl)lo rnngo by t,l~oanrvo of 11c:ntral st,nbility. d2Ultly2 must also bc nccurotely Itr~own.
[II nontrnst, wiblr t . 1 1 ~ltrccctlirrg C:LSC, I J ~ S C ~ inatahilily
LS is associatcd wit11 a curvc f\ s ~ t r n t ~ i :of'
~ rt,Iro
. ~ so111tions of l ~ , : ~ . ~ ~ I ((Y~II:II ' s l ) t ~ t * s ( ~ ~I'IXIIII
~ i g l r ion, ~ t ( ~1lI I C I I I : ~ (11t.-
or tlcnl,r:~lsf.:l.i~ilil,yof slln.lio b, also s l ~ o in ~ rFig.
~ 10.8, ant1 with 1)ountlary-laycr tnnt,ician's point of virw, was ~)rcpnretlI)y 1'. (,!. I)rn.~inn11tl I,. N . I l o ~ v : ~ ~I .l5:aI. tl
prolilrs 1)oss(:ssi11gno ~ i o i n tof i~tflcsion.At Itey1101~1stlltrnl)crs tentling t o infinity,
l , l ~ r:~.t~gf:
r of IIIIsI~:I.I~I~:\v:~.\~rlrtigI~lrs
is rnnl.r:~cl~r~l t o a point, anql (1om:tins or I I ~ I S ~ , : L I ~ I C
osc:ill;~I.iot~s :it.(% stsc>t~
1.0 oxisl, otlly for fi~~il,o Ilnyrioltls t~nrnl)ors.( ~ c t ~ c r a l s~)r:~.Itit~g,
ly c. Itcsl~ltnof t l ~ ctl~eoryof stnbility us tltry ul~plyto IIIC bu~r~ttlrtry
11t~c.rntt XI fl~ttpl;ttc

t,ho n.tnorttit,of :~.tnplificnt.ionis rntrclt largcr in t,lrc casc of frict~ionlcssinstfabilit,ythan ut zero ir~citlcncc
in tho (;:IS(: of visc:orts it~sl.:~.l~ilit,y.
,, 1. Soit~eolclcr i ~ t v c ~ t i g n t i ni ~~t~t osstnbility. 'I'l~t: c::rrlic\r it~vc-sl,ig:tl,iot~s r~~~tlt.~.l,:~.kc*ti
I llc c~sislrncsc:of visc:o~lsinsl.:~l)ilily(::I,IIbc tlisc:ovr~~ctlonly in c:onrrcsion wil,ll
a tiisc~~ssionof 1,Ilc f i t l l Orr-Sornmcrli:l(l equat.ior~;i t const.itut,cs, tl~croforc,t,hc as a cont,inttntion of I,ord 1tnylrigl1's \vorlc litnit.c>tlt.l~c~t~~sclvc.s :I(, lirst l,o IIrc (.on-
moro tliffirrrlt, nn:~l~t,icnl c:tsc. 'l'hc simltlcsl; case of flow, n a n ~ c l yt,hat along a flat sidcr:ttiorr of Cor~ctt~e flow, i. c. t o tllc msc of li11cn.rvc,loc,il.y tlisI~ril)t~f.ion in :L flow
plal,c: wit.l~zero Iwrssrlrc gmclicnt belongs l,o the Itintl for which only viscous inst,abilit,y I)et4n,ccn two pnrnllcl wnlls, I'ig. 1.1. 'l'ltc vvry (~xl~:arrsI.i~(~ ( I ~ S C I I S S ~ Oof' ~ ~.II(> (.:IS(:
tlocs oc:c:rlr; it, \rr:ls s~rcc:rssl'r~lly t,aclilctl only comparatively recently. wllich irlclr~dcdt,llc f-ull cffcct of viscosil.y j)rovitlctl I)y A . Som~ncvf(:ltl18ti], It. volt
Aliscs [GI] antl I,. Ilopf [45] let1 t.o t,ltc: ronc:lr~siotl I.l~al,[,Iris t . y l ~ :of llo\v ~ ( : I I I : I . ~ I I S
'rll corc. rn I I : 'l'llc sccontl in~port,:~nt goncr:~ltl~corcmsl,atjrst,11al,tsho vrlocit,y sl.:~,l)l(* n.1, :tll I ~ ( ~ ~ v I I o I ( IIs I I I I I I I ~ ~:I,II(I
~ ~ S:I.I, :LII \ v i t v ~ * I ~ ~ ~ glt'or
t , l r:I,
s .I . ~ I I I ( * , :I I.I,~-I. 1.11i::I I < ~ : : I I ~ ~ I -
of 1~011n!:tt.i011 of tlnutrnl tlis1,nrl):anccs (c, = 0 ) in n I)orlrrtlary I:~ycris srnnllc:r tll:~n r(;sttll, 11:1(l I)(!(,II oOl,:tit~r(l,it, w:ts t l t o ~ ~ g ll,l~:it, ~ l , 1 . 1 1 ~tn(:l.l~o(lof' SIII:LII os~:ill:~l.iot~s \\,:IS
t.11~m:l.xrtnlrnl vrloci1.y of t.Ir(- mc:nn flow, i . o. t.h:tt, c , < (I,,,. I I I I S I I ~ I , ~ Ifor
~ I ~ t.11~l~l~~orc:t.iral so111l,io11 of I,II(> proI)lc~n01' t,r:~t~sit,ion. 11, l~~~:~~tsliit.c.tl
'I'llis t,l~c:orc>rn was :rlso first provctl by J,ortl IXnylcigll [70J, albcit itnclcr somc later t h a t t.his view was not jr~st~ifird, brcausc Coiicbt,c flow is a vcry sl)c-c,i:al nnd
~.(~sfl.i(*t.i\~(* t l s ; I)I.OVC(I ngnin by 14'. 'Yollmien [I001 for more gcneral
: ~ . s ~ r ~ t n l ~ t ~if,i owas restrictctl example. Aforeover, a s sl~o\vncnrlirr, 1,llc c ~ ~ r v a . l , tof~ r1n. 1 1 ~vcloc.il,y profilc
conclit,ions. It, :lsscrt.s t,Il:tt in t,ho interior of t,l~cflow t,l~erecxist-Ra layer wllcrc pl:~ysnn rsscnt,ial p11ysic:tl rolc in t.lrc flo\v, nntl it. is not, ~)crmissil)lnt,o Ic:l,vc it. o u t
IJ - c = O for nc~lt.raltlist.r~rl)anccs.'I'l~is fact,, t.oo, is of funtlanlental imporhancc of arco~rnt,.
in t , l ~ ct.llcor,y of st.:t.l)ilit,y. 'I'l~oIa.ycr for which 11 - c = 0 rorrcspontls, namely,
11."
t o a sirlgttlar point, of t,lto frict~ionlcssst.n.l)ilit,ycqrration (16.16). Att this point #"
I)cc.otncs ir~fittil~c! il 11" tlocs not v:~t~isll 'rllc (lisf.:tt~t:~=
1,ltcrn sin~ttlI.nncor~sly.
wltrrc: 11 - ~ . c::i.ll(>tlt,11(: crilicctl. Inyrr or 1.110 tnr:an flow. If [I,"
c is 4: 0, ttI~crl4" tends
t o infinil,.~its
' ' 1
.- ..
1
(I,/,. !/ ---y/<

of 1.11(* c:ril,ic::~.l1:tyc.r \vllrrc it, is [)crtnissil)lc t,o p n t IJ - c =

in 1.11~: ~lc:iglll)o~lt.l~oo(l
--- 1Jlfr(?y- yJi) :~.[tl)roxit~~:~l.cl.y;(:onsrq11~~111,Iy IJIC ~ - c o t n ~ ~ o n coft i I,IIc
t vclocil~ycan 11011ntlarylayers Velocity U
t)r writ.t,c.r~:r.s II(y) - vclocily ~ l i s t r i l ~ ~ ~ l i loj , n, , ; = v ~ l ~ l r ' i l iyn
llnr rrrr slrrarn; 6 = boundary l n y r r Lllirknrss; ffm
8, = ~ l i s p l ~ r c ~ n tll~icknrs~:
~nl, 1'1 = p ~ > i ~ ~ l o f i ~ ~ f l r x -
ion OC I l w v r l n c l l ) ~ j?roIllc. h r R - I I I C llrfl-
nlrs or l y p c a, 11, r, r l t t d I arc st:tl,lr; ~,ronlcsor
'I'hrts, a.ncortling t,o I,lrc frictionloss stal)ility cqllation, the c:omponent, IL' of t h e lyltc c, d, g nrr r ~ n s l o h l r ;l~rolllrsor t y p e c r r i a t
vrloci1,y wl1ic.11 is ~):~rallcl t o t,llc wall l)cc:otnos infinite if the curvatr~reof l,lre velocity in n rit~011rab10I)rPs?tIro f l r ~ t l i c n l ;1 y 1 T~corrce-
profile at, t h e critical layer tlocs not vatdsli sirnnltrnncor~slg.This mn.t~hematical 1,onds to cotlalanl. Iprrssurcq; I y p r g cxirta i l l an
advers,: I ) T ~ S J I I T P~ r a 1 l i ~ 1 1 1 .
sing~tI:~.ril,y in t.lto fric:Lio~~lnss sl.ar.I)ilit,yccl~l:~l~iort~)oinl.sl,o t.11~f:i.c:t tll:~t t.11~cff'rcl Velonly U
of viscosil.y on (.Ire c(111:~I.ion of motion tnttst noL be ncglcct,ctl in I,llc ncig11borrrf1ootl
of t , l ~ coril.ic*:~lI:~ycr.'J'llc irlnll~sionof t,hc eff(:c?ot of viscosity rctnoves this physica.lly
111 t,llc ym.r 1921 T,. 1'r:1.11tll.l[07)rc~vcrl,rtlIn t , l ~ :l.l,tsrn~l)l.
c 1'0 cx:r.t~tinc1.11(: l)rol)l(.tl~
a11~11rd sing111:1rity of 1 . 1 1 ~fri(;Ilion1rss st,:~l)ilif.yccl~lat,ion.'l'l~c n.na.lysis of t l ~ ccfial,
of t,lris so-c:rllntl vis(:ot~scorroct.ion on I.l~csolr~ticfnof t,Irc st,abilit.y equation plays of sttnbilit,y by t,l~c?orct,ical n~et,Ilotls.111 orclcr t o c o ~ ~ s i t l1.110
r r st:t.bilil,y of :L I:r~nin:~.r
a fi~t~tlnmcnl.n.l 1)nrt in tltc tliscussion of st.nbility. bountlary laycr on a flat plnt,e w i l . l ~ o ~unduc
it ~na.tl~cmnt,ic::~l c,oml)lic::rt,ions,vc:loril.y
'J'l~ctwo tllnorcms tlr~ctjo Lortl Rnylcigl~s l ~ o wt h a t tho c ~ ~ r v a t u of r e the vclocity profilcs witlr st,raigllt sc~gtnrnl,~ wcrc ~tsctl,lpigs. 16.9n, 11, (:, t l in I,II(: s:t.tncXw:ry :IS
profile n.ni.ct,sst,al)ilit:yitr nft~ntlatncnt.:~l w:~y.S i n i ~ ~ l t a r ~ c o uits has
l y 1)ccndcmonstmtcd was (lone prcviot~slyl)y I,ortI 11.aylrigl1. A c::~l(:r~lnl.io~t pc~rforlnctll1.y ( ) . 'l'ic.I,jvns I!tXI
1.11:lt the c~:rlaul:tt,ionof vc,locit,y profilcs in laminar bountlary layers must proceed on t.11~ basis of t l ~ frict.ionlrss
c st.abilil.y cclr~nt~ionsllowrtl t,lr:tt, in t.ltc rn.so of I~c~rtncl:~~~y-
wit.11 vrry high accnrary for tshc invcsl,igat,ion of st.ability t,o bc possible: i t is not layer profiles, the exisl,cr~ccof convcx corners, Figs. IB.!)a, I), c:nst~ro~ st.nl~ilif,~~,
whereas concave corners. I'igs. IC,.!)r, ( I , nl\\,:~.ysI(.nd t,o ins1.nl)ilif.y.I'his invcst.iga- Generally spcnlring, for net~t~ral
oscillat.ions we find 1,ltat.
t.ion matle i t p1ansil)lc t,o s ~ ~ p l ) ot11;~t
s c volocit,y profiles wit11 points of ittflcxion, 14'ig.
lO.9g, arennstablc. T h e tr~tt,liof this supposition was later dcmonstratctl by W. Toll-
micn [loo], a.s aIrra(Iy stat,cd in See. XVI I), Theorem I. and, consequent.ly, $1 and $ 2 represent the slowly varying solul.iot~s,wllc:rens $3
I n ort1t.r l,o ol)t.nit~:I l i n ~ i of
t ~ stal)ilit,yoxl)rvssctl i l l t,crnis of a ltcyuoltls number and $ 4 become the fast varying solutions. T h e pair of s ~ l u t ~ i o n+ Is, # 2 sa!,isfics bot.11
for ~tnst.:rl~lc: veloeit,y profiles (I'ijis. lC,.!)c :rntl tl), t,ho largest, visrolts terms appearing the frictionless disturbance equation (Raylcigh's ec~uat~ion) anti tohe V ~ S C ~ I I R Orr-
.
in t,llc c.on~l)l(-t,c st,nhiiit.yccln:it.ior~( 1 (i.14) wrrt: t,akrn i111.oa c c o ~ ~ rnntl
~ t . , it was crxpect,c!cl Sommerfcld equation, eqns. (16.16) and (16.14), as y + oo. By contrast, t,hr pair of
t.hnt, t,hry will p r o ~ n o l rtlnn~pitrg.'I'll(: i~r(lncr~ce of viscosit,y on t,hn tlis!.~~rl):~.nccs solut,ions $3, q5.4 satisfies only the viscous d i s l ~ ~ r b a r ~cq~rnl~ion.
cc For Ihis rc-ason $ ,,
rxI.rntlctl I ~ r r conly ovrr a vrry s ~ n a l lrc.gior1 of (,II(: whole vc,locit,y profilo, being 95:! are rcfcrrctl t o ns t l ~ cfrictaionlcsss o l ~ ~ t i o n\vl~crcns
s, #3, # 4 nrc r:cllctl ~ . I I ( -visc.oris
loc:ilrti it1 (.he i1111nc~~1i:rl~c~ ~lc~igl~l)o~trI~c,otl ol'I.11~wall, in ort1t:r 1.0 sat.isf.y 1 . 1 1 ~1 1 0 - s l i l t so111Lions.
contlit.iort. '1'11~ c.alr~tl:~t.ions ~)crlortnctlI),y 0. l'icl,jrt~slet1 t.o t,l~cvcry uncx~)crl,ccl
rcsttlt, 1.l1:tt t.ltc?int.rotl~trliot~ of a smnll vnlr~eof viscosiby i11t.o t,l~c!c?clrtat,ior~s tlitl nol,
protlrlec tlarnpir~g but amplificat.ion for all ltcynnltls nrimbcrs, ant1 for all wave-
Irr~gt,l~s of t,ho tlisturl)ancrs. Morrovc!r, this rosl~ltwas ol)t,ainctl not, only for l~nstahlc
velocity profiles (JFip. lC,.!)c:, tl) 1,111. nlso for t,ho prolilcs of typc: a ant1 1) in Fig. 16.9, 4 s2 ntld 6,1IIIIISI. l)c (lroppctl. 'l'ltis is ~ I I C00 I.II(\ f:11!1.tl11~1,
IVC nol~iccInhat,thc s o l i ~ l i o t ~

which have 1)ocn show11 tto bt: Slnl)lc \V~I(:II viscosit.y was rtogloct.ctl. t.he boundary c o ~ ~ d i t i o n(16.15)
s rcq~tirc!.ho vanishing of d, nntl 6' nt. ,t, * oo. '~'IIIIS
An interim revicw tlcscril)ing 1,rogrrss achieved betwccn the years 1920 and 1930
was given I)y I,. Pra.ntlt,l [67a] on t,l~e occasion of the annual GARIM mecting (German
Society for Appliccl Mntl~rmat~ics and. Mcollanics) in lZad Elster, 1931. with the boundary condition t h a t $ = 9'= 0 a t y = O.TIie non-viscoussolution
2. Cnlc~~lation of tlie curve of neutral stnbility. A sa.tisfactory explanation of the
does not satisfy the no-slip condition a t the wall (y = 0) because $1' 0 there. +
Furt-hermore, a t the critical layer given by U - c = 0 we discover t h a t 41' + c a , as
above pnm.tlox wrn.ss ~ ~ p p l i eby d \V. 'I'ollt~iict~l99l in the year 1929. 11c demonst,mt,~d explninect earlier. I t follows t h a t the contribution from frict.ion becomes particularly
t,ltat. t.11r. inflnrncc of viscosi!,y on tlist~ttrbnncesrn~lst I)e taken into a c c o ~ t n tnot large a t tthose two locat.io~ls,and t,hat t,he rcquired particular solution &(y), a s well
only in the itntnrdint.c nrighl~ortrl~ood of t,l~ewall, a s supposetl by 0. Tiet,jrns, b u t
a s the general sol~ltion#(y), vary with a t a fast rate there. As a conaeclncncc, it.
t,l~at,;inatldit.ion, it mrtst be ncronntcd for also in t,lle ncighbonrl~oodof t,hc crit,icnl becomes vcry t e d i o ~ ~ t,os calculat,e the cl~aracterist~ic
function $(t~) and the eigenvalue
layer, where the vcloc:it,y of wavc prol~ngat,ionof t,lle tlist,url)anccs b e c o m ~ sequal
t o !.he ve1ocit.y of t,Ilc n~n.inflow ant1 w11c1.c.a s shown in Sec. XVI b 5, t,he cornponcnt
c = c, + i c i , whether analytically or numerically, for a given pair of values of n a.nd
R. When numerical methods are used, t h e special diflicult~icsste~n froln the fact t h a t
u' hecomes infinitn: according t o the simplified, frictionless theory, t.he curvature
the highest derivative in t,he Orr-Sommcrfeld equation, $"", is multiplied by t.he
of t.hc profile bring tlilrcrrnt. from zero. 'l'hr rxistcncc of viscosity ratisas large changes very small factor 1/R. Mat,hematically spcaking, t.hc lnrge diFTerence bet,wccn the
in t.his criticnl l n y ~ r ahilc
, it is also cvitlrnt. t , l ~ a in
t rca1it.y u' remains finitc thcre. course of thc funct,ion $(y) a t the wall and a t the critical lnycr a s dcpicted by the
IIowcver, the inflltrncr of viscosit,y l~ccomcscvitlent. only i f the curvat,urr of the frictionlew (Rayleigh) equation and the equation containing friction (Orr-Sommer-
velocity profile is not Icft. out, of account. Tllcse consirlerations demonst,rat.cd t h a t fcld) stems from !.he fact t h a t the order of the d i ~ c r e r ~ t i nequabion
l is r c d ~ ~ o cfrom
tl
it. was necessary !.o st,~tdyt.he 1)c~h:~viortr of small dist.ur~)anceswith respect t o clirvctl four t.0 two when the viscorrs terms arc deleted in it.
velocil~,yprofilrs ((121J/t1?/2 f O ) , and wit.11 visco~it~y taken into account bot.11 in t,I~e
r~eiplthor~rl~ootl of t.11c. wn.ll ant1 in the cril.ical layer. This programme was carried An at,tempt t o calculat,e numerically the characteristic functions 4(y) of the
o~tt.by \V. 'l'olltnien in t,hr palwr q~tot,ctlrarlicr, ant1 ns n r e s ~ ~ l htr t , , was able tto find Orr-Sommcrfeld equation (16.14) for a large set of prescribed pairs of vnlucs of the
a linlit of st.:ll)ilit.y ((:rit.i~alIteynoltls n ~ ~ m l ) cfor r ) !,he cxarnplc of the flow in the reciprocal wavelength, ar, and Itcynolds number, R, puts enormous detnands on the
bonntlary Itcyc-r o n a f1n.t pIn,te at. zero incitlcnce wlrich agreed well with experiments. capacity of a computer. This explains why 0 . Tietjcns [9R] and W. ITcisenbcrg 1421,
who nt>t,ncltcdthis problem in t,ltc twcntics, failed t o nchicvc success. 111 t.hc c.ntl of
t,111,Ot.r-Somnlrrft~I(lnclunt.ior~( I ti. 14). which is of 4tl1 orcler,
In ortlvr t.0 int.(:g~~n.l,c*
t,ltc t.wcrlties, Tollmien rcvcr!.cd t,o this problcrn anti forind no other way but I,o f:dl
it. is nccemn.ry 1.0 rst,n.I)lisl~a. f'~~ntl;ctncnt.n.l syfit,cm of solnt,ions for it,. For y + c a and back on a very tetlious analytic procedure. Nevertheless, these time-consuming ana-
with U ( y ) -- I!,,, = cons!,, t,his is lytic methods proved ernincntly successfult. Det,ails of t,hese calcdlations can be
found in the original papers of \V. Tollmien (99, 100, 1011 and D. Grohne [38]. There
is no need to snmn~nrizethis work hcrc, because t,he calculations have been rcndererl

--
t ' ~ O ~ ~ I I I ~ ( . Innnlylic.
I'R invrwl ig~rtion~
I!)!)] ~lro(lrlc,c.cl.
nnlong otl~c.rs,1110 ~)l~yair.rrll~~
itlll,ol I I I I I I I I ~ ~ ~ ~ I I ,
t l ~ s tthe vclociLy con~ponent~
u' of t l ~ edistrrrbnncc cxpcric~~ccss pl~ascsl~iftof angle 3 "poll
in [nnn].
crossing the critical layer. Thia ellift ia due to the viacosity: c/. tl~ncaIcr~Intior~a
468 XVI. Origin of tnrbulrnce I
--
ol,sol(.f.c. I I I~ I I ~ I I ntt~n(~ric::~.l
~ I . ~ . ~ t ~ i ( ~ t , I ~I):tsc(I o ~ l s o n Inrg':, of'fic:icmt, clcc:t,ronic cornp~~t.crs. S I I ~ W I I in ccln. (7.36) Lo be given by 0 L= 5.0 I/;;:c/ I J ~ 'l'hc,
. vclocit.y l)rr,fil,: 1)osst:ssrs
:\ 1)oint of inllr:xiorl : ~ 1,llc
t wall a r ~ t lcorrcsl~ontlst,o t,hc: orlc s l ~ o \ v nin I ~ ' i ~I(i.!)f.
.
r7
I IIV first, S I I ( : C C S S ~ I I ~111tlnrri~a,I solut.ion of t.11~ Orr-Sommetfel~lcquat,ion was ptiblished
in I,hc: y w r 1!)02 I)y I<. 1'. 1Zrlrt.z ant1 S . 11. Crandall 1511, t . l ~ ais t t-11irt.yyears aft.cr t h e 'I'l~tls,in Lhc ligl11,of Lllc poilit.-of-i~~llosio~i
crit,criot~\vIlir:ll \vt%sl:~f.ctli l l Src-. S \'I I ) 5, i f .
p~~l)lient,ion of \\'. 'l'ollrnicn's 1991 original r e s ~ ~ l t'L ~'hsis! work was improved in 1070 is seen tllat, llIlis profile lies just o n t*llc bortlcr-lillc between profiles wiLI1 n o 1,oiltt.
in f,wo p a ~ ) t \ r sl)y R. Jortlinson 147, 481. I m p o r t a n t int.roduct.ory worlr was performed of inflexion, which nro st.a.blc ac:cortling 1.0 t,Ilo fric-t.ionlrss t,l~cbory,:III(I prolilrs wit.ll
I)g RI . It. 0sl)ot~nc:lli2j :rntl I,. 11. T,(!c ant1 W . (2. Reynolds [GR]. 7'he ~ ) e c t ~ l itlifficulties ar a p o i r ~ tof inflexion, wllirll a.rn nnst.nl)lo.
of' t,llc n ~ r ~ n e r i c :c?valrlat,ion
~I of f,llc chnrn.ot,cristic solut,ions anti the eigenvalues of tile T l ~ eresult,s of st.a.1)ilit.y r:slcul:tl~iorls porforrnrtl in :~c:c:ortl:rnc~o wit.l~t.In. nrc~f.l~otl
Orr-Sotnrnt:rf(~ltlecl~~at,ion Ilavr I ~ c r nagain discussed shortly a.fterwards in t h e work tlesc:ril)rtl in 1.11~
prccrtling scct,ion arc sllo\vn in Pigs. 16. I O :l.rltl I(i.1 l a s \vc.ll :ts 'l':~.l)le,
of , J . M . (:c\lsl.ing a.tltl I). 17. .JarlI<o\vslii1301 a.ntl A. 1)avic 1121. li"l~rt.ll<~rtnorn, 17.. llcf,ehov 16.1. 'l'hc st~nl.rl)oir~f,s
along l.llc?c r ~ ~ , vII~c~trlsc~lvc~s
cs t.c*1)rrsc*111. ~I(\III.I.:I.I
I I ~ S I ~ I I I ~ I I :0114:
IIII~I~S;
ant1 \\'.O. C~.inii~l:~.lv g : ~ \ ~:L( *S I I I I I I ~ I ~ :~.~:roltnI.
,I.~ of t.l~(:dil'licttlt~irs~ ~ s s o c i n t ,\vif.ll
c ~ I t.110 rcgioti crnI)rac(~tllty t11c c ~ ~ r cvocr ~ ~ e s ~ ) o nto( lIIIIS~~:I.I)I<:
s ~ l i s t . ~ ~ t ~ l ) :: ~t t ~t ~( l fI1:11,
c ~ t ~o111si1Ic
s,
~~r~rnc>~.ic.:~I s o l ~ ~ l i ool'r ~tllr 0t.r-Sornrnc~rli.ltlrcltln,l.ion in t . l ~ r i rbooli [4], 1)n.sing it. o n it, c:ont~ainssf.:~l~lc:point,s. ?'hc t w o l)i.anc:I~(~s of t.11~( : I I ~ of v ~~~ctlt.ra.l sl.:ll~ilif.,y1.c.ntl
I{,, 14;. I < : ~ ~ ~ : L I I ' S [48:11 NII'I' t,Il(-sis, 111 t,Ilis connexion t , l ~ c~ ~ c a t l rIII:IJ~ r also ~visll l,o t.o\r.artls zero a.t, very I:~rgc Itc~y~toltls lu~tnbc~rs. 'l'lll: sn~:lll(-sl.I<.c:ynoltls ~ l l l n ~ l w r ,
constllt (!II:II), 5 of It'. M . \Vhif~c'sI)oolc 1 1071. for \vhicll one intlirrcrcrlt tlisl,rrrl)n.ncc stmillcxisfls, r(~pr(:sonf.sf.11(: crif.ic:ll 1l.cynoltls
As :I. s c c l ~ t ( 1.0
~ l rcf. 1.471, t,llc cfi:c.f. of' a sligllf, st,rc:amwise change in 1.he 1)asic n11111brrant1 is given b y
IIo\v \vns s f ~ ~ c l ia.( *nun1l)rr
~l of f.itn(:s 12. 4n., 31, 4fi:1., H4a., 1061. As alren.tly poinl.ctl
ottf. I)y . I . I'~.c~f.sc:l~[6!)1. I l l i s c*lT(,ct.is sti~:~.ll.
[rJ:: fTl)r,,t = RCrtL= 520 (point, 01' insf~:tl~ilil,y)-1-
It Inns be nscfnl t,o p ~ ~ i n0111, t . at. 1.llis sl.age i r our
~ clcscript,ion t l ~ a l Illc
, st,ahilit,y
a.nnl.ysis ol'a Ilow lieltl in a. 11ot1ntlat.yIayrr is, gcncrally speaking, more tlifficnlt t h a n
of that. t l ~ t . o t ~ gxhcI1:lnnc~l.'l'llis is tlnc t,o t , l ~ fact, c t,hat.one of t h e boundary conditions
Sol. I,c~t~tr(l:~ry-l:~j~(~r flow is infinif,g. \vl~crcas Lot.11 bonntlarics of a channel a r e Table 16.1. \?'nvelengLh 441 nnrl frcqr~cncy0, dl/ll, olnc~~t.rnl ( ~ ~ S I ~ I I ~ I ~ R I I CiCnS trr111s01 (II(: l{.ry-
Ioc,:~tt~l n.t. l i ~ ~ i ttlis1~nnc:rs.
c, 'l'ltis is aggmval.etl by the c-ircnmst,ance t.llnt, t.lle velocity nolds nulnber R for the bountlnry lnycr on n flat. plnte nt zrro it~c~iclcncc (Illnsi~ls~)rolilr).' I ' l ~ r ~ o r ~
l)~.ofiIrf l ( ~ j (11' ) Ile nlain flon, in a, bounclnry lay(-r is not, a n exact. solttt,ion of tjlleNavicr- nfter \Y. Tollmien [!)!)I; r~urncricnlcalculutiot~sby It. Jortlinson 147) ntlcl I). It. 11o11st.011. I)OLII
Si.olic.s c>cl~~af,ions. in cont.t.ast, wit.11 a. c~11:~nnc~l (c. p. llagen-l'oiscr~illc flow). Finally, for pnrnllel flow. Scc Figs. l(i.10 :111tl Ili.1 l
\I,(, tvisll to I.C~:III fllnt, 1.I1r Orr-Son~mc.~.I'cI(l rclrtnl.ion 11srlf wa.s tlorivrtl on t,Ilc as-
s11111l)tio11 111:1l. 1 1 1 ~ : ~n:tillflow ll(?/) (IOCS 11o1.c-llxllgc. in t,Ilo tlircc:t,ion of 1.l1c st.t.can-1.
' I ' l l i s :~sstltnl)Iiol~ is sn.t.isfirtl in rllannrl flo\v l)nt. not, in a 1)orlntlary 1:tyc.r. All these
c ~ i l ~ c . l t r l l s t ~ : ~ ~ l rotnl)inr
c.c.s t o rcbntler the stnl)ili(.y ana.lysis o f n 1)oundary layer ftinda-
tr~c~nla.lly 11101.(:tlif'lic.t~ll.t h a n for. rlln~tltlc~l flow.
:I. I(CSIII~S for tltr Ilnt pl:~tc. As :I, lirsl. :~l)l)lic::tlio~~, \V. 'l'oll~nic~n[!I (~1111)10g(:tl
!)]
Ilis n~c.fl~oclto IIlr i ~ ~ \ ~ r s t . i g : ~ tof , i oIaI~(,
n stnllilit.y of t . 1 ~borlntla.ry layer o n a flat
1)1:~(,1* :I.( z c ~ oitlri(lc\nrr. 'l'l~c veloci1.y prolilc of surll a bountlat,y layer ( r l l a s i ~ l s
1)rolilf.) is S ~ I I I \ ~ I Iin Fig. 7.7. '1'11~: prolilrs a t tlill'ercnt st.atiorls along t,he plat,c
:II.(- sitl~il:lt.\ v l l i ( . l l I I I ( ' : ~ I > S III:LI. 1.I1rg rill1 I)(: nla.tl(>1.0 roil~eitlc:wllcn t.Ilcy arc plot,tctl
:~g:litlsf. ?//(\(.I.).1lrl.c. d(.l.) tlc>rtot.rs t.111. Oonn(lnry-l:~ycl.t,hicIz~~css \vIli(:h hits been
.. -. .
'I'II(. V X I I * I I C I ~ (~I O I I I 01' I l l ( * O ~ ~ . S ~ I I I I It~111:tli1111
I I ( ~ ~ ~(lli.14) ~ ~ I ( I\!Ihirl) f~o111ai11s I,llr : I ~ I C I ~ I ~ ~ I I~ I I: ~I I~ I I L S
11sI l l ( .
i~ltrc,cl~rvcvl I;i(.lzol ~ ~ ; ~ r n l l r l iin s n Illo
i 0;1sir IIo\t- r:tn I ~ r rfot~~i(l i l l :i I);Ll)cr I I \\'.S. ~ S:~ric
: I I I I / ,\. II. Kit)l;.l~(X.4:~j. 'I1111.r0 ilrc s i x :t~l~liIion:~l LT~IIIS. 'l'\vo trr111sarc: i~lt.~.o(llcr,rtl hy thr
( ~ I I : I I I ~ ~i>t 1 III{: ,r-~li~.r(~l io1101 t11r: I I I I ~ I I ~ ~ IoI f~t IIIC~ ~lisl~~rl):~nrc, t,\votcr111sarc :III(Io(I t ~ y111:: t,rnns.
VIYXI. t . c , l n l ~ o ~ l r n01 t I I I ~velocily i l l llle I,:lsiv Ilow, otlr Inorr trrnl is d ~ t.o ~ lllc
c rllnngc i l l t,l~c
\vi~vc.lrllgtl~ o f I l l ( : (listt~rl):~n('r it1 ~ I I C ~:-(lirrt.(io~~ nn(1. finnlly, tile sixth terln r~orrc~sponds to
I ~ ~ p l ~ ~ ~I r~ .-~nI IrIi ~ Sl l lI)or~ntl;~rg-l:iycr
~~r I Iirory (srr (!II:I~). jX).'I'll(: I)rcsrnce of s~~rtiori or blon.i~~g
~ I V ( > Sriso l o I'11rl11cr I I ? ~ I I I S . A n invrstig:ttio~lof tllr 111111irriviil solt~t~ions of LIIC so ~~~oflifictl Orr-
Son~~~~rrI'rlcl I * ~ I I : ion
I~ lor v:kriy~~s vc*loril,v~~rolilrs o f I II(! I":~llznc~r-Slinl~ sc,rics, 12. :{I, IO(i],lniletl
1 0 ~ I I ~ I I I ( I$111 c ~ :l(l(liIion:~l 1rr111s i n I I I O S ~I.:ISI-S. For I.llis ~ ~ : I S O iIl I is ~ l i l ' l i t ~ ~to~ l111:lIie l :iro~np:~rison
I , I + I \ \ I ~ I . I I s1n.11so111Iio11s its \\.(-I1 :IS I I ~ . I \ I ( Y ~ I I 1 1 1 ( ~ 1 1 1 :111cl 01r S O I I I I ~ I I I I S 01 I I I P "19in1l)lilir~l" Orr-
S ~ I I I I I (IY ~I I I~: I (~ ~~~ I.III.~o i v~( . ~v r r , i n IIIIISI (.~ISVS1111. (.II:IIIKV i l l I I I ( . l i ~ l l i t(~I'sl:~l~ilily ( I I I D lo l:~rl(
n f ~~:w:~llrlis~ll S l o I I P R I I ~ ~ I IIl'~~nl(*~.irill
I I I ~ I I 0111 . ( ' J I I I ~ P I ~ R I)i~vrIIPPII givrn 1)y F. (:. 'r. S11enct.nl.
185111.
470 XVI. Origin of ll~rl)ltlcnceT

itlst~hiiit~y
t o tile poin' of l t r a ~ ~ ~ i l ,o\virlg
i o r ~ t,o t h r nn~plifirntionof t l ~ rrrnsl.:~ble
disturbanrcs. 'rl~iscontlition is satisfic~tlin 1 . 1 1 ~cnsc ltntlcr consitlcmt,ion. 11:~ve \\'(a

= 960 (point. of t r : ~ t ~ s i l . i ,o ~ ~ )
rr:l

wl~ic!llis cotrsitlr~rtb\~ly 1:~rgnrtllnn t-11~ I ~ 620 wl~icllwe clr~ot,t:tlc*:trlic*rfor 1,hc

V I L ~ I of
point of inst.ability.
.
I,he clist,nncc b c t r w c c ~tilo
~ point of inst,:~l~iliI:ynntl l,l~npoint. of l,r:r.~~sil.io~~
tlcl)c:~~tl.r
on t,llc dpgrec! o f n.mpli/irnlio~,
ant1 ttl~(:kintl of t l i ~ t ~ ~ ~ r l ) n11rcscnt r ~ c c s in 1.11~:cxt,ernnl
stream in tens it.^ of t~lrbltlcnce),1)11t.t . 1 1 ~R ( I ~ ~ I I R In ~ c c l ~ n t l i sof~ n:1.11111Iificnt,io11C:III I)(:
I ol)t,ninctl from td~es111tly of tllc ~n.zgnit,~ltlcs of tllc ~~nr:t.rnctr!rsi l l t.hc inlr:rior of l.l~r:
R,.:, =520 R; %A R,,,, ' 5 . 0
Fig. lfi. 10 ctrrvc of ncut.rnl stfnl)ility, P, > 0. ( ~ n l c ~ ~ l n t ,or i o t~e l~l iss Itin(l wc:rc: first, ~)e:rlilrrrlc:tl
Fig. IB.11
hy 11. Scl1Iit!l11,ing1761 l'or 1J1o fl:~l, 1)1111,(:;l,lt(:y I I I L V ~ : I)<.,(:II r c ~ ~ ~ ~ ~l),y . l ,I*'.( ;SIICII
~ ~S. cl
1851.
Fig. lti.10. C:rlrvr.s of nc~ltrnlst.:tl)ility for the tiint.rtrbnncc freqllerrcy /?, and thc \vnve velocity c,
n*i n fnnclion of llnyr~oltls~nrtrrbcrfor t.hc hnllndnry lnyer on n flnt plnb nt zero incidence (Blmius I n orcler t.o g ~ i n clenrcr i ~ l s i g l ~irtt,o
t t.11~mcc:Itnnics or Lltc oscillnLitrg rnot,iott,
prolilr). 'J'11ror.ynorortlirrg t,o W. 'l'olltnicn (991: nrrlncricnl cnlc~llntionsby R. Jordinson [47]; see JI. Scl~licl~tirlg[77] dctcrmincd t h e cigcr~fi~nct,iol~s $(?I)for scvc~.nlno~ltr:~.l tli~t~~tr-
n l ~ o'l'nl~lr16.1 hances. Tllis enabled him to draw the pn.t,tern of strc:rmlincs of t.11~tlist,r~rl)ctln~ot.iotl
for n e ~ ~ t ~oscillnt.ior~s.
ral An exnmy~lcof such n pnt.t.crn can I)e foltn(1 in Fig. I(i.14.
Fig. 16.1 I. Crtrveu of nerrtrnl nt.nhilit,y for t.llc tli.st.~lrhnncc wnvelrngtll n 61 nn n f~rnct,ionof Ray- 7 7

1101(i.sni1nt1)crfor 1.11~1)ol1ttd:)ryInyor on n 11:bl. plntc a t zero itlciticncc (Bin-4ill.sprolilc). 'l'llcory nc- I llc tlin.grntn in Fig. 10.12 illr~sl.t.:~l.cs of IIIINI.ILI)I(\ ( l i s t . l ~ t . l t : i l ~ ( : ( ~ ~
t l ~ onn~j)lilic:nl.ic~n
c-orclingto W. 'l'olll11ic?r1 [99]; rrnnrrric:nI mlcrllnt,ionn by 1%.Jordin~on1471; see also Tnblc 16.1. Tlre in t h e boutlclary layer or1 n flat, p l a h . 'l'l~etlingrnm, baser1 o n n recent, cnl(:i~lnt.ion
tlist.ribrition for dist.tlrlmnc:cn 1 nnrl I I in given i n Fig. 16.20
nrnplit,tr~lc> performed by 11. G.Onibmwski c t nl. [GR], extrends ovcr n witle rnngc of R.cynoltls
nurnbrrs. It turns out t01nt tllc rnaximrttn nrnplificntion rntc does not 111:~coit.sc4l' a t
very ltigl~Reynolds n ~ ~ m b c(Rr -+ m) l ~ n tis, locntntl in the motler.ntc rango of R =- 10"
r
to 10". ?'Itis is tlr~cto 1.11cfnot, t.llnt. t,llc crtrvc of nc~lt,rn.lsl.nl~i1it.yfcrr n !In( 1)ln.t~ is of
I ltis is tlrc ~ ) o i r ~(11-t .inst:rl~ilit.y(i)r t.11(-\)or~~rtl:i.ry
7
I : ~ . ~on
c r n Hat, 11lxtr.. 11, is ~.c.tnnrkal~l(:
t.hn.1.only n c~orrly~:l.r:~l~ivc:ly tt:Irrow mngo or'wnvclcngtl~sn.rltl Sreq~tencirsis "dnngc-
rorts" l i ~ rt.110 I:l.rnir~nrI)o~rncl:~ry layer. 011t,hc one Ilnntl, t.llerc is n loutel. lirriit. for
t-llc Itc.yrtol(ls n~ttnI)cr,on t,ho ot.llcr, tllcre is an ~ c p p c rl i n ~ i tfor the cl~nrnct.erist~ie
mn.gnil-~~tlcs of t,llc: tlistfuri)nnccs.Once t h e Iat,tc:r arc cxcceclcd no itist,nbiLit.yis cnusctl.
'I'l~c n~~irtrricnl v:1111es:%re:

A tlct.xilcd c:ompn.rison bet,wccrl the precctling t h c o r c t i r ~ lresults and experiment Fig. 16.12. C~lrvesof cor~st~nnt,temporal
will IIC given in t,l~cnext ~ e c t ~ i oITcre
n. we shall only remark tllat the position where amplification for the bonndnry lnyer on a
t h e bolrnrlnry layer bcconlcs first ~ l n s t ~ n laccortfing
~le to theory (point of instabilit,y) fiat plnte nt zero incidcncc ovcr n wide
must. always be expected t1n lit: ~ ~ p s t ~ r c of n mthe experimentally observed point of
tfrsnsit,ion I)ecn.~~sc
nctr~nltvnrhr~lencc is created along the pat11 from t h e point of
 d. Co~npnrisorlof the tl~roryof sl:ll~ilily~ r i t c-xl~rrirnrnt,
l~ 47:)

More 1,Iin,11n (l(~*n(lt; xvns l,o eli~l)scl~(*forc a11 r:xprri~n(:t~I.:~l v(*rili(-:ltio~t or t h e

n l ~ o v c t.l~coryof s1,al)ilit.y c o ~ ~ l t1)e l ol)I.:lint~tl. 'I'ltis \\*;IS I~l~illi:~t~l.ly :~rl~ic:vc,tl I)y
(1. 13. S r l ~ r ~ l ~ : l r l:i11tI
r r 11. I<. SI<~:IIIISI:I~IIS21 :in11 \vcSs11:111givv :if1 : I ( . ~ . O I I01. I I ~l I.~ f . i r
\vorlc in 1.11~s r l c c c c t l i ~scc~t,ion.
~~ At, i i l,in~(:wl~c.n tl~c,sc: c ~ x l ) t ~ r i ~ l ~ crrs11I1.s
~ l ~ t ~ :\vt:re
~I
nlrc:~tly l<t~o\vn,C. C. 1.i11 [541 r t y ~ : t t , ( ~:ill l I,II(: C : I I ~ ~ I I I : I I ~1~1*(111irv,l
~IIIS ill t l ~ c
tl(:vc*lol~nrnf.of 1.l1c: t h r o r y ; his c ~ a l ( . ~ ~ l ; ~ .ngrcscvl
l i o l ~ s :I(, :III c~ssc~t~l.i:tl ~,r)ir~l,s \vi(.l~
t,liosc d u e t o \V. Tolllnien antl 11. Srlllielrt.ing.
111 1:1tvr(.i~nos. ,I .'l'. S1.1tn1.t.19, !)(I] ; ~ n t lI). (:I.OIIII~ 1341 ~ n : ~ t l:III e at.l,c~nl)t, t o tlot.er-
I ~ (:ottrs(\ 01'
I I I ~ I 1I1e I,II(\ : ~ , t ~ ~ ~ l i I i ( ; a01', t , 1111s1~a~l)lc
ior~ ~ l i s t ~ ~ ~ r ~taking
~ a ~ ~into i e e a,rcontit,
s t,l~e Navier-Stokes ecluntions: A t a mrtc:l~ lntrr t,imc,, 11. IT:~sc,l 12Rl)l c ~ : t l v ~ ~ l : ~ 1I1r
l(~tl
cII'ec.1, of t h r ??o?f-li?lrnrt,c!rms in 1.11~: c:clna.l,ions. In t.l~isconncxion i t is irn[)ort,:~~tlt fro l.crnpornl nrnplific:nt.ion of artilicinlly incl~lcctl,pt-l.ic:tlic: tlisl~~~~.l):t~lt:c~s. I I(' 11stvI :I 1111-
~ x ~ a l iIII:I.I
z ( ~ 1,110 a n ~ p ~ i I i e : ~ lor ~ i o1 n 1 1 I~ I I I S I . ; I ~( I~I ~i s i ~ ~ ~( -~~ I~I S ~( \ SaIll(:
. t I ~~: (r~ :~~ If~
I I os \ ~
~~o<!Oll- rncricnl m c t l ~ o t ant1
l cmployctl t,llr frill N:~viel~-St.ol<c*s cclrl:rl ir)ns. ' 1 ' 1 1 ~ t.c~srtlts:~g~.i,c. ill
tr:~vl,(111it,c(~t111si(lt~r;1,111~1. 'l'l~is. i l l I 111.11.~ Y I I I S O Sa r11a11gcin Iht: t ~ r n ~ ~ snfr rcn(v'gy r from . 1 1 ~~ . c . s ~ ~t ll t s. t l ~ t c ~ I'I,~IIII
l , s t,I~oscre1)orl.c(1 c:tr.lirl.. lltnl is ~ v i l l1 ~
all csscnt.ial ~ ) n i ~ l \vit,ll ~l
I IIP III:I.~II IIIOI ion Lo t l ~ cosril l a l . i ~ ~inoI,ion. g sincr it, is 1)ropo1~I,ionnl t,o rI71/11?/.'1'11c t n : ~ ~ i ~ i t.llc linear sl.n.l~ili1.yt,l~corybasccl on t.l~t,O~.r-Sotn~r~c.t.I't~I(l C ( ~ I I : I I .S(T ~ ~ I: ~I ;I s o[:):):I1 :111(1
csll'~.ct01' t.l~isis l.l~:it,:it n Iat.t:r stngc 1.11~~ ~ t ~ s t . n .tlist,r~rl)a.nccs l)lr no 1ongc.r amplify in [57 ti].
I U . ( I ~ I I I,o W~ c s~ ~~(Pi
)I Ir) I ~ r l t ,t , o l t l 1.0 a fit\it.c \rnlnc: w l ~ i c his intlepcntlent of t-he initIial
vaI11c.
'I'llr tlist,:itrcc bet,wcctl t , l ~ cpoint of t.r;~nsit,ionarltl t,llc point of nc>lll.~.nI
sl,:il)ilit.y
tlrl>(xntls col~sitlernblyo n t l ~ e~ u ~ / ) I I , ~ Pinl~7?.sity
?~cF in atltlition l o its dcprntlcncc on I . Ol(lcr rnensiirc~~ictttsof lrntisiliot~. '~VI(: p ~ , c c ( > ( l iI.(-SIIIIS ~~g \v(*I.(! Iltr lirsl,
nrnplifirat.ion (see also Sec. X V I (1). 8o~ttt.io11s
of' l , l ~ L11cor.vr of S I I I ; ~c ~l i~s I , ~ ~ r l ~ : ~ t ~ r r slet1 l o I I I C ,.~:IIII:II
\vhit:l~ it111 (11' :I (<t.ility1.1
Itcylroltls I I I I I I I I I ~ T of 1.l11~sn111(:O I T J ( . ~ of I I I : L ~ I I ~ I . its ( ! I I I ( ~ : I S I I ~ ~( Y~ ~x l ) ( ~ ~ . i t ~ ~ ( ~ ~ ~ f . :
I I I Il.l~:il.
In nc*cortlnr~c:c:\vit.l~I,llo t,ltcory, sn~:tlltlist,~lrl):~r~crs \ \ p l ~ i c . l ~ lit11 \vi(lli~r:i c-c.rl:~itlr;~tlg(.
o f freq11rtlc.y nt~cl wnvclc~rlgtll ilrr :in~l~liIit:(l, \\'II~>I.P:IS ~lisI111~0:i11(~cs 01' s111:1Ilt~ro r
Ii~rgcr wavelongt.l~sa r c tlnmpcd, r~rovitletl f.l~al.t h e Itc:y~~oltlsI I I I I I I ~ )(*x(:o(vIs (~I. :I
Fig. I(i.lB. Ct~rven of con- ecrt.ain limiting vnluo. 'l'ltc t,hcory shows l.l~nl,t l i s L ~ ~ r l ~ : ~ n\vlrose c~c~s \\.;IV(~II~II~~,IIS
~t,ant.. ~ ~ ~ 1 t nniplification
in1 11.r~lnrgr ntltl rclual tso :l r n ~ ~ I t i j )of l c t.11~l ) o ~ ~ ~ ~ c l a . r y - lI :~~ ~ l~
y (i-~~ .~: ~I r~(I& ~I :tI ~ I~~ s( :sI I I : I I . I , ~
for 1110 I~o~~nrl:lry li~ynron n "tlnlrgcrol~s". 1 1 is Litrtl~cr:issrttnc*tl 111:ii. l , I ~ amplilic:;1.(.io11
c of tlisl,t~rl~:ir~c:rs rvc~~~l.r~;r.lly
flat 11IaI.e at, zero incidence cfTects tile tra.nsition from laminar to t.~~rl)rllerlt, flow. 'I'll(: 1)rocess of :iml)lific:ition
in t,lw lower mnge of Rey- reprcscnl.~,s o t,o s a y , t,lle lirilc bcLwccn t h e st,nbilil.y t.hcorg antl t,Ilo oxl)ori~t~cnl,:~lly
nolds n~lmbrrsxs cnlr~~lnt,ed cst,ahlisl~ctlf a c t of t h e existence of t,ransition.
I)y It. .lordinson 1471
Some t.ime I)efore tJie first snccesscs of tlrc 1.llc:ory of st2:rl)ilit.y 11:ltl I1rc.11 :~t.l~it~vc.(l,
I,. Schiller [81] ci~rricd o u t ext,cnsivo cxpt.rirncnl,nl invcsl.ipt,ions it11.o 1.l1c I I I I ~ S -
rlorncnon of tm.nsit,ion, pnrt,icularly ns il, oocurs irl piprs. 'l'l~csc: Ictl Lo t,I1(: tlrvcloyt-
tnrnt. of a semi-empirical t,licory of t,r:it~sit~ion \v11icI1\vns I):tsc(I 011 till(: 1)r~nlist:l.l1:11..
c~sscnt,i:rIly, t.rnnsit,ion is tlue t,o finit,c t l i ~ l ~ ~ ~ r l ) a n \vl~ic:lt
c ~ c : s origin:iIfc i t 1 t,I~c,i ~ ~ l r1.0
t,
t>hepipe, or, in t h e case of boundary-layer Ilow, in t,l~ocxl,c:r~~al frcn s l , r c a ~ n'l'l~c~sc,
.
pnrt,ic~llnrlyI)y (>. I. 'l':~ylor 197 1.1.
-
itlcas were h l r t h e r tlevelopctl t,hcore~ic:~lly,
,I l ~ etlccisiori a s 1.0 w h i c l ~of (.he l,wo l,ltcorirs sl~orlltlIN: atloj)t.c:tl 11:itl 1.0 I)(: I(.I'l.
1,o cnpcrin~ellt,.E v r n before t.11~st.nl)ilit,y t,l~c:ory\\,:is ~ ~ s ~ . : I I ~ ~I~r;~.nsifion
~ R I ~ c ~ IO,I I :I.
nr~tli r ~tl(.l.:iil I)y .J. M . I$~lrgc*rs
Il:~t,plal,c 11:l.tI I)c,cl~i11vrsl.ignLct1 cxl)c:~~itnor~t:cIly I(;!,

y(x, y, t ) --4 ( y rsp ( I, n,) cxp [ i ((3,

I .
x - p, t)].
t "In t,l~eInto t,llirt,ient,l~eprevailing view 1vn.sprobnl)ly ns cxl~rcsnr~l I)y (:.I. 'l':iylor [!17 1 i11 I!):IS
It. follnn.s t.l~nt.t,lic t,r~npnrnln~npIifir:~t.ion of t.l~e~~nsl.nl)lctl~sl,\~rl~nncrs is dcqo.il)r(l hy 11> 0,
\rllct.(::~sI.hr loon1 :in~pliIi~.;rtio~~ is tlmcril)t:cl Ily ai <. 0. Ncr~triilstn11ilit.ycorrcspontls Lo fit = O \\-Ilo wnR of the opinion t l ~ n ~tnbility
t tllcory Ilnd lit,t.le or no r~onnrxiorl\ r . i l l ~ I)o~ln(li~ry li~yvr
: I I I ~ ,\I - - 0 intli~~nI.inp I,II;)I, i t . is ( . I I ~ - S:LIIIPfor 110l,11 l,in~cand place cIo~)r~~drnt, A
:11111jlifi(,:it.i(11i. t,rnt~sition.Only 1.110 Grr111n.n~. wl~oprol)or~t~tlctlthr 1hrol.y nn~lrrl~ortrtlq~~:ilili~livc- II::~I~III(\III.
I I I O ~ ~deln.ilrtl
. sl,r~clyof t . 1 1 ~rrl:lt.io~~ I~rt.\rt.c.nfe111l~1raI nntl loval ~~n~pl~fir:~t.ion (or (In,~~lping) of wit.11t,l~cIlow-vin~~alizat.io~~ expori~no~~l,of l'rn.ntll.l (I!1:1:l) i l l I IIV (:octl I , ~ I I ~ ~\:~II.~I,IIIIII(.I.
(~I g:tv(.
rlisl,~trl~:l~~crn is r o n t ~ ~ i n in c ~lwol p:ll)ers l ~ yRI. (::~sl.c.r1-32. :I:!]. (!onlpnre l~nrc,t,l~npnprr by A. 11. any crrtlrnrr t.o I.11r l.l~rory.'l'l~rya.crcSrigI11.:'I1I1e rrirly P I I I P ~ ~ I I I ( ~ I t.011111
~H 1101 IIVI(Y.I
'I'olll~~i(.l~-
\L';IY.Y.:III 1 iO4;11: I I I I I I - N I - I V I ~ I I ~ : Ill~~itls
II :lrr dis(+~~ss~vI k~y,J. I < . A . I'enr~on 104aI. ~ v j t l i c l ~ l .!vnvrs,
in~ bet-ttrtsr t.l~rywrre ovrr\sllrl~ncclby tl~c:very 11oi3yI):~vItgrr~~~nrl I.II~IIIIIC.II(.~
in t.Ile \rind-t,~rnnrl of t l ~ o ~tlnys"
c (qnotetl fro111F.hI. M'llitc 1107J. 1!)74).
474 XVI. Origin of l,t~rl~~tlct~rr
1 d. Compnriml~of tho theory of stnhility with cxlwri~ncnt,
478
1%.(:. vnn dcr l l r R g e Zijnon 1411 and M. Tlanscn. 'i'hcsc mcasurernents let1 to the 1)c,not,i11~
this t,imc-avcrn.ge of tho ~ ~ l ~ cr ncm e p o r ~ e t ~11y
l.~ p,3,
,VC (lrfiIlc t,tlc
rc.sult. t.11nt.t,l~ncrit,ic:~lJbyr~oltlsnc~rnl~cr
was cor~t,aincclin the rarlgc ivfc~tsily(or Lc11~1)of t ? ~ r h ~ ~ . lof
r~~a rstaream
.c ns

where rJ,
denotes t h e mean velocity of thc flow. Tn gcnernl, n t n c:rrta;hir~cIist,at~t.c.
Soon nfi.cr, 1I . 1,. I)rytlcn I 16. 171 antl his c:ollaltornt~orsr~ndert~ook IL vcry t,horougl~
from the screr:ns or Itoncyeombe, t l ~ ctorbeloncc in a wirid hi1111elb o c o ~ ~ i.~otropic,
~es
s.11(1r,aroli~linves(.ig~t.iorlof this l,yl)c of flow. I)tlring t h e course of tht:sc invcst,igat,ions i. e. one for which tho mean oscillations in thc tltrcc components arc cqttal:
c.xt,cnsivc tla1.a. O I I t,l~ovoloc.it.y clist~ril)lrI.ior~ were cnrcfirllg plot,ttcd wit,l~t.he aicl of -= - = p .
,'I2 "'2
I~ot,-wirea.ncr~~omct.crs in t.rrrns of spncc roor~linnt~cs n.nt1 timc. Ilo\vc!vnr, t,llc: srlcc-
t.ivc an~~)lilicat~ion of ( l i s I . ~ ~ r I ~ a nl ~
c t~~.s( \ d i ~Ity
l . r the
( l theory coaltl not y e t Itr det.cct,cd. 111this cnsc i t is s ~ r f i c i c n tto rwtrict oncsclf t.o thc o~cillnt~iorl
u' irl t,l~cdircat,iorl
At n l ~ o ~t3hc
r t same time, c x p c r i ~ n c r ~cn.rrictl
ts out n.t Goct>t.ingenon a I l n b [~lnt.o of flow, and t o p u t
i l l a w:rl,cr chnnncl yicltletl a qt~nlit,at.ivcconfirmation of t,hc t,heory of s t a h i l i t , ~ .
'i'l~e 1~Irot~ogr:rplls in Fig. 16.15 clcpict n t,~irbrilentregion which originated from n
T= ~/Z/U,.
tlist.nrl)nncc of long wavelcr~gtl~. 'l'he similnrit,y bet,ween these pl~ot,ogmphsn.ntl the
l.11corctici1.l p x l , t c r ~of
~ nt.reamlit~rsof a neutral clist,t~rbnnceshow11 in I'ig. 16.14 is
irrcfttt~:tI~l(:.

I'ig. 16.14. Pnf,tnrns of nt.rra~nlinrsnnrl volt~city11inl.rib11tionfor n nr~~t,rnl dist~trbnllcein the

I)or~i~rln.r~
(I(,,) -
li~yrron n Il:rt. plnln at zrro incitlcncc (tlinI,c~rl)nnceI in Fig. 16.11)
ntrnlt flow; (I(!/) 1- u'(r, 71, 1 ) =- qlixLl~rhrd vriority ~liatril,r~Llon; -
11, d , / v A03 -- Reynolclrr nrlnlhnr: Fig. I(i.15. Flow along a flnt plnta; tt~rbu-
Ience originating from n dist,urbrc.ncc of
A -- 4 0 8 , -- W,,V,.I~,,~I.I,
,,r , I ~ ~ I , , ~ Icr, : , ~o,:15
~ c o(1-
-%: w a v c p r n l ~ : ~ ~ : ~vt:l#~c:iLy;
-: ti<~t~
lo~igwavelength after I,. Prnndtl [A81
(
it
Y
fly - 11 172 rl, 6 - i n l r n s i l y of clisL,trbnnrc The photngraplln r c r c Inken with thc aid o r s alnw
molion-plcbro eamcrh, which lravrllcd on s lrollcy
nlong will1 the flow; conscqllrnlly, lhc camara In
trsincd on the nnnlc group or vorllcrs nil tbc
111 tIisc:\~sing(,r:~nsit.ionit is necessary to irlt,rodnce one very irnlw)rt.ntlt pnra- time. TLr? flow la made vinihlc by uprinkling
alumlnirtm dust o n Lhe wafcr m1rCar.e
rnrt,rr which Incn.surcs trite "tlcgrcc of disl,~trl~nr~cc" in the external stream. Ik im-
~tort.:t,tlc-rwn.s lirsl, rccogniscd when mrnsttrctnc~ltsof t,ho d m g of sphrres were per- Ll~isai1nyler definition of turbalcnce intensity is very o f i c ~ l11sct1it1 pracl.irn eve11
r .
(i)r111r11 it1 tli(lr.rcnt, win11 t ~ ~ r ~ t i r111
l s tellis
. t:onllexiot~it/ was discov~rcdt h a t t h e critical
in cases when the turbulence is not isotropic. Measuremel~tsin diffcrcnt, willd Ir~~rtncls
Ilrynoltls nrrml)or of a sphere, t h a t is t h a t v a l ~ l cbf the Reynolds number which
rorrcspontls t o t h e a\)rnpt,t1t:crrasc in tllc dm.g cocflicierrt s l ~ o w nin Pig. 1.5, depends skiow t h a t t h e critical Reynolds number of a sphere d e p e ~ ~ t very ts st,rongly 01, tlIs
turbulence intensity, T, t h e value of R,,, increasing fast ns T dcorcmcs. I I I r~ltlr.~
vt-ry rnn.rl~t:tIly"11 t.111!sl,rcngt.l~of tho tlist~rrltnnccsin t , l ~ cfree stream. This can bc
~ ~ ~ c n s t t rclt~nt~t,il,at,ivoly
rtl with the nict of 1.110 time-averngc of [.he oscillxl,it~g,tur- ~vitltlt,11111irIs(t;onsl.r~~~:t,c(l 01, I , I I ~ I ) I I I v ~ I 1~11s
I~(;forcl!)40), l,Itc it~f.t,~~sii,y ~ ~ c 01' I I I ~ ,OI.(I~-I.
Intlrnt, vt~locilic~s :IS t.l\ry occllr, for exn.nlplr, I ) ~ : l ~ i t ~a( lS ~ ~ ~ (see
O I I a190 Scc. X V l l l f).
of 0.01.
476 XVI. Ori~itlof turhulrt~cc1 (1. Comparison of the throry of ~tal~ility
\ c i t l l rspcrinlr~~t. 477
2. Verificntiort of the theory of stability by experiment. I n 194.0, 11. L. Dryden, long t,he plate; these were t~ndertnlrcnfirst utttlcr normal condit.ior~s( i . <,. it1 l,lIc:
assisted by G. 13. Sclitibnt~er and H. I<. Skramstad of the National Rurcau of presence of natural tlistnrbances), ant1 then wit,ti art.ificinlly procttlcctl tlisI,lrrI):l.t~c:~~.
St,andarcls in Washington, undertoolr a new and extensive e ~ p e r i m e n t ~programme al Such art,ificinl tlist~urhanccsof a tlcfit~it~c frcclnct~cywore croatcd \ r ~ i t . l ~t.llc* n i t l of :t
of ittvrs(.ig:ltion itll,o (.llc ~)hotlotnrnonof t.rnttsit,ior~from lnminar t,o tllrbulent flow thin mrt.al sl,rip whiclt was plncctl nl, a, disl.anc:c of 0.15 111111 frotll I,IIC \v:lll : t ~ t ( l i l l
[H'LI. 111 t,lw mc>.attt,irnci t brcntue acccl~t,ctlt d ~ a tt,he intsnsit,y of t,rlrhulence exerts which osoillntions were cxcit.ctl olcct,ro~nngncl.ic:l.lly.'I'll(: cxislrncr of' : t . t ~ ~ l ) l i l i ( - ( l
:I tlc.c.isi\'c. i t ~ l l ~ ~ ( ' t ~ (011
: ( \ t,ll(: o~o(:(:ssof l.ra.t~sif,iot~. ( : ~ I I s ( ~ ( I I I c I I ~n. ~speoi:~I
~, wir~tlt,nr~ncl s i ~ ~ ~ t s o i ( I~:l~ils l , ~ t t ~ l ) :(>OIII(I
~ ~ ~ ~I)(:( - ( c~ls( ~ ~ r l~yl c ~ ~ ~ o t ~ (*v(-tt s l ~ r in1 : ~ II,II(*
~ ~ I~~ I ,~( , Sl( - I I ( , ( ~ of
\,.:ls ~ ~ o i ~~~ l :III(I
~ 1'01. ~ ~ , I I (~~ S ( iS t~ ~ \ n , ( ~ s ~l ,iot~s, ~ I1.y
l I,II(:
~ IISO
~ or
~ :L ~l:i,rg(: ~ ~ir~rnIj(:r
l ~ ofsr~il,:tl)~o nrrl~rvr~l oscilltr1io~r.r(i. wit11 tto nxcil.:~l.iot~),
(%. scc Ij'ig. l(i.17. O\vittg t.o I.II(: osl.t~cs~~tc~ly
sc.rc.clls : L I I ( ~ :t \i(,ry I:trac: c.ot~l.rn,c.l.io~~ r:lt,io, l.l~citiLcnsity of' turl)rtlrncc was retl~~cctl low int.ct~sit,yof t.~trbrtlc~~oe, t,hcrc arc Il;l.rtlly ally irrcg11l:lr osc:ill:il,iol~sI(.fi, i l l (.It(:
(,(I I,II(* ( ~ s l r ( ~ t ~low,, i ~ ~:\.II(I
l y ncvrr prcvions1.y :~I,t.a,in(:(I, V:LIIIC I)or~ntl:l.ryIaycr, 11111.. n.s l,l~opoitilf of l.rnnsil.ion is appro:lc*l~c:tl,l.I~(.r(::1111)(':rr: I ~ I I I O S ~ .
1111r(:lysitirtsoi~l:i.los(~ill:~l~iot~s; l.l~cbira ~ t r ~ ~ I i I , is
~ t :I,(,
( l <first,
? st11:rIl :111tl itl(,r,\:~s(~s r:ll)itlls
in 1,:lc tlowllst.rc:ltn tlirccLiotl. A short, tlist,at~ocalrc:l.tl of t,llc poi111,of. f,r:~,tlsiI.iott.
oscillat,iot~sof vrr.y I~igltatnplil,r~(I(: tn:~IicI,ll(*ira p ~ ) ( ~ t r : ~ t111, ~ (IJI(\
: r . l)oi111~ ol'l,r:l~~sil iotl,
'I'II(~ sl.r(+:ttn \r.:ls I , I I ( ~ I r l s c ~ lfor t,hc t.liorortgI~it~vcst.igat,iottof t,llc I:i~nir~:~r l)orlntlary t,l~escrcgl~larosrillaf2ior~s l)renlc tlown : L I I ~arc S I I ( I ( I P I I I ~ I . ~ : L I I S I O ~ I ~ Iillto
C ( ~ tilt(? irt.cg~tI:~r
1:lyt.r 011 :I. II:II 1)1:1t,c:tt m r o in(-itlcncc, wllcli it was tliscovorctl t.hat, nt very low pntjt.crns of Iligl~frcqnrncy \rrhicl~:we c:l~nract,rrisl.ic:of l , r ~ t . l ) ~ ~ri1o1.io11. lrt~l.
i. r . of l,hc ortlcr of T < 0.001 , t.110 prcvior~sly rsl.:rl)lisllc:tl
I I I ~ I I ~ I I ( * I I ( : ( : itll.(:t~siI.i~s,
V:IIIIC of III(- v~.iI,ir:~,l ~ ) ~Rcrit
l?ry~tol(lsI I I I I I ~ of ~ :z3.5 t,o 5 X 10' W:IS itlt*r(%:~st\r\

s(.f. ICig, fl~rl,ll(y

1 (;, 1 ( j . 11. (lisro~r(,rc:(l,:IS r(-vr:tl(vl l)y lcig. 16. 16, I,]I:L~. :L (I(Y~I~I:;&S(~
\,T~s

l.l~rl)lllrrlc:c~c,:iltsrs 1,\1(: c,ril.ic%:llItc:yttoltls 1111111t)rr t,o i l l ( . l ( * : ~ ~ ~ , . . .

ill ()I(. itltc.llsil.y of'
nt. lirst. clnite rxst,; aft,cr n valrle of al)outT = 0.001 lias been :ttt,ninctl, n crit.ical I t r y -
Fig. 16.17. Oscillogra~nof the a'-rom-
ponent of fl~tctualions carlscd by
(37 2.23 --.-----..A"-
,-r/Xl1\
-
noltls Illlrnl)eI.of RCric = 2.8 x 10"s rrnchctl a.rltl rct,ninetl at, lower t.urbrilcncc int,ett- $D
I .
ranclon~ ("11:1t,t1ral") tlislr~rl)nt~ccs
it1 152 2+8 *- ' ,
--
sitairs. 'l'Ilis tIc~rnollst,ratcs t,Ilr cxisLcncc of nrl I I P ~ CIitnit. I. of t,I~errit,ic'al lt~y1101ds the Intninar bor~ndaryI:~yrron n flat S
nllrnl)rr or1 n flat plnt,e. A ~ncasurccipoint. obt.:linrtl cnrlicr I I A ~ . A . linll nntl G.S. %
. . . . . . . .
plate in a strrarn of air. Moasvrementa
Ilislop Is!)]iit.s clnits wcll into t.hc grnljh of lpig. 16.16. on t.mnsition from lntniriar to L~~rbrt-
8 I . 2.74
F
lent flow drte to Sc11lrh:~ncr and 6 . .

Skratrtst.nrl1821
I)lslanc.r fro111 wall: 0 % rrlln; frrc-slrrnrn
* . .
vrlorily ( I , , -
24 r ~ / c r r , i n ( r r r n l h r l a r r n 2
2
I A,, n~~l*^-annhn.v.mr.i
tilnc Illark*. 'I.. s r r 3
(H .yz ,An'& !~~C.&/'vf!v'J.,/','
Tronrifion r -...-.. - .. . .. ..

1 . I l 111111t(~t1c(:of i~lt(~nsit,y 111

t,~~rl)lllcnc:e
on critirnl ltcy11(>1(1~ IIII~II-
I)er o n flat, plate a t zero it~cidvtlcr. r
I ltr tnc~;~surclnrnt.s
3
tttltlcr ronsitlc:r;~tio11also l.l~rc~w liglll, on t.li(> c l t ~ c . s liott :IS to
as I I I ~ ~ R I I I)y
~ C ~ Scl111l1nrlc.r i111tl \ \ , I I ~ SIICII :in~pliIi(~(l sinr~soi(I:~l os(*ill:tl~io~~
(,s(*:~l)t~l ( l ( ~ l , ( ~ ( ~ l . i t(1111,itlg
)t~ (>:lt.li(\~. (~XII(.I,~-
Sltr:t~~lnlntl
[S2j III(:III,S. 11, L I I ~ I I SO I I ~ , ,I I ~ I I Il,haL
( ~ ~I~rat~sil~iott
~, is C:LIISI!(~ (lir(*(,l,ly I I I l~l ( , ~ : I I I ( ~ O I ~lis1111~.
II
1)a11a(~s
a11t1is not, [~rcc%cclrti
by n sclccl.ivc :unl)lili(.:ttiot~of' sinr~soitl:il r~sc~ill:lliot~s
il.
~ I I Cit~I~(:ttsil~y
or t~urI)i~l(:ti(:(: I I I ( ~ I I I ~ O I I I V I .I'~.OIII ~ , I I I ,: ~ l ) t ) \ , t s V;II(IC.
is iti(:r(::~s(:(l,:LS :LII.(,:I(I~
o f T -= 0.0003 t,o T = 0.01, i.c. tea v a l ~ t cc~olnnlo~lly o ~ ~ c o ~ t t ~ l iot 1t 11rc~vio11s
~c~tl III(~;ISIII.(~-
tnrtlLs.
1)11ritigt8hc(:xp(:ritn(~t~I-s
\vit,Il /~rti/i(,i~rl :I I I I ~ I IIII(*I,:II
(~~.v/~~I./J,III(.c.G st,~ril~ (.\I I S I I ( I I I I ~

30 ctn, 0.05 m m I,ltictlc : t ~ t t l2.5 nlm tl(v,l) \\,:IS~ ~ l : l c , r v:I(.

ovvr :L wi(lt,li ol'nl)ot~l, l :I t l i s l ; ~ ~ ~ t . ( .
of 0.16- nlni fronl 1,Itc wall nntl wn.9 cxcil.c.tl I)y :I tn:~gtlc.l,ic:lic.l(l in(l~~c-c.tl wiI.11 ( I I ( , : ~ i ( l
of an alt.crnat,it~gcrtrrrltt.. 111 this wnjr il, \\.:IS possil)lc: 1.0 in(lrt(-(~ L\vo-(litt~(~t~siot~:~I
478 X V I . Origin of l.rtrb~tlmcr1 cl. Co111pnris011
of tllc t.11roryo f nt1t1)ilit.ywit 11 c:xl)rri~~~rt~I. 47!)

tlis~.~trl)anc:rs of ~)rc:soril)o~l frc:cl~~nnry,a s st,ipolat.cd by the tflicory. This gave rise

t,o ntnldilircl, cla~npc(l anel n r ~ l t , m loscill:rtions sim~lt~anoonsly. They were again
rnrnsurcrl wil.11 1 . 1 1 ~aid of a 11ot~-wironncmornctcr. Itcsolt,~of s ~ r n l1ncasuren1rnt.s ~
:rrc! s l ~ o w~)lol,tc.tl
~~ i l l l ' i ~ . Iti.18. 'l'l~c. c~spcrimrnt.:~l 11oi11t.s,wl~ic:liare joiric.ci I)g a
I)rolic.~ilint,, rc~l)rrsrr~l~ rnc~:~s~lrc~cl nc:1tt.r:11oscill:ll,ions. 'I'llc t,l~corc.t,ic.:iI
c,llrvc: of rlr11tr;ll
sl~:~l)ilit,.yfro111 Fig. 16.12 II:IS II(Y>II (II.:I\VIII;)!. ~~o1n~):trison. :IIICI LIIC :1grr(~111~~11l.is

I)nt~c.c-s:II. v:~ryirlgtlisl.:tnc.c: l'rotn I,II(: w:~.ll.I'ig. 16. I!) sl~otvsosc.illogr:~tnsof ~ I I ( : s i t t ~ t -

soitl:il niot.ioti for t l ~ oc:o~iipo~icnt, 11'. IC:LI:II osr:illogmm rnnt,nins t.wo sitnnll.ar~c~ons
cnrvrs, O I I C of \ v l ~ i ( <
\v:ls
l ~ :~l\v:~jw r (I~s~.:I.II(:cfrom the \vall, t l ~ ot,lwr
t,:tl<c:11 :\,I, t J ~ 5:%11ic c
having Ikcrn t,;~kena t various dist,ances. Tlie variation of the amplitude of the U' 1:;s. I(i.18. (:urvc,s of ~mr~t.r:~l ,st.%-

oscillnt.ion over t.11~I ) o r ~ n d n rI:~ycr

~ witlt,l~is shown in Fig. 16.20. Ttlo din.grn.m 1)ilityfor 11~11lrnl frrq~trncic~ of cIinl,t~r-
rcpre~cnt~ s results ol)t.aiticd by S c l ~ n b a ~anti
t,llc ~ c rSlrrarnstnd and refers t o t,lic nc~rt~ral t):~t~c:cs011 n flat, pl:rtr :tt zcro
tlist11rl)ancc~smnrltccl I and 11 in I'ig. 16.1 1 . 'I'llcrc is good agrrcrnent with t.11~ t,licory i~~e~iflrr~r(!. Blrs~s~~rv~~~(*c~ta < I I I l~o S ~ I I I I -
( 1 1 1 ~ire) 11. Sc~l~lic:l~t,i~ig
1.771. I,:III(.~ I L I I ~ I S ~ ~ : L I I I (821.
X ~ I I 'I'l~(:ory
.(~

-
clue to 'I'olln~ic~r [99]
\'c.ry cnrrfnl rsl)rri~iic-nt.sof t,llis Izin(1 IIRVO I)ccn ~ ~ c r f o r n i emore
d rct:erit,ly l)y
,J. A . 1104s (-1.11.1.1741 who llntl a t !.l~ci~.disl)osnl
n, wind t.rrnncl ol't,l~rvc:ry low ~ ~ U ~ ~ I I ~ C I I C C
int.crlsit.y T -- 0.0003. '1'11ry report cclrlxlly good agrecmcrit betwccn tlieory and ex-
perimcnt.
\\lc. l1:1~(: :~lr(-:~,(l.y rronnrkctl c.n.rlic*r t.It:~.t. t.lrc oxpc:ritnrnt,:~lvorificat,ion of t.l~c?
st.:l.t,ilil.y I.l~c.ory\\.:IS first. n~:rtlf-~)ossil)lc:wl~c:n :I st.rr:i~nof vory low l.~~rl)rrlt:ncc
sit,.y (:ottlrl I,c ~,rotl~rcrtl. 'I'll(: oltlvr os~)c~rimc~ll,s wl1ic.11wcrr 1)rrforrnc.tl a t a t8~trl)nlrnre
int.cn- 2 0,
3F - ,0
-
int.cnsity of T ..-.0.01 c.ot~lirti~ctl
;
t,I~c-c~s~)c:c*t,:~t,ior~ t,lln.t,t.11(: o l ~ s r r v c point
~l of t.ransitiori
lirs tlownst.rc~:~n~ of t , I i ~ : ~)oint.01' ins(,:~l)ilit..yi)rc:(li(:t.c:(I l)y tl~c-ory.Ilowcver, the clis-
03
t,nnc.o I,c,t,\i~c~c.r~ t11r ~ ~ o i nof t s illst.:~l)ilit,y: I I I ( ~ t.r:~t~si(io~i (lc:l)c~~cls t.11 8% n~nrlzctldcgrcc
on t.rlrl,~tlrnc-c.int~c~~lsit,y. I t . is t.o l)c c.xl)c-c:t,c(l lfl~nt. t I ~ i sclist,anrc sl~o~rltl tlcrrc:nsc a s t.11~: 2 03
int~rl~sit~y of t~~trI)~tlrr~c.~: is it~cr(-:~s(-cl I)~.(-;IIIS(! in tllv prrscn(*c of 11igI1t,rtrb~tIrnrca L
3 orr
t~t~~l):~nc.cs. r .
sn1:1.11nrnottrlt. of :irnl)lilic~:~t~ior~ srtflic.c~sto ~)rotlttc.c-I ~ ~ ~ r l ~ ~ ~ from
l c - nt.hc
I Ilr grn1)11( I I I ~t.o 1'. 9.(:l:rnvillc 1361 : L I I ( ~ S ~ I O W Iin~ Fig. 10.21 ill~~st,rnt.cs
c c unst.nl)lc tlis- B
b "7
t.l~ispoint. in r~,l:~,tion t o t,l~cI I ~ I I I I ( ~ l:~.vcr
: L ~ ~ on :I fI:~t% plate. 'I'11c cIifTcrrncc l)ct-~vcc~i I
t.I~c: Itc-y~loltlsn~~riil)c:rs fortnntl t r l i t . l ~tlic ~nolnrnt~rrrn tl~icltr~ess at the points of tran-
8 053 /V
sit,ion :incl it~st.:~I)ilit~y, 11a111c~ly 059

064

I . l ! l ~ I ~ : L S I I ~ ~ 0I1 1I Insi:ill:tl,io~~n PII~~ ill

Y
n
l,l~rI I I I I I ~ I I : ~l )~ t v ~ ~ ~ t t l ~ l~tyc-r
tr.y 111!rli)r111r1l
11.y
S c l ~ ~ ~ h nnncl ~ t eSkrn~l~ut,ntl
r [82] 1 . 2 0 . \':lri:bi.io~i of al~rplit~ltln of t.11~
S i m ~ l l l m r o ~ lrocorrlirt~
s or vl~lorlly will1 Llir nirl of ?~'-llual~~:rLio~~ for t\vo 11c11tr:rl(list.url)nncesin
Iwo Ibol-wirr ~llrlllOlllr1rrJ l~lnced n l n ~lislasmof n. lanlir~nrI)o~~~ltl:~ry lnyrr O I I 11:1t i)l:tl4r nt. zrro
30 c n ~bol,ind l l ~ rrlril!. Tlbr lowcr ctlrvo enrrragontls
lo n ltol wirr plnrrrl n l :t clirl.anec wf 1.4 l n r s f r o ~ n i~ic:itlcnr.e.htc.:ts~~rr~tln~t.s clllr l,o S(.ll~~l,:t~tcr
lllc wnll: 1111.Ill8l!rr rltrvr carrr.r),oncls Lo n Ibol. w i r r :tncl Skrn~n~t.:trl (82.1 '1'11r.ory ~ I I ( : 1.0 Sr~l~lic:l~-
plnrtvl n L v : ~ r ) . i t t ~~ 1 i r l n t ~ r t .frrtltl
u lllr wnlf nr i t ~ ~ l i c ~ l ~ ~ ~ l .
' ~ I I I *qlrlp wnr pl:tr~.*l nl n ~lirlancr I)O rtn III.IIIIIII t.it~g[771
I I l l I a I I Yrntlll~nr?,70aee'. 'I'lw r r r v r r l 1 1 l ~ ~ 1 1 ~1 ' ~t t1t t d 11 ( . ( ~ r r ~ : s ~ )1~0~ 1t ~1 1t I~LWO
vrlucity 1lm = 13 lnlsec r ~ lI 1 i t ) Iqg. lli.1 I
n c t ~ l r n lt l i % l l l r l ~ ; ~ r ~Ic tn- ~
480 XVI. Origin of turbulorice I d. C'ornpariflon of the theory of fltability will^ rxprritnrt~t 481

Vig. 16.21. Mraunrrn~c~~t~s on t,r:~r~-

uit.ioir o l n 11:~l,~ ~ l n lnftrr
c , 1'. S.l : r n ~ ~ -
villr (:)(;I. l)illi~rrt~~~cI)cl.wc:ct~t.11~Itcy-
r~oltlsnumheru at, t,l~opoinb of tran-
Iqig. 16.22. Stnoltc pict,ure of t.hc flow in t l ~ rI~o~~r~tlnryIn?jcr or^ rill nrrofnil i n 1.lic I>rc.scxllc,r.of
sit.ion and inst,:~hilit.yirr Irrnls of tur- prriotlic ( l i ~ t , ~ ~ r l ) 11.f1~r
~ ~ n c11.
r ~Ik\rg11
, 151
I~rrlcnccinlnnsity. Au t.rtrItrtlcnceintnn- lqrcr-strmrn vrlocil.y (1, -- 4 m / ~ c n ; frcq~lcn~y o f ( I ~ s ~ I I ~ ~ I I I/I,I I ~--. ~ I45 l/31~!
sity incn?ascu, thr point of (.rannition
moves closer to t,hc point 01 instalti-
1it.y
and J . T . Stuart [DO] : see also R.O. J)il'rirna c t n,I. 1141 antl .I.'I1. Stlrnr,t,I!)I 1. i\ s r r l l j t l r -
ary of t,llis prol)lrn~area was givrn by A. R4icl1allrr. M . llzrtl:~14(il)]is :~lsooI'ir~lt~~.t.st.
A clear idca of t h e tlctails of tllc ~nccl~anism of nn~plificaliot~ (:an I)(; fi)rmccl
All c.xl)(*rirncvrt,:rI~)oitit,s 1.r:lc.ca sitlglr: c:rlrvc. 'I'ho point of t,mnsit,ion does not coincide by studying the smoke pictures of t8hezone of t,rnnsit.iorr i r ~Ollc bonr~tlnrylay(-r or1
wil.ll t,lrr poitrl, 01' irrst.:rl)ilit.yr~rll,ilvrry ltigl~t,~rrbrllcr~cr int,c~nsilicsof aI)or~tT =0.02 a n airfoil takcn by IT. ncrgh [B] ancl rcprotl~~cctl in Fig. 16.22. :I'll(: :~rt,ific:i:~I
clist.11r-
t,o 0.03 I~avc,I)t5nlt rr:~rlicvl; c/. I 1. I)anccs wcrc protlllccd with tlic aid of a lor~tlspcaltcr;t.l~c:y :Ire sccn to i t r t l u c - c : i r r
t h e t~oundarylayer a succession of amplified, regtrlar waves, t.lleir amplitr~dcincrc:~sing
O t l ~ r rvclncity profiles: W r now l)roc:cctl t.o tlescribe 1)ricfly i~ivcst~igat,ior~sint,o in t,l~edownst8rcam direction. See also [I].
t.11~
st,nl)ilit,yof'oI.llc~vc4oc:il,yl)rofil(:s; a more tlct,ailctl account is given in Chap. X V I I .
'I'l~c- t.li('o~.t,n~
O I I t , l ~ inst,al)ilit.y
c of volocit,y profilcs possessing a point of iriflcxion, Three-dimensionnl flows. The cxprrimcntnl cvitlcnrc ntltltlc:ctl so 1i1.rsllctn.s (,lrnt.
~ tlrtr t.o I,ortl Liaylrigh anti 111. 'l'ollmien, I~aclnlrcatly been strbjcct.ed t,o an
\ v l ~ i c . lis transition is st,artcd an a result of t,hc amplificatior~of t,wo-tlir~~c:tlsio~~:~~I tlixt.~rrl):rtrc!t:s.
csprrirnrlrl.nl vc.rificnt.iot~by G . Jtnscnl~roolr1731; Ile was also able t o rrport complet,? 'l'he growth of sue11 tlist,urbances was investigatetl in great tlrt,ail I)g G. 13. S(:l~~lltanrr
:~gt.c~c.tnr~~t. I)rt.\vc~cnt.I~rorct.ical~)rrtlic.t,ionsant1 cxperirncnt. and IT. I<. Sltmmst~atl[82], G. J3. Sclli~ltanrrnntl 1'. S. I< lol~:~r~on' [ S : ! ] , 3,s \vc.ll as 11y
A I):L~)(~I.IIJ S . Ilollirrgtlnlr [4:,l nont.air~sa cont.ribut,ion t,o t,llc st,utly of t.11~ I. Tnni [D2, 951. It, t,urncd out t,hat t,l~ca.mltlificat.io11of t.11~
1111st.n
ltlc j)ln,tlr \vavc,s :I I\\.:l.ys
st.n.l)ilit.yof vrlot:it,y prctfilrs in t,hc w:rlre of a solitl botly. 'l'hc stlability of Iatninar po(luces a tlist,inct,ly t,l~ree-din1ensiona.lflow st,t~~~ct,ure. Aft,cl. t h r n.tnplit,utln o f tlrc
,ic.t.s w:~sst,~ttlic.tlby N . (:III.I~: (IOJ. Mrril,ioti may, finally, bc made of llir \rrorlc of wave has rcrtcl~eda crrt,ain magnitrrtlc t,hcre sct,s in a ltcriotl of st.t.ong ant1 non-1inrn.r
I\. Rl ic:Ilalltr : ~ t l c l 11. Sclln,clc (581, l'. 'l'nl,surni [!)Oaj, I,. N. IIowartl [4G], ant1 C. MT. atnplificnt,ionof the dist,nrbance. This process is n.cconipanict1 hy n t,mnsfrr of rnrrgy
(.~lrnsI~:~.\v ant1 I). 15lliot. [ I I]. 'I'll(; Inst rcbli.rcnce est,al)Iishetl a limit of stability of in tJre transverse direction and tf1liscli~t~orts the original, two-tlitacnsior1a1 cll:~mct.er
R C r i t - - 6.5 for :t 1)l:~nc.jc:t,, t.Ilc I ~ C ~ I I O I ~tr11111I)cr
IS 1)citlg fortnctl with t . 1 1 ~jct wirlt'lr of t,llc I~ascflow. T l ~ u s t, l ~ cI~rcnlctlowr~
of 1:~rninarflow ntitl, l~c:r~c:c,t,hc I ~ i r ( .of'
l ~ (,11rI~it-
at, II:I,II' l~(,igl~t,. Icncc: :tppc:tr t o be a conscclucrlcc of tho tlcvolopmcnt of tJlc r~nst,nl)lctlint,url~:~~~r(:(~s it1
t l ~ r c ctlitncnsions. T11is is acconipanietl by the appcarancc, t,o a ccrt,nin cxtjcnt irr t,llo
A liti(~:tr. st,:~l)ilit,y nn:~lysis for t h r t,\\ro-tlimcnsi~~nal case of cl~annclflow was first bountlary laycr too, of vortices whose axes lic in the tlircctiori of t,l~cflow.
r ~ ~ l ~ l i s l1)y
~ c(:.(:.
t l I,in 1641. 11c: fnrtntl t,l~n,t. t,llc critical Ttcynoltls number, rcfcrrcd t,o Further light on this problem can be thrown by a sttutly of t l ~ worlc c of G. 13. Snhll-
t.l~c,~ n a x i r n ~ lvc:locit,.y
~n II,,, ant1 t,lw Irnlf-wit1t.h bf the channel, b, hati t,hc value ktauer, 1'. S. I<lebanoff and I<.I). Tidst,rorn [84,49. 501. 11. Gocrt-lor ant1 11. 127it.t itrg
[35] a s wcll as C.C. Lin. D.,J. l3rnny nntl 11.1'. (:rrensl)nn 156, 3, 371.
,,
l l ~ rrxprritnort:~I rrstilts rcporlrtl in this c*lr:~plc.rqllosv NII(-II ( ' o n ~ ~ ) l ( :*Il ~( *( Y ~ -
rncrrt wit11 the t,llcory of stability of laminar flows t,l~itttJlc I:~ttcr m:ly rlow I)r
regnrtlctl a s a verified component of fluid mcchanirs. The l~ypotltcsis- tll:~t,t l ~ c
482 XVT. Origin of t,nrbulencc I
the point of t,rnnuit,ion warr al\vnys con~itlcrnblyreduced con~pnrctlwit,l~that for nk~tionnryllow
process of t r a n s i t i o n f r o m ltbminar t o t u r b u l e n t flow i s the c o n s e q ~ ~ c n of
c e a n inst.nbility when t,hc "non-st.eatlyV Reynolds nttmbcr a m Inrge, i. c. whcn R N S > 27000. In t.l~c.sc:t.xpcri-
i n t.he l a m i n a r flow, enilnciat,cd b y 0. Reynolds, i s h e r e b y completely vindicated. iiicnt.s. t.rn.t~nit.ionoli tho flnt pln1.c in st.nlionnry Ilon. s(.nrl.ctl nt. R,,,, -- 1.8 x 10". At.t.or,li~lgto
It. ccrtsirlly r e p r e s e n t s a posaiblr: and observahlr: m e c h n n i s m of transition. T h e q ~ l c s t ~ i o n Fig. I(i.l(i. thin vnlt~tjof Rz.1, c o r ~ . c ~ p t ~ n
~ t~I p~ ~. ) r t ~ ~ i ~ nt n. L
n~ott~rl~rtlet~co
ly. itrlr11nit.yof T 0.230/,,
as t o w h e t . 1 1 ~i t~p i n t s a complet,e p i c t u r e of t h e process a n d w h e t h c r i t c o n s t i t ~ l t e s in the cxtnrnnl nt.rennt.
t h o on.l?y nloahanism o n c o u n t c r c d i n n a t u r o is still at p r m e n t an o p e n o n e . T h e l a t t e r So far, n nnt,isfnctory t,heory of ut,nbilit,y for hountlnry lnyors in t,hc I)rcocnco of nr1 oxt.crrinl
cjt~:st.iotis n o w oconpy t.hc at.tcnt.ion o f m a n y research workcr*. o~cillntingut.rcntn doen not cxiut { I I a]. 011servnt.ion of intern~ittnntt,nrl~~tIct~cc i r ~I.11t! I~rrwc~t1r.e of
n frro-st,rcntn oncillntion ~ I I O \ V Rt.hntl its freqrroncy fl, is of thc antnc ortlor of ~ ~ ~ n p ~ i nn t . ~tl~nt,
~ c lofo
nntitrnl. neutrnl disturbnncer of the Tollrnie~i-Scl~licliti~~g typo fro111ntnhilit.y t,l~eor.y;s m also
e. Effect of oscillntiilg free s t r e a m o n t r a i ~ ~ i t i o n I'ig. Ifl.18. The freqitenry, ,I, of 1.11~ oscillnt~ii~gflow invcst.ignktl Irr?rc \vrn ~innllrr11y 11 l':~ctorof
al,ont 100 1.hnt1 thnt in 1.11~t~:bl.~~rnl, nc~rtrrtltlint.t~rbn~iccs.
Aftrr it hntl bccn dincoverccl \i,it.l~1.11~ aid of the o x p r i n ~ c ndracrihed
t earlier tlint. the intensit.y A review of Ilte prorcns of trnnsition in thr prcnnnrc of frrc-strrnnl n~rillilt,io~ln
\\:is rrt-rntly
of turbt~lenc:cof tho cxternnl stream, thnt. is t l ~ n tthe presence of an irreguhr tittle-dependent prrhlinlird hy 1t.J. l,oehrkc, M.V. Morkovin, nntl A.A. k'rjcr 148I1J
f l n r t n n t i o ~in~ t,he free strcnm, cxert.ed a strong ir~flnenceon transition, i t was natural to nnder-
tnke st,i~dicuon t,ho c h c t of regular flttcti~nt.ionin the free stream on tratisi6ion. The effect of a
nnperin~posrdflnct,llnt.ion of smnll nmplit,udc ( E < 1) in an cxternnl stream U(z, 1 ) of the form f. Conclrsding r e m a r k
At; t h e cwtl of t.l~iscllnl)t.nr wc wislt t.o l)~.cscrlt,,I)y w:hy ol' S I I ~ I I I I :t.Itt*
~ . ~~~) t, ~ , t - t ~ s s
on tho ~t,rt~t*t,~rrc of n lntninnr bonndnry lnyer w~ diucnuned in SBCB.XV n 3 nnd XV e 3. of t,rnnsit.ion in t,ltc I~orrt~tl:i.ry r {.hr I)rc.scvlc.n 111' :III t~xlt~r11:1.1
1nyc:r o n n (In(. ~ ) l n t , in Ilow
i ~ f l o w~ , I I I . I ) I I I ~ ~ I Ii~~~ ~
( . t , ( : t ~ sAH ~ . I'I.OIII I4.i~. IlI.!2:I, 1,11t! 1 1 1 1 ~~ o I I I Ii. ~ I I ~K I I 111,.
i l .H(.(-II ~ 1;1111~\1~-
Sincc the Il*ynolils rirlrnbrr nt. trnnnition clnrrrnr*r ronnidorsl~l~ RR tho in tan nit^ of tltrbn-
u e n ainiilnr e r e c t nhould occur a8 the amplitude d u =
lcni.r inrrrneu, it iu ~.'lnllniblcLo s u ~ ~ p o Lhnt ing stngc:~, st.nt,(.irig wit.11 tlic Icxtlirlg r t l g r :
~ 1 1 of
1 the periodic cxternnl stream is 111;de to i n c r e w . The effect of an oscillation euperimposed
on the external strent11 on thc transition of a hmirlnr boundary layer was clarified experimentally (1) S t a b l e l i i n ~ i n a rflow following t,llc Ir,zcting ctlge.
by J.H. Obrernski nntl A.A. Fejer [63a] arr well aa by J.A. Miller and A.A. Fejer [60a]. Theee
inveetigntionu conwntrated ntteution, in the first place, on the boundary layer o n a flat plate (2) Unst,nblc, Intninsr flow w i t h t,wo-tliincnsionnl Toll~nirt~-Scltlit:I~t.i~~~
\rravcw.
( B i ~ i u sprofile). In this cnse, the velocity clintribution in the externnl stream is (3) I>cvelopmcnt of ~tnst.nble, Inrtiinar, ffhrc%r-clilnc-nsio~~nl
W ~ V n.ntl
C ~ vort.t.x li,rnln-
trim.
(4) I511rst~of 1,111~buIc11cc i l l I I ~ ~ L C O01'
S very Itiglt local v o r l i c i t , ~ .
Hcrc {J, is the ti~nc-avcrngcof thc frco-strcnm velocity which is independent of z,d U is the
nn~plitudcof the ternporal R~~ctuntionin the external stream, and n denotea ita circular frequency. (5) F o r m a t i o n of t u r b n l e n t sr,ol,s in plncrs wltrn t.hc t,~rrl)t~lt~rtt, vc.loc.ity 1111ct1tn~.ic~ri.s
'rho mcnsrtrcn~enbrcported in 1 6 3 ~ 1werc performed in a n incompressible stream with a r e large.
( G ) Conlcscencc. of 1.11rL1tlcnt s1)ot.s int.0 :I fr11l.y tlcvc~lopt:tl t . ~ ~ r l ) ~ t l tI )*O~I rI tI .I ~ ~ : L I1:13't*r.
.~
and with frequencies of n = 4 Lo 62 sec-1. I n m o s t CRRCR,t,hc t,rnnsit.ion frotn t,r~t.l)ttlc:ntspvt,s t.o I.illly tle\~clol)otl~ , I I I . I I I I I ~ ~ IisI ~ I ~
Them very carcful experin~entnlinvent.ig~tionsyielded the following e m n t i a l results:
associated w i t h t,hc furrnntion of a scparat.ion b u b b l r , n s nlrrxtly ~nont.ionctlin c:otlncx-
(a) The c-riticnl Rrynolds ni~mbcrof tho start of transition, R,,fr = Urnzc,/v dcpends only on the ion wit,ll F i g . 10.10. At, t h o present, tirnc, o111ystngcs (1 ), (2) ant1 (3) n r r : ~ m r n n t ) l et.o L:
arnplit~ldcAU/Um of t.he external fl~~ctuation. t,hcoretical analysis. T h c c o m p l e t e clnrificat,ion of t.11~t ~ r ~ n n i t ~stngrbn
i t ~ g will rrtl11i1.e
(h) Thc di~ncnsiorilr.strnnuition length, thnt in the distance between the start of trnnuition and rn~lcllntltlit,i~)nnlt.l~corc~t~ici~l
r c s e n r c l ~\vorl<.
itn ronil,lrtion, R,,t - RZsc, del~cntlsonly on the froqr~encyof the externnl oscillationt.
(c) '1.11~ record showing the varintion of velocity with time demonutratm that the line of transition
Q 0 9 9 9 9
is chnrart~rizedby n regular and intermittent transition. The meaaurementa led to the conclusion
thnt trnnnition rnn hc tlrsrribrcl by the following "non-steady" h y n o l d u numbrr:

Sinrc t,hr rhnrnrlc~rirficlength of tho cxtrrnal, oscillnt.ing st,rrnn~iu C

cxpreun the '.t~o~t.~tt~rrtly"
IXt~y~~oltls
nnn~bcrin thc form
- llm/n, it, iu po~sibleto
( 1 ) St:~blrnow
~ ~ - H ~ ~ l ~ l i ~ ~ t ~ 01--x I?,,,,
RNC =
uz (Au/rrm) ( 2 ) 1 ~ ' 1 1 ~ t ~' 1~l ~f l~r ~ l ~ ~ ~ l ~ ~!v$~vtw l i ~ ~ u

2nvn r'
nn~plitudeof tile impredsed oscillntion and ns/lJ: is itR dimen-
l l r r e All/l?, in tlie rlittler~uiol~lr~~
sionlr~ufrnqrrt-~~t*y. 'rhr n ~ m n ~ l r r n ~ sr nl ibo w ~ ltlint tlie llcyrlolds number Rz.t, = 11, ~ t r / vn t
- -- lominor I- Ironsilion
t Start of t.rnnrrition nt R,,(, .- (1, .rl,/t* -- lower curve in Fig. 16.10. Complct,ion of t,ranuition A,,,, Rc
nt. R,,I, - 11, .rl./l* - nI)pcr t:Irrvc it1 Fig. I ti. I(;. Over the t1iut.nncc from zt, to x r i t is observed sltclrl~of 1.rnnsil.iol1zone ill llin I ) O ~ I I I ~ ~ 1:1~t:r
JdTig.16.23. Itlci~lizc~cl I L T ~ 011 11 Ililt l)llltP 111 Z~.I.O i11t.i.
fnctor incrcnucu fro111 p = 0 to y = 1; this is interprctcd by t,hc state-
111:tt Ihr intr:r~~~ittr:r~ry clcl~ccafter P.M. While 11073
nlrnt t.hnt in t.liin zone \ye ohnerve "trannitional torbulcnce".
484 I
XVT. Origin of t~~rbuletice

Itelcrcnces 1241 I ~ ~ I I I\:.\V.: ~ I I , 0 1 1 tl~c.~:II:III~C fro111st.t.iicIy to I I I ~ ~ I I I ~ ~tllotion . I I ~ , o l litI~~icls. i211<. f. 1\I:tI.

[ I ) Arnnl, I).. ,Illlien. .T. C., sncl hlic:l~cl,It.: Annlyee exp8rimentnle r t calcul de I'appnrtition t\st.ron. or11 19s. 6. No. 12 (1!)10).
e t (111 t l i ~ v t ~ l o l ) ~ ) r ~rlci i In
o ~t,r:insit,ion
~l. tlc In c ~ o ~ ~ clirnite. lie I2GAR.D CP 224, 13-1 Lo 13--17 [25] ICnin~ons,H . \\I., nlltl I3ryson. A. l':.: 'l'I1c. In111i1iirr.~i1rl)11l(:11t~ t , r i ~ ~ i ~ iil lt i:I~I ~ ) o lI I I I ~ ~ ; II:I>
~ ~ esr.
.
(11177). l'nrt 1 : IS. 4!W-408 (1!)5l); 1'11rt I I : l'roc-. First (IS Nt~tiol~nl (:OII~I.(~SH ,\1)11l,3 I t ~ l 1 ,
[It11 A(:Altl)-~l1'-22~l: I , : I I I ~ ~ I I ~ ~ - ~ ~ I I ~ ~t~r:~~~sit,io~l.
) I I ~ ( ~ I I ~ 1':l.f~orspr(:sc~it,ednt t,hc 1Pl11iclUynnrllir8 85!1 868 f. I !1V2), ,
I'n~lclS y ~ i i ~ ~ o :lt s i 'l'c:rlii~icnl
~~l~i Univcrsil.y of I~cnmn.rk,Lyngby, Denmark, 2-4 Blay 1077 (21il Ihge, >I.: lilr~id ~ilotiotlt,ransit.ion fro111 In111i11:lrto I . I I ~ I ) I I I ( ~ I I flow L i l l :I I ) o I I I I ~ ~ ; 1:lyc.r. I~~
(l!)77). I'liys. Sor. JLcp. or1 I'rogrcs8 i l l 1'llysic:n 6, 270 (1!):5!)).
1 ll)\ ll~ir~ics. ll.'l'., :111el (!<)I(rr,I<.(:.: '1'111; IIo~v01 \vat,er t~l)ro~~gli pip<!s. l'roc. I b y . Soc. 1,o1iclo11 r271 lc:~gc%. A . : lCsp(!ri~~~c-~~Ls 011 t,Ilc I)~(!IIIZ(IO\VII of' I : L I I I ~lIlIc~) L ~,.~l ~ l S7 , 51:) 517 (l!l.tll).
74, 34 I -:!ti0 ( I !)05). 1281 I'i~gc~,I\., O I I ~l'rcstoti, J.11.: I C x ~ ) c r i ~ ~ iOrI In tt~r n ~ ~ s i t ~fro111 i o ~ i ln111i11:1rto ~ I I ~ I ) I I I ~ i~ lI IoI ~
121 II~irry,M.I).,J., nnd Jtosa, M.A.S.: Tlic flat. plnto bounrlary Inyer. Pnrt 2: The eKcct of in l l ~ rOoi~~iclnry layer. I'roa. Roy. Roc.. I,oticlo~~11 178, 201 -227 (1!)41).
i~lc.rc:lsi~ig I.l~ic:kncsson stnbi1it.y. .lFM 43, 813--818 (1070). [28:ti l":lgt3. ,I.: l'r:i:isit.io~lin tllr I)o~~ncl:rry Inyrr ~~nllsc.el I,y t ~ ~ r l ) ~ ~ l c,\I<(! * ~ ~ (llbl . c ~I8!)li
. (1!)1?).
[3] Ilr1111y.I). -1.: A non-lit~c?nrtheory for oscillnt,io~~s in n l~nrnllelflow. ,I IM ' 10, 2 0 9 -2:lti (l!)61). 12811)I':lsc:l. ti.: Invostigr~tio~~ of t . 1 1 ~ntnl~ilit.yof I)o~~t~tl:~r,y l~~yc.rs l)y II l i ~ ~ i tclill~.rc~l~~~e.
,. ~ l ~ , ~ c l cc,I'
>l

t.llc. N:tvic$r-Sto1zc.s~ : ( ~ I I : I ~ ,JI<'R1

~oIIH i S., 355 :!x:! (l!)7ti): s e ~ JIIRO:
141 Ilrtc.hov., It... nnd C:ri~ni~i:~lo. W.O.: St,nl,ility of pnr:lllcl flo\vs. A c e t l c ~ ~ ~ I'rcss,
ir l!)(i7. , 1)iss. S I I I I I ~I!)?,$. I~I
, 8
[291 ICrolldo. \Y.: 15xl)cri111c.11l,n or1 1.11~. sr~rf:le~c fric:l.io~l.I{ril.. i\ss. I(t.11. 1x72.
I4n] Ilor~t,liirr, BI.: St~.l)ilit.6 li116niretlcs 6 c o ~ ~ l e ~ ~ iprmqnc r n t f i pnrnlli.les. I. .Jol~rnnlclc, MLrnnique I:!()( (:c,rsl.i~~g.-1.M.. 111111 .In~~lzo\vslzi. I). I:.: N11111c.rir:llI I I ~ * I I I ~ I I H( i ~ rO ~ ~ - S O I I I I I JI V ~ I~. ,~~II~~ I~~I.II I I S
11, 5!I9 W21 (1!)72). 11. I,n couchc lin~itotlc I3lnni11s. Jor~rrlalde M6ca11iquc 12, 75-!I5 1 1 J. N ~ ~ ~ c r iIrent ll ~ o di 1 1 1 g i 1 i e r i 1 4 , I ! 201; (1!)72).
(l!)7:3).
I51 I5ergI1. 11.: A tiiet~liodfor visunlizirig periodic borlndnry lnyer phcnonlcna. IUTAM Sym- 1311 ( h s t r r , Bf.: On t.hc clli:ct, of bo~l~ltlnry 1n.yc.r gro\vt,l~011 Ilow st.:~.l,ilily..II'M (Xi. I(;.', 480
(1974).
> .-,.
1)osi1111iI{o~~~iclary-layer rescnrcl~(fl. (;iirl.lor, otl.), Ik:rlin, l!)5X, 373-- 178. [:!:!I (::LH~.(.I.. hl.: A 11ot.e.or1 (111~r(.l~ilic,~~ II~.I~W,.~:II t ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ c ~ r :el1111 ~ l ~l l~~~i ~~I ii ,u i~~c ~l tl~
~yi r~ c
~ > ~l ? :c ~
i l ~~ ~ i
(61 Jh~rgcrs,.l.M.: 'l'hc 11iot.io1iof n flr~itlin t,lie ho~tntlarylnyer nlong n plnnc? ~111oot~l1 sl~rfnec.
clisl~~rl)n~~c~c-n i l l Iiyclrocly~~~r~~~ic sl1~l~ili1.y. .ll~'hI 1.1. 222 2211 (I!)li2).
I'roc. I'irst, 111trrn.Congress for Appl. Mec.11. 113, Ilelft, 1924. [:):!I (:ustcr, M.: '1'11~rolc of npntially gro\villg \rr:lves in t . 1 1 ~t.11c:or.y of I I ~ c I ~ ~ c ~ ~ sI tIi ~ ~ lL~I iIl iI t~~~. ~
(71 C:llcng, S..I.: 011 tlie ut.nhilit.y of Isniitinr hor~ndnrylnyer flow. Quart. Appl. Blat,ll. 11, I'rogress in hero. Scic~lcc!~ (1). Kiirlletl~n~in, rd.). 6. 251 270 (I!)(;5). -
346.- 350 (1!)5:!). [33n] (:nste,r, RI., and Jortlinson, It.: On t.l~eeigr~lvnlucsof tlln Orr-So~nmc.rfcl(lc h t l l l i l t i.IIPhl ~~~~.
[XI :l~rllfv-,I)., il:irry, M.l)..J., nrid Ross, M A.S.: Non-linur stability tllcory of the flat plate 72. 121 I:!:% (1!)75).
~ol~ncI:iry Inyrr. All(: (:I' No. 1296, (1074). -,-
\ - .

[34] C:roli~lo.I).: lCi11 15citri1gZ I I ~nicI~t-li~)c:~rr~) St,:\l~iIitiitstl~cor~c~ \ r e ) ~cI)c11c11

~ ~ , : I I I I ~ I I ; I ~r S ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
[!)I (lo~~rt.tc. M.: Ift,i~tlcssllr le frot,temcnt clrn liorlideu. Ann. Chirn. PIiys. 21, 433--510 (1890).
grn. ZAMM .52, 256-257 (1972).
(10) (:rIrlc:. N.: Ilytlrocly~~nti~ic ~t.nbilityin rlnlitllitcd fields of visror~sIlow. l'roc. Itoy. Sac. [35] c<)rtlcr, )I., n11r1\Vit,Ling, I i . : 'Jl)eoric*(lcr s c l ~ u ~ ~ d i l~ist;il~ilit,ut, irc~~ clc:r I ~ I I I ~ I ~ : I ~ ( , I(;v,-llz.
I
I,ontlo~l I\ 2.78. 48!)-501 (1!)57). scllicIit,r~i.I il'T12hl Sytrll~osi~tni. Ilor~llclnry-lnyrrJtr~cnrc-11 ( t i . (:iirtlcr,ctl.) I I0 121;. I<(:rliIl.
11 I] (.'ler~sl~n\v, (I.\V.. nnd l$lliott, I).: A ~uilnericnlt.rcnt,~nentof the Orr-Sonlnrerfelcl eq~~:rtion I !IRR..
.
ill t11c c~i~sc of n ln~nirinrjet. Qrrnrt,. J . i\lc.rh. Appl. Mnth. 13, 300-313 (I!)liO). [Xi] (:rn~ivillc,1'. S. : 'l'llc r n l r ~ ~ l n l i of o ~v~i s r o ~ ~ tlrng
s or I~oclic~s of rc~vol~~t.ir,~~. N I I \ Pl ~~t ~ l ~ l ~ ~ , l l , , . l l ( , ~
I l l n ] 11:lvis. S.: '1'11~ st.nl)iIit,y of 1)rriodi~f l o ~ vAIIIIII:II ~ I<cview Fluid Mccli. 8 , 57--74 (1976). '~'IIL,l):ivicl 'l'nylor i\lorlc:l ~ { I ~ s l<cy~ort, ~ I I , 840 (1!)5:!).
1121 1):tvic:. A,: A ~ilnl)lc~ ~ i ~ ~ i ~ c111etlioci r i c n l for nolvi~~g Orr-So~~~~nerlclcl probIc111s. Ql~nrt).IJ. [371 ~ : r c e n s ~ ) :11. ~ ~l'.,i , n11t1J ~ ~ I I I).-1.:
I I ~ ,0 1 1 sIlcnr.lnyt!r i~lst:~I~ility, l)rcnIzcl<)\\~~~ :~11cit r ; ~ ~ ~ ~ i t i ~
Mrrh. Appl. h1:rth. 26. 401--411 (1073). JFM 15, 133.- 153 (I !)63).
1131 I)l~:~rvnn, S., arid Nnra.~i~iilia, It.: Some properties of houtldnry layer flnw during transition 1381 Grolllle, I).: Ul)cr (Ins Sprkt.r11111I)ri I':ige1lsrll1vi11g111l~11 cI)ct~c.~. Il:~~i~i~~i~r~t~rii~
frc~lnInn~it~ar l c ~ i t , J1'M 3, 418--436 (19511).
t,o t , ~ ~ r l ) ~ ~niot,ioli. ZABIM 3.1, 344 357 (1054). .-
.
114) J)i i'rilli:l, I<.(:.. I'3rlzliillls, W., ~ 1 1 0Segc, L.A.: Non-litlcnr wnve 1111111hcr i~~tera(~t~iolls ill [:1!)] Hall, A.r\., nlid Hislop. (:. S.: 15x~~cri1irc1il.s on tllc lr:~nsiIion of 1.111: Inll~illi~r II~IIII~~:I~~
ncxnr c.rit.iral t . ~ ~ ~ o - t l i ~ ~ ~ cflows. n s i c ~.I~I'iMn l 49, 705--744 (1!)71). layer CIII a lI:~t,1)I:itr. All(; JlBl 1x43 (I!J:!X).
[I51 1)ortst:h. 11.: I111tnrnucl11111gen nn cinigcn Profilcn rnit geringcin Witlcrst;tntl ill1 I%crcioli [:tg:lI J ~ ~ ~ ~ C ~ IIt,.: I I : No~ilinear
~ I I I I , 1~cr111rl~ibt,io11~ of tho ~rr-Sc)~~~~~ic.rfc?Icl c q t ~ : ~ t , :1sy1111)k)t,ir
io~~ ex-
Izlcit~rron-C\'crlc. .ll), clt,. J,oft.fnhrtforscllrl~~g - I, 54--57 (1940). pansion of tho logarill~micplinae shift,across t,he crit.icnl l:tyc!r. SIAM J . M:L(.I;.AIlnIsSis 7,
115111 l)rn7,in. 1'. (:., n11d tlo~snrd,L.N.: tIyclrodyrlxr~licnt,irl)ilit,yof pnrnllcl flo\v of illviscitl flrlitl. 70 -81 (1076).
Aclv. Ap1)I. hiecli. 9, (1906). [4Oj JI:IIIIPI,(:.: 7411111 ' ~ ~ ~ r O ~ ~ l e ~ i z ~ ) rNitc.111.. o I ) l t ! ~ (:c:s.
i i . M'iss. (:iit.tillgc*~~, M1itI1. I'lIss. lil:lSse
[I(;( L)rytlrn, II.l,.: Ilo~~nclnry lnyer Ilow ncnr flnt, platrs. Pror. l'orirtli Intrrn. Congress for 261 - 2 7 0 (1011).
Apl~l.hlrrl~.(':~mhriclgr. I'~~~glnllcl, 19.74, 175. [41] r:ur dcr FIegge Zijncri, J3.G.: Moas~~retncnts of tlio vclocil.y t l i ~ t ~ r i l ) u t it1 i o ~Ill(.
~ I,olllltln~y
[I71 I)ryelrll, II.1,.: Airflow i l l t.hc 1)ountlnry I:~yerttmr a. plate. NACA Rep. 562 (1936). Inyer along n plnne sl~rfnce.Tl~csisJlelft 1!)24.
(421 IIc*isc~ll)crg,\Ir.: I)l~c.rSt.:rl)ilitiit 1111rl ' ~ ' I I ~ ~ I I I ~ OVOII AIIII.(1. I'lIsH.
11x1 .
. , l)rvcI(!l~. 11. I,.: 'l'~~rl)~~lc*~~c.c: n11el t,lic- 1)0111i(l:\ry . Iitycr.
. J A S 6, 85 .-I00 nnel 101 ..- I05 (l!13!l).
74. 577.. (i27 11!)241.
I I Z l~liissiglzc~il~sl,rii~~~c~~~.

[I!)\ I)ryclc~n,11. I,.: So111crre:e~il.t:o~it,ril)~lt~io~~s to 1 . 1 1 ~R I . I I ( I ~o f t . r n ~ ~ s i tti110

. i ~ )t ~, l~l r l ~ ~ ~I lIrO~Il It I ~ ~ ~ I ~ T ~ < ,

Inyers (1':ll)crn prcsentccl nt t.lic Sixth I~ltcrnnt,.(:orlgress for Apl~l.Mecli., 1':'ris. Srl)t,. 1!)41i; (431 Jlollit~gdnlo,S.: St,al)ility nntl r o ~ ~ f i g u m l , of i o ~the~ wnkcs protlrrrrcl solicl I,oclirs 11lovi11g
NA(:A 'I'N I l(i8 (1!)47); sc!e also: 1I.rccnt.I L ~ I V I L I I ~ Ci l Rl (.lie ~llcc.l~nlli(:~ of I I O I I I I ~ : II I~ L~ ~ CI~O\V.
~ I I I I I .i I I 2 2 257 (1!)40).
A(lv:i~le.c.~ AI)I)I.MISC~I. Now York 1, 2 40 (l!).tH). I44j IIoIRI(~~II, 11.: 01):'r (lit! iilttly(?r(:I I I I ~i1111or1, ~ ~ O ~ ~ ) I I I I ~ R ~ C II, ( sIi ~ ~S; (I .I ~( , ~ ~ , IIIl Il ~~~, ~: ~i lIl iSll.ii- ll.~.r
[20) l)rydcn, 11. I..: J<rcrnt.invcst,ig:lt,ion of tlic probleirl of t,mnsit,ion. Z1W 4, 80--!I5 (1956). -
n1illigrtl. ZAnlM 30. 25--49 (1950). \ ,

[45] ilnpf, I,.: A m . (I. Phyn. 44, 1 (1914) and 59, 538 (1919); so(. :llso: Sr~lli~llxry rrport. 1ly 1'.
120:11 I)l:\clrli, 11.1,: 'I'rn~lsit.iol, fro111lnriliri:lr to t , t ~ r l i ~ ~ lflow. o ~ l t ,High Speetl Acrotly~ix~l~ics nll(l
.IrI I ' r o l ~ ~ ~ l 5. s i o3 ~- ~74, I'rir~rc.ton and Osfortl, l!l5!1. Noctllcr, ZAMM I. 125--188 (1921).
Ilownrtl, l..N.: 1lytlrody1)nniic stnl)ilit,y of n jrt,. -1. Milt.l~.I'l~ys. 37, 28:) -293 (l!l50).
121 1 I~rvelc~l~. 11. I..: I<cvc~~it. :i(Ivn~ler~ in the ~ilrc-I~n~lic*s of l,or~~ielnry lnger flow. Adv. Al)pl. Blrc!ll. (46x1 IZarl~nt~ov, S., JZozlov, V. V., nnd I,cvc.l~cnko,I.A.: Uche~iyirz:ll)isIzi TSA(:l V I . 5, 137 --
140 (1975).
[46l)) Ikccln. M.: Pirlit.~dist811rl)nnc:ceanti gro~vi~)g vort.irc~in n t , m o - d i r r i r ~ ~ s i jvt. ~ ~ l 80,
o ~ ~ .lI''hl
401 -421 111177).
- \ - -,
1471 .Iorclinno~i,Jl..: 'I'llr: 11111. 111111c~ I)o1111tl11ry I I L ~ I T . l'111.t I . N I I I I I ~i~l ~~t ,~, ~~g ~r ~:~o(. Il~, i1.111:
o t ~ 01.1..
So~~ln~t~rli:ltl eclllntioll. .J IM ' 43, X O I - 811 (i!l70). S(:c :iI~o:1'11. I). 'l'Il<.sis I~:clir~l~~trgl~ (111iv.
Inox.
486 XVI. Origin of k ~ r b ~ ~ l e In r e

1481 J o r d i n ~ o ~ 13.:
~ , S I ) P C ~ , ~ofI Irigcnvnlnrs
I~I of tho Orr-Somtr~erfrldeqltntion for lllnsilla flow. I641 Orr, W.M. I?.: 'I'l~rst,nhilit,y or inot.nl~ilit,yof thr stcncly tnut.ior~nof a pt:rrr(:t lirll~idn r ~ c lof
l'l~ys. I'l11i11s 1.1, 2535 --2537 (l!)71). IL visrnt~nIit111icl.I't~rl,I : A ptsrfct!t.Iiq11i11: 1'11~1, 11: A V ~ ~ ~ I ) Il iI qR ~ ~ i (~l '. ~ I I l<c)y. I : . l r i ~ AvII(I.
l~
I48nl ~ < l ; ~ j ~ l r I<.
t ~ .IC.:'I'III* n1.11l1iIi1.y 01'I I I I I I ~ I I I Ii~~ ~ r o ~ ~ ~ l ~ r ~r s) ~o inInt tII,~! I~ryrrs
ry i t 1 t.I~t-prrnrn(.e 01 27, !) 1;s IIII(I (;!I l:l8 (l!)07).
c t ~ ~ ~ ~ p lI i~nt ~ ~ t tt.~ ~ c l1'~1r1.rI).
i r u'I'IIcR~R,
. I(IILSH~IOIIIIHUL~~~ IIIHI,. 01 'i'1:~1111nIogy./\~:ro-I':I~~sli(: ICII(I
Strurtr~rrsI<esrnrrh I,:rl)ornt,ory. ASRL 'I'lt 116-1 (1964). [WaI Pearson, TJ. 1<.A.: 111st:tbilit.yof non-Ne\\,toninn How. AIIII.Itev. Fitlid Rlrr11. 8, I(i:l 1x1
148l)J I,ocl~rke, 1<.,1., Morkovin, M.V.. nntl I'rjrr, A.11.: Iteview. Transition in nonreversing (197G).
osc:illat.ing b n ~ ~ n ~ l : tlayarn. ry .I. k'l~~icls l h g . 'I'rann. ASMJS Serico 1, 97, 534-649 (1975). [65] Prrsh, -1.: A st,~rd,yof l ~ o ~ ~ n d n r y - l at,r:unsition
yer frorn In~ninnrto ttrrb~~lcnt Ilc,\r.. US Naval
[49] I<lebnnon', 1'. S., n l ~ dl'ic1st.ro111.1<.I).: ll:vol~~t,ion of amplifier1 wnvrs lentling t,o t<ransit,ion Ortltrn~~rn Lab. I<cp. 4:J:1!) (1956).
in n I ) o ~ ~ ~ ~ clayer l n r y wit11 zero prcssurr gmtlicnt. NASA TN 1)-195, (19b9) [R6J l'rnntltl. I,.: llbcr tlcn I,t~ft.~vidcrst,:~~~cl von l<r~geln.Nncl~r.(;en. Wins. (:iit.t,i~~gr~~, M:tt.l~.
1'11yu. J<I~ssr,1 7 7 - 1!)0 (1!)14); sot: nlsn (!oil. M1orlts 11, 5!J7--608.
j50] Klob~n~on', l':S., r i ' i d s t ~ r o ~I<. ~ ~11..
, and S;trgcnt,, L.M.: The t,l~ree-din~et~nionnil nnt,r~reof
bor~t~cl~~ry-lnyrr i~~stnl~ilit,y. .lI'M 12, 1 --34 (1062). 1671 1'rn11clt.i, 1,. : I3ernnrlrt1ngcn iiber die I ' : I I ~ , s ~ , o ~ I ~der I I I ~ '~II~I)IIICIIX. ZAM hl 1. 431 - 4:Mi (1!)2.1)
I51 , l l-< ~ ~ r t ,1'z:. . I?.. :III(I(:rn~~cln.ll. S. 11.: Co~nl~t~trr-nirletl nt~n.lyninof l~gtlroclyr~n.nlic nt.nl1i1it.y. 1. and J'II~P.Z. 2,?, I!)- 25 (1922); nee nlno (7011. C\'orlzs I I , 687-696.
L

~ n t . l l.l'hy.s.
. 4.1, 21i4 279 (1!)ti2). [67aJ I'rn~~cltl.I'.: u l ~ r die r I4;ntst,rl~t~~~g~ l c r' ~ I I ~ I I I I I ,ZAh4bl ! I I ~ . 11, 407 --409 (l9:Jl).
[68] I'lnnclt.l, I,.: N e ~ ~ c rISrgrl)~~issc:
o tler ' I ' t t r l ~ ~ ~ l r ~ ~ z f o r s Z. c l ~VI)I
~~ng 77, . 105- - 114 (I!):):!); nne
1521 I,c\vin, 1:. W.: Sounr tnoclern ~nct.l~ocls of rrarnrcl~in the prol,le~nsof flight,. The 1!)39 (27th)
Will>~ar
. ... .. Wrirrht Jr-ctrlrr. .J. I<ov. Acro. Sac. Jdndon 43, 7(i!)-802 (I!):*!)). nlso: (!oil. \\'orltn. 11, 105- 114.
" Metnorial - [60] I'retsrl~, ,I.: J)ie Sl,~~I)ilitrit einer ~ I ) C I I C I I I , ~ I I I ~ I I ~ ~ ~ ~ bci , ~ ~ l)r~~clcg~:fiill~:
~ I I I I I I I ~ I I I I ~I)rr~ck-
1531 IAV, 1,. I-[., n11t1 Itrynol~ls,W.C.: On t.6r npproxi~nnkand nurnericnl solrltion of Orr-
Son~tnrrfrlrl~ ~ r o l ~ l cQuart. ~ r ~ s . .I. Mecll. Appl. Mnt.11. 20, 1-22 (1967). nncit.ieg. Jb. rlt.. 1,uft.ftl.l~rl.forsc:hung1, 58-75 (1!)41).
[70] 1,ortl Jb;tylrigI~:0 1 1 t,l~csl,nhilit,y of rrrt,nin fl~tidrnol.iot~n.I'roc:. Mnl.11. Soc.. 1,~,11flr)t1 11. 57
154) 1,in. (:.C.: 0 1 1 l.11~ slztl~ilit,yof two-rlin~cnnior~ni parallel flows. (311nrt. Appl. Mal,h. 3, 117.-
142 (,lnly 1!)45); 3, 21:) 234 (Oc:t,. 1!)45); 3 , 277-301 (Jan. 1946). (1880) ant1 19. 67 (18.47); Scirnt.ific l'njrcrs I , 474.- 487 I L I I ~I~l l , 17; RCO illso Scic~~I,ili(:
[55] I.in, (:.c!.: Tl~c?I.l~roryof I~ytlrodyn;r~r~i(: st.nhility. Cambridge Univ. Press, 1055. Papers I 1'. 2113 (l8!)5) and 1'1, l!)7 (l!)l:J).
1.561 1,in. C.C., rind Ilrllny, J ) . . J . : On the instability of sheur flobv~. I'roc. S ~ I I I I )Ap1)1. . 170111 JI.r~l~oIlzr). I<.: 11o1111r111ry Inyc:r ~l.rrl~ilil.y ~ t l l c lI , I . I L I I H ~ ~ , ~A~ II II.I I . I 1 t ~ I. " l ~ ~ i c MIV.II.
l S , :Il I :[.I!)
h1:rth. Id, Ilyclrotlynn~nicI11sta11ilit.y1--24 (19fi2). .
i,1!)76).
1711 Rrynolds. 0 . : On t,l~oexpcrimrnt,al invr~t,ignt,ionof the c:irc~ln~stnt~rcs whicl~drtcrrl~inc
[571 Lorer~tz,I1.A.: A I I I I R I I ~ ~iiber I I I Itl~eoret.inchr
~ Physik 1, 43--71, Lcipzig, 1907; ne\\, version whether the notion of water sl~nllbe direct or sinuouo, ant1 t l ~ eInw of rmist,n~lccin parallel
of earlier pnl)or: Aknd. v. Wet. Arnst.crdnt~~ A, 28 (1897); see also: Prnndtl, L.: The n~echn- chnnnels. I'hil. 'rrans. Roy. Soc. 1 7 4 , 935--982 (1883); see also &11. Pnpcrs 11, 51.
r~ic:sof visrot~oflnidn, in ~ ~ 1 1 r a l lW. t ~ I?.:
, Aerodynnmic theory 111, 34---208 (1935).
1721 Reynolds, 0 . :On t,l~ctlynn~i~icxl theory of inc.otnprmsibIc viscous ll~~itls and t l ~ cclolc:rrt~inn-
[57a] MoCormirk, M.1Z.: Ail nnalysis of t,he fort~~at,ion of tr~rl)rtlentpntehes in the trnnaition tion of t.116oritcrion. Phil. Trans. Itoy. Soc. A 186, 123- - 164 (1895); see nlso Coll. l'n.pcrs 11.
boundnry Ir~yrr..I. Appl. Mcch. 3-5. 216--219 (1968).
[57bJ I,rsncrl, M.: sre C11np. 1X. 1731 Rosenbrook. 0.: Instnbili tiit der Giei bchichtcn im ucl~\mch clivorge~~tcnKRIIILI.%AhlM
17, 8-24 (1037). lliss. Giitt.ingnn 1!):17.
157~1I ~ n n r n .M., n.11~1I<", S. H.: On t.ho low Ibcyr~olrlunumber stnhility chnrartcrist,ics of the 1741 l<,osu,J.A., Ilnrncs, I?. 11.. I ~ I ~ I .I.(:.,I ~ , I L I I ~ILosn, M.A.S.: '1.110 lI:tl, pltrl,t! 1)01111(lt~r,y l;~,yor.
1al11it111r i~~ro~~l~)rcsxihlt: l~nlfjrl.. I'hys. oC IPlnidu 12, 404-407 (1969).
Part, 3. Cornpnriso~~ of theory nnd cxpcrimc.111. JrM 43, 81!)- -832 (1!)70).
I57d ( Mt~ck.I,. M.: A n~lmnricirlnt,~tdyof t.11~ t,c~~iporal eigenvnlt~es p e c t r r ~ nof~ t.he 13lnsion bor~nd- [75] Rottn, .l.: l3xperimenkllcr Ihitmg zur I C n t ~ k l ~ ~ tr~r ~l rgl ~ ~ ~ l eSt,riim~tng t~ter in1 l<tlhr. 111g.-
ary Inyer. ,I IM ' 75, 4!)7 --~520 (1!)76). Arch. 24. 258 -281 (1956).
.. .
I57rl M:~rlz, 1,. M.: 'l'mnsitior~ ~)n:dict,ion nncl lincnr n1,nI~ility t.l~cory.AGAR1)-C1'-224, 1 -- 1 to 1761 Schlicht,ing, tl.: Zur J5nbtcl11111grlor 'l'r~rb~~lcnz hci flcr I ' l n t . t r t ~ u t ~ r o ~N:rc:hr. ~ ~ r ~ ~ ~(:rs.
g . M1iss.
I -22 (1!)77). Giit,t,ingen, Math. Phys. Klasse 182.- 208 (1033); nee also ZAMM 13, 171- 174 (19:):)).
[57f] Mittl,ingly, (:. I.:., anel Critnit~nlo,W. 0 . : 'rl~rstx1)ilit.y of nn inoompresnihle t,mo-dinicnsionnl 1771 Scl~lichting,If.: A t ~ ~ p l i t ~ ~ d c n v e r knnrl i l ~ ~Enrrgirl)il:rnz
~~g tlnr kleinct~Stiirr~r~gct~ bci dcr
wake. .Il'hf 51. 2:1:1 --272 (1!)72). 1 lattenutrii~nt~ng. Nachr. Grn. W ~ R R(:iit,t.ingen.
. hlntJ~.1'11~s. KImue, Ptt~:I~gr~tl)l)e 1. I ,
.
I581, Mic.l~nlke.A,. and Scl~ndc,I-I.: Zur Stnl~ilitjitvon frcien Grenzuchiahtr?n. 1ng.-Arch. 33.
I - - 2:1 ( 1 063).
47--78 l19315\. ,-
I-....

[7R] ~chlichting,H.: Lher die Theorie der Turl~ule11zcnt,shI1~11g. Sumtnnry lteport,, Forsrhg.
[59) Miohnlkc, A. : 'rho i l l s(nl~ilit,yof frrr sllenr Inyrru. Progress in Aerospace Sciences(D. I<iiche- 1ng.-Wes. 16, 65-78 (1950).
tnnnn, etl.) 12, 213-239 (1072). [79] Gchlichting, 11.: Et~tstcl~nng dcr Tarl)~llc~lz. IInr~dbuohtler l'hysik (S. IPliiggc, ctl.), $11,
[GO] Meset,l~,J.: 15xpritne11tclle I l r ~ t . c r s ~ ~ cder h ~ ~Ubcrgangszonen
t~g zwiscl~enInminxren und 351-450, Springer-Verlag, 1950. See also: Hnndbook of F l ~ ~ i1)ynarnica tl (V.1,. Strrotrr,
t,urb~~lot~lcn St.rii~n~r~~gngobictc:~~ intcrn~itticrot~der Itol~rut.riitnulrg.Mit.hilungen nrls den1 ed.), hIc(2raw-IIiIl, 1961.
M a x - l ' l a n o k - l ~ ~ ~ t , ifiir
t . ~ ~St,rii~~~~~~~gsforst;I~r~~~g
l. 11nt1tler Arrodynnrnisolre~~ Versr~cl~nnnstnlt. [80] firhiller, L.:~ J n t e r s r ~ c l ~ n iiber
~ ~ g eIa~uinnre
n ttnd t,urb~~lef~t(! St.rii~nt~t~g. Foruchg. I11g.-Wes.
(~iit,l.inpen. . No. 58 (1!)74). Heft. 428 (1922), or ZAMM 2 , 96--106 (1022). or I'l~yniknl. Z. 2J, I4 I!) (1922). -

I60nl Millrr, .l.A., nntl I'rjer, A.I\.: 'l'ransilion p l ~ e ~ ~ o n in ~ r onc.ill~rt.ing

na I ) o ~ ~ n d : ~lnycr
r y flown. I S r l i l l ~ rI : I ~ t i ~ V i~ I Iv I I rI I ' I I ~ ~ I I I ~ I I I I I I I I I ~ I I AI I I . 1 , I I:!
JFM IR, 4 3 8 - 449 (I!)G4). (I<J:)4).
. .
[,G I 1. van hlisrs. 11.: IZlrinr Srh\ring~~ngon untl 'l'tlrh~~lenz. .Iahresl)rr. I)t. Math. \'c:rrin. 241 --248 [R2) Schr~ha~ler. (;. I:.. an(J Skrarnutnrl, 11. K.: l n n ~ i n a rtrr~t~rtflnry layw rmr:ill:~t,ions nr~rislaI,iIit.y
(1912). of laminar flow. National I l ~ ~ r of r ~Xtanrlnrrl.
u I'kwrzrch I'a1r:r 1772. Ikrtrint, of .:r,rtlirlr,nt.inl
hlorkovi~~. >I.\'.: On t11r man>- facrs of transition, in: \'isro11s drag reduction ( ( : . S . \\'rlln, S,\(?A Ikp. tlatx~lApril 1943 (Imkr ~ I I ~ ) I ~ I I I I I :an I I NA(:A Wrir.t.irr~i:I9:lf. W 8 ) I,.II,~ .lA!{ I # ,
I ' l r ~ u ~ Prrss,
~n Ke\v l'ork, 1!)69, pp. 1-- 31 ; see nlso: Critical evaluation of transition 6!)--78 (1947): nee alno NACA I k l ~ 00V. .
[rOll~ lnlninnr to tnr1>11lr11t sllrnr lngrr ~ v i t e~nphnsia l~ on hypernonically travelling hodirs. [RR] Schubnuer, (:. 13.. nnd KlehanoR, 1'. S. : (:onl,rihotionn on lhe rrl~~ot~arlinn of 1)c,11111lrrry Irbyc:r
Air Porcc: lqligl~ti1yna111icnl,d)., M'rigl~t,-1'nt.tcrso~ Air l'orce Base, Ohio, T l t 68- 149 transition. NACA T N 3489 (1955) end NACA lbp. 1289 (1956); nro also Proc. Syrnposiurn
(I !)(;!I). on Boundary Lnyer Theory, NPL, Englat~d,1955.
162) Osl)or~~r, M. I<,.: Numcric~tlnlot.hocls for l~,ytlrodynnrnicnt,nbilit:y problems. SlAM J. Appl. [84] Schubeuer, G.B., and IClobanoff, P.S.: Mechanism of trnnsition n t fl~rbsonicspeeds. IUTAM
Mn[,11. 1,5, 539 -557 (l!)ti7). Symposium, Roundnry-layer I h c n r c h (H. (:iirtlcr, od.), 84-107, Berlin. 1958.
(631. Olnl,rn\vski, If.(:., Morkovin, M.V., ntlrl Iwnclnl~l,M.: A porl,fnlio or stnbilit,~. charnctcri~- [84n] Saric, W.S.,and Nayfoh, A.H.: No~rp~rnllol sb~rbilit~y of I)or~~nlury layor (lows. I'hys. of
t.ic:s of incoinprrrmil~lthouncbrry Inycn. r\(:Altl)ogrnpl~ No. 134 (I!)(i!t). Fi~rids18, 945-950 (1976).
I(i3n.l Ol)rcntnki, H . . I . , nntl I'rjrr, A.A.: 'l'rnr~sit,ior~ in osc:illn.ting bor~ndnryInycr f l o \ ~ .lFM . 29. [$5] SIICII,S. 17.: Cnlcolnlcd nmplifiod osc:illt~t.iot~n in ~ I I L I I'oi~e1~i11c~
I~ nncl Illrrni~~n fIo\v~..!AS 21,
9 : ) I l l (l9li7). 62-64 (1954).
488 XVI. Origin of t~rrh~rlence
I

(HRnJ Slim. S. I?.: Stnl)ilit,y 01' I:~nlintbrflo\v~.High Spc.ctl Aorodynnn~ir~ ~ ~ ,let,

n d Prop~~lsion 4,
71!) H5:l. I'rit~rrlon nntl Oxforel, l!)(i4.
185111 Slirn, IP.C.'l'., Chctl, T. S., nnd Ilrtnng, I,. h f . : The elTt!rt~of nlninflow r:~dinlvrlority on the
s(:~l,iliIyof tlrvc.loping lnnrinnr pipr flow. .l. Al>pI.Mccl~.,Trans. ASMTl: Srr. IC 43, 200-212
( I !)71i).
i ~ l I(Cl~. I I I3rilr11F;znr I I ~ c I ~ o ~ I ~ I I : L ~ I I ~ sI':rI<l5rung
In(il S o t ~ ~ ~ n t ~ r (,\.: ~ I ~ ~ ~ I I dtsr t.t~rI>~~lrnten Pliinsig-
l~t*i~sl)~*\%t*g~~~~gv~i. :\{ti clvl 4. ( ' o ~ ~ g 111tvr11:1l.
r. dt:i h1:~t..I I I . I I(; --124. 1ton11~. lf)OX. C l l Al'TER XVII
IN71 S ~ ~ ~ t i 11.
r t . It.:
. 0 1 1 I I I P st~trl)iliIy01' ll~r<.<\.tli~~~r~isit~~~nl tlist.riI)~~l,ionol' \risoo118l111iti l ~ t - l . \ v t - c v ~
I~:trnllc:l\v:~lls.I'rt)<..I<oy. Soc:. I,o11<lo11 A 1.12. IiZl- li9H (1!)33).
1881 Slr\\2nrl.so~~. I<.: <\ nor~-lilic:nrinritnl~ilityt.11ror.yfor n w:lvr systenl in plnllc Poiscllillc flow.
Origin of turbulcncc 11 t
8 . ,
So~~clc*rl~c~ft 32 :lX (l!)5(i).
I!)O] Slttnrl. .l.'l'.: h ' t ) ~ ~ . l i ~~~I tI ~ C ':C~~ri Sl l 11y~lro~Iy11t1111ir st.:~l)ility.['roc. X t l ~ Itilern. Congress
of t2ppl. Illcrl~.,Sl.rc.s:~,(it! 07 (I!)(iO).
[!)I] Str~nrl,.I. 'l'.:Ily(lrotlyr~nn~ic stnl~ility. in: I,a~ni~rnrhol~nclary layers (I,. Itoscnhcnd,
ctl.), 4X2 57!). (:lnrenclon I'rcna, Oxfortl, i!)(i:%;Bee :duo: <\pp\. Mech. Rev. 18, 523-631
( l!)(i5).
[!I21 'IT:~ni.1.: S O I I ~: I(S' I I ~ Y of: ~bo1111~1;1ry
S 1nyt.r tr:lnsilion $11 snl~sor~ir sl~cocls.i\tlvnnc.ra i n r\oro-
i r ; ~ l ('1'11. 1. I < ~ , ~ I I I ~ ,rrl.),
~ i i ~ t ~ l ~S(,it.~~(,c.s I I . .7, l4:!-- l(ill, I'rrgnn~o~~ l'rcsfl, Nt.11 \'t)rlc ILII(I ,I .lie r(:sr~Il.stlc:sc:ril)rcl in (:hnp. X VI hnvc tlt:tnot~sl.r:~I.c~tl,
i t 1 ~~rinc.i~ll(:,
~ l ~ :c~. ~ ) ~ , l i -
1,011tlti11,l!)li2.
I!):\\ 'l'nni. I.: 15inigr I\cnrr.rk~~~~pr-n ii1,t.r tIt.11 l : ~ ~ ) ~ i ~ ~ i t r . l t ~ r l U~nsc\~ln.g
> t ~ I ~ ' ~ ~ tine n(:rcni..scl~iol~t- ~ a h i l i t ~of
y t.11~niet.l~otlof small dist.rtrl~ancest o tJlo st,rttly of t,lto ~ ) l l c t ~ o t n c ~ noof ~ t
~ t r i j ~ n ~ ~ZAhlhln p ~ n .5J. '1' 25 - 'l' 32 (lIl7:l). tfrnnsit~ionfrom laminar t,o turbrrlcnt, flow. W o tnny, I,licrcli)ro, c-xl)rc:L 1,11:1.t,t.llis
1!)4] 'I'nni, I.: I.o\v xl~rorlflo\v~ i~~\fol\,inF; bt~l)l~lr~('1)111.~tiOll. 1'rogrc~sfi,\rro. Sci. 5, 70 - 10:l (1904).
[!).',I 'l'nni, I.: Ilrvic.\v ~ S S O I II I- X~ I~) O ~ ~ I I I C ~ I Irt.s11I1s ~:I~ on Iro~lnilaryI~tyr:rtransition. 1'115.8. of lil~~ids l.lleory sltoi~ltln.lso srrpply u s wil.11 itlfor~n:rt.iotlt:ont:(:rt~ing l,11r o(.11rr p:~t.:lrnt.t.rrs
Sllll])I. I ( / , I I - - - 11; (I!)(i7). wlliclt e x e r t a n import,ant inflrlencc o n l,r:~nsitiotr,in :tdtlit,ion Lo t.ltc: sitiglr otrr, t.he
\!)GI rl':~ni.I , : 11o1111Oi1ry l;~yt:rt r i ~ ~ ~ s i t ri o \t ~~. ~\tr\~ir\v~ ~ of ~ 1P\rti(\
~ : ~Merl~nnic~
\ 1, I00- I!)(; (1001)). Rcyr~oltlsttunibcr, tiiscu~setls o far. W c 11;~vealrcatly 1)ric:fly roi)ort.ctl in Sor. X V I b
[!)(in1 '~':l~~llllli. A , . I I I I ~ I < ~ I ~ I I ~ < I I I'I*.: O I I ~ ~ jet. JI'h2 4.
I ~ . '1'11c: 8tnl)ilit.y of 11 L \ V O - ~ ~ I I I ~ I I R ~ lnlllirlnr t,hnt, t h e prcssnrc gm.tlictit in t,he cxLcrnnl flow lins n grr;lt inflt~cticc0 1 1 1,11t*s(.;~l)ilit,y
of t . 1 1 ~I > o ~ r r ~ d alayer,
ry xrltl 11et1coort lfr:l.nsit,iorl,in t h o sonst: I,II;LI.
n I';ivort~~:~l)lc~
I,rt:sslrl.c
gr:rtIirnt stnl)ilizes t,lte flow nntl a,n atlvrrsc prrssrtrc gril(li(,t~t~ rc11<1crsiti ICSS sL:rl)lc.
Botly forces, sue11 a s t.he cent.rifngnl force in n cr~rvntlst.rcnm a n d 1 . 1 1 ~ I ) I I ~ > Y : I I I ~ ~
i n a norl-liornogcncous s t r e a m , a r c very important, fi)r tlr:~ttsillion.111 tnort: 111otI~rt1
. . - t,inies problems connected with bonnclnry-layer control t,llrongI~sirction o r I)lo\ving
2UO 217 (I!VP5).
I!I!lI 'I'oll~iiiv~~,
\\'.: 0Irt.r (lit. 1Sntstnl111ngtlrr ' l ' t ~ r l ~ t ~ l ~ I.nMitt.
z . Xncllr. (ks. \\'ins. (:iitti~~grn. a n d their effect o n transition h a v e become intport.ant (c/. Chap. S I V ) . Snct.ion
Al;~tl~.I'liys. I<l;lsst. 21 44 (1!)2!l): 1C11pl.tr:~nsI.i n K,\C',\ Thl (;I)!) (1!):31). nxcrt.s n stn1)ilizing effect., b u t l)lowillg prornot,cs insl,;~l)ilit.y.111 t.lic c::iso of flows
I I O O I 'I'olln~i(.n.\\'.: I C ~ I I :~IIg:.~nrit~rs I(ritrrin~n(Ivr I~~sl:~l,ililiil libn~ini~rrr
(:rsrl~\vi~lcligli~~itsv~r- w11ic:li occur a t very high speeds, \ \ ~ l ~ rt,hc r l fluitl m u s t t~c: rrga.rtlc:tl a s I)c,ing vorn-
lc.ilt~l~gt.~~.
N;~c.l~r. (if.*. \\'iss. (:iittic~gc.lr.hl:~tl~. l ' l ~ y ~I<l:~ssc-.
. I . 1. 7!)-1 14
I~:~c.l~gr~lppe
(I!l35); 1+:11gl. Ir:~nsl.in XZ\(''\ 'IT&1 7!V2 (l!l:!(i). pressible, t3hc presence of I ~ c a tt,rnnsfrr from o r t,o tlio wall (1lc:nLirrg o r cooling)
J 1 1 l I I 'I'oll~~~irn.\\'.: . \ s ~ I I I ~ ~ ~ 111trgriltio11
c ) ~ ~ R ( ~tlrr I I ~S~i~rt~~~p~:lini:rt~~~ti:~IgI~icl~t~~~g
~ rl)erler I:rtni- nffcct.~transition t o a n important, clrgree. 'Vlte t.rxnsfcr of 11r:l.t from t.llc flrlitl t.o
Itnrcr S ~ ~ ~ ~ I I 1)c.i I I ~ ~I < ~I ~I~ I I O I I I S S I ~ I I I - Znlilc-11.
I I IIIO)I(*II II Z,\hlM 25/27. 33--50 nntl 70bX:1 t,Ile wall h a s a highly st.nbilizit~gcffcct I)ut if t,I~cflow of l ~ c n is t from t.11~ ~ s n l lt o tire
flrtitl t.11eeffect is revcrsctl. Ipinnlly, problcms connect,rtl \vit,h tllc inllttcncc ol'rorrgll~lcss
on t,ransit,ion a r e of g r c a t pract,icn.l import,arlcc.
'Uir resent, cltnptcr will conttnin a rcvinw of nil l.ltc~sctlivrrso prol)lvnts, ant1
we slin.ll bcgirl wit.11 t.lio st,utly of t.lir clrcct, of 1,rcssllrc. gr:~tlic-nlsI)c~c-artsco f ils grcv~l,
irn~)ort~nncc in prnct.ical npplicnt.ions; in t.his conncsion t.llt: rcntler 1nn.y r t ~ t ~ s ~f l l~c l f .
t.tvr.o snrrtmary revicws, t,fie one by I. 'l'arti 12381 \vrit.t.ctl in 1!)60 a t ~ t ll.l\c ot,l\rt I,y
E. R,rshot,l<o[l94n.] [)r~blisllctlin 1!)70. '1'11~ f;)rrt~t:rooncc~~~l.rnt.c.s or1 i l ~ r o i ~ l l ) t ~ c ~ s s i I ~ l ~
. . flows. \vltereas t h e latt.er ernpl~asizcsromprcssit~lcflow a t ~ t lltrnt t,r:~nsfcr. \Ve \\xisll
11i55 I I ; ~ ~ ( I ! I ~ , 'I ) . - f
1 Ill71 \Vliitt-. I*', A l , : \'isc,ot~sIl11ir1 flo~s.hit,(:^^\\ ~ l l i l l .K C \ \ ' \-or\(. 1974. once ngnin t,o d r a w t'he render's at,tcnt.ion t.o t h e sotnewllnt, oldcr, r r l . ~c.sc*rll<bnt,,
,
1 I I ~ N l \ \ . ~ ~ I I : I I $1.. b l , , :I,II(I V ~ ~ ~ I I II).:
I s ~S11l~t1lov.
<~. : I IOn
I . :I I I I ~ I ~ I I "sl~crt.'
I C I I ~ in n In111i11:br
b~tln~~- r r v i r w of this gi~ol)lc~nnl,ca prrpnrctl Ity J .'I'.8t.11ril.t.1227 rr,l.
~ . 7s. 785 XI!) (1!171i).
i ~ r y\ : ~ y c .)I1'h!
t I nrn very n ~ r ~indebtrrl
rl~ to Dr. L.M.hlnrlc of t,l~e.Ict. I'ropnlnion I , ~ ~ h o r i t t of
o r ~L l ~ c ! ( ' : ~ I i f ~ ~ ~ ~ l i ~
Institute of Tcchtrology, Pnnedenn, Cnliforniu for t,he cot~~plct.rly reurrit,ten, prmcrlt, vcusio~r
of S~ct,ionXt'lle of t,his rhnpter.
490 XVII. Origiri ol t,urbulencc 11 a. I3hct of pressure gradient on t~ransitiotiit1 bountlnry layer along ~moot.l~
wnlln 491

a. Effect of prennl~regrndierit on trnnsition in bo~rndarylayer along ~ n ~ o o walls

th t o work witsli a nicnn llow wlioso vclo(!it8y Il (y) rl~l)t?n(lsollly 0 1 1 t,llr 1 r:itIsvrrsc
c o o r t l i r ~ ~ ty.
~ c'l'ho inffl~onccof Lhc I)~I:RSIICC gra(/irnt 0 1 1 ~ l , a l ~ i l i t~, yn a ~ ~ i f ' ril,sc~lf
sl.~
r
J 11c bo~lntl:~.ry1;lyor on a llnt pl:lt,c a.t zero inridolcc ull~osc stal)iliI,y w:ts
7
t.11ro11gl1 t,Itr fort11 or ttIic vclocit,y 1)rofiIc gives11 by fI(?y). \\'t: IIILVI: nlrt:;ttly s ; t i c I it1
i n ~ e s t i g s t ~ ein
t l Chap. X V I has the pcc~rlixrcharactteristic t h a t its vclocity profiles See. XVLI, thnb the limit of st,al.)ilit,y of a vcloeil.y prolile: dr1)t:ntls sl.rongly o11 il,s
a t tli&rcnt tlist,anccs from tho lending ctlgo are similar t o each other ( c f . Chap. VII). shape, profiles with a point of inllcxion possessing colisitlrrably 1owc.r lin~itw of
I n t,his case sirni1nrit.y results from t h e al)scncr of a pressllrc gm.tlicrit in the external stability than tShoscwithout ono (poit~t-of-inflexioncriterion). Now, since t.hc pressure
flow. On tthc other h:trld, in t l ~ ccase of a cylintlric;r,l I)otly of arbitmry shapc \rhen the gradient cont,rols t,lic curvatrlre of the velocity profile it1 accordance wit(11~(111.(7.15)
pressurc gradient along tfhc wall changes from point t o point, t,llc rcsoll.ing vcloc:it7y
profilrs arc not,, grncrally speaking, similar t o each ot,hcr. I n tho rangtrs wllere t,l~o
prcssure docrc.ascs tlownst,marn, the v ~ l o c i t ~profilns y have no l~oint~s of inllcxiol~
ant1 are of t,llc typo shown in I'ig. 1 6 . 9 wllcrcas
~ in regions wl~crct,llc:prossure inorcnscs t.hc sl.rong tlcpentlencc of the limit of stal)ilit,y on the shapc of tho vrloni1.y profile
d~wnst~rcam they arc of t,he type s l i 0 ~ 1 1in Fig. 1 6 . 9 ~ancl (lo posscss points of n.mo1111t.st.o a largo ir~flt~cnceof the: [ ) ~ C S R I I P O gmclictit on sl,al)ilif~y.I f , is, I,ltc~rc.li~ro,

stal)ility, nanicly R,,, = ( f J , d,/v),,,, -

inflexion. I n t,I~ccaso of a flat plate all velocity profilcs have t h e same l i n ~ i tof
520; in contrast with that,, in the case
of a n arbitrary body sl~npc,the intliviclrlal velocity profiles have marlrrtlly tlifiront
true t,o say t h a t neceleratetl flows (tlpltlz < 0, clUrn/tl:c:> 0, f;~vo~rr:lblc
gradient,) are considera.hly morc stable thnn clccclerat,ctl flows (tlp/clz>O, clIJ,,,/dz<O,
atlvt:rsc prrssnro gr:~.tlirni,).
pressure

limits of s t a b i l i t , ~ I~igllcr
, than for a flat plate wit11 favo~rrableprcssure gratlicnt.~, ,I he stxong infl\icncc of t h e pressure gratlior~to n stnl)ilil,y ant1 on t,l~r::lrnr)li-
1

and lower with aclversc prcssuro gratlierlts. Conseqrtrntly, in ortlcr t o dct,orn~ir~c lirnI.iot1 of smn.11 tIisttlrbn.ricos ~)rctlic:l.crlIpy t,llc ~)rt:~c!nl, (Jltwry WILH c:ot~lir~r~r.,l
q9x-
t h e position of t,he point of instability for a body of a given, prescribed shape, i t is pcrin~ent.ally by G . B. Scl~ubauernncl 11. l<. Slcramst,ad, Scc. XVlcl. 'I'll(: gr:~l)lts
necessary t,o perform the following calculations: it1 Fig. 17.1 represent oscillograms of the velocity os'cillations o n a fl:~twn.11 wiLh

1. DctcrminaI,ion of the pressure tlist,ril)ut,ion along the contour of Lhe body a prrssure gradient. The upper half of the cliagram shows t h a t a prossrlrc! tlrop
for frictionloss flow. 2. I)etcrminat,ion of the laminar boundary layer for trha.tpressure whiclr amounts t o 10 per cent of the tlynarnic prcssure causes a cornplcl~rtlartlping
d i ~ t ~ r i b u t i o 3.
n . Dctcrmination of thc limits of stability for these indivitlr~alvelociby orlt of tile oscillat.ions, whereas tlrc prcssttre increase wl~ichs ~ ~ c c e c t it l s ant1 which
profiles. T h e problem of determining t h e prcssure di~t~ributiori belongs to pot,ent,ial a n ~ o ~ ~ nt,ot ,only
s 5 per cent of t,he tlynanlic prcssllrc, on.rlscs not only stxong ampli-
throry whicl~supplies convenient met.hotJs of computation as, for example, tlescril)ctl fical.ion I I I I ~ .protlllccs l,mnsit.ion a t onc:c. (111 t,llis corirlt??tion att.cnl,io~~is tlratvn 1.0
by T. Tlleodorsen and J . 1 S . Garriclc 1242) and F. Riegels [193]. Conve~lientnietliods t,he redrloed srnlc of the last two osrillogmms!)
for the calculat~ionof laminar boundary layers were given in Chap. X. The third step,
t,he st.al)ilit.y calculntion, will now be discussed in detail.
I t is ltnown from t h e theory of laminar boi~ndary layers, Chap. VIT, that,
generally spealring, the curvature of t,he wall has littlc influence on t h e development
of tho houndary layer on a cylindrical body; this is tarlie as long a s the ratlius of
~ u r v a t ~ u rof e tlie wa.11 is mnoh larger tjhan t h e boundary-lager thickness, which
a m o ~ l n t stoosaying t h a t t h e effect of t h e centrifugal force may be neglected when
analyzing the formation of a boundary layer on such bodies. Hence the bountlary
layer is seen to develop in the samc way a s on a flat wall, b u t under t,I~einfluence
of that, pressnrc gratlicrit whicll is tlctermined h y t h e potential flow pnst tfhe body.
The same applies t,o the tl~t~orminat~ion of the limit of stability of a boundary layer
with a pressure grntlient which is different from zero.
Tn ront,rast with I,hc cSase of a flat, plate, whrro the external flow is nnilbrin
a t [J, 1const,, wr now 11:~veLo con0cncl wiLh a n ex1,ernal strram wlrose vrlority, Il'ig. 17.1. Os~~illogr~~ti\o l vc*lo(.it.yIlr1t:Ln:r-
I / , ( T ) , is :L f~lnrfionof the lrngth roordirlat,e. The velocity Urn(z)is related to tlle 1.iolisi l l I:~~nin:lr
I)ot~lltI~rylityrr wit11 pres-
prrssuro gmtlirr~btlp/tlr through tho Rrrnonlli erluation sure gr:ttlirt~t.,ns ~iic~:tsttrrtl
h y C:. 1%. Srlirt-
1)nrlrr nritl 11. I<. Sltra~nst;~tl. 1)ccrcnsing
prcsstlrr ~wotl~lrcs tlnrnpit~g; iric:rmsirig
1)rrsnllrr rnllsrs strong :ltnl~lifir:at,ionniltl
111'spi1.r of l,hc tlrpcntlcnc:c of l,l~ccxt,rrnal vclocif.y on t.he 1cngt.li coortlinat.c, it, is ~wo(ltirmtmr~sit,ion
1)ossil)lt.. :IS sIio\vt~I)? . I . 1'rc:l.st-1111771. 1.0 : L I I : L ~ ~ - A C I.hr sl~al)ilityof 1;t.rnili:~rllows \viI.l~
a prrssur(: gt.:~~li(%nl, i l l l r l ~ t sn.tnc!
* w;r.y R S in illsaI)st:n(:c ( ( : l ~ a pX V l ) ; il, is again ~,ossil)lo
492 XVII. Origin 01 turbrllcncc I[ a. Effect of presslzro gradient on trannition in honndary layer dong ~moothw n l l ~ 493

st.ipulnt,e. for t.hc S R ~ Cof si~nplicity,a one-pammeter family of laminar velocity

~)rofilns.AII c x n ~ n ~ lofe s u n l ~a one-parameter fnrr~ilyof velooit,y profiles, which,
nlorrovc.r, (:o~~sI,ihr~l~c
exa(.t, solr~t,ion~of I,hc bor~ntlnry-l:~.yor
e c ~ r ~ a l ~ i oisl ~rr~)rcsrrlt,ncl
s,
by I lnrl rcr's \r.ctlg(. flows. 'l'l~cirfree-sl.re:~mvelocity is givrn I)y

n r ~ dt.l~cass.ioc:inl,ctl ve1oc:il.y profilcs can bc four~tlplotft,cd i ~ rPig. 9.1. IIcre m de~lot,es

tho sl~:~,pc farl,or of (,he ~)rofilesar1c1 tho wctlge angle is = 2 m./(m..I- 1). W h e r ~
ni, <:. 0 ( i ~ ~ c . r c : ~prc:ssrlro),
si~~g t,l~cvcloc:ilfy prolilcs 11:ivo a point, of inllcxior~;whcr~
111. > (1 (ttco~.cn.siii~ prrssr~rc),t.11C1.eis no point, of inflrxion. AS cerly a s 1941, J . J'rctmh
[ I 78, IT!)] cnrricxl o l ~ t,l~c:
t sta1)ilit.y calcr~liil,ionfor a scrics of profiles of t,his one-para-
mc:t.rr family. l,at.er, in 1!)G0, thcsc cal(:r~lationswere considerably cxtentlctl by El. G.
O~nbrcwslzi([G:!] of (:ha.p. XVI); Ilc cvaIuat,e(I not only the critical Reynolds number
I ) I I ~a.lso
. l.hc, an~~)lificat~iot~ m1.c of t.hc ~ ~ r ~ s t stlistnr1)anc:c-s.
l~lc: 'l'l~cralcr~In.f~ions rcvcr~la
s1,rongc.r ~i~.pcwtlrnc:o of t , l ~ cril.ic::~I
c Ih:y noltls I ~ I I I I \ ) I '011
~ l.11t: sl~n.~)(:I'n.(:l.or1 ) ) l.hnn t l i t l
(s:~rlivr \vo~.lz.'1'11~ c l i : ~ y , r :ol' ~ ~ 17.2 (lrscril)(:s O I I C r c s ~ ~ l<)I'
~ ~ lciy,. l . l,l~rsc<::LI(!III:LI,~~IIS,
n:1n1(.13;(11cC I I I . V ~ Sof const.ant, ampIilic:al.ior~for 1.11(: vcloc:it,j ~)rolilosnssocint.c:d with
(.II(. c~xIcrr~al flow givrn I)y nqn. (17.2~1)wit11 m = -0.040 whicll corresporlds t o
=: -0.1 ; c f . A . R. Wnzzan [I041 of C l ~ a p .XVI.
I<. I'ol~lIr:ir~sc~n's: ~ ~ ) ~ ) r o x i m amothotl
t~c clescril)etI in C l ~ a p .X is the most
c:onvc:~~iont, one for trllc c:alc~~lat,iorl of laminar velocity profiles and it is, t8llerefore,
I I S ~ > ~ I I I1.0 i~~vc~sl,ig:~.l,n
l.11~sl.:~l)iliLyof I,l~oassociated vclocit,~r)rofiles. 'I'l~e s l ~ n n col' [Gig. 17.3. Curvrs of ~lrr~t,r:~l
xt.nlrili(.yfor I:i~~~ir~:ir Fig. 17.4. (!riI,icnl I L C ~ I I O I I I S I I I I I I I ~ ) ( T
t,lle vrlonit,y I)rofilc:s is tlct,c~.rn~ncd I)y t.hc shape factor I)o~l~~dnry-l:~ycr 11roGlm wit,l~ prcssrtre dccrcnnc of I)o~~nci:iry-l:iyor
volooil.~ profilm with
( A :-- increaac ( A < 0 ) . Thc nh:bpc
0) and l)rt:ss~~rr prrxsurr gr:icliol)t ns n f t ~ r ~ c l . iofo ~the ~
factor of the vclorit,y profilo i s tlclir~cdns RIIRIW: fnnt.or A
1J2 dl/",
A = - --- - , srr aIso.liig. 10.5
v tlx
'I'l~rI : ~ n \ i of
l ~ vnlocit,y profil~sw:w sllowr~in Fig. 10.4. T l ~ cs l ~ a p efactor A assumes
v:~lr~c,sI)cl,wcc~t~ A - 1- 12 r~ntl- 12, the latter v n l ~ corrcspor~tling
~r 1.0 ~ c p n m t ~ i o ~ l ;

a t the forward stagnation point it is cqual t o A = -1-7.06, ant1 a t t,ilo point of

Fig. 17. 2. Curvca of const,a~~t
pml n~nplificntiol~ for the b o n ~ ~ d -
ary lirycr in rot,nrdetl flow wiLl~free-
stream vclocit,~ given by ( I ,
= C xnlcalculated for a wide range
of Itcynolds numbers after [GB] of
Chnp. XVI
11:
p
1
minimum pressure we have A = 0. For A > 0 t.hc pressure tfccrenses; ,I ( 0
corrcspon(1sto a n increase i t 1 prcssrlrc!. 'I'll~o vcloc!il~y~)rolilc:sfor A .: 0 c!nc:l~ I)OSS(:SS
a point of inflexion.
11. Scl~lic)~t,ing and A. Ulricl~[200] c:brriotl out, sl.nl)ilitt.yccnl~:t~lat~iot~s for tAis
farnily of velocit,y profiles. Thc ctlrvcs of ncntral sl.abili1.y arc sl~ownin Id'ig. 17.3.
~ r st,hc curves of nc:uI.r;~lsI.:ll)ilitty for :III vc.loc.il,y profil(,s \\.it11 :L( I ( % -
Ilot,l~I ) r : r ~ ~ r l of
tetra-
~ r c n s i t ~I,rc,ssrlro
g (A > 0 ) tecrltl to zc:ro :LS R - >m,jr~st,:LS \V:LS1,110 (::I.sI!(ill. I,II(S Il:bll
plate, A .- 0. On t.hc ol.l~cr11nntl tilo Ilpl)rr I)r:~nc:l~rs or c:cl~.vc:sc'orrc:sl)o~~tli~~g 1.0
~wofilt*swil.11 :~rlvt:rsc~ ~ r c s s r t r c g r n t l i c (11
~ ~ ~( t0~)s l c ~ ~ t.o
c l :III :~syn~l)t.ol,c:
w l ~ i r lrlil1'c.r~
~
from zcro so tl~at,even for R -> OQ tl~c?rccxists a f i ~ ~ i ~.c,giot~ l~c of wavcdc~~gt.l~s :~t,
wl1ic41t l i ~ t ~ ~ r r b a narec c salways arnplifictl. 'I'llc vc:lorit,y ~)rofilrsi l l t,l~cregio11of f ' ; ~ v o ~ ~ r -
a l ~ l cI)rc.ssllrc gra(1ic11I~ (11 > 0) :LS wrll :LS l,11(! ~)roliloli)r (.ot~sI.:~nl, I)I.,~SSII~O (, l 0)

=
p/(Z
- 0.1
- p) - 0.048
I)clong t.o I,l~cl,yl)c of "viscor~s" insl,:ll)ilil,y (c:r~rvc:1) i l l I'ig. l(i.8), \vl~c,rc.:~s
in I,IIc r:~ngeof :~(Ivcrscl)rcsst~re?
I.III> 1)roIili.~
gratlicnt (A < O ) arc of 1,11(! t,goc cl~:~r:~c:(,c,rist.ic: ot'
"fric:t,iorilcss" il~st~ability (cr~rvca in I'ig. 10.8). I t is sccw I'ro~n Icig. 17.3 I.II:LI, the
404 XVII. Oriein of tnrbnlenco TI

gral)ll of \vn.ve-likent.rcnk I ~ I I C R i l l a water vl~n~it~el

~)l~l.~illt*d
\vit.h 1,111? nid of lrltc t.cll~~ritt~tt111t?t11od
by IT. X . Worttt~nnn1257, 2581; di~tllrbnitcecrcnktl nrlificinlly hy n.11 os~ill:~t.i~~g sllril)( 3 x A00
>: 0-03I I I I ) ~ ) . T l ~ estrip is lovntcd nt n ~t.iiIiot~\vltnre R 1 =- 750; t,llc at,renlz l i 1 1 ~ 8itre c:rnnlrtl xt
R, == 950 (Irft.border of figure). The rollir~gr ~ p ofnt.renk linrs tlo\r-~~ntrrn~~t in n rottncqrlrtlre of t,l~e
Fig. 17.5. Sl~nrlograpl~
pict,r~reof reverse t.ransit.ior~front t~rtrl)r~lnnt,
t o l:rn~it\arflow it1 n \)orr~t~lnry instnl,ilit,y of the prrt.t~rl)ot.ion wnres. 'l'hc figl~rrar10110te 1listnnc.r~i l l rln
layer it1 sl~pcr~onio
flow ro11r1(1
a corner at. M = 3, nfkr J . Skrlll)erg [215j
NIIIII(-~/I.II~ I I ~ I I I ~ I I I ~I ~O I I I I I ~111yrr
I I ~ I I lor I I ~ ~ st1 1111, vt.1tlt.r 1 9 1 I1w I I u I I ~ I ' :
\'olorlLy f ~ t ~ l s i dt101111dnry
I)isl~i:trel~~ctlt
c
1Itirk11r.w r t l I ~ n t l ~ ~ < lInycr,
I d i s t ~ ~ r l ~ t1~--t ~I8
\ \ I ~ \ ~ P I C I I X I I 01
n r y 6,
c .C I ~ I
-
1:1y~r. IJ,,, = 11.1 ~ I I I / S C C
1.4 rttl

wig. 17.1;. Srltrtitnt.ic rrprc~cnl,nt,ionof 11r)-t~~~lds l111111t)~r. R , - U,,,d,/v = 1250

Sltnltr rnl'tnr, 6,/d, - H , , = 2.0
the flolv in t . 1 1 ~I ) o l ~ ~ ~ d nIstyrr
r y ill per- l ' ~ ~ I l ~ : ~1v:~rnlnt-tvr
t ~ s r ~ l ~ I V I I Irqn. (10.21). A - -- U
aonir: flow nrot111cln vornrr, nfl.cr .I. Sterlt-
berg, c / . Fig. 17.5

T h o phot.ogra,pli of Fig. 17.7, t,nltcn by F. X . Wort1rt~ntttl[2T,B. 2561 it1 a wn.t,c:r

c l ~ a n n c lcoriveys n clcar ini~,rcssion o f unsf.cLl~lroscillnlic)its in n. 1ntni11n.rI)ollntla.ry
Inyw. T h e yictllre was obtained b y t h e t r l l ~ t r i ~ ~~nt:t.hotl rn /256]. l'hc a.rt.ificn1 tlis-
r e g i o r ~of u ~ i s t ~ n b wavcle~igths
le encloscd by t h e curve of n e ~ i t ~ r ~ a lt a b i l i t ~isy much
greater for b o ~ ~ t i d a rlayers y with adverso pressure g r a d i c n t , ~t h a n for acceleratetl t.nr0nnces were generated wit,h t,ho nit1 of a n oscillnt.ing strip placctl near t.hc n a l l ,
flows. T h e dependence of t h e critical Reynoltls nurnber o n t h e s h a p e factor A in n m n n n r r siri1ila.r t.o l,hat crnploycd by S c l ~ u l ~ n r ~~clrl.t l~ltrr?rnst,atlant1 tIcse1.il)cc1
which follows from Fig. 17.3 !ins bean plotted i n Fig. 17.4t. I t varies wit,h t h e
r
valno of tile sllnpc factor A , and hence wibh t,ho pressure gradicrit,, very st.rong1.y.
in Chap. X V I . 'J'ltc ~ ) r r s s ~ irise r c a.long t , l ~ wirll
t n c t . r ~frotn rclti. (17.3) llxs t.11c vnlnr A
is g c t i ~ t . n l ~ I.II(.
c ~ l 1oc:trl Il.c:ynol~lsIIIIIIII)I'I.
1111s
r
-
is s o srnnll t.l~nt.tho I ' o l ~ l h n ~ t sp:trn-
--8. At. t.hr s l . n l i o ~w~h r r r tlrc. tlist.t~~.l):~nrt.
e~~

t . l ~ r\~II.IIII\ R b l - 750, I I I I ~ I l.11(* (litll('t~siol~-

I I I V ~ l i : ~ ~ t . :i t l1 n 1~C i ~ . 17.2 t . ( ~ t ~ l i i i ~ l: s~. t l t l i l i o ~ ~ r ~cl.l~yt,~ . \ .of'
3
t ~ sI~OIISI:IIIL : i t ~ ~ l ~ l i ( i ~ ~ ; r t i o ~ ~
~~j/~- ' l , ~l Y I I I S I . I i ~ r:I. v~slocil'ypt,tt[ilc a,ssoci:~tvtlwit,lt tPlicsninll r:tt,tx of 1)rrss11r<:risq lcss wa.vrlt:~~gl,lt of l,hc tlist,url)nrico is n l (TI -= 2 nOl/l - - 0.48. 7'11is [ ~ o i r ~ist . loc.:~.t.ctl
~ s o t i l I i / ~ - -~-O.l. A c-otlt[)nt.iso~~ \vit.lt IT;#. lfi.12 cot~vi~lt.c*s 11st11:rI. 111,. s l ~ \ t ?
f a r in tJir ~lnst,nl)lrficltl o f Fig. 17.3. '1'11~ inst~ntit.n.nc~o~ts s ~ l n l ) s l ~ of
o ; t.It(> sl.rc.n.lc lincs
r:~lcs01' I I I . ~ S S I I~ II IY ( . I .*( * ; I S ( - ~ ~ o ~ ~ s i i ~ ~ ~l (~, r (~- ;t~1~s1vt,s~;~t~t l~ ~ l l~ I~i f~i t ~ :t~. ; t,t tlx i. o ~ t in Pig, 17.7 sl~o\vsl11(, fii1:11 11I1ns(*ol' lht%t ~ \ v o - t l i ~ ~ ~ c t ~~ Is~i :o~~~ ~~ ;~ ~I Il ) ~ of' ~ I I1111.
I ~ * (lis-
III~
t,rrrltnnc:c n i ) o ~ ~20 t , wnvc~lrngt.11~ tlownst~rc~nrii of ( . l ~osril1:rf
c ing st,ril). 'I'l~istlisl.nrl~:~nc.t:
nmltlifirs in cornl)lt~t,cn.grrrmrnt of t.l~rory~vil~li c!xl~rritnri~l.. 'I'll? t l ~ ~ c t , ~ ~ n . l~i tvi ln~
, icl~
is stmilltwo-tlirnrnsior~nlnr:tr t.11~Irf't. rtlgo of t.I~c: ~ ~ i c t ~ tIt~t ~r cr o ~ n tlisI.ot~t.c~d t~s in i1.s
t 'l'l~rvnlr~cR,,, - A45 givc'lt hcrc for A - 0 tliffcru so~ne\vl~nt from the v a l ~ ~520
e givrn pre- rnitltllc by t.lic: o ~ ~ c o t n i t longitutlir~n.l
ig vort.iaos. A t t h r t,igl~l,ctlgc! ol' I,III% l)it:l.~tt.c.it. is
vior~ulyin Jpig. 16.1I. 'l'ltiu is duc 14) t l ~ cclilli:rc~~cebetweon t l ~ cexnct I%lnniunvrlocity profile nlrrntly ~)ossil)lrt,o tliscc:rn " t , ~ ~ r I ~ ~ tc.ot.cs".
l e n t ~ 'l'l~isrotifit~tnsour ~.c.lnn.l,lts( Y I I I ( : ( * I . I I ~ I I ~
1 1 s f ~~l ) r ( ~ v i o ~n~
l l tsl I nll
y 1 b ~ ~ l ~ r o x i l l 1 ollr
: t t f ~ rlltl~lo,~c:c~
for 1 . 1 1 ~~)rol~ar:bt.io~r
of rig. 17.2. t,l~rcc-tlirr~rnsiotinl tlist,urbanccs givrn nl, t.hr c>rltl of t,his cli:tpt.c~..
490 XVII. Origin of turbr~lcnceI1 b. Drt.crminntion of the ponition of tlrc poittt of insl.nbility for prrscril)rtl I~otlyshnl)c 407

On sevcral oc:cnoions wc have sttrcsscti thc fact t h a t n pressure increme along We I~cgin\vit,ll t,he evalrlnLion of t,l~claminar 0onntln.ry 1:Iyc.r from t.I~rpot,c.~~tinl
a 1)oundary lnycr sttrongly favours t.mnsitrion t o t,url)ulent flow in it. Conversely, veloc.it,y tIist,rilrnl.ion l l , , ( x ) / U , , w l ~ i c lis~ regnrdrtl :i.s kno\vn, I)y (.II(- ~ t s t *01' 1'0111-
a st,rong pres,?ure tlecrease, such ns may bc crcat8cctbchi~idsharp cdgcs it1 snpcrsonic II:IIIS(!II's : I I ) ~ ) I ~ ~ X ~ I I I : I ~~tit:t,I~otl
,(: ortl.Ii~~r(l in (!II:L[).X. Sr1t.11:i t*:\l(:r~l:~(,it)~r l'~~rt~isl~t-s
flow, cnn carlsc a turbulent boundary laycr t o become laminar. Interesting obser- vnl~tcsof Lllr s l ~ n p cfaclor A ant1 t , l ~ tlispl:icctnct~t c Lllicltnc~ss(TI in t8crnisof t,ltc Icng(,h
vations of this kind were made by J. Sternberg 12151 who employed a cylinder of arc x , measurctl from t,hc forwartl st.ngnat,ion point.. On proc:c:ctling long IIlr 1:~lni-
providetl wit,li e conical forc-body. Pigrtrc 17.5 shows a shadogmpll of the flow na.r I)ont~tlaryI:~yorfrom t,l~cfor\vartl st.:~gr~:il.it>r~ point, in :t tlowr~sl.rc~:~nl tlirc.c.l.iot~:LL
along the conics1 fore-body a t a Mach number M = 3. The boundary laycr turns ari : ~ s s ~ ~ t ncot~st~nnt
rtl botly ltcynoltls nltrnbcr IJ,l/s ( I -- Icngl,I~or I)otly), it, is tlot.it-t:tl
turbulentr a t thc tripping wire providecl for t h e purpose. Further downstream, tJ~at.,a t the bcgirining, t,hc limit of stal)ililpy, ( ( I , A,/v),,~,, is vrry lligll o\vit~g1.0
hnhintl t.11~ corner forrnctl a t lrhc jnnct.ion of t.hc two bodies, the t ~ ~ r h u l e nbor~ntlary
t, t,hc s11:tt-p prrssllrr dccrc:~.sc.On t,l~c; ot.llc:r 11nl1dt.11~ I)orlntl:~ryI:r.yrr is t.11i11 :LII(I c o ~ ~
1:rxt-r 1.1rrnsla~nirraragain, Fig. 17.0. This phrnorncnon is explainctl by tlia circunn- s e q ~ ~ c ~ ~t,I~c t , l local
y ltcgrioltls ~11tn10cr (Jm O,/v is ccrt,:~it~ 1.0 I)c srn:illcr t.lrnn trllc
st,:incc t,h:lt t.11~lnrgc f:tvo~~ml)lc pressure gratlicnt a t the sl~onlderimpresses a very crit.icnl v a l ~ t r ,(/I,,, dl/v),,,,, ant1 t<hc1)onrrtl:iry Iayrr is st,:~l)lc.Pr~rt.hcrt l o w t ~ s l . ~ ~ t ~ : ~ ~
strong acrrlrr:tl,iotl 011 t,hc flow and t.l~is,in turn, ~xt~inguishcs the t.nrl)ulrnce, in t,hc r:rt,c of prrssrlrc tlccronsc brco~nnsst~l:lllrrnr~tlis l'ollo\vt~tlI)y :L I ) ~ ( \ S S I I I . ( - ~II(~I.(%:IS(:
a w:iy rcniinisc:c~ntof the eKccl of a strong co~ttmct~ion placed allend of t l ~ ctest bchintl t.11~ point of minimum pressure so t,h:it the local litnit 01 sI.aOilit,y,( / I , , r ~ I / ~ ~ ) c r i t .
scct,iori of a \vin(l t~lnnt:l.Q~lalit~ative intli~at~ions
on this process can bc found in a tlecrcasrs in t4hc tlowr~st~rcam ciircct,ior~,wl~crcast,he l)ou~~tla.ry-l:~~~t:r Ihit~l~nc~ss :111tl,
~ a 1 ) n rI)y W . 1'. ,Jones ant1 E. 15. 1,auntlcr 1 low. According to t,hcsc nuthors, rcln~ni- \viI,lt il,, I.11t: lo(*:~l l t ~ : g ~ ~ oIlI~I lI sI I I I (/I,,,
)~~~ O,I / j ~ )ittt:rt::r,s(-.
, AI, :L t . ( - t , I , : ~ i t ) 11oi11lI I I ( - I\vo
nnrixn.Iion (nxt,inc:tion of t,rlrbrtlcncc) occurs in incomprossil)lc st.rc:nrns w l ~ c :t,l~c ~~ l~i!~!olllt~ ~~1~11:r.l :
tli~nc~nsionlws acc:rlcr:~t,ionparamctcr sat,isfics the inccl~ralil.y

ant1 from t.h:tt, point onwa.rrls t . 1 Itotl~~tl:~.ry

~ 1:~ycris ~tnst.:~l)lc. 'l'l~t. I I ~ ~ Itlttli~~c.tl
I ~ . l)y
Introtltrring I'ol~lhnnsen's shape fartor A from cqn. (10.21), anti using eqn. (17.3), cqn. (17.4) will be referred t o a s the point o/ i7r.~ltahilit?/ ant1 it.s posit,ion clor,s, r*vitlr~~t ly,
wc ran t r a ~ ~ s l n the
t c prrcrding contlit.ion t o rcari tlnprntl o t ~t.11~I)orly ltcynoltls n ~ t m l ~ r(r(,I , 1)ec:nrtsc l . I ~ t , loc9:il I ~ o r ~ ~ ~ t l ; ~ ~ ~ y - I : r
1/31),

t.liir.l~nrssis irlllr~onc:rtl by it.

..
I 11t: r : ~ l ~ ; n I : ~ lof
i o tl,l~t:
~ posiItion ol' l , l ~ t ! l)oi111~
of it~sl:t.l)ilil~y in I.(*I.IIIS ol' I , I I v l<,~.y-
tvl~rrt.R6 -: ll,,,t\/), tl(~nol~t~s IIlr Itc~yt~oltls ~ ~ t ~ ~ nrrli~~.l.ctl
l ) r r l,o t . l ~ rt.l~irlrncssof 1 . h ~ r~oI(lsI I I I I I I I W ~s l ~ ~ ~ l .i (t 1~I .lI I~
v r1~1,t*rt*(Iittg
~l 1):11.:1gr:11)11
(::IIII N - ( ~ t ) ~ ~ v t * t ~ iI >t (-*tI~. I IOlI y
~III(YI
I,~~~.l)rtl(*t~t,
I ~ O I I I I I I :1:~yct..
I . I . ~ I L is I I O ~ : C S H I C ~ Y 1.0 slrcss (.h:tt this is a purely empirical wit.11 t,l~c:nit1 of t.lrr: cliagr:itns i l l Vig. 17.8. I t will I)(: tlrvrlol)c*tl i l l IIIOI.(* (l(*l.:rilfor
t.ritr~.ion.A 111o1.t.tlrt.:~ilrdinvrst.ignt,ion was mrrirtl out. by R. Nnrasirnll:r nntl 1Z.R.
I 14%I ; st*(: :~.lsol.li(- c::~rlior 1~11)crby \I. (:. I'nt.cl tint1 I\I . It. 1lr:itl ( Is!)].
Src~c.t~i\,:l.srrt~
'I'll(: t.t.ansit.ion f r o ~ nn t,ctrl)~tlrnt. 1.0 n larninnr flow ~)at,t,crnin a tnbo of cirrnlar
cross-scot,ion was invcsbigat.cil in dctail cxpcrimcnt.xlly by M . Sibnlltin ns cnrly a s
ln(i2. In part,irrllar, t.11is invcsl,igat,ion cxtcntlcd t o a study of the att.enuation of
longit,ntlinnl t.r~rl~rrlrnt flnctuat.ions ant1 discovered tflrat t.llis is st,rongcr ncnr the wall
t.l~nnin the ccnt.c:r of t1he pipe.
..I he prcxt,rtli~~g rrs111t.swill c n a l ~ l rus 1.0 ralrr~lat~c in t,hc following secfiot~the
~ ~ o sioni t of l . I ~ i , point of i n ~ t ~ a b i l i for
t y the casc of two-tlirncnsional flow past a body
o f arbit mry .;l~al~c.

11. I)c.lc.r~~linnlio~~
of tlre positin11 of the poilit of instnbilily for prescribetl hotly sl~ope Via. 17.8. C:xlrrrlntion of the position
of thr point of inntability i l l trrtlls of
., tlte Itrynolds rntmber Urn 1/19 for an
I 11c: tl~:t.crminn.I.inr~of t.11c posif.ion of tJtc pdint o l bransit,ion for prcscril)ed
I ) o t l ~sl1:111cs
~ (in t,wo-tli~r~c:r~sior~al flow) becomes very emy if IISC is made of the rcslllts elliptic cylinder with slenderness ratio
c:o~~l.:ririrrl i t \ !pigs. 17.3 nritl 17.4,'I'lrc esst:nt.i:~lntlvnntf:r.gcof t,l~t:tnrt.Iiotl t.o \)ctloscri\)ctl a/b - 4
II(*I.~, cor~sisl.~ in I.lt(: f:1(:1,l~lr:itJno f t ~ r l ~ ll:iI)orio~is
~cr ~nIc~tl:~t.ions
arc rcclrlirntl, t,he Lctlio~ls 2 1' - v l r c ~ ~ t t ~ ~ r r ~ ~ ~ c i -

j)arI, of 1 . 1 1 ~work Ilnvit~gI)ccn con~plctctlonce ant1 for all whcn compnt,ing the dia-
g r a n ~ s i iFig ~ 17.3.
498 XVII. Origin of turbnlmco II h. 1)ctcrmination of thc posibion of lllr point of ina1al)ilil.y for prrsrril~rtl1)otly~11npc499

t,hr RXILIIII)IC of 1111 cllil)l.ic: rylirttlcr wltosr tnnjor axis, o, is rel;~tctlto its minor axis,
I), Oy 1.11~ r:~t.iorr/O :-4. l'hc flow will he assumecl parallcl t o t>he major axis.
T h e pot.rnt,ial vcln~it~y-clist,ril)uLion frlr~ct~iori
for such a cylinder was already give11
i n l'ig. lo.!), ant1 the results of the calculations pertaining t o the boundary laycr
are shown in Pigs. 10.10 and 10.10b. From t h e variatiotl of t,he shape fact.or wit,]l 2,
Fig. 10.1 11), and wi1.h the aid of Fig. 17.4. i t is now ~)ossiblet,o plot t h e variation
of t,lte locnl crit.ical Itcynoltls n ~ r mher, R,, = (U, d,/v),,,,, a s shown by tile crlrvc
market1 lipnil o/ slnhilil?/ i l l l'ig. 17.8. I'ron~ thc calcr~lat~ion of t h e larninnr bounrlary
layer wc ca.11 also 1,:t.lte l,ltr vari:~t.ionof t.11~tlimensiot~lcssdispl:~ccmcnt,thicktlcss
((r,/l) (I/l/,l/v), a s SIIOWII in Vig. 10.IOa. For n givon I)oely Reynolds ~ , t t n ~ l ~ r r
71, llv, it is now possil~lct o cvnlr~:~t.c tlte locnl Itcynoltls nrlmbcr, I J , d , / ~ basc,tl
,
on t . 1 1 ~clis~)l:tc~c:ttton1.
1I1ic:l~nt:ss;sitlrr

1Fig 17 9. I'onitiott of l)oiltta

of instnbility for clli1)tic 5-
wlicrc! ttllc valuc of 1J,,(z)/fJ, is known from t,hc polcntinl vclocity f ~ i t ~ c t . i o'J.II(: l~. c.ylir~ilers of ~lrt~tlr~rt~c..ss I
--. -
rnlio n/b - I , 2, 4, 8, co (II:LL
curves of C, r?,/v in trrrns of t,Itc arc Icrlgth, zll', have also been draw11 in Fig. 17.8 plate) plot.ted against tho
,_, f,l 5 4 s
6 >
for variotts values of t,lin Ibryrtoltls nrtn~bcrT J , l/v. The point.s of intersection of
thesr r ~ ~ r v with e s 1.110 liwiil 01 slrrhilil!/ givr the position of the point of i n s t a l ~ i l i t . ~
body llrynolds r~un~hcr R , 8~~
5 4 s
-
for tht- ~~c~sl~c~rt.i\.o v;~ltlc.of t.I~oItryl~oltlsnrrml~c:rt. 'l'lto ~ ~ o i n tof , s iristabilit~y for n
falllily oft-llil)t.i(:c:ylitttlrrs ofsl~:ncl(~rnc?ss r;tt.ios n/b -- 1, 2, 4. 8 arc shown in Fig. 17.9.
I t is rc~m:~rk;~l)lo t.lt;~t,
t.l~csltif't. of (.It(: ~ ) o i tof ~ tirtstabilit.y \vil,l~at1 i~tcrcasingItcynoltls
n11n111c.ris very slt1:11l for t,ho rasc of :L c.irc11l:tr c:ylintlrr. 'l'llis shift becomes nlore
~ ) ~ o I I o I ~ I I La~s ~ t.l~r
? ~ I s l c ~ t ~ t l t ~ r tr:~t,io
~ r s s is irtcrrnsctl.
'I'hr lwsif ion of 1,I1r~)oiitLo f irlst;~.l,ilil.,y[or ;LII arrofoil ran be cosily c:alcrllat.c:tl
i t 1 :I sirtti1:rr In:rnrlcLr. 111 l.llis c:ottrtc?tiot~it, is ~~nrt.ict~la.rly inlportanl, t o tletcrmino
t l t t . t1t~l~c.ncIt~11c.o on 1.I1t. at~gloof' itlritlc.ncc: in a~lclit,iottt o t h a t on t,ltc: Iteynoltls
~ltrlnl)c.r.'l'ltr rt.stt1l.s of s ~ t c : l t c:r.lt~nl:~t,ions for t,I~cC:LSR of a sym~nct~rical Zhukovskii
nrrofoil ;I(. varying nng1c.s of incitlcbncr ant1 lift, cocffirirnt,~arc sho\vn i l l Fig. - 17.10.
11. is s t s t - t t t.l1:1.1., :IS 1I1c :111glc:of ittt-icl(~nc.t: in(~rt~nsrs, 1.11~ tninirnrttn of IlrrssItre 011 t.h(:
s ~ t riolll sitlc I ~ c ~ c . t ) t t t rtt~nr(:s :11111 t1iot.c j)rotl~ittt-i~t R I I ~ I 1110vrs forw:~rtl, \vIlrrcas t.ttat
O I I I.l\r 1~rt>ssur(* siclt* \~?c.otn(*s I1:~t.tc.r; w t l njovcs t,o t>llcrcnr. T l ~ i sranscs t.hc point
01' i t ~ s l ~ ; ~ l , i l1.0 i t . nlovc:
~ I I I ) S ~ , I . ~ ~ : I . I I011
I 1.hr suct.ion sitlc ant1 tlownsl.rrnm on t , l ~ I)rrsslirc c
s i ~ l c s :IS 1.11t~: t t ~ ~ lof ( ~ itlt*i(l(.t~c:c is i~~(:rrwsc.cl. Silltrtltr:tttt~o~lsl~v t,11(,l ) ~ i t of~ t itlst.:~l)ilitly
~ ) I Il hv s11t.t ion s i t l c * c4e)sc.s 1 1 1 ) t.o\v:trtIs I . l ~ c *I)oit~l, of' ntinitl~t~nl 1)r(*ssttrrfor all It(!;\~ttol(ls
it1111111t~rs I ) t ~ - ; r ~ i s eof
: t.11t: s t , t ~ : lco~tt~sc ~ of I,lt(*(:r~rvt:t1o;I.r ltltt\ t n i n i n ~ i ~ r nt-hr
; 01)posit.c
t.lli.c.1. ot.c.ttt.s 0 1 1 l . I ~ t ?I)rcsstlrc>sitl(b, ~ v l ~ c I.II(, r n c.1lrvc.s :Ire Il;lt near the n~inimunlr.:rusit~g
t h r r ~ ) i n l sof' it~sla.l)ilil!, to tlivrrgr. In any rasr t h r tiinpram i r l Trig. 17.10 tlisl,lays
vrry rI(ta.rly lit(, tlolrlinnt~ittgi n f l ~ ~ o n rof o t.ho prrssrlrc tlist.~.il~ut,ion on t.11~posi1.ion
o f (It(: point of ittsl.al~ili1.y:ant1 hrncc: on t,llat, of t,lrc point of t.ra11sit.iol1. 1Svcll att
lliglt Ilc*ynolels~lnn~l)c:rs 1 . 1 1 ~1)oitlt of it~sl.n.l~ilit,y (qncl 11cnc.ct,llc point of t,ransit,ioti)
llnrtllg 1novc.s i l l I'rottleof l h r point of n~iltirnun-rprcssrtre, whcreas hrllind t.lle point Fig. 17.10. Prcss~~rcdis-
tributinr~ -, position of
point. of iltst,:~I)ilit,y- - . -
1- 'I'llc- I,IIVV~S I [ , , , h I / ~1'1,r
* v ; ~ r i o ~ tva111rs
n o f ( I c , > 1/1, C:LII 11t: cIr;i\v~t fro111rnc11oll~rr11y t,rn~~slnt,it~g or1 n uylnn~rtrirnl ZIt~~kov-
I ~ I ~ , I IIII I :I (Iirwli(111 I I : I K I { \ I ~11) 1111- :\xis l>r ~)r~li~>:il,vs, if ~b Ic~y:~ritl~tnicwc.:~lt:is t&sc,cI for l,lt(s IILI.IIT. sltii rtc*rc)li~il
n l v11rvi11rlin
'I'lliq i s :I vvry ~ I V I I ~ ~ ~ I sI i~ ~~ ~~ ~I ~I ~I l i I i c 10 ~ : ~I I Sl Ci c \ ~ Ir I ~~ , I I:I gr;~pl~i~,ttl
t ~ ~ t - l , l ~ e )is
c I ~~111p1t1~i;cl.
500 XVTT. Origin of turbulence 11 1). I)etcrn~inalior~
of t l ~ posibion
r of t l ~ poinl,
r of itlsta1)ilityTor prrsrriI~c*tlI,otly slt:q,o 601

of ~ninimttm prrssttrr irlstnl)ilit.y and, ronsequcntly, transition sets in almost a t by the pressure gradient,. R. Michel 11501 discovcrc.11n rcn~:~rlc:l.l)ly sitlll)lc, I ) I I I . ( ' I ~
o n r r r v r n a t low lteynolds numbers. ompiricnl, rrlnt,ionship bct~wcnnthe rnt,c of at~11)lifinnt~ion :tntl tito tlisl.:ittc:c: l)rl,\v(.(*t~
tltc: throrcLicnl posit,ior~of thn point of in~t:il)iliLyRINI t.I~ot ~ x p c : r i t ~ ~ o ~ ~t li t, i~~tI. Icj~~~ . t ~ ~ i ~ ~
I'igurc 17.11 SIIOWS, furt,I~or, t11e posit,ion of (,hepoint of it~stnbilit,~, a s c1et.erminert
position of the point of transition. More rcccnt,ly, A. M . 0. StniLl~[211J s ~ t r c r o ~inl ~ ~ ~ l
cxpnri~nrnt:tllyfor a. NAVA n r r o f i l , w l ~ i c l possrssrd ~ :in almost, idrnt,icnl prcsslirc,
confirming this rcl:it,ion on the basis of t l ~ cst,:il)ilit,y t,hcory. As it c t ~ t c r sIll(: rvgion
dist,rib~tt.ionwith l,l~:il, ol' tl~c?Zlt~tliovsltii:lc:rofoil ~ttttlrrror~sitlt.r:~t,ior~. 11, is scrll
of ittsl.:~,~)i~it,y,
lvig. 17.3, cvory t t t ~ s I . : i l ~ ~( t~: ~ ~ I , I I ~ ~ ) : I I \vI1i(,11
I ( ~ ( : 1 r : ~ v t ~~~~~s \ v I I s ~ ~ s~ ~~ ~~ f: rIt I*IrIs
t , l ~ : ~ tl,Iir,
, l ) ( ) i t ~ t ,(PC t,r:tnsit.io~~ 1it.s I ~ v l ~ i t ~t tl I t ~l)oitlt, ol' i t ~ s t ~ : ~ l ~ i1)11t,
l i t ~iyt 1 frot11,of l , l t t *
whiol~is proport,iot~nl10 cxp (Pi t ) , or Lo
a n :~tr~l)lificatiori
~ ~ ) i t tof L l:~.l~litt:l~. ~(*~):il.ill.ioll (i)r :III \':111105 of Ib~ytlol(ls11111nbcr ant1 Lift rocffioict~l,
:IS rsl)o(:l,rtl f r o n ~tl~c:orc,lic,:~lt.ot~sitlcr:it~iot~s. Soror~tlly,t,hc shift, of 1.11~point of C"P( / /I( (11) , (17,(i)
t,ratisibion wit.11 a v;iryitlg Ibcynoltls I I I I I I ~ ~ I:rntl ~ : ~ lift, rosffirirnt, follows l,h:it, or ~.II(,
poit~l,of it~st:il)iIil~y. l t ~ ~ s ~ t of
I l . syst,(:tn:it,i(~
s (-:~l(:t~I;it,iot~s on t,11c posit,ion of ~ , I I ( ? l)oit~t, if /I, dcpcntls on time. llcre Lhc ir~tcgrnlsl~ouldcxtotrtl ovor Ohc r:irlac of ~~nst.:il)lc:
of tra11sili011k)r :~(*roIi)ils of v ; ~ r y i t ~t g
, I ~ i c l i t ~alltl< : ~caml)rr
~ cn.n 1)o F ~ I I I I ( in I a rcbl)ort distnrbnnces which is trraversccl by t l ~ etlist.tirbnnce nftcr it, 11ntl cr~Lcroctt.l~crrgiot~
l)y I<. I ~ I I S S I I I ~ I ~ nncl II A . lllricl~[IO]. of instability. The amplification clingrams of pi = nonst (of 1,llc ltintl showt~in
Fig. 16.13) which are associated wit11dilfcrcnt 1)rcssrlrc gr:idirnls 11nvn11crr1cval~~:lt.(:(l
by , J . Prnt,sclt [ 1791. 1111957, A.M. 0. S I ~ I ~ It ~, It ,Ii l i ? , ~ vt,lt(~s($
l (Iittgt~ti~ns t b t ~ ( l I ) ~ * I ~ I ' O I ~ I ~$1,~ ~ Y I
Inrgc 11umI)crof cnlculntions for noroli)ilx ntltl l)otlic,s of r(-vol~tt.iot~ 1'01. \VII it41 ('sl)(.i.i-
mcrl(.al dct,crminaliot~rrof Lllo poit~Lof I,rar~sitionwot.c nv,iilnl)l(:. I l o c.a.l(:l~l:~t,c.{l t.ht:
arnplificnt.ion r8t.c fro111ccln. (17.6) cxt.c~~tling tdtc ir~l~c~grntion ovc-r t.l~c* 1):1t.l1 ft~111 t,l~e
theoretical limit of stability t o t h e cxpcrimentnl point of transitdon. 'l'l~c rns~tltof
his calc~lnt~ions is sllown in Fig. 17.12. '1'11~rcst~ltof tl~csc:c:nlcrtlnt.ior~swl~ic-11 rc:l:il,c~tl
t o rnarly tliKcront mcnsurcmcnt.s pcrformatl at, vcry low t,~trbrtlct~c:c ir~t,o~sit.ic~s in
t h e free stream and with vcry smooth surfaces leads t,o t h e coilcl\ision td1n.t. t.hc
amplification rate of unstable tlistj~rrbanccs,intcgr:~t,etl along t.11~pnt,l~from tltc
point, of instability to t9ltcpoitlt of t,r:ir~sit,iott,11m :i 17alrtc: of
? ~ = r x p 9 = 8101.
c x ~ ( J /dl) (17.7)
This discovery was confirmed, a t about t h r same tirnr, by ,J.1,. vat1 Ingsn [!14]. S r r
Fig. 17.1 I. I'osit,iot~or l~oint,oC inst.nl>ilit.yand of ~)ointof t.mnsibion as a ffnnctionof l i f t cncffiricnt also a paper by R. Michel 11661.
Iloynoltln I I I I I I ~-
~ )-
~ . ~t.ltrorol.icnl
. point, of inritnl)ility:J 0015; - - - - n~oasurcdpoi111of
JII lnodern times this discovery was cot~firnlcdI)y tnnny rr~ras~rrctnc.nts
1104]
tr:~tisil,io~~:
NA(.!A 0018
which intlicn.te an amplification factor of about r x p 10 -- 22,026

A s a, roltgl~gt~iclcin approxitnntc cxlcttlations it is possible t o cletlt~cet , l ~ erule

thatf Ill(: poir~t~ of t,rn.t~sit.iotlnlmost, coil~citlcswit11 t h e point of millirnl~m pressure
of 1,llc pot,ont,inl llow in t.l~nrange of Rcyrloltls nrrlnbers from 106 t o 10'. At very
I:l,rgc 1to.ynoltls nl~rnl)mst,hc point of tr;insittion may lie a short distnncc in front
of t,lt:~l, l)osit,ion nt~tlit, rnny niovo n consitlcr:~.l~lc dist,nnce behind i t a t small Itcy-
~toltlst t l t t t ~ l ) c > t pnrl.icttl:irIy
~, w11c:n f.llo prcssttrc: grndic:nt;, w l ~ c t l ~positivc
cr or nca;it~ivc,
is slna.ll. 0 1 1 t,llc o t l ~ c rllalltl, it, will I)c not,ctd thnt tho point o f instability a l w ~ y s Fig. 17.12. l)cl.cr~ninationof tlrcan~plifica-
lirs i l l fro111of 1 . 1 1 ~point of I:itnin:ir sc~):trnt.iot~ irr(~spcnt,ivnof t,Itc v:ilt~cof'tfI10 It(:y- tion rntc rxp (/fitdl) for trnshl,lc: di~tllrb-
noltls I I I I I I I ~ ) ( * I . . 'I'hns WC:C : ~ I I rst.nl)lisl~t,hn r t ~ l rI.l~atI,llc p o i t ~ tof it~st.nbiliI.ylips bcltintl at~ccsextetldctl over the pet11 frotn the
t,hc>p o i ~ of ~ t t r ~ i t ~ i ~ nprrss~iro
~ t t ~ t 1)11t,in f~0t11,of l.lto'point of laminar sopnrnt,ion, a t theoretical limit of stabilit,~to the cxpcri-
:III c ~ x ~ ~ c vc-ry~ l ) t . Inrgo I<.c~yttoltls ~l~~mbcrs. ment,al point of tmnsitioti, after A. M. 0.
'1'11(, ~)rr<*isc: r l isl,n n c ~ :I)c-t,~vocv~t,ltc: poittt, of 1,m.nsit.ionnr~tltlln poinL of inst,:tl)ilil.y Smith [211]
tlvprn(ls on 1.l1r: r:~.t,co f : ~ . t ~ ~ ~ ) l i l i r : ~of. l~,II(: , i o tttr~st.iil)l~
~ tlist,nrha.nocs ant1 on tlls i~~t~cnsit.y
~ I ' I ~ I I I . I ) I I Ii Il l- I.II(>
I I ( -fr(:r
( ~ st.r(*;1.111. 111 1,11rr1, (.II(: t.:it.r of nlnl)lificnt,ior~is st.rongly ir~fl~lnt~cntl
 Tlte tlisl.nttcc I)rt,wcen tllc poir~t,ol' i~lst.n.l~ilit,y n.ntl t.11~point. of t,rnr~sit,ioltcan
bo rcprescnlccl irt t,llc forrn o f (.he tli1li:rrrlc:c: Irct,wce~tt h e Ttnynoltls numl)ors forrnctl
\\,it11 thr? nit1 of t.ha r n o m c ~ n I . ~ ~ 1.I~i~lztlcss
tn i ~ 1.ltcsc
t tewo points, a s wn.s a.lre.zdy clotlo
irr Fig. 10.21, t h a t is, a s ( l l r ? , / ~ ~ --
) ~ ,(116,/11),. Fig. 17.14 sllows a 111ot.of t.lris q u a n t i t y
ill t,erlrls of t.llo tncarl I'ohlll:llrsor~ 1)~r:lt11rt~cr J? : ~ n t lis hn.srcl on t,llc vnlltcs fottlttl
11y 1'. S. C~rn.nvillc1751. llorc we 11:~vc:
1' , 2,. \'cry cxt,cnsive mcnsrtrc~ncr~t.s or1 lnlnirlar nrrofoils wcrn carrirtl ollt dl~ririg
l.llr See-or~tl Worltl Wnr it1 tlrc TJ~ritctlStnLcs [ I ] . 11. 1)ortsclr (:I1 I prtlrlisl~r~tl 1.11~ first
rxl":ritnrntnl resltlt.~on Inrninnr ncrofoils a s r:lrly ne in I!):l!), 1,111,1s. Rl. .lotlc!s I!)SJ
It:ltl l ) r ~ ~ v i o ~ t s nl~scrvotl
ly rcnr;n.k:~l~lylotrg sl.rct,c:ltos ol' I:~trtitr:~rI ) O I I I I I I : I ~ J . I : I S ( \ ~ ~
clu1,ittg c:sl)c.rintcnt.s in Iligllt.. I,arnitl;l~.at-roli,ils n1.c- witlrly usctj i l l I I I ( * ~ . O I I S ~ I . I I V ~ I O
r .
J fto mc~nst~rrt:rr?nt,s wltich have I)cnt~t,:llzrlt itr1.o a.cco~tttt,it1 t.llc :l.l~ovoc:nl(.ltl:tt.iorl
of glitlcrs. IZrsrr~.r~clt of l'~rntlntrlrnl:~l
I)[VII 11rrf'ortrrc~tlby IF. S . \VO~~,III:I,IIII;
itnl~or1:tnc.c~O I I r~c.~~trf'~,ils k ) ~gli11f.1.
.
I11c.y ~ t r cI ~ I I I ) \ V I ~ :ts 1p.X. :~.t~~.ot'oils
tvirtgs II:I\.I*
:I.IIII II,IT
wcrc: :111 ~)crfor~tiotl a f t very low L~~rl~rtlnt~cc:
ir~t.o~sil,ics (I'ron-lligllt tnc:lsllrrr~rc.t~(.s nllrl
c:lt:~rnalc~rizc~~l i t 1 121. Ii'ig. 17.14 sllow,s tllr ntnotrr~t.o f s:~villgit1 tlt.:lg IIlnI (.:III
r n m ~ s ~ t r c r n cirr
n l ~low-l.~trbctlrrtcc
~ witltl l.ntrncl~).'l'ltc tli:r.grnm in Fig. 17.1.7 sllows ~,II:I,L
tjlrc rrsn1l.s t l r ~ cLo mnny cxpnrirnctlt.rrs nrrangn ~~IIPIIISCIVOS snl.isfnclorily "11 n single
:rll.:l.itlc*tl wil.11 I:t.tni~rnl. c~c.r~oli,ils. ' I ' I I ~ ~ s , ~ . v i r ~t lg~ l t * 1 0 1 I 1 t s "llrrl~itl~tl.I'II'IY.~" I.(':II.II(.s
V : L I I I ~ S 0 S 3 0 l,o 50 p r r rctrt,. of (lr:ig 01' t ~ o ~ . t n : ~~ ,~l~ v c ~ l ' i11 t ~ it111-
l s i ~ i I . t * ~ , v !)I'
: ~ \ ltt-)I-
11o11la I I I I I I I I , ( ~R I . 2 x 1 0 1 ) :I :, 107. ,I,, v1.1.y l i ~ t . ~ , , I ~ . ( ~ I \ ~ I I I ~ II ~I III HI I I ~ I ( . I . S . X J I ~
R >: 5 x 1 0 7 , l.11e 1atninn.r cfl'rct, is lost. I)rc::~us(:l . 1 1 1111illI ~ of t.~.a.t~sitior~ O I I I I I V :I~.I.o-
foil sItif1.s stt(ldr.rtly l'ol.\vnrd a s elrlnnnclntl 11y I.hr st.nI~ilityt11rol.y. rl'ltc, I)I.('SSIII'~'
~listrilr~ttiott (.t~rv(*s lirr N ~ ~ I I I ( :of' lplt(t ~~rrol'oils :rrn S ~ I O \ V I I i l l lcig. 17.15. '1'111, I I I ~ : I S I I ~ I V ~

Ipig. 17.1:s. d l c ~ ; ~ s r t r r . ~ ~ ~oc~: ~t1~. 1t .1s~ ~ r r r i n l ,or

1.rsnnitic111 it1 Itort~~~lnry I:tyrrs wiLh prr:ss.riure
gr:~tlirnt.,: ~ f t e r(:r:t,~~vilI~: (821. I)ifrcrc~lre11c-
t~vrrlrt l ~ c - I<cy~~olcls 111r111brrsat. 1 . h ~point.
of t~rnnsitic)~~. R8>z,,, == (fl,,,02/v)tr.~ I I C Iat, t,Ilr ( I ) N A c ' A 0012
l r o i t ~ t ,or i~~st,:~lrilit,y,
R , i 2 , ~ ( / I , , , ,S2/x,), :IS :I
: (2) N A f ' A 5.115
f1111vl,io11of 1 . 1 1 ~I I I ~ ~ I I 11rrss11rr
I g~~clirl~t (:I)K A ~ : Aoo our)
(0l.ri 21
fro111c-cll~. (17.8). .-. O ~.orrrslro~lrls 11, :~c.vrlt:- (5) I'B 35 - I53
-
r:lt.rtl :11111 ii 0 10 clrcrl~~ratnd flows ((I1 N At',\ 00, 215

.
0 I1I11. ~ t l : ~ lScluttl,:~~lr!r
(-)

fl)
II
r.
NAf:A :wr#~roil
altd S k ~ . ~ t t t s t : t d[?03)
0012. \.WB 1 1 ~ ~ ~ 1 ~ 1301 1~t~11
Svctivn sid~. Acrort>iIN A C A f i ? q 2 1 ~ )-1 1 4 , I I r w .
}
I , r c s s ~ ~ r c ~ i t t lew v a 1 ~V1i s t : n ~ ~ t171
ArrnToll or 8 % l l ~ i c k ~ ri11.10.
i
~ ~ s s I!. hl. .IO~PX [DRl
( i l R A f ' A G d ( 2 x 15)
(A) NAf:A 05, .41X
cn) N A V A 65 (,.,) - .IZO
il m ~ e t i ~ ~ r ~
( 1 0 ) A ~ r ~ > l bsvit11

17. 30, 2031 I B ~ ~ : N S U I ~ Pi ~t ) ~I I OV W ~ ~- I ~S I I ~ I ~tlin,l

I ~ I ~ . ~ ~ ~
11111111.1:
~ 7 5 l l r ~ ~ ~ . l I%!!.:\sttrrtwnLq
Ii~l~L

(*Itrvv, '1'11~ (IifTt~rcttrc- ( l ~ ( ~ 2 / v ) .i, ,( ~ J 0 2 / r ~is) , t*o~~si(lor:~l)ly I : I I . ~ I T (or I':I,VOII~~:I~I~(:

0) 1.11:1.11h)r :LIIVI:~SO ottrs (17 < 0). At, ~:OIISI,RIII,
llrc~ssrlrc:g r : u l i c t \ ( ~(I? :- [)rc>ssItrc
( I 0) t,llis tlilli,rettrc: :rf,f.nit~sn V : I . ~ I I o~ f n . t ) o ~ r800
t \i,l~ic:l~
:t.grc%c:swrll 1vit.11l.l~:tt,given
i l l Fig. lli.21 for n llnt ~)lxl.c a t very snt:~.ll t , t t r l ) r t l ~ ~intensity.
~rr I n tlris conr~exiorl
srts n ttot.r Iry 11:. It. van Ilrirst xncl C:. I). Illrrn~erIROJ. Fig. 17. 14. Skill-friction c~orfficie111~~ of Inn~il~ar arrofoils and of "norlllnl" nrrofrrils :lCtrr I I I : I I I ~
[MI. 1,B '24 -- .Jnl)nnrst:Inrt~i~lnr nt:roroil nftrr 1. 'I':III~ 12:14j. 1"X 35 153 I : I I I I ~ I I ; I :~ ~ v r f r f ~ :1ftcbriiI
i , r r ~ ~ t i ~ tnrrnCt~i1~:
nr 'i'hr st.:llrilil,y f~:~lc.lll:~lio~ls s~~nrln:rrizrtlit1 I?igs. 17.9 nrltl
F, X. \Ifnrtmann (2571. Acrofoil wit11slict,ion nfl.f.r \I. l'lrnl~illgrr,(till of (:Itnlr. S I V . (!f~rvt,s(I),
17. 10 clvrnnnst.rnt,c.very c:onvirtc*it~gl,vt,l~nt. I II(. ~ ~ l ~ c s s v ~ ~ c ~ g tltaxnclvc~isi\~c:
~ : ~ t l i t ~ n t . ilr(lrtr11c.c.
(11). ( I l l ) rrltrt!nnnt ~.II(. nltill fr.irt,io~tof II (11~1.p111t.1'nt, zrro i~t(.iilt.ll(.ri l l I I I I I I ~ I I I I ~rl11Is
. ~.III.~III~I.I~~.
O I I sl:~l~ilit,,v :I,II(I t.r:rl~xitiotr i l l V O I I I ~ I I ~ I :1.~r~~c.trl(-111,
V wit,l~~ I I ( * : I S I I ~ I'1'11~
- ~ ~ I(lnsig,~
~*II~~~.
~nrcltrnnsitio~rnl(low
504 XVII. Origin of tr~rbulencc11 b. Dcterrninntion of the position of the point of instability for prrsrrihrtl horly nh:q)r 505

positmionof t , l ~ cpoint of t,mnsit,ion is shown in addition for aerofoil R 2626. It is
seen t h a t t,rnnsition occurs sliortly a f t e r t.11c pressnre ~ n i n i m r ~i m
n complete agreement
with t,lle t,heorctical results in Fig. 17.10. Figure 17.16 shows, furt.her, plot,^ of d r a g
cocfficici~t.si n t e r m s of t,hc lift coefficient for three aorofoils of equal t l ~ i c k n e s sb u t
varying caml)er. I t sl~orrldbe noted t h a t h y increasing tllo camber i t is possible t o
canse a sllift in t h e region of vcry small d r a g in t h e direction of higlier values of
lift,, I)rtt rvrri so, t,lic rngion of rctlr~cctld r a g still ~ x t ~ c n tover
ls a definite wicltll only.
Needless t o s a y , in tlie case of laminar aerofoils t.he int,crart,ion bet.wecn t.hc estrl.nal
st,rcarn antl t.hr bountlary layer is very irnport.arlt.; mct.liotls for t h e c:i~Icrtlation of
sncli effect8 have been (leveloped b y R. Eppler [BO]. A t this point, it, is nrccssary t , ( ~
remark t.11ut cert,ain rircumst.ances c:anse consitlcrablc difficulties in t.he pract,ical
applicat,ion of laminar nrrofoils. Principally t,hcse a r e d n c t o t.he great. d r ~ ~ ~ 011
t,he s m o o t ~ l ~ n c sofs itlie surfaces in order t,o exclnde p r ~ ~ n a t , e transit.iot1
re owing t o
roughness. I n this conncxion we wish t,o d r a w t h e reader's at.tent.io11 t,o a p a p e r b y
I,. Speidel [212] on lnniinar aerofoils placetl in a Iinrn~onicallydist,urbed free streatn.
'L'hc discussion in this section m a y bc sr~minarizctla s follows:
1. T h e t41icoryof stSal~ilit,y sliows t l ~ a ttlic
, prcssure gmdioll; cxcrln a n ovcrwl~c~ltnir~g
influence on t h e stability o f t h e 1n.minar bouritlary 1:rycr; a tlrcrc-n.sn in prmsrirc
in t h e tlownstream directlion h a s a st.nl~ilizirigcKcct,, wltcrcns increasing prrssrrrc:
leads tjo irlstnbility.
2. J n conscqucncc, tlic position of t h e point of maxirnurn vclocil,y of t.lic l)of.rnLi:~l
velocity dist,rit~utionfurlction ( = point o l ' m i r ~ i n ~ u rprcsst~rc)
n it~llucr~c:cs
tlccisivcly
t h e posit.ion of t h e point of inst,nl)ilit,y antl of t,hc point of t,ratisitio~l.I t car1 I)c
( R =--: {Of;
a s s ~ ~ m c tal ,s a roltgll grticiing rnlc, t31i:~tla t 111c:tlinm 1tc:ytioltls ~~rirnl)c?rs
to lo7) t h e point of inslability coincitlcs witti t.11~poinL of rninimrlrn pressure
a n d t h a t t.lie point of transition follows slrortly aft,crwards.
n ~ ~ d s
3. As Urc angle of incitlcnce of a n acrof'oil is iticrcasctl aL n c o n s t a i ~ lltrynoltls
number, t h e points of instability a n d transition m o v e forwards o n t h e stictiori
side and rearwards o n t h e pressure side.
4. As t,he R.cynoltls n u m b e r is increasctl a t const.nnt incitlcnce t h e point,s of inst,al,ilil.y
ant1 t.ransit,ion m o v e forwards.
6 . A t very high Reynolds riumbers antl wit.11 a flat prrssure minimum, t , l ~ epolnt
o f ins1.nl)ilit.y m a y , nntler ccrt,ain circumstfant:rs, sliglit,ly precede t.hc poitit of
n i i n i ~ i ~ nprrssur(:.
t~t
6. E v e n a t low Iteynolcls numbcrs ( R = 1 0 V t . o 10" t11c point,s of irlstl;tt)ilil.y : I . I I ( ~
t,ransition precede t h e p o i n t of laminar separation; nndcr cert.xin circunistnnres
NACA
t h e In.minar boundary layer m a y become sepxrabrtl a n d m a y re-at,t.acl~a s a
@

Fig. 17.15. I'rr*ns~~rn
dist,rihrtl,iot~lor li~.tnitinr
arrofoils at zero incitlmcc ( c , 0). i\ero-
5 plotted ngninst lift coefficient, c,,. for three
foilsOOI2, 65, -012, 66, -012 fro111rrl. [I];
wrofoil It 2525, nftrr IIort.sc11 (Dl]
'I' = posilinlt or pcrinl or trxnsilion for R --
-
- -66]-,,
t l l r l ~ l l l ~ ~~l~l to~l l l l ~ l layer.
nry
--0.151--
I ,
\
-663-2t8 a Flexible wall: Anothcr effective rrietlrod of stabilizing n laririnnr bor~ndnrylnycr is to rnnke
the wetted wnll flexible. In contrexion with the obsorvetl antonishing switrinring performance of
porpoises [go], it hns been suggested that these nnimnls have n very small skin-friction coefficient
- ,- 6q-Lt8 0
-\ bernuae the boundary lnyer on then1 remains laminnr even nt very Inrge Rcynolrle numbers
owirig to tlic flcxibility 01 thcir skin. Jri ordrr t,o put t.hiv Irypot,llesis to the tcst,, M. 0. Krnnter
[110] perfortned ~ncnuuretnenLqof drng on olwt.ic cirrrrlnr rylin(lcrs plnced in a st,rrnn~~)nrallelto
their axes. Indeed, reductions of the order of 50% in drng, co~nparedwith rigid cylindrrs. have
been observed in the range of Reynolds numbers R = 3 x 10" to 2 x lo7.
Furthertnore,T.B. Benjnmin (41 and M.T. 1,nndnhl [I201 itistit,uted cotnprehett~ivethcoreti-
cal atialyses on the stnbility of bouridnry layers on flexible plntes with tlre aid o l tlre ltretlrod
rxplninetl in See. XVIc. Thcse revealed t,hnt,in nddition to tho Tolltnien-Sclrlirhtitig wnves which
occur in n form nrotlilied by tlro flexibility of t . 1 ~wall, there appcnr tnodifietl c1nst.i~wavcs in tho
wnll itaelf. Such elnstic waves are creatod owing Lo the prwence of tlro flow outttide the wnll.
F~rt~lrer~norc, there appear waves of the Kelvin-Helml~olCztype, rnther like those observed on
free shear layers. The first effect - the n~otlificationof tlre Tollmien-Scblichting wnves by the
flexibi1it.y of t,he wall - may, taken by iteelf, explain tlre drnatic displacement of t.hc point, of
neut.ral utnbility in the upst.rearn direction. However, tho three effectn which depend on t,licint,ernnl
friction in tile wall counteract each other t,o a certain extant. For this rcnuon, we would expect
only a small overall effect. Thus, M.O. Kramer's experiment.al results appear to be confirmed by
the ~1.nhilit:yt,lrrory only qrlnlitntively hut not qrlnntit,nt~ivoly.
'l'hc sr~ppo~ition 1.ltnt M.O. Krnrnor's
r~~nr~lltt
cttuI(l ltorltnpn 1)o ox11lnit11~dlty t,ltn inll~~otice
01 wnll llcixil~ilil,yon thr~111Il.yrlc~vc~lrtlt~~cl
Fig. 13 Ili Corfficirtrts of profile drng. c,,,, t.urbulcnt boundary layer induccd U. Zilnmornrnnn [25!)) to r~nclcrtakco tlroorctionl invcntigntion
into thin problem. He came to the conclr~sionthat the flexibility of the wall could leatl to a roduc-
Inniinnr nrrofoils with vnrying rwnhrr, tion of the shearing stress on the wall of the order of 10 per cent,, nt lcnut in bhe presrnce of a fluid
:1.5 x 10'
-
R 9 x 10" from ref. [7]. The rrgion of
smnll drag ntovrs townrds higher lift roef-
of high den8it.y such as water. 111the nbsettc~01 n co~rrpletetheory of turbrllc~tc:~, it. is i~npossible
to view these rwulta nu more than est,ilnaks. 'l'he pnpcr. [259], contains references to additional
contributions which concern themselveu with the effect of wall flexibility on the stability and
ficients, c,,. as rnmhcr increnscs turbulence of boundary-lnyer flown.
SO(; XVI I . Origin of I,rtrl~~~lc~~cc
II c. Erect of sr~ctionon t,rnnuition in n boclnclnry lnycr 607

c. E f i c t of ~llrtintlon trnt~nitio~l
in n hn~rrltlnry lnyer be more than 130 times larger then on n. flnt plat,r a t zcro incidrnco nnrl in t h e
absence of a pressure gradient or suction. Tllis vnltlc tlcmonstratcs t , l ~ rhigl~lyst,&-
It, has nlrratly I ~ r r npoit1t.ctl o r ~ fin CII:I~I.SIV t.hnt Ihc npplicntiotl of suction bilizing cffect of suction. Furthermore, t.hc prccctling argrtrncnt, shows t.l~nI.I:i.rninnr
I.o a 1:11nir1nrl)ot~rttl:~ry Ia.yrr is an rrrccl,ivc mc.:rns of rrtlrtcing clrag. The clrect of flow is milint,nincd not, only owing t o tlcc rctlr~ot,ion in I)o~lndary-layert,l~ic:kncss
sr~rtio~ isct.o sI.nbilizr I Ilc t)or~ntlarylaycr i n n way sirnilnr to the cffcct of tlie prcssrlrc b u t also, a n d in part,icular, owing t o n Iargc itlcrcnsc in t l ~ climit of sl:~bilit,yof thc
gr;ltlicl~cttliscussctl in t l ~ oprccntling srctior~,nntl the rrduction in drag is nchicvctl volocity profilc. Tho cctrvc of ncutml st,abilit,y for t,l~casymptotic sr~cLion profile
1)y 1)rt:vc11Iingt,r:t~tsiIi(~n fro1111:rtnit):tr t,o I I I I . I ) I I I ( ; I I ~ . IIo\v. A tnorc: (lcl,:~il(:(l:~n:~Iysis is shown in Pig. 17.17. ([ = oo). I t shoultl bc notctl t h a t tlie limit or st,ability is
rrvcnls t,l\nt.t.lrc itcllr~c~~ccc of sc~c.Iionis 1111(: t o t . 1 ~ 0cn;'(:ts. First, s ~ ~ c I , iret111ct:s ot~ ~IIC increased a s compared with t h e case with no suction ancl that, in addition, the range
l)or~~l~l:~ry-l:~.yrr t,l~ic.ltnrssn.ntl a t,I~it~nc.r I)ol~ntl:~ry Ia.yc:r is loss pronn t,o I)ocotne l.t~r- of nnsLnl)lc t1isturl)nncc: wnvclcngtllrt circttmscribecl I)y t,hc ntlrvc of nc~~Lr:il st.nbilit,~
1)rllrnl.. St.c:ontlly, s~~c:l.ion crt::cl.rs :I.I:~n~it):~r. vc~loc~i1.y ~)rofil(:w l ~ i c l~~ossc:ssc:s
~ I~iglcrr is rctI~~cc(l cor1~it1crnl)ly.
limit. of stal1ilil,y (c:rit.ic::~II<.cyt~oltls rc[rml)t,r) (.II:LII t i v(:Iot:it..y profile wit11 no s~~(:l,iot\. Tho ~)rcccdingresults n.llow 11s now t o lint1 nn answer 1.0 tfhc important clucstion
So far only c:ont.inuo~~s s11r1,ion cnrl I)o t.rrnOrtl ~n:~t~l~cm;c.l~icnlly n t ~ t lsrvcrnl of how mucll Nl~idmrlst bc removctl in ortlcr t.o m:~int.aitllntninnr Ilow. Ass~~rning,
solr~t.ionsof srr(:I\ r a w s II:LV~. :r.lrr:uly I)eon given in (:hap. XIV. 1x1 conncxion wit*h by way of si~nplification,t h a t tho asymptotic profile alrcatly cxists a t the Icncling
1.l1r ~ ) r o l ) l r nof~ ~n:cint.a.it~i~~g I:rlnin:cr fIo\v il, is i ~ n ~ ~ o r l . :1.0 ~ t tost.imntc
t. t-hc clr~:rt~t,ity etlgc of thc flat plate t,o which uniform sr~ct~iorl Iras I)ren applied, wc conclr~tleLh:~t
of' fluitl l,o 1)e rrtnovctl. I t is ~)ossiOlt:to ol~t.:~in a n y tlcsirc:tl rctluctiorr in I)orrntlnry- a Inminsr borrntlnry laycr which is stjnblc along tho wholo platc cxists if t,lce v,zluc
lager t.l~ic:ltnrss,antl lccncc t.o Itccj~1,ltc:ltcynoltls ~~rrrnl)cr bclow thc limit of st,:il)ilitsy, of the tlisplacemcnt tpl~ickncss Roynoltls n~rmbcris smaller t.llnn t.ho limit of st,:il)ility
~wovitlrtlt.llnt, c r ~ o ~ ~ f l tgt i tll ~is srr(:lzt:(l :~~v:ty. I I o ~ ~ c ~ac rlarge , srl(:tlion VOIIIIIIC is given by cqn. (17.10). Sl~:ncc,
~t~~t~rot~ornic.:)I I ) ~ C : L I I S :I~ Inrge proporI.ion of f,l~o s:bving i t 1 powc:r t111ot,o l . l ~ rc:tlrtct,iotr
c
i t 1 tlrng is 1.l1rnr~setlt o tlrivc t,ltn srtc:t.ion ~ H I I I I ~ )It, . is, t.lct.rrforr, import,:~rtt tfotlrt.c:rrninc
1.111: n~ini,~clc~tc s ~ t r l i o ?~nlitmc
~ wl~ic-l~ is rc:cltlirc.tl in ortlrr t,o m:rinI,nin 1:~tninnr Ilow.
,.
I hr s:~vingin t 1 r ~ g~ c I ~ i c v ~(,I\rougI~ :(I sr~(:t.io~l is grca.tcst, wI~c:n t,his tninimutn vnlnc
V A I I I ~ of 8, for t,lcc nsy~npI.oLicprofilc from cqn. (17.9) we hnvc
Using t.11~
is rtsrcl l ) r c a ~ ~ n s ct ~ yhigher s~tct,ionv o l ~ t n ~will o lcntl to a t.hirlncr I,or~ntlnry lnycr
ant1 l o an inc:rr:~sc:i l l she:rring sl,rcss 11.t I,Ir(? wall.
As sl~o\r,r~ in (Ihnp. XIV I.1tr solt~t~ion of tho 11o11rtrlnry-layerntl~lat~iot~s with
s11cIio11in(:lr~tI(~tl is 1):1rl,i(:ul:1rlysi1111)lcfor 1-let: (-:LSC of :i flat9plntc :LL zcro itc~i(I~:r~cc
wit,lt nrrifortn sr~c:t,ion(vcloc,it.y of' sr~c:tion tl(:~ioL(:tlIty - 11,,t). I t will Iw rnca.llot1 Ac.c-ortlingt,o this rrsr~lbt.11(:I)orl~ctl;iryI:ryrr wortltl I,(: sl.:c.l)l(:if t.110 v o l r ~ t l ~coc~Sfic~ic:nt,
c
t . l ~ : ~t lt ~ r~ r l o c - i li)rofilr:,
.~ : ~ r ~ c11c:nt:c:
l t,l~oI,ot~~~tlnr,y-1:iyt:r l~l~i(:lzt~t:ss, I)cromc intl<?prn- l1a0 t,l~ccxt.rc-mrly low viilr~c!of 1/70,000 1-7 1.4 x 10-5.
of s~~t~I.iotr
tlcs~~t of 1,11(! c:crrrc:nt, roortlin:~.l.c:fronl t i c:c,rl.:~.i~r tlist,:~r~co frorn t,I~cIc:~.tlingc:clgt: on-
w:~rtls.As sl~o\vni l l r(111.(14.7) 1,11t: tlisl)l:rt.c~111t*l11. Ifl~ic.ltr~t:ss oi' 1.l1isrrsl/ml,lolic . W L C / ~ ~ ~ L
l~rn/ilcis given I)y

I(. 131rssr11:~nnant1 11. R.111c:rczI!)] c::rrrictl oltIf an invcst~ig:~l,ior~ ir~l,othe sLnbilib.y

of t,l~isprofilt: (Fig. 14.0) on the lint-s of t,l)c rnct,l~odoxl)la.inctl in Ch:~p.XVI. As
sc*cn from rtln. (14.(i), the: vc:loc:il,y prolilr is tlt:cril~c:(lI)y (.It(! otl~r:~t,ior~
t;tIrvv ( A ) :
~ ~ s y l ~ ~ ~ ~ l ~ ~ l i ~ ~
* t ~ v I i oprof
~ ~ ilv
for ~vl~ic:lc
t.11~
t~rit.ic~:~l
I<.t~yt~oltls 11:rs 1.l1t: vrry I:lrgr v:iltrt: 01'
t1111111)rr

, .
I l~rrs,tlcr c*ritic.:tl I ~ t ~ y t ~ o lnrt~nl)c~r
tls or t l ~ rnsymptotic scrc-lion profile is sern t o
Fig. 17.17. Cc~rvcsof n ( ~ ~ ~ l rsl:~l>ilil,y
:iI ror l l ~ t *v(~lt>~~il~y
])rolili~sO I I :i II:LL 11I:ctrat, y,(.rft i ~ ~ t ~ i t l r n ~ o
\viIlc ~ ~ ~ t : l . i oC t ~ ;
IIII~~(>~III : , - ro2 R r tlt-~~ol,(*s
t11v tli~~)t!~~nio~~lt-ss
inlt-1, I I ~ I I ~ I I I
608 XVII. Origin of turbulence TI c. Effect of suction on transition in n hounclnry lnyor 509

I t nligllt b e rcrnnrlrc*cl 11c:rc LhnL n m o r e nccurnt.e m l c n l n t i o n wo111tl p r c s u ~ n n l ) l y Table 17.1. Dependence of critical Reynolds number of velocity profilra wit11 srlction on
lr:~11t,o n h i g i ~ c rvn111c: o r t,llo volumc: cocffic:ic~lt,.'I'11is i s t l ~ l ct o t h e Fact t h a t tllo dimensionless suction volume factor [, after Ulrich [243)
:~syrnpt,ot.ic: vclorit,y ~)rolilc,o n wllosc oxisf.crlcc t,llc nt)ove c:~.lc~~lat,iorl
clc.velops o n l y n t n, cc:rt,:~irl clist,:~llce fronl t h e lantling edge. 'l'lle vclocitty profiles
w a s hnsed,

I)rt,\vrc:rl th:~t,p o i n t n n d t.hc lentling ctlge :Lrr of d i f f e r e r ~ ts h a p e s , cllangirlg gmtlunlly

=
Q
I<
"
I o 10.005 j om 1 om I / 0.18 ox? / oli
--

I a

f r o ~ nt,hr I ~ ~ : I , S ~fIoIrSm wit.11 110 s11ct~ionat sllort dist,anees b e h i ~ ~t,ho d leacling e d g e

t.o t h e :~l)ovc:a s y ~ n p t ~ o t I'or~n.
io 'l'lle profile s l ~ a p c sill t,llis i ~ ~ i t i : st,art,irlg
~l, IcrlgL11 for
t h e lamirlnr b o u n d a r y Iaycr w i t h s u c t i o n h a v e b e e n p l o t t e d i n d e t a i l i n F i g . 14.8. All
t h c s e vclocit,y profiles h n v e lower l i m i k of s t n t ~ i l i t ~than y t h e asymptot!ic o n e , ant1 tho flnt plnto (13lnnius flow) in Fig. 10.13. Wit,lt 1110rc:.ulLR of t,hiu crrlrulntion i t is no\\. cStlrryIn) clot.er-
it, follows t.11at t.llc qu:bnt,it,y of fluid t o b e r e ~ n o v c do v e r t h e initial lengtll must; b e rnino the volnn~ecoelficicnt of silction which is si~fficicntto ensure stnl)ility ovrr 1110 st,nrting
larger t l m n t h o v n l u c g i v e n i n cqn. (17.11), if l a m i n a r Row i s t o b e msilltainetl. length. I t can be obtained from Fig. 17.18.in which the limit of stn1)ilit.y fro111 Tnhlc 17.1 and t,lle
variation of the dimensior~le,ssdisplacement thickneaq
111order to analyze this m n t b r in greater detail i t is necessary to rcpcat the stability cal-
culation for thc scrica of velocity profiles in the starting length taking suction into account. These
profiles constitntc n one-parameter family of curves na shown in Fig. 14.8, the pararnekr being
given hy
for :r ~~rcnr:ribe~l vnllro ~ r fc~ - (--v,,)/Um I~nvoI~oor~ 11lol.lntlr~g~linnt.
1.110 cli~~~c:r~niol~lr*n~
I~.II~I,II
coordinate. lierc (-8,) ijl/v is known in t c r ~ n sof { f r o n ~tho calc~~lation of t l ~ cho~tncl:rry layer,
Table 14.1. I t is sccn from Fig. 17.19 that tho limit of stability is not crossccl a t nny point over
ancl changing from 6 = 0 a t tho leading edgc to 6 = w for the nsymptot,ic profilc. In practice, the whole Icngth only if the volume coefficicnt is kept a t a v a l ~ larger
~e than 1/8,500. Hence, the
however, i t may be assunlcd t l ~ n tt,hc starting length ends with 6 = 4. The resulting critical critical v a l ~ ~ofc the volume coefficient bcconler,
Reynolds nrln~hershave bccn compubd by A. Ulrich [243] and are given in Table 17.1 ; the corres- cQ 1.2 x 1W4.
ponding curves of neutral stnbilit,y have been plottcd in Fig. 17.17. The nmplification of unstnble (17.12)
dist,urbsncrs for t.he asymptotic profile has been calculated by J. Prcbch [180]. The highest
drgree of amplificat.ion obtained in this calculation was about 10 times sn~nllerthan that for We are now in a position to answer the question which was left open in Chap. XIV, naa~ely,
t,hat concerning the acL~lnldccrcn.qc in the drag on a flat plntc a t zcro incidrt~co\vllonc: I)o~tlldirry
Iaycr is kept laminar by suction. Figure 14.9 (:ont,ninccl a plot of the cocf~icirr~t of slcilr
friction under these conclitions cxprrssetl i n tcrrns of tlie llcyrlolcls nntnber wit11 t.l~c: voll11110
coefficient eQ nppearing as a parameter. If the curve wl~ichcormnponds to cQCrclfro111eqn. (17.12)
is now plotted in the diagram, i t is possible to dcduce Lhc variation of t,he cooffic:icllt of skin
friction for a llnt plate nntlnr c o ~ ~ d i t ~of
i o oplimum
n~ ~ ~ ~ c t inn
o nRIIOWII
, in Pig. 17.1!). 'J'llc clintalicc
between the curvc marked 'optimum suction' ancl that n~arkc!cl'Lurb~~lcnb' rorrcspo~~tls 1.0 1 . 1 1 ~
saving ili drag erected by the application of suction.

Fig. 17.18. Deter~ninat.io~~ of

crit.ical value of volunlr coef-
ficient for maint,cnance of 1%-
~ n i n a rflow through suction for
Oo~ttldnry layer on flat, plate
Fig. 37.19. C~oefficicntof skin frict.ion of :i Fig. 17.20. 1tc.l:lt.ivc snving in t1ra.g 011 flat
flat plate a t zcro incitlcncc. Oplirnu?n auction
dcnoles smallcnt volr~rnccoeffiriolt cqrrrc
= 1.2 X 10 whii4i just s~iflicesto ~ n a i n -
- p1:rt.c nl. xrro i~lc.iclcnrc!wit11 s c ~ c l i oI~I ~I : I ~ I ~ -
1,:rining 1n111i11ar
llow :rt, O ~ ~ ~ I I L ? ~. Is I~I ~ r l i fron~
o~t
I'ig. 17.19
tain laminar flow ' 4 r ~- s '1 rurb - ' 1 iat>titt,tr toilh sucli,,m
510 II
XVl I . Origin of 1.1trb11lrnro
.
,I I t ( ? l.c4:1(.ivc:s : l v i ~ ~i tgt tlrng c~nlcr~l:xt.rtl u~itllrcspnct t o trrrb~rlont,d m g irlrrrnscs is s t rest nntl tlrc outer cylintlcr rotates ut~iformly, t.11~veloc:il,y in 1 . 1 1 ~ : I I I I I I I / I I S
sonlc~wI1:11. :rs I l l ( : I<(-ytloltls 1111n1l)cris it~crcasect, l'ig. 17.20. It varies frotn 05 t o increases ~)mct,icallyh ~ c a r l yfrom zero ab t,)lc: innor wall 180 Illlo ~)c~ril)llrr:~~l vclloc:il,y
AT, 1)vr ~ ' I ' I I ~ , .in :L r:rngc? of Itc~ynoltls~ ~ t ~ n l l )Rc r= s lo6 Iflo10R. Expcrimrlll,:tl r o s ~ r l t . ~ of thn oltt,c?rwtlll. A fluitl p:lrl.ialc from nrl o111,crInycr ol)poscs n lt~t~tlc:t~t:y l o I,t*ittg
.
c.or~c.t~r~~itlg l)onr~tlnry-1:lyc.r corlt.rol Il:ivc~ nlrrntly hcen disc~lssetl in CII:L~.
,I l~c,soI~l~c~orc:Iic*:tl r t ~ s ~ t l c~ol~rrrtlit~g
ls 1.110 saving of clrng dnc t,o snct.ior~Ila\.c follrltl
XLV. moved inwnrds becanso i b centrifugal fnrcc oxcectls t.l~:~l,
axis of the cylinder anti shows a tertdcrlcy t,o briug t,hrown out.wnrrls. lCrlt~nlly,
on n pnrt,iclc noxror t.llc

a.11 CX(Y:IICIIL coltfirt11nt.ion in tllc r n p r r i ~ n c n t scarrictl orit ill flight ant1 in a wind motion orltu,nrtls is mntlo tnorc tliffic~rll,I)ccnrrsc t,l~c:c*c.tlt,rif~tg;tl li)rc:o nc,Iit~gon :in
t.llnnc*l Is!), !)!I, loo], scc also r i g . 14.19. i n t ~ r rp:~rl.ic-lois snlnllrr I,llnl~tfltat,on a pnrl.irle fr~rl.l~t%r nw:~.yl't.orn I,ltr :!xis so (,II:I(.,
'I'l~crlTc.rl, of srrc.t,iol~on Ifhe litnil, of st4:~.l)ilil.y t.ogcl.l~rrwith t11n.tof :I. prcssllrc consc~tlt~cwf,ly, 1)nrticlcs nrc :~ct.ctl1lj)orl I)y wll:rt. tnigl~tIN: I,c:rtnt*tla. ' r t ~ r ~ l r i l ) r llil'l,'. ~:~l
grntlitvlt, ran It(: rrprcsrl~tc:(lgr:l[)ltit.:lll~r 11y plot.t.ittg t,l~ocri1,icn.l Rcynoltls 1111rnl)cr lltv~rt-,it, ~ * : I I I IN: :~pprrci:~l~c:fl t11:1,t l ~ r : ~ t ~ s v mol,iot~s
~ ~ r s ~ : \vIlit:l~: I ~ Pt * l ~ : ~ . ~ ~ t ~ I t o[ ~ t ~ i s l , i ~ ~

:rgait~sf,l,ltc s11:sl)c I':it:I.or Illz --: B,/dz of (,)I(: I)o~rntln.rylayer profile, a s was clor~t:in I , I I ~ I ) I I I ~ : I Iflow
I, : ~ r citnp(xIt:tl I))? ~ v ~ t ~ t ~ r i l l'o~~-(:s.
' t ~ p t l 'l'l~t~s, i t 1 t,l~ist-:IS(%, I,II(:c!rtttriI'ttg:~l

Fig. 17.21. '1'11f. c,ril.ic::~.lI?.ry~~oltls t~rtrnbcrsfor a f1n.t 1)lnt.cwit,l~zrro prossllrc. gr:l,tlict~f, t'ol-c.rs I~:rvc?:I, s1.n.l)ilixingr,lli,c:t..
ntlcl 1111ili)rnls~tc:l.ior~(Iglisrl~ ~)rofilvs,I'ig. 14.8), tfl~oscfor a ~)l:tt,cwith srlct.iotl 1\11 sl~:~l)ilil,y ~ ~ : I I ~ I I I : I ~ . ~(l,*st.t.il)(,(l
~IIs so l':~r\v~-rt:t-ot~fit~tvl lo lI:ll, l)l:~lt-s.1 1 , (:II,,I.I-
Icr [83] gcnrrnlizetl 'l'ollnlicn's st.abilit.y c:rit.c,rion lijr profilt:~wi0ll :I. ~ ) o i to~f linllcxiotr ~
tif~srril)ctlby ti,, N I / \ / x ( ~ ~ I I S S I ~ I ): T
LOI ~( ~ C S , 14.12) ns well a s tllosc for the caso
I I~Fig.
t,o incl~lclcthc inflrto~ccofurnll cnrvnturc, t.l~isc:nsc: I~cingofgrr:ct, ~)r.;~c~t.ic::~,l in~l)orl.n~lt.t..
wiI.11no snt:I.iot~l~llt.\viI.ll a 1)rrssr1rt'grit~licnt.(Ilartroe 1)rof los) place t,llernselvcs well
' l ' o l l t ~ ~ i cl,l~(:ercn~
~ ~ ' ~ for flat \v:tIls u~11it:It sl,~~.l.cs I,II:LI~ i 11 I,IIC Iin~il~ing t::t,st: of t8t*t.y
or1 :t singlt: c31rrvc?.I'or I,II(: :~sytnl)t.ot.icsrlct,ion profile we hnvc N12 = 2 ant1 for tllc
l;lrgc, I~.cynoltlsnlttnl)or vrloci1,y I~rofilcs\ \ ~ i l . I ~n c~l~ritlgc: in sigt~of rI211/tl!/~~,ct-ot~~c:
plnlt: wit.l~I I O st~c*t.iotl t.ho vn.lno is /IIz = 2.59. IIIISI,:I~IC, o S V I I ) , I ~ I I : : ~ , IIC n~otlifit:cll)y s l . : ~ l i t ~I,II:II,
s ~ St-r. g IL t*I~:tt~gt! i l l l , l ~ t *sip) IIS

t,l~c* oxltrc>ssiotr

rntlsrs frict,iot~lcssinst.:lltilil.y in t.hc mso of cllrvrtl ~vnlls.1lrt.r 11' tlt~t1o1.c.s111t. nltlius

of nrlrvnl.nre of t,llo wall wit,l~/ I > (1 tlcr~ot,itrg:I, c:onvrx :rtltl II < 0 tlt:nolit~g:I, c*ot~c.:~vc.
rc*gion of l.l~c\v:tII. Ac:c.ortlitlg 1.0 l.l~isc:l.il,criotl, I,llc. t \ v o - ~ l i t ~ ~ c ~ i ~ st lii os It.~~ ~: ~t ~lI ) : t . t ~ t ~ ( ' ~
I)oc-olnc!~lt~sl.n.l~lc
on convcx \\r:clls n sllort, tlist.:~noc:rltr:ul of l.ltc ~rrcssurc.~ I I ~ I I ~ I I I I I ~ I ~ .
\vhcrcns or1 co11c:~vewalls Ll~isoccnrs :i s l ~ o r tclisI.:rnrc l ) c l ~ i t ~it.. ( l IIo\\~cvt:r,0 1 1 1.l1t:
wl~olr,t . 1 1 ~it~flucnreof wall ourvnt,~rrcis very srn:~.Ilif t . 1 1 ~rat.io of I)or~trtl:~r,v-I:~ycr
t.lric:kncss, d, to t.hc rxtlills of crrrvnt,rrre, 12, s:~tisfirst.l~cror~tlil,ior~s t . l ~ : ~()/It Ill 1. <
\fTitlt roltc::rvr \v:~lls n tlilrt-rent. Itit~tlof' itlst.:rl~ilil.y, l~:tn~c.ly t.llnL wil.l~~ ( ' S ~ K Y - I1.0 ,
I'ip. 17.21. 'I'ho rritirnl Ilrytioltls r l ~ t n ~ l ~ ~ r (*t:rt:~itll~l~rt:t:-tIit~~rt~siot~:~l
tlist,~~rO:~~~(:(*s,
t,t> l)c tlis(:~~sst%tl i t 1 Set:. f of I.11is t,l1;111I,c,r.
Tor I:bn~itlnr velocity profilrs \tit11 ~ ~ ~ r t i o t i ,
and wit11 a prpsnurc gradirttl 1)loLtrcl :m n
f~~t)ctiot~
of thr sllnpc fartor I / , , - rf,/O, Couette flow: Tllc st.n~l)ilit.yof Inlllinnr 1 1 0 ~I)(:~.wccII I,WO c o t \ ~ r n l . ~~.oti~.I.ing ~i~,
cylinders (Couet,to flow) is governed t.o a Ia,rgc ext.ent I)y t,Ilc cc-llt,rifclg:rlforecs. 'l'l~t:
velocit,y dist,riblrt.ions wlriclr occur in t,l~iscast, \rerc%givtw in Fig. 5.4on t11(, I~nsisof
exact, solut,ions of t l ~ rNa.vier-St,oltrs oclrlat,iot~s;t.l~cbyrovc:rctl variot~sv:ll~tc~s of IIlc
ratio of radii n = rl/rz, and c,oncornctl two 1)n.sir cnsrs: ( I ) innrr c.ylintlcl. l-ot.n(.c:s,
A 1t:11~:r 1p.v 11. l<r~rcgcr[ I l l ] cont,:tins ca.lcrlInt.ions of t,lle cril,ic:~l lteyl~olds outer cylincler a t rest,; (11) outm cylintlcr rot,nt,rs, inner c:yliritler at. rrst.. 111 (:nsc, I
nnrnltcr l i ~ rscvr:r:r 1 rxarnplns involving ~ n i ) ~s. g~ c l i o ?\Y.
~ ~ \\'r~t?st
. 1247, 2481 ~)rovctl
(inncr oylintlcr rot,:tt.illg), 1 . 1 1 ~Inycrs :&I, t-llc5rot,at.it~gi l t l l c . ~u,t~.llnxl)c~ic,nc:c-I : I I . ~ ( ~ I . t-rt11.t.i-
nt~nlyI~ic~:tlly1,It:rt. I,hr st~nbilizitigr!Tt~ctlt of scvcrxl sit~glcslits ~)lncrtlone I)c.llitltl (,II(-
frlgal forces tlinll tl~osc!rlcnr l.11e out,t*rwnll. I'or l.l~isi.c~nsot1,t,llr ~)rc*sc.~ll t::tsc- I I I I . I I S
ot.llc.r is ~nnrl<tnllysrn:tllcr t,l~:t~t l,ltnl. ~)rotlnrccll)y nnifnrrn slrt.l,ior~.
o u t t o be highly ~ ~ n s t , a \ ) it l e was
; invcstigntctl vrry cnrly by (:. 1. Taylor IVIIII :~ss~lrr~ctl
the exist.ance of tttrrre-tlin~enniot~al dist.nrl):~ncrs.(:.I. 'l':tylor c1isc:ovrrctl (.It(* t.xistt.t~c.t:
I of s secondary flou. in t.11~form of ring-sl~nl)rtlvort,ircs in cxccllrr,l, a~~.c.c*lr~c~nt I)(:-
cl. ICITrrt of hotly forces OI\ trnrtaitiot~
tween tllenry nncl exprrirncnt, scc Scc. XVII f nntl Icig~.17.:%2--17.34. I I I (I:IsI: 11
1. l \ o ~ ~ ~ t c l nlnycr
r y on cottr-ex \s,nlls (cel~trif~lgnl forcrs). 'I'hrrr nro rnsrs when (outer cylinder rot.ating) the larger c e ~ l t r i f r l ~forces al ocrur in t.hr fluid 1nyr.r.s at the
r ~ t is nint.win.lly nff(~ctrt1I)? rst,c,rnn.l forcas
t,mnkil.iot~froln Intnin:~r1.0 l . r r r b ~ ~ l cIlow oat,cr mnll, \vtlicll has n 11igl1lyst,abilij.,ingeffrct.011 t,he flow. 'I'hc stpn.l)ilit,yof snc.11 flo~vs
i~n~trvsst~tl Inyt:r. 'l'llc: flow in t11c ~ I I I I I I I I I S I)(:l.\\r(!~ti I,WO r o I . t r t . i ~ ~ ~
011 1 . h ~1)01111t1:1r)~ a.it,ll rcspcc.t, t,o t,wo-clin~c:r~sionn.l tlisl.~~rl~annc~s W:LH t l ~ o r o ~ ~ gil~vt'st.ig~~((~(l
l~ly I.l~(.or('l.i-
c-ot~~.cv~l.ric:
c:ylintlrrs nl1i)rcls rill rx:rtnplt: of snnll n r:lsr. \\'II~?IIl,ltc inner cylintlrr cn,lly l)y I?. S ( : I I I I I I ~ ~ . ( ~ ~1204cJ; l t -Vurtts :IIII(* l,o ~ I ~ ~ I I I O I I S I , I ~LIIC:
~ I I I I Oi ~ I I I , i~ t~ ~ l ~ r t ~sl~:~l~ilily
rt~l
512 XVII. Origin of turbulence I1 d. Effect of body forcea on transitiol~ 513
of (.his arra~~grrncnf,.
I<x[1erimcnt,a1 i~lv~st.ipatiolls
by trhe same aut,hor 1204 b] con- and a linear velocit,y profile in a n infinite fluid they forlntl the limit of s!,;tbilil.y to be
firrnrd this t~on(:I~~siotl;
sec also t.he more rcoerlt papers 11y 17. Schultz-Grunow 1204dI. a t R( = 1 . Tlte irlfiucrlcc of viscosity ant1 of c r ~ r v a t ~ in ~ r ct,l~cvoloc:it,y 11rofilo II:LVC
ht:cn nrglcct,c(l in this conncxion. 11. S(:l~li(:l~l.i~~g [l!)!)l ~ I vt:sl~ig:tl,t:tl
I t , I ~ t ? st,:~l)i
lil.y
2. TIIC Ilow of noti-homoge~leo~~s
lluicls (stratification). Tllc ir~flncnccof vertical of flows wit-11dcnsitJy stratification with l,hc aid of 'l'ollmicn's t,hoory. 'L'l~oc::rlr:~tl;~t.iorl
tlrvsil!/ i:rr.ritrLiot,.9 oil t,hc stability of flow pzst a flat horizontal wall is in a sense was I~asrdon t,lle ,zss~impt.iorlof a J3lasius profile for a f l t ~ t~~l:l,t.o \r.it.h a. t l o t ~ s i ( , ~ ~
rt~l:~.l.rtl Lo t,hc rase of ccntrifugd forces occurring in a homogcncons fluitl flowing gr:~.tlicnt,i n the l)o~~rldary layer and C O I I S ~ : L I I ~tIei~sit,y011t.sit1~ it.. It, W:LS ~ O I I I I < It.l~:tt,
;rlong a crlrvctl wall. When the clcnsity dccreases upwards, the arwngcrncnt is t l ~ ccritical Itcynolds ~ l n m b e incrcascd
r mpitlly as t l ~ oJtit:li;~rtlsor~ 1111r11l)c:r inc:ro:tsc:t[,
stal)le, and it, I)c:comcs unstable wllcn the tlensity variation is reversed. I n the latter R g . 17.22, changing its value from RCri, = 645 for R, :-0 (I~ornogc:r~co~as Ilow) t.0
t:itsc t,hcrc: is inst.al)ilit,y, even wit,Ilollt flow, when the fluid is hoat,etl from 1)clow. R,,, - c m li)r R, --= 1/24 = 0.042. Tl11is 1i)r
'I'hc flr~itlt.11rr11,ccorncs I I I I ~+,able in t h a t t.11~I~orizor~tal layers of flrlitl 1)ecomc Iloncy-
conll~rdinto rrg~llarllcxagonal ctltly patterns 15, 97, 1001. 111 t l ~ rcase of flow with
stal)lc tlc:nsit.y st,mtificat,iorl, t.nrbulcnt mixing i n t.he vcrtical dircction is impcdccl tl~c:flow rc~nainssl,:~blt:cvcrywl~nrcon t . l l o f l : L ~ pI:ttc. I L is sc.c.t~t,l~:rI.!,11(? III.,.S~,II(. l i t t t i t .
I ~ o t ~ n r ~heavier
sr particles must bc lifted and lighter part,icles must be depressed ot' st,nbility is considerably smallcr t l ~ a r lt h a t given t ~ yp r c v i o ~ ~t.hcorics.
s
: ~ g n i r ~ t~ytlrost,at.ic
st forces. T ~ ~ r b u l e n ccan e even be completely suppressed if the
rlt>nsit.y gradient is strong enough, t h c phenomenon being of some importance in A comparison I)ct.wccn theory nr~tl I,II~: oxl)ori~nc:~~l,:~I r c ~ s ~ ~( I lI Il~,: ~(.(I 1 1 . I(.,-i-
c*c.rt.ninmt?l.corologic:~lproccsscs. I t is, for exainple, possil~lctlo 01)scrvc l,l~al, on cool <41:1r(lt,[I741 is givv~t i11 lpig. 17.22; I ~ I ~ ~ : ~ S I I ~ C : I ~ I C\vt-rtu
: I I ~ ~ S ~ ) ~ - V I ~ I I~ . II II:II ~:<l~ts,.i:tI
*~I
stlnliner cvcriings (lamp meadows are blsnkctcd in sharply ouLlinctl mists with a
gc-iltlc: wintl t~lowing.This is a sign t h a t thc wind ceased t o be turbulent so tllat
1ayc.r~of air slitlc over each other in laminar motlion and without turbulcnt mixing.
Thc cntrsc of this ~ ~ l ~ c r ~ o r n lics c n oin r ~t,lro prono~innetltompcr:atjtlrc gmrlient which is
formccl in t.hc air ns t h e carth cools in tho evening ant1 prcvents mixing of thc warmer,
and tllcrcforc lighter, upper layers of tlre atmosphere wit,ll.the coltler antl heavier
layers near the ground. The "falling off" of tho wintl which can ~omet~irncs be observed
towartls t.hc rvcning is duo t o the sa.nlc effect,. The wir~clprcvails in all its force a t
I~igllor;~.ll.it,~~tlrs 11111. Llto s l ~ p p r n ~ ~ iof o rl,url~rllc~ic:c:
l noar the g r o ~ ~ non t l cooling grcat,ly
rm111t*twills s 1 1 , ~ ~ t IIP11rl~l1t~r11iorr,
. 1.11~stIr(~a.tiii~lg of swc~cljovcr s:l.lt. wat.rr wllic-11occurs,
c . g . , i t 1 1 1 1 ~l < ~ ~ i . t t , g11s
~ ~\vt.ll
t . 11s t , l ~ c *r ~ ~ 1 1 i : 1 r l ~ : 1 1 1 l ~ ~of'
s t aI3jt~rl<nc~s's
biIit~ polar f r o ~ ~ t s , Fig. 17.22. Critical lteyr~oldsnumber for tho
wl~c~rl 1,Itt: c:olcl itlasses of air fijrrn a wcclge r~rldorthe warm air, 11clong t,o t,llis group boundary layer on a flat plak a t zero in-
of ~ ) l l t ~ n o ~ l ~ c i l a . cidence in flow with density gradicrlt ns a
function of the Richardson number R,
I,. 1'randt.l 11731 ar~:~lyzetl t.hc ptrcnomcna conncct.ecl with clensit,y gradients
a.s wcll a s with t,hc previously disc~rsscclflows ovcr curvet1 s~irfacesinvolving the
am nor naz a03 nos or az klw
-J dv
inllt~cnc:eof cerlt.rif~~gnl forces wit,l~thc aitl of an cncrgy mct.hotl. Ilc has sllown t h a t + lur&~lenl 0 laminar
R; =g2
the st,nl~ilit,yofstr:~t.ificcI flows depcnds oil the slratification parameter
(d
kitow~t;LS t,l~cIticl~artlsor~ nnmbcr, in adtlit,ion t o t,hc r~srlaldcpcndcnoc on Itcynolds rcctangn1a.r channel in Gocttinger~.Thc air was passctl throrzgl~t l ~ ccl~:~n~lc.l whosc
r1111n11c:r.1Icrc q tl(:not,t?st,hc acceleration due 1.0 gravit,y, Q bile density, and 1,11cpositive upper wall was heated with the aid of stcam, the bottom wall I)rir~gcoolrtl u,it,l~
tlirt,c*l,io~~ of' ?I is n~t:a.s~~rc(Ivertically~.~ipwards.'J'hc s~~bst:ripL lo r.cfcls 1.0 t.11~
val~~c water. It is sccn thnt all observed laminar flows fall within tllc sbablc rcgion,
01' t.llc vcllot.it,y gr:uliont, a t t.hc wall, ant1 R, == 0 corrcspontls to n hornogcncous fluid, whereas all turbulcnt flows fall within the urlstablc region. Agrccmcnt is, thercforc,
R, > 0 tlcnot.ing stable, ant1 R, < 0 nnst,ahle st,rat,ification. The energy mct,hotl used excellent.
by I,. 17. Ricllartlson [I921 and I,. Prandtl Ilas show% t , i ~ : turbulcncc
~t niay be expected G. I . Taylor I2391 observed turbulent flow i n ocean currents a t considerably
to disa.ppn:tr a t R, > 2. G . I. Taylor [240] refincd Pmndtl's reasorling and obtained l~ighervalues of t h e Richardson number a n d i t appears t h a t this phenomenon is
R, 2 I a s Lhc limit, of stal)ilit,y. 11. Ertcl [56] s~rpplicda thermodynamic justification due t o tho abscnco of walls. Rcccntly, J . 'P. Stt~~art[227nlinvost,ignt,rtl tgllc-orotbir:~lly
for l.his t:ril,t-riorr. tthc elre-t of a magi~ct~ic field on tmnsil,ion. I t turned o~iLI,hel, 1,110 c:rit,icnl lk-,yr~oltls
C. 1. 1':lylor [210] and S. Goltlstri~l[69] wrrc tho flrst ones t.o apply the ~ ~ l c t h o t i nr1ml)rr ir~crcasesconsidcmbly for thc cnsc of liimir~arIlow I)ctwcc:n two 11:~mllcl
of s ~ n a l ldist.11r1)anrc.st o t,t~isproblem. Assr~miriga ~orlt~inr~oris clensit,y distribution flat walls when t h c lines of tho magnetic field arc parallel t o the walls.
514 X V I I . Origin of turbulence 11
, < 0 . Since t.11~vclocit,y grn(1ient is l ~ o s i t i v cn t t,Ilc wnll i t follows from ~ c l l l .(17.15)
e. Effectu due: to hcnt trnnofer nrld compreusihilityt
tl1st.
1. l ~ ~ ~ r o t l t l c rctllnrk.
tor~ 'I'll(: t.ltrorc:t,icnl nntl ~xl)rritn(:nt,nlrns~llt,sc o t i c c r t l i ~ ~ g
tr:~.tlsil.ionclcscril)ctl itt t,llc prc>c-otlingsc:c:t,iotls a r e valitl only for flows a t m o d c m t c
s l ~ : c t l s(itic~otl~~)rc~ssil~ln Ilow). 'l'lln c~ll'cc:l.o f t,hn compressibilit,y of t,lrc? firlit1 on t m n - Tlirts for a 11cnt.rd wall the rnrvnt,trrc of t.11~:vcloc:ity profile at, tllr w:~ll is ~)osit,i\rc%,
sit.iori II:IS rc?c-ntll,lyI,c~crlrxl~nrtsl,ivclyin\:nstignt,etl i~rltlcrt h e ~ t ~ i t i i r ~ ifrom u s nero- a n d it..follows imrnctliatcly t,Jtnt a point of inflcxiorl ((1'(//(1~/2 = 0 ) 1n11stcxist, wit,l~itl
rt:~.t~lic*nl c:t~gittrc:ring. I I I t.lle c::l.sc of'cornprc~ssil)leIlows, apart, from t.ho Rlnc:h n r t ~ n l ) r r , t11c bor~ntlsryInyrr bccntrsr t,llc c n r v a t t ~ t , is c vnt~isllinglystnnll but. II('~:I.I ivt: a t -- 00
it, is t ~ c r c s s : ~ rt,o y l.;iltr it1t.o :~cc:onnt,ono ntltlileional, i t r ~ p o r t ~ n nptn r ~ ~ n c t wlrioll ~rr is ( c / . I'ig. 7.4). rl'l~isIncans t,IlaL t , l ~ l.rnnsfrr
r of Ilcbnt, ft.otn f l ~ cwall t,o n g ; ~ sIlo\\~itig1)nst.
r o ~ ~ ~ ~ c , r \vil.ll
t . c ~ t lt,l~o~:rt,c,of Ilrnt, t.rnt~sl'c:rrc:tl I~ctwccnt,llc: l l ~ ~ iant1 t l t h e wall. \ Y l ~ c n i t rrntlcrs l.ltr I)o~rndnry111yc.r t~nst.nl)l(:I)y (.It(: c:l.it.c.~.iotlgivc.11 i t 1 (:It:il). S \ r 1 ~ I I ' : L
I,II(% I111itl is i ~ ~ ( ~ o ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ lt(a:~t, t . ( * sV:III l ( :( ,~ X ( ~ I ; I , I I ~ ( :l)(:I,\v(:rt~
s i l )IN: (I I.ll(: \v:i,ll :I.II(II,II(! l l ~ t i ( l Irtatltlcl ritlnlogot~st.o a l ) r o s s ~ ~itrcrc:asc
r~c in t.ho tlo\vnsI.~.c::ltntlirrc:l.ion. 0 1 1 I.II(* rorll I.:LI.Y,
i ( 1 11(, ( , ( ~ t ~ ~ ~ o)f tt ,~l ~~( :\v:~ll , ~ ~ ~ o~r :Iowrr ~,II:%II t,h:~t,of t,he f111i(I fio\vitlg
~ : ~ist I~iglt(:r cooling tlte wirll rcndrrs 1.11~ 1)onntlat.y Ixyor Inore, st.nl,lc*by incrc.r~sit~g t.11(.( b ~ ~ ~ . ~ : ~ t ,
IKISI. it.. 111 1.11(: c:n.sc: of' :L (:otn~)~~(~ssil)l(: I l ~ ~ i t1.l1c
l , l ~ ( ~ icvoIvc(1 l, in 1.I1r I)ont~(l:~.ry l:iy(\r of t.l~ovclocity prolilc n t l.lle wn.ll nntl ao1.s liltc r i Ikvortr.nl)lc: I)rrssllrc: g~<I,(I.l ( ~ l l l ~ .
I)ro(l~~c*t*s : I I I :i.tItlit,ion:~l,itnl)orl,:~trf,inflnonce, ns nlrontly sltown in (:II:L~. X I 1 1. 111
rit l1c.r (.:IS(: :I t~Itcrtnnll ~ o t t t ~ , l I:~yrr ; ~ ~ ~ ~y I ~ : v e I o Iin~ sa(l(lil,iotl 1,o t,llc v(:Io(:it,y I)oun(l:~ry A nnmcrirnl cnlc~tl:tt.ionl)y '1'. Crl)c,c:i nntl A . M . O . Stnit11 [221 fi)r air c~onfir~nrtl
1a.y~-r ant1 plnys it,^ p n r t in t h e dctcr~nitt:~t,ion of tllc inst.nl)ilit.yof n smnll dist,urbnnoe. t*ltc(l(:(!rc:nsc: in I,IIc crit.ic!nI I Z ~ ~ y ~ ~ 1111tn0t:r
t ~ l ~ l for
s I,lt(: ons(*t,of i~~sl~al)ilil,y 01' :I IIV;~I,C;{I
r 1
Lltr t ~ l ~ r o r c t . i ~ arrtl
a I cxl)crirnc~nt,alrotisitlcrnt~iot~s wl~ic:l~ wr a r e a b o r ~ tt.o (liscuss will flnt plntr, nntl n sinlilnr tlrcrrnsc in t,ltc: I.ru.tlsilion I<.c-j:~loltlst1111nl1c1\\,;IS ol)srrvrtl
show t.11nt.for t.he s ~ ~ I ) s o tf~li eo of ~ n g:~s, ll(-nt. trnnsfer from t,lle I~o~tntln.ry Inyer 1.0 ~ , W . I , ~ V ~ ) I I ~:III(I
in l,11(: ~ X ~ C : I ~ ~ I I I <of- I I11. ~ I III , l'i111 1 l2!11 O I I IL vtv.l,i(:t~lI I I I I , I)IIII.(- 111,
I I . I(!.
t,hr wnll exrrt-q n st.n.l~ilizinginflucnc-c, wltilr Irrat transf'rr from t,Ite \\lnll to t.Ilr pas zcaro inc:itlrrlcr.
11ns t h e op1)osit.c cfT(~:t,.13ot.li of t.l~cscn r r reversed for t h e fiow of a liquid. For srlprr- Since l.hc v i ~ c o s i t ~oyf n liclnitl tlc~c~~~c~nsc~s a s 1.I1r t~c~til,rrnl.rtrr is inc.~.c:lsrtl,I.llo
sonic flow. n new t,ype r,f unstal)lc rlist,r~rbnnceis 1)ossil)lr ~ J l i c responds h t o t,11e trans- clTc:ctfl of 11onl.ing a n d cooling slloultl IN: r c v r r s ( ~ In~:ot.(litlg (*(111.( 1 7. I f , ) . ~ \ nin-
f r r of 11ca.t.in nn ent.ircly tliffcrcnt rnnt1nc.r. vest.ignt.ion by t\.It. Waxznn, 7'. Oltntnr~rnntltl A . M . 0 . Stnib11 1249, 250. 251 1 f o ~ .
wa1.c.r confi~~rnrtl l,l~iscxpcct.nt,ion. 'J'ltc c.t.iticnl Itrynoltls nltrnl~c?rli)t. otisc,t, of
t . I ~ ( b
2. Tllr effcct of llent frnllsfcr it1 il~colnpressibleflow. Sornr of t h e main frat,urrs
itist,nl)ilit~yis sllown in Pip. 17.23 for I~c-nl,rtl n.t~tlc,oolc-cl wnlls along wit,lt ( I t ( . t ~ l : i s i t r l t ~ t ~ ~
of t,l~cr l k c t o f f.ltc t,r:~tlsfilrof 11c:n.t h o t n t , l ~ cw:ill t.o t,llr fluitl on t.he st.al)ilit,y of n
c I i t ~ ~ ( ~ ~ ~ s i:ttn~)Iificnt,ion
ot~l(~ss , l ~ ~I I I V ~.:t,t,ioof' t . 1 1 ~t l i ~ ~ ~ ( ~ t ~ s i o ~ ~ s
flt.ct,or (/?, i ~ l / l l m ) fnncl
Inn1inn.r I)ot~tttln.ry11iytv.r r ~ nI t ( % ~.r:t(lilyr(*rognizrd rven in t,llc! rrrsc: whrn t,llc flow is -
incotn))rt~ssil,Ic.Wc s l ~ n l l .t,llcrcli)rr, c x l ~ l a it. i ~first.
~ in t,llis simplifircl form. T h e first clisplacernent I,llickness dl I/f/,/x v, t o it.s vnlr~e1.721 for t.11~ ~ ~ t ~ l t c i r t\vnll.
ecl
exl)rrirnrntnl in\.rst,ig:~t.iottson t . l ~ einflltener of 11rn.t t,ransfer on t.ransit.ion were per- '~11ct.cis n st.rong st,zl)ilizing effrrt. a s t.llr wall t,rtnl)c,rnt.t~~o is int:~,r:~sc,tlf ' t ~ ) t r t i t s
li)rrr~rdsome t.imc ago by W. 1,inlte [ 13 I 1. \\'. I,inltc measrtred t,hr c1ra.g of n vcrt,icnl initrial v n l l ~ cof 15.0"C (GO01'), I)ut 1I1r1i frtrlltrr Itrating is tlc-st,nl~ilizing./Ill.l~or~gll
hraf,rd ~ j 1 a . tplncrtl
~ in a I~orizontnlstrratn in a rnngc of length Rcylloltls nlllllbrr f'nct.or is const.nrit. for 7',, > (;On(:, I.llc tlitrit~nsiot~:~l
t h e t l i t n c r ~ s i o ~ ~ l:~mplific:~tion
ess
R = 105 t o 106, nntl o l ~ s r r v r dt.li:rt. Ilc~nlingrar~sc:tl it. to incrrase by n Inrgc ntnor~nt,. ir~c:rc-nscsit1 invc:rsc, prol)ol.t.iot~1.0 d l . 'I'll(* rcsrtlls for :I. coolctl \vr~lIs l ~ o ~tilt! v
11e conollttlc:tl ft.o~nt,llis incrca.sc, clrlilr rot,rrrt.ly. t,llnt, t.11~ l ~ c a t ~ i nofg t h e plnt,r cntlfictl cxpccLod tlc-sl.nbilizirig cll'cct li)r liclr~i(ls.In t.llc t.ltc:o~.yof' A . It. Wrizz:~.~~, t.11c. only in-
t,he t~rntisit.ionItc-ytioltls n u m l ~ c rt,o dc%rrrase. flr~erlccof Ilmt, transfer, ot,llcr t,hnn on t,l~orncnn vrlooil,y j)r.olile, is tfltrot~gllt.llc~t,crn-
peraturn rlcperlilence o f t h e viscosity. A more cotn~,lrt.c(11c:or.y h y I t . I,. I,o\vell a n d
\Iritll t,llc nit1 of t h e l ~ o i n t , - o f - i n f l ( ~ ~c:t.it,r~.ioti
io~i \\rl~ichwns tliscussc~d in CI~npt,rr
XVI it is (tnsy t o sllo\\r that, t l ~ r r ris ;L stnl~ilizitigo r tlrst,abilizing c,ll!ct tlttc t o t h e
trxllsr(.r of llr:l(, \vllrll 7',, + '1'11is rn'c~:l,is :L consequence of t l ~ cdc1)cwtlt:rlce of
'/I,.

t,llr \risc.osit,y ,(of' 11(. llltitl 011 111(* t ( , n ~ l ) r ~ n t u7'. r r \\!l~cnt,hc tcmprrnt.urc-cIrp(:~i(lr~icc
OF (,Ile viscosi0y is tnltrn info ac,c.onnt, thc! c9~trvnt,rr~.e of' t h e profile I / ( ! / ) of t.llc ~ n a i n
flow nt, {,lie w:lll is givrn for tI1r (::IS(: of n 1I:~t ~)lxt.cat. zero incidencr, nccot.tlinp t o
(~(111.(l:!.f;), lly

Now. if t.l)c. \\all is IloI.trr t h a n Ihc. llllitl i l l tllr f'~,cns t r m n i , we have TI,, > T, ant1 wntor boundary laycr on :L flnt platc, .aflcr
gt.n.tlirnt. n.t Iltc. wnll is nc*)mti\.c: (t17'/tl?/)w< 0. Since for a gas t h e
~ I I Vt.t-n~l)cr:itr~t.c* A. It. Ww~znt~,
'l'. Okilr~~r~rn
atlrl A. M. 0 .
\:is(.osily ittc.r(~asc-s\vill~~ c ~ I ) ~ ~ ) I ~ I :ic.(~ot~(Iing ~ : I ~ I I I ~ ( ~t o ccln. ( l 3 . 3 ) , we mnst. have ((l/l/dy)fi; Smil.l~[2RO)
-~
f 'I'll is sf.,,~ ~ , I ~I I, I Sl ) l ~ r l ~ : ~I rI (I)!.
~~ t l I,. 31. h1:lt.k o f 1 . 1 1 ~, ~ P I l'ro~~t~lniot~
I,r~l)nrnt~nry
of f Ilr (7~~lifnv!~i~~
l t ~' I ' ( Y . I I I I I I111
I ~ ~ s l i l t t of I o ~1'r1s:t~1(~11;1,
~ (::~liforrlin.
516 XVII. Origin of turbulcnco XI r. 15ffrols drtc to hcnt tmnefvr nnd cornprrsnibili1.y ,517

E. ltrsliot,lto 11461 inclutletl t,he t,cnipcrnt.nrc a n d ~ I c n s i t Ilnct.unt,ions,

,~ but. led t o
almost iclcr~ticnlrintncrical r c s u l t , ~A. st,nhilit,y expcritnent. by A . St,razisar,
.I. M. I'rnl~la n d 15. Itcsl~ot.lro12271 vorilirtl t,ltr prrdic:I,rtl sllifl. o f l , l ~ rcn i n i r n ~ ~ tcrit.ir.al
n
ltcynoltls tir~tnbcrwith n srnnll nmour~t,ol' Ilet~ting.
I'rce e o ~ ~ v e c t i o nTratisit,ion
: of R frrc-cot~vcct,ior~ boundary layer on n vertical
~ I I L I ( ! wns fit.sl, rc.Ii~t.ctlt.o t,ltcs :~tnl)IiIicnt~iot~
I t c ~ : l . ~ . tII:rt.
~l I)y 15. 1%.(:.
ofstn:~.lltlisI.~~t~l)nnoc~s
IC(:k(.rt ant1 15. S(ic11rigcn 157, 5I)I. 'J'lic rrntlrr is referrcct t n articles b y 13. C e b h a r d t
[79, 80, 811 for n comprchcnsive review of t,11is field in which m r ~ c hprogress has Fig. 17. 24. I3ffcct of Mach nrlti~beron pllnsc vcloci-
been rnatlc in cxplnining ot)sorvrtl t.ratlsil,ion phenornona by rncnns of nccurate tic8 or two-dirncn~ionnln ~ u l r adintt~rbatrrc~
l ntltl din-
~ ~ t t t n r t ~ i cnlculnt,ions
cal I)nsc(i o n t h c I I I C ( ~ I I Oof
~ sriinll dist,arbances. plxrcntcr~t.t,l~ickllrssof atlinhntic Ilxt-glalc bor~rrtlary
lnycrs
Wltcrc;~sfor t,lie vert.ical 1icnt.cd plst,r the insf.abilit,y originat,es from progressing
waves of t,hc 'I'olln~icrl-Scl~IiaIit,it~g t,ypr, o n t h e irtolincd heatled plate standing un-
st,nl)lc vortic!rs wit,li a x e s along tlic dircct,ion of flow h a v c been observed; t,hese a r e
of t h r 'l'nylor-(:oort,Irr t,ype, see 1147, 228, 811.
'l'llo st.n.l)ili(yof a ft.cc>c.onvrc:t.ivc st,rc,nln or^ n hvnl,rd vcrt.icnl plr~f,c.wc~sinvc-sti.
.. ~ ~ 1 who rrril~loyc:cl (,l\rtnc~t.hoclof ~rrri~.ll
g:~t.cvlI,y 1'. I t . N n c l ~ t n l i c ~ i( rl(i7 clist.~~rl)n.ncvs.
I 11c vc,loc:it.y : ~ t t c l t,oml)c:rat.nrc tlisl.ribtrl.ior~swere those of Figs. 12.23 ant1 12.24,
provided t h a t U ( y , ) > Urn - a,.
t.cspct:t.ivc:ly. Vcloc:ity prolilvs wil,h a st,rong point of inflcxion, such a s t l ~ o s ein Fig.
12.24, arc intrinsically characterized Oy x Inw litnit. of stability. T h e inclusion of This t,hcorem is tire cxtcnsioti t o cotul,rcssiblc flow of 'l'lrcorcm 1 of Scc. XVI b,
t,rtnporal t,rrnpc~rnt,urcfluctnnt.ions o n tol) of t h e ve1ocit.y f l u c t ~ a t ~ i o nproduces s an a n d ys is t h e compressible counterpart of t h e inflexion point in incomprcssiblc flow.
ndtlit,ionnl st,t,ong tlcsl.al)ilizing c f i c t of t,hr n ~ a i nflows, because this mechanism t,rans- It can conveniently be referred t o a s t,hc gcncmlizcd inllcxion point,. Wit,l~n g(*nt\r:~liz-
l i ~ c-tlrrgy
s from the rnnin rnot,iori 1.0 t . l ~ t *tlisl.nrbnticc. T h e cnlculat.ion leads t o t w o ed inflexion point, there is a neutral snl)sonio tlist,nrl)nncc wi(.ll c, - cs .- I\(!/,) nntl
c:o~lplcdclilTc-rcnt.inl eclrlnI.ions which now rc,pla.c:c: t , l ~Orr-Sonirncrf(.ltl
r ecluat,ion (16.14).
O n r o f t.11rtn t,c,f(~st o vc.loc*il,ynntl t.lto otltct. t o t,crnprrat.urc. These t w o equations
nlao a neutral sonic tlist~urbnnccwhen M, > 1 wit,l~~ ) l ~ n vvloc:il,y nc
antl n = 0. Ncn1,ral snpcrsonie tlist,urb:~.nccs n1.c: p o s ~ i l ) l ci ~
c, -- c:" --- (I,,
l l (*(-rt.:~it~
m,
~ I O W S , I ) I I ( 110
c o t ~ t n11
i t . l ~ eI't.at~tlt.l n u ~ r ~ l ) ant1
c r t , l ~ c(:r:i~sl~ofnumber in additpion t o t h e Reynolds genernl conditions for their existence h a v c bccn given. Figur-c 17.24 s11ou.s 1,11c:clirncn-
n n m b r r . In this connexiori t , l ~ c1.cncler sholtl(l consrtlt t,he papers by E. E d r e r t c t al.
)S!)I, A . Snc.\vc:zyli 122!)1 nntl '1'. I<rnj:~tnin1151 whicll cont,airt nlso cxperimcntal r c s u l b .
sionlrss phnsr vclocitics c,/Umantl co/U, of t.11~
as f~~ttct.ions ..
r~cllt.rnlsr~l)sonirand sonic: tlisl.ttl~l):inc~r
of Mm for n fnrnily of ntli:rb:~t.ic flnt.-l)ln.t,cI)ortntlnt~yI:ryc:t.s. 1 I t ( % III(\:III
bor~ntlnrylnycr prof lcs which were usrtl in t.hc cnl(:rllat.ion of c,*, ant1 \vill bt: usc:tl
3. Tllc rlfcct of cornpreseiblity. Of I,he nurrierorls t.ransition phenomena which
~ t t Section, a r e accurat.c numerical soluLions of I,hc co~nl~rcssiblc:
t l i r o ~ ~ g l r othis In.tninn.l.
have I~ctenetlconnt,cred in supersonic nntl hypersonic boundary layers, we shall focus
bountlary layer equateions for air with bot,h t,he viscosit.y cocflicient, rind I'rnntlt~l
on t h r nlfi.c:t,sof Mach n u m b e r a n d h e a t t,ransfer on t h e zero pressure gradient bounil-
n ~ t m l w rfr~nct~ions of t.emperature, a n d with a frcc-sf.rcatn stngnntion t,ctnpcrnl,t~roof
:~.ry1a.ycrs \vl~ic*l~ a r e formed on llat plat,cs or o n cones a t zero angle of incidence. 3 1 11< up t o M, = 5.1 where T m = 50 K. A t higher Mach numbcrs, Tmrelnninsa t 50 I<.
\\'r procrrcl first,t,o n s u m m a r y of t.he principal results which have been obt,ait~edwith
These tenipcrabltrc conditions a r c cl~nract,crist,icof R I I I ) C ~ S O I ~ ~a(n: d Ityprr~sonicwintl
t . l ~ crnet.hod of slnall dist.urhances, ant1 will t,hcn show how t,he t,heory c a n account
tunnels. Since c, > co > 0 in Fig. 17.24, all of the b o r ~ n d k ~1nyct.s y of t,his family
for some of t , l ~ ccxprrimrnt.nl observations. Many of t h e theoretical result* t o be
sat.isfy t h e conditions of t h e extendetl theorem a n d a r e u ~ ~ s t . a l )tto l c frictioulcss ({is-
prcsrnt,etl arc, t.nlrc:n from a dct,:tilcd st,udy by 1A.M. Mack (1531 of compressible
turbnnces. T h e movement of t h e generalized inflexion poinL 1.0 larger y/S wit.ll i l l -
st.al)ilit,y t . l ~ r o r ya, n d in t , l ~ eabsence of n specific reference this worlr is t,o be under-
creasing M, is similar t o t.he movement of t , l ~ inflexion c point \vil.l~increasing at1~r.t.s~.
pressure gratlicnt. in incompressible flow. l'igure 17.24 also givc,s t , l ~ ctlitnct~siortlt.ss
' r l ~ efirs6 atii\lysis o r t.hc st,n\)ilit,y of ro~npressiblclaminar b o ~ ~ t l d a rlnycrs
y was tlisplnccmcnt thicltncss dl vl/,/x v, ns a fl~not~iotr of M, for Ll~rfntnily of ntli:~I,;,.t,ic:
givc.11 t,y 1). I<:tc.cl~c.tr~nnn 11 121 on t.hc Ibnsis of t.hc ncgleotof viscosit,y o n t.l~cmotion bountlnry Inycrs. I,. 1,ees and C.C. 1,in were gljlt! 1.0 prove t,I1:1.t. 1.ltcwnvo r~~rrnl)c~t. o~'I.II(.
of t . 1 ~tlist,nt~l)ar~c~c.'l'hc t,cmpcrnt,nre grntlicnt a n d cllrvat,urc of t,hc velocit,y profile neut,rrtl s ~ ~ b s o t idisturbance
ic is unique a s in inco~n~)rcssil)lr flow, provitlccl t,l~nt.t,Itc
wrrr, first. inc,lutl(~din t8he frict~ionlcssanalysis by T.! 1,ees a n d C. C. Lin 11221. T h e y
mean flow relative t o t h e pllase velocity is everywheresubsonic, i. e. h2 < I t,h~.or~gh-
rlassifirtl t,ltc, tlist.~~rbnnces, whiclt were nssumcd of t h e s a m e periodic form a s in e q n .
(l(i.10) int,o t,l~rcccat,egorien callcd s~tbsonic,sonic, a n d supersonic, depending o n o u t t.lle boundary layer, where M = ( I J - c,)/a is t , l ~ clocal rrlnt.ivc~M:tch I I I I I I I ~ ) ~ ~ I . .
whc~thert.11~1,ltnsr vc1ocit.y c, is great'cr t h a n , e q i ~ a lto, o r less t , l ~ a nUrn- a m , where Alt,hougli t-ltcir proof t,ltat cqn. (17.17) is a s~~fficionl, cont1il.ion for 1,l1c:inst.:ll)lit,y l1:stl
n is tllr spcrtl of sound. I n p a r t i c ~ ~ l a 1,.r , T,ces a n d C.C. 1,in proved t,Iis.t a sufficient 1,hesame restrict,ion, i t nppcnrs from rxlensive nntnrrical rirlc.~~lr~t.ions I.l~:rl,rtltt. ( 1 7.17)
rontlition for t h r r s i s t r n c e of a n ~ ~ n s t ~ ssrlbsonic
blr disturbnnce is is a true snff cient condition even when M2> 1.011t h e contrary, L.M. Mack [ 1521sllow-
518 XVI I. Origin of tr~rhr~lcncc
11 c. Effects duc to Itcat transfer ancl cornprcsnihilil.y 510
rtl 11y n~lrncrirnlrnlr~rlnt~ions t h n t \r.it,ll n region in t h o horlntlary layer whcrc h 2 > 1
tI1rr.c- nrc- :In inlinitc nrlmbcr of n a u l m l wnvc numbers, o r modes, witch t,he sarnc plrasc
vrloc:ity c,. 'l'hr rnrllt,iplc ~ n o d c sa r c n rcsult. of t.11~ change in t h e govcrning tlilTcrc:trt.inl
rquation for, s a y , thc: ~wcssurcoscillnt,ictn from rl1ipt.i~whon MZ < 1 t o hyperbolic
\ V I I ~ I I M" I. 'l'l~ofirst rnotlr is t.11~snmc a s in incomprrssil~lcflow, nntl was first
r o n l l ~ ~ t c . I'I~I. l ~ l ~ l ~ yI r . I,c'(~s anO 1':. Itc:sllot.ko 11421. T h c ntltlit.ior~nl,
t l c ~ o t l l ~ w ( - s s iflow
o r Ilighrt.. rnotl(~sIlnvo n o inrornprc~ssil~lc r.onnt,crpxrts. c, = c,, MZ, first, reaches
11nit.y a t M, 2.2, nntl t h e rlppcr I~or~rltlary of t,hc rcgion of supersonic relativo flow Vig. 17. 25. l<~lli!(*l.
of M:tol~ IIIIIIII)CI.
is nt ?I/(> -- 0.16, 0.43, 0.50, Lor &f =- 3, 5, 10, rcsprctivcly.
..l h c tnrtltipl(: ~ ~ t : r ~ t .~r nl iI~ t ~ i l r l ~ nwit,lr
n r o s 1)hnsc v(>locit,yc8 a r e n o t t h o only otles
011 I I I ~ X ~ ~ I I ~I tI~~~ ~i lI) I i ( i ( . ~ t lI;t(:I,or

of 1i1.nL-I L I I ~u e c o n d - ~ i ~ diut,urb-
o~I~
.iot~

possiblo wllc~nME, > 1. Tllcrc n r r also rn~llt.il)lcnc~rt,rnldist,urbances wit.h U , < c, nrlccn nu givcn I>y frict,ionl~ns
< I l , - t a,. Tllrse dist,nrbnnccs (lo not. tlcpond on t h e boundary layer having a t.l~cory for nrliril,itt.ic Hal.-ltlntc
1)onntlnry1;ryera. nft,cr I,. hI. M:~clc
gc.nrrnlizc-tl inllrxiorr point,. I~urt.llrrmorc,t#llcre nre always adjacent amplified tlis-
t,rlrl,:~nrrso f t It(. .vn~rtet?/pr il~ith,plrass 11e1ocitie.sc, < I/,. Co~tacquentl?/,the co~rr.prossil)le [I531
Ooi~?tdnr?//fl?/rr i s isnslable lo frictioltlsss dislicrba~~ces rrgardloss of any other f ~ a t u r e no/
tlrc i~rloci/?/rrlrtl Irl,rg~cr(rlrtrrprofi1r.v (1,s lonq n.v th,rre i n a rrfliola v!ltrre M2 > 1. I,. I,c$c.s n.t~cl(l.(!. I , ~ I I ( 1221 r ~ l c ~l ( - cv c ~, l c ~ l ~ r , l I\l t I i c . < t ~ . ) r 01'\ . ~ H I ~ I~I I I~HN ~ . I I I . ~:, )~ II III ~( .I ~I >~ S
t h c snrnc*grlicrnl Iincs : ~ st,llc i~~comprcssiI)lc nsytlll~tol.ict11ror.y ~)~.c*srt~t,otl it1 (:llnl)t.cr
A litnit,ing fn.rt,or in t,he amplifim.tion of first,-motln tlisturbnnccs is t.hnt c, rnrls' XVI. This tlreory was lat,cr cxt,endcd h y I,. Lccs [12:)], 1). W. T)ttnn aird C.C. Tin 1431,
lir I~c:t.\vc~rnro n.11tlr,. Any l.lling t,llnb incrcnsrs t,llc diffcrrnoo cr -co nlso incrc-asps t.hc 1,. I,CCRant1 IC. Itcsl~ot,ko[142]. IIowevcr, whcn i t b c c : ~ n ~possil,lc c t o obtain t h e c!igrrl-
nml>lilic:nt,ion f:l.c:Iol. /?,. As shown Iiy Iqig. 17.24, t,llis tlifkroncc ciin 1)e cl11it.c stnnll. valucs of t l ~ comprcssiblc
e stabilit,y cclr~;cI,ionswiLh great, aocurncy o n a cligitnl compu-
T h o co~lst.rn.intitnposrtl I)y co, which tlnlilrc c, is rrnrclnkcl to t h e boundary-layer ter, a s was done first b y W. 13. Brown [I41 ant1 tlrcn by I>. M. Mack [151], it was found
profile, call only 1)o rrnlovctl 11y consirlering n moro general fornl of disturbancc t h a n t h a t t h e nsyrnpt.~,t.ict,hcory is only virlitl "1' t,o sliglttly st~l~t.l.sot~ia hI:rc.I~ 1111111l,rrs.
h a s I)crri rtsrtl rtp 1.0 t.llis point,. With Ipor this rr:lsoti, only t.lrosc r c s u l t ~which Iln\~c1~cc.11 ol)t:li~lc*tlIry ntr~t~c~~.ic-n.1 int.c.gt,a.t.iotl
of tile rotnplctc viscous st.al)ilit.y rt1nnl.ions \\.ill I)c ~rlcwt.ionrtl11r1.r.
ill(.r, ?I,z, 1 ) = /(?I) (%XI) l i (a x -1- y z - b t)]
As t,Ilc Mach n u m h c r incrcsscs, tllrrc Mac11 111tn1I)cr.~.rgionswit,]) tliflb~.cbnt.i l l -
l inclinatl at, tJlc :~ngloty = t a n 1 ( y l n ) t o t h e
in 1)l:tc:c. ol'c~111.(16. I%),t.llr wnvr t l o r ~ n a is st.nbili1.y cl~n.mrt,crist~ics
can bc tlist,ingr~isllc~tl for t,Irr :~tli:~t)nt,ic fln1.-l,lntc I ~ o l ~ n t I : ~ r ~
T-tlircc:t,ion. It. Ilrls Ijocn shown by C . C . 1,in 11441 t,hat if t h e coordinnt,c syst,crn is Iayrrs. In Vig. 17.2fi th(: rat.io (/I,) ,,,,. r/(/?l)l,,,,z,,, :I(. R -:11, . I . / I ~ , , =.- 2.25 Y 100,
rot.atcd a l ~ o u \.\lo
t y-axis rltit,iI 1 . h :I.-axis
~ is coinciclent with t.he wave normal, t h e n t h o ~ h ( ~ (/?r)nlnl,rnr
rc -= 0.00432 7lm/rS1 is ~ . I I ( *:~~nl)liIir:it
ion h(.t.ot. :if. tht- S : I I I I ( ~ l<,,.yt101(1~
t,l~rrc.-rlitnrnsionxlt'rict,ionlrss cqrlnt,iolts nra itlrnt,irnl t,o 1 . h ~two-tlirncnsional eqrta- n u m b e r for incompressil)lc flow, is givcn a s a fi~nct.ionof M, for two- ant1 t8hrce:tlirncn-
t,ions (c-xcapt fi)r a n ntlclit.iont~l~nolncrlt,urncclnat,ion in 1.hc new z-rlirectiotl \rllich is sional tlistnrbnnccs. I n t h e first rogion, u p t.o nl)out M, = 2.5, ollly first,-~notlctlis-
rlnconl~letlfrorn t,hc ot.hrr eclnat,ions). 'I'llerrforc, t h e precedit~gcon~itlcrnt~ions arc tfurt~nnccsa r c of import.:~ncc. T h o m n x i ~ n u l natnplilicnliotl fact.or of t\\,o-clin~en-
-
still vi~litlfor n t,llrc~r-tli~r~c~~~sio~rd tlist.n1.l)nncc, b r ~ t\vit,ll
, tire governing Mach n u m b e r sional dist,nrbnnccs deorcases sharply, b u t for M, > I , three-tli~ncnsionnldisLrrr-
M, -;- M, cos instcntl of Ma. C o ~ ~ s c c ~ l ~ t *trh~et ,phnsc
sionnl nc~lt,rn.lsonic tlis1.11rIrnnceis cn/lJm -- 1
-
ly, velocity of a three-dimen-
I / & , , ant1 cn decrrasrs a s increases.
batlees a r c t8hc most unstable. I n t h e sccond region, from M, = 2.5 t o 5.0, t h e in-
creasing frictior~lessinstability shown in Pig. 17.25 begins t o rnake i t s influence felt
at lower Reynolds trumbers.
As n rcsult of c, - co increasing u.it,ll {I t.llo ~ n a x i r r l r ~ nmpliBcnt,ion
tn fnot,or o f
t~l1rre-cli~nct1siot1nl f i r s t , - ~ ~ ~clistr~rl~a.noo
o~lr is Inrgc:r t h a n for a t,wo-clirnc>r~siol~n.l tiis-
rls is sllown in Fig. 17.25. In I his rigurt*, t,l~(!~~laxitntlrll
l.lll~l):~.nc.c~, ( l i ~ ~ l r t l s i o ~ t~tlipli-
ll~ss
Fig. 17. 26. I':fli%ct, of hf:ic.l~ nr~tnl~or
fica.t.iotr f:ccI,or (6,dl/llm),l,nz,whcrc tllo rnn.xirnnrn is ivit.11 rcspcc:t, t o n for t,wo-dinlcn-
on ~ ~ i i t x i ~ i an~l~lificntion
~r~tn f:ic:t,or
sionnl clist.nrl,:tnc:rs ant1 wit(l1 rcspcct. t,o t)ot,h n. a n d 17, for t . l l r c r - t ~ i n ~ o ~ ~ s idiaturll-
onnl
of first,. and nenontl-tnotlr r1int.11rb-
r.
nnc,vs, is plottcvl :LS n f'nnot,ion o f U, for t.ho fanlily of n.tlial,:~t,ict)ountlnry Inycrn.
l h r ~.t.snlt.sfor sccontl-trlotlc two-tlirnrnsionnI tli&t~trlrl)nnc:rsa r c also shown in Fig.
anam n8 givrn 11y vineon8 t,lirory
for ncli:tl~~~.l,it; flat-pl:itc I>o~~rirlary
17.25. In cont,rnst, tto ttho first rnodc, t.llc: mosts unst,n.l)lr secctntl-mod(: dist,urbnnccs a r e
Ia.yrrn, afts.r 1,. M. hlnck 1 IT,:)]
t,n,o-c.lirncnsiotiaI. 'I'hc sccontl mode dcpc:ntls only o n t,l~ocxt.c:nt in t h e y-tlirrction of
- R - - II,.r/v, - :! 25 x 10'

..
t.l~c?sul~rrsol-~ic: rc~lnt.ivcflon. rrgion n.s l l r l c r n ~ i n r t l11y c, nnd t.hr Mnrh rlr~tnl)c-rMm.
I his r(xgi(>nIIXR if.s lnnxinlnm c-xt,rnt for :I t.\vo-tlitnr~~sionnl tlist~~rl~nnc:~.
;",".r - ),,',"I ll,,~l,~I~l"
,,,,:,",~~l 5"
~ ~ ~ ~ I I I U I ~It)
, I V f ~ ~
620 KVII. Origin of tr~rbrlloncel i c:. IClli-cl,s drto to hen t,rnnsfcr nncl co~nprrssil~ilify 52 1

l l y M, - - 3.5, the maxirnntn atnplificat,ion factmr of bot,l~t,llrec- a n d bwo-dimen-

siotlnl d i x t ~ n r l ~ n t ~occrtrs
ccs at. R = oo. It, is in this second rrgion, whcrc t h e inst,abilit.y
nssrtmc:s a n c:sscnt.ially fri(:t,iotllcss ~ i i ~ t . ~ l1,lln.t.
i . ( ~ ,nn unst,al)lc bantl of frcclttrncics asso-
ciakcd with thc sccot~tlmotlc first appears for R < 2.26 x 100. 111t h e t h i r d region,
M, -:. 5, t , l ~ cn~nplilic~rt,ior~ fart.ors tlrwcasc: st.r;~dilyin pt.oporl.ion to tPllcincrease in
(TI sllowrl i l l I'ig. 17.24.
I'or t,lle low snpctl flow of a gas, wc llnvc all.catJy disrllsscd t.hc tlcst,abilizing
cffcct, of ,z hcatrtl wall a t ~ t tltc l stabilizing effect of a cooled wall. Lccs 1123, I241 cal-
cl~lat.etls i n ~ i l nrlrrcts
r for cornprcssihlc air I)ol~ntlaryInycrs, a n d , in ad(lit,ion, prrdictctl Fig. 17. 17. 1Sfli.ct ofn-:11l c,oolil~gO I I 111;1xi.
t-he possibilit,y of colnplct,cly st.ahilizing sn1)crsonic bo~lntlarylayers h y cooling. Al- :~~~~plific:itiol~
11111111 ftrc'lor of first- 1111cI
t,llo~~glr t,his pretlict.ion anti s~lbscclnentcalcnlntionsof tllc cooling require(1for complete srco~~tl-111oclr
tlistr~rl~n~~c~rs
n n give11 I)y
st,al~ili~n.t.iot~ by M. iilot~rn[ I I I n l ~ t lE. 12. van 1)ricst [32, 331 were bascd o n tile asymp- fri(.Iio~~lrss
tl~rory for Il:il.l~lntcI~out~cl-
tot.ic t,l~eoryof t.wo-ditncnsiond d i s t , ~ ~ r l ) a n caensd toolr no account of tire higher modes, nry 1:tyc.r~
t J ~ crnorc rrccxlt, ooml)nt.el calcnIat,ions llavc verified t,l~a.t,suffioient cooling will indeed
~ o m p l r t , ~st,al~ilizc,
ly or nrn.rly so, bot,l~two- ant1 t,lircc-dimcllsiond first.-tnotlc tlis-
t,ttrl):ctlc~rso v r r n \vitlc: hlnc:l~ nnt11l)er rnllgc: I'iq 17.27 shows, from t,llc: ft.ic:l.ionlrss
t l ~ r o r y t.llc
, rat.io of (/Ir),,,, t.o it.s vallro f o ~1.11~
. adiabnt,ic wa.ll, (/?t),nnz,ada s n ftlnetion
of 7',,./7',a, t . 1 1 ~t,nt,io of t , l ~ cwall teml)cmt,tlrc t,o t11e ndiabat,ir, wall t,ctnpcrat,urc. T h e
st,nbilix:it.ion of t,l~rrc-dirnc~nsional first.-motlo d i s t n r l ~ a n c e sis clearly seen, with t1hc Pi
t h e theorct-icalat car1 be obtrairled from witellnr = - Pi/(a/Ir/aa), w l ~ c r c(7/1,/Ra is t,llc
st.nt~iliznt,iontlccrcasing wit11 increasing Mac11 nrrmber for tJlc s a m e t,ernperat,ure ratio. group velocity, a s was originally done b y %I. Schlichtil~g[222] (sce also M. Glust,cr
On t,llc cont.rn.ry, sccontl-tnodc dist,urbnncrs, far from bcing st.abilizctl by coolil~g,
a r c tlc-st,abilizrtl, T h e rrnson for t,l~istlin'cr,ent, t~ehnviour is, once again, t,llat t h e
[7H]), it is noanmore cc~nkenicr~t. t o ralculatc *,
tlircctly by Ic.t.t.ing tllc* \\.nv(. n ~ t ~ l ~ l ) c . ~ . s
a and y in ecln. (17.18) bc conl1)lcx nnrnl~ersnntl tllc fl.rcllrtvlcy P it 1 ~ n I1~ I I ~ I I I ) ( ~ I . .
gt:t~eralizcdinllcsion ~)oint,, w l ~ i c lis~st,rongly ir~flncnectlby cooling, h a s n o irnport,ancc
f i ~ rt.hc ~lnst,nl)loIligl~rrmotlcs. 'J'llc irnportntlt, clltanl,it3y,t . 1 ext,rnt ~ of t h e supersonic
1.c-lal.ivc-flow rogior~,is lil,t.lr il~llucncetlI)y c:ooling.
Si1nil:rr rrslrlt,s t,o (,l~osc showlt in I'ig. 17.27 n.rc ol)t.n.inctl from t.lte viscous t.hcory,
exc.cl't, t.I~ntfor M, > :I Irss cooling is roclrlirrcl for st,abili-l.;~t.iona(, a n y 1init.c 1Xcy-
noitls nntnl~cbrt.l~nnis g i v c r ~by t.11~frict.ionlt,ss t,l~cory.In t.llis corlrlcxion sec also Wo nrr a l ~ l ct o turn now t o n consitlrrntion c~ft,Ilc trl1i.c.t.s of h1;1c.11 r111n111c~c
nl~cl
p a l ~ *113' r I<. Itc~slrot,l~o [3941)]. I;I~(~I.s
c:ooling on t,hr t.rnnsition 12rynoltls nrtml~c:rof xrro Ill.c.ssrtrr gr;ttlic.r~tI)o~~tlcl:r~.~v

E~~rrill~e~ ~ t n l ' r l ~ c first cxpcrilrlent t o dernonst.rntc t.he existence of

results:
1anlinn.r inst.al)ilily waves in supersonic flow was ~~crforrnccl by J . 1,anfcr ant1 T.
VrcJ~alovich[IR!)I. A Int.cr t?xperitncnt, b y , J . M . ICcndall [114] went f'urtl~erant1 pro-
vitlctl n, clr~ant.itut,ivcverification of sul~t.rsorlicst,abilit,y tl1co1.y a t Mm= 4.6. T h e
sltc-ac~ssof . j . M. I<cntlnll's cxl~c!rin~cnt drrivrtl in part, frolrl t.11~opcrilt,ion of I ~ i swind
t.ur~ncsl\vit.l~Inlnill:~r borlntlary layers on t . 1 1 ~walls. 'rhe ahsencc of t h e ~ ~ s r l nlarge l
nc:olls(.ic:c l i s t . ~ ~ r l ) n ~t.llnt.
~ c . t ~origin;rt,c:
s fro111s~ll~rrsonic.t.rlrbrllcnt, bountlary 1ayct.s n ~ a t l c I'ip. 17. 28. ( : O I I I J I : I ~ ~ S ~ I Iof c:~l)rri~nent,nl
11ossi1)lt: il~c~~,c:lsc*tl n.c:c:rrrncy i t 1 t.hc rnrasrlt~cl~lrnt of t h e g r o w t l ~of stnnll art.ificial dis- nnrl tlrcsoretic~tlspntinl nnlplilic.ntion fnc-
1ltrb;tnrc.s I)~~o(l~trc-tl Oy n glow ( l i s c l ~ ~ r I)rt.wrrn
gc c:Ic~t,r~(Ics cnlbctl~lcclin the sllrfacc torn for Lllo :itlinl~~~l.ic Ilnt-])lnt.oI)oulldnry
o f (,II(\ Ilnl, I)l:~t,t:i~11c1sIcc:wcd a l nn : ~ n g l c@ t o t h e z-dircctiot~.A compnrisotl of t,llco-
rt:t,ica.l ;~.tltlc~xl)c~t.itnc,llt~:tI nmplificat.ion fact.ors is givcrl in 1Fig. 17.28, where t,he ordi-
lnycr at. M, = 4.5, 11, r/lg, 2.4 x 100.
ICxpcri~l~ent.nl cintnobLairlct1 fro111l~ot-wirc
-
~~n.t.c: is I I I ~clir~lcr~sior~lt~ss sl)nt.inl nmplilic~nt,ionfactor rrhc spatial nmplifica- nnelnonrcter \vit,l~dist,nrbn~~ces producctl
tio11 f;~t:t.c,ris r.eIn(t:(I t.0 t.l~(: r m s arnplitrrtlo A of a n y oscillating flow variable b y artificially by glow-discl~nrge dovice
skcwrd n t nn nllglr ij cq11n.lt,o t,l~corrt.icnl

If a. 11ot-wirt: nt,t~molnc~tlf,c~r
follo\\~st , l ~ pc:;~lc
r rnrs clist,rlrbancc nnlplit,lltlc clownst,roa.nl, (.I, L 1 c x I 1 ~ ~ t i t 1 1 ~. ~.I.
1 1h1l . l < ~ ~ ~ ~ 1~ Il l:, tl jI l
III~'IIIS.
I,. &I. &l:tc.kIl5:IJ
t 11,. Ic~~;~l~it.lrrrtic
tlrrivn.t~ivc:oft.l~c,sigrlnl arnl~lil.tltlt?
r a n 11c int.tarpl~ct,ctla s --a(. I\lt.horlgh
 on t.11~ bnsis of t.11~ tl~corct,icalrcs~rlt~s just, prcscnt.ctl. An import,ant point to keep in
mind is t.hnt. alt,l~ongha I~onndarylayer has definite itist,abilit,y properties, its transi-
tion Jtcynoltls nrrtn1)cr dnpcnds not only on t,llcse propertics hut also on tllc t.ypc nnd
int.c?nsity of the tlist,url)nt~cesprcscr~tin t.hc How. 'l'lio only facility in wllicll it is con-
vcnicnt, to st,lttlg ntliab:~t.ic:1)oilntlary Inyrrs is {,he s~~personic: wind t,unncl which has
its own sl)c:cin.l tlist,itrl)nncc rnvironmcnt. I3t:low M, := 3, t,ransitiotr rncasnrcmot~ts Fig. 17. 2!). Co~r~pnrino~~ o f t.hc cllkct of M:i(:l~
nltnll~cron cxprri~ner~tal start-of-trnt~sitio~~ ILey- 5
difli:r witicly for tlillrcnt, tunnels. Il'or M, > 3, I~ot,l~ .J. 1,nrtfcr 11351 ant1 1C.R. van
~loltls11ut111)rrs of n(linhnt,ic Rnt-lllnt,o I)ountlnry
S)rit!st nntl ,J. (:. I$ois1)11 1341 have sl~owttt,llat t,url)r~lcnce from the supply scct,ion docs . .
Inycra n,itlt c:nl~:~tlrrt.iortr II:LRCII OII t.tvc> r l i l j b r ( ~ ~ t t ,
L
not all'cct t.rn,tisit,iorl in t,l~ot,rsl, scc!l.ion. Infitcad, I,hc primary tlist.urbnrlce sollrcc
rc~sl)onsil~lc! lijt t.t~:i.~~siI~iot~
i~ t.Itt: :~t:ot~sl,it:
r ~ ~ ( l i ~ i .rrotn
l , i o ~!.It(:
~ l,t~rl)rtl(:tlt,
I ) o ~ t ~ ~ t l :Inyt:rs
~.ry n1111)lilIIIIO rrilcrin. (I). (:~II.H 1211, 11.. 15. I)CCIII I I I I ~ I 3
oil t,lte tutlnctl wn.lls. III atltlit,iot~t,o t,lle rll'c~t:l,on trnnsilion tncasurctnerlt.~of tlill'ercncc:~ .J. 8 . hlttrpl~yl4.51, I,. hl. h1nc:Ic 11.541)
in t,llc dist,urbaric:c cnvit.o~ltnrnt-,t.llcrc? is also t,hc prol)lcrn of defining nntl tncasuring
t h e tlransit.iot~ Itcynoltls nnmhcr in n consist,cnt mnnncr. An instruct.ive comparison of
five dilrcrrnt rnot.hods of measuring trn.nsit,ion has been given by .J. 1,. Pot,tcr and J. 1).
Wl~it,fielcl[172]. 'Ute mot,llod of stni~lldist.urbanccs can properly bc applictl only t o
t.11~calc~ilat.ionof n start.-of-t.rnnsition ltcynoltls number.
M...
r
7
Lhc nnlnrrwts wind-tunnrl t.ransit.ion dn,t,a for Mm > 3 accunl~~lat~ctl h y S. It.
I'at,r :~ncIC. . J . Sclinclc:r (I831 fi)r fiat plnt,es ant1 by S. R. I'atc 11811 for cones, formed
bllc I,n.sis of t,i~circorrclat.ions bascd solely on parameters of t,hc a c ~ u s t ~ radiat,iotl. ic
. 'I'hosc data, togct.hcr wit.11 measrlrcnlant,~nt & < 3 by J. T,nufcr and J. R. Martc
11381 on (*ones,I,y I). (:alas 1241 on n fiat plat.(!, a single observation a t Mm = 1.6 I)y Pig. 17. 30. (In~l~pnrisn~~ or t l ~ coxpori~~~rtlt.:ilc,f-
,T. M. I<cntlnll of laminar Ilow on n flat. l)lnt,cn,l, R = 4.3 x 105 in tile same tunnel usetl fec:t of unit lL?,yt~oldnI ~ I I I I I ~ Jon
C ~ 1,110 stnrt-of-

by I). (:olcs, anti tnonsnrc?n~cntson cot1c.s in t,t.ansotlic tunncls by N . S. I)oughcrt,y and trntmition IXrynolrls 1111rn1)er of a n ndinl~nticflat
1'. W. St.cirllc [4!)], srtggcst, t,llc fi)llowing pnt,t,crn for the Mach num1)t:r dependence of 1)l:lte 1vit.li n t,llrorel.ical rnlrtrlnt.inn hnnetl oil
tlrc ttrnrlsit.ionReynolds number in a good wind t.unncl: An init.ial irlcrc,we for Mm > 1 stability t,l~eorynrrd tl~enlensured pro1)crtics of I
~ ) s broad, 1)c:twccn Mm = 1.5 and 2.0, follow~(1by a
wit,h a ~)ealr,~ ~ c r l l arnt.llcr free-skren~nrlisturbnnces; tt~e.zsrrrrt~ter~ts: I). 1.51 ,
decline, anti t,I~t:n,st.nrI.ing sonlc\vl~crcI)rLu~:rrlMoo = 3 an(\ 5 , a monotonic increase Coles [24]; cnlc~tletions:1,. M. Mnck [ISli]
wl~icllcont,ir~ucst.o at. least, Mm = 16 arcortling t,o n ~ e a s l ~ r o n e nin t s a hclir~mtunnel - rnlv~~lnlc~l
~ I ~ P I I S I I ~Me
[157j. It is of part.iculnr int,crcst f.llaC t l ~ c s ct,llrec Mach numl,cr regions corrcsl)ontl !~~.
OR'
0 1 07 4.0 6.0 8.0 10' 1.5 20 3.0
roltgllly t o t.11~t.llrrc rrgions tlisa~~ssctl prrviorrsly in conncxion with Fig. 17.27. A n 2.57
more tlirnct cont~cxionwit.11 st.ni~i1it.yt,hnory was rnntle by .I,.M. Mack 11541 by rncans u,
, , [cm 'I
A 3.70
of a sirnl~lifiedcn.lculn.t~iotlof t,lrc st.nrt of trn~lsit~ion on a flat plate based solely on a 0 4.64
crit,ionl amplit.utlo A , o f t.hc most, amplifiatl single-frequency distnrbitnce, a s given by St,abilit.y t<heory onitrs a n explnnat,iotl of t l ~ i serect. in ttllosc ir~st.nnccswhc-ro some
ec(r1. ( I 7.18 a ) . 'Slllc rcsrilt.~of t,llis celcr~lnt~ion along with some experirnelltal fiat,-plate gross tlratisit,ion pnramct.er such a s rorlgllness or leading-ctlgo blr~nt,rlcsshas not boc~tl
d:~t.n124, 451 nrc: shown in l'ig. 17.29. \Yit.h A(l the value of A a t the nnufrnl-st3al)ilit,y overlooltctl. As tliscl~ssctlI ) j r E. Rcsllotlro [1!)4], thc bol~ntiarylayer firqrtrncy rc-
t ~ r c s u l t ~from nssrttning t.h:~t.A. is intlc1)cndcnt of Mac11 nl~ml)cr,
point,, Llrc r ~ l ) l )curve sponsc antl t.1lr spect,rnrn of' t,l~cflow tlist~ri~.l)ar~rcs sltift rclal;ivo t,o on(: arlot.l~ci.n.s f.lrc
antl tstle lower curvc rcs11It~from ,wsulning A. a M& for M, > 1.3. It is the lower
unit Reynolds number changes. Bccausc of this sllift., tlln init.ial nml!lit.rttlrs of t.lrc
curve which corresponds t,o t.m.nsit,ion in a wind tunnel, where J . Laufar 11361 IIRS intlivitl~~nl frccluent-y cotnl)onr~lt,sof t.110 tlixl.~~rl)r~nc:c! in t , l ~ rI ) O I I I I ~ I I I . I ~ ~1:1~.('1. I I I ~ I S I ,
clc.t.cbrrninrtl t,l~ntfroin M, -- 1.6 t,o 5.0 t.11~frcc-s0rrnm rms tlis1,rtrl)nnca arnplitr~dc
eltango ant1 so, t,oo, must 1.11t: tl.nrlsil,ion Itrynol(ls nutnl,ot.. A c:nl(:lrlnt.iol~I)y I,.M.
vnrivs rssrn1,inlly a s M.:, 'l'llc gc:nc,rnl sitt~iln.t.it,yof t,l~iscurve h t,hc tnensurctncnt~s
Maclc [I561 of t.11~unit Itcynolds clTcct on t,lle start.-of-t,t,a~~si(.ion Itryt~oltlsnrttnl)t~r
fttllg s u l q ~ o r kt.hc viaw t.ha.1,t,rn.t\sit.ionin s ~ ~ ~ ) e r s obot~ntlary
nic layers rosnlLs from the
a t three Mach numbcrs, the results o l \vllicl~arc coml~arrtlin Fig. 17.3i) with t,llr
nlnl~lilirn.tionof ~ ~ n r t i c l ~flowl a r tlistlurl)ancrs in acyordance with the rnetOlod of small
mea~urernent~s of J). Coles [24], intlicat,es t,hn.t,I,llis cxl~lnllat.ionis cor~,cctfor a. stnoot,l~
tlist.ttrl~:i.r~cc:s.
flat, plat,e. The Iat,tcr c:l.lculnt,ion was Inorc rmlist,ic. t,l~ntl1.111: orlc Irntling t.o I'ig. 1'7.20
111 a11 rxpcrirr~t~~it,n~l invr-sl,i#nt.ion of 1.hr ctni.t:t, otl t,ransit,ion of a flow p a r a n ~ c t ~ c r becnusr it. t,oolc int,o n.crorinl. t.llc power spect.rr~lnof t.llr kc,(:-st.rc,n~ntlist,~lrl):~ncc>s ns
sltnli ns M:lc:lt nlrrt~\)cl.,it. is nccbcssary1.0 Itcol) t,Ilc unit Itcynol(ls number U,/v, con- mcnsuretl I)y J . J,aufcr [I 371, nntl also t,llc influence of.lrnit. Itt~ynoltlsn ~ l r ~ ~ l on ) c %t ,rl ~ c
st.ntlt,, n.s wit,lr I . I I ~ - t~~c~:~srtrc'~llrt~t.s
gi\+t>nin 1Cig. 17.2!). 'I'llc clcl~rndenceof thc tm.nsit,ion int,ctisit.y of t.11~f't.c~c--st.vrnm tlist8l~rl)nncrs. 'I'hc init-in.]tli~f.~rrl,:tt~c.t~ i t 1 0 1 t . l11111t1~1:tr.y
lbc~.noltlsn111n1,t.ron rtnil. I<t.ynoltls t ~ ~ ~ n rllns l ~ I)(Y:II
t ~ r nol,c-tl in vn.riorls 1,yl)esof wind t ~ IISSIIIII~YI ~ ) t . o ~ ) o ~ . t .t.0
l n j ~ wc.t.c: i o tt.llt-
~ ~ ~~ Il. ~ ~ ~ , - s ~ . I . ~ ~~ :~I I~I sI I . ~ ~ I ~ I ) : I I I ~ ~ s .
t,l~nnclsl)y scvrr.nl ir~vc~sl.ip~.l,ors (12, 185, 1951 as well as in b:~llist.icranges [181].
 f. St.ability of a boundary layer in the presence of thrco-dimcnsional disturbancra 525

at. M,
nt M,
-
'I'llc tlrst,al)ilizing c:ITc,ct of hm.t,itig on t.ransit,ion was confirrncd for 8. flat plate

7-:
2.4 I)y I t . M!. I l iggills alitl (:.(!. I'a1,pas 191 1 and for a I)ody of rcvolutiori
1.6 11). I<. it. (!zn.rncclri anti A . I<,. S~nclair1251. 'l'hc Iat,tcr cxpcrimcnt also
Stetson and G . 11. Rushton [226] on a cone a t Me = 5.5; by N.W. Shcc1.z [223] on
; 11y G. G. Mot,c:cr 11591
highly cooled cbrles in a ballistic range from M, = 3 t o !Iand
on concs a t Me = 5.0 and 6.6 in a convcntional wind t,rlrlncl. Tlic origin of t.his
showctl t . l ~~n.c.tlic:tc,tl
t~ st,;l.l)ilizingt,flc(;l. of'cooling, as did tile cxperimcnt of J . I t . Jaclr phenomenon has not been est~ablishcd,altl~oughsomewhat, similar ell'cct.~]lave I)eeri
atrtl Pi.S. 1)i:rc.onis (1001 o n f.\r.o botlirs of ~ . c ~ o l u I i oa nt M, =. 3.12. Of t.lie nnmcrons obt,ained by adding small rougllness elcmcnt,~[34]. A cornplicat,ing fact.or is t,lrat thc
Iligllt, c.xl)c.l.i~ilc.nts\vit.ll coolctl 1)trrlntlnry Inycrs in wliirl~ 1alninn.r flow lias \ ~ e c n rcvcrsal does not appear in many expcrimerita which cover a n cqnnlly witlc: r:~ngt:of
ol)sc~r\.c.tl:it I1ig11Irl~gt~ll Itrynoltls ~ r ~ l r n l ) t ~wc
t ~ tnay cxpc:rirncnt of' ,J. Stcrn-
s , ci0c t,l~c: surface tempcraturc 135, 21, 1561.
I)c-l.g[215] 011 n (:on? at. Me -- 2.7, whrrc: M, is tell(:Mac:lt nnml)cr nt t.hc edgc of t.llc
111 tllc hypersonic flow regime, tJlrcc wind-tunr~clcxprrirncnt,s (45, 58, 221 j a t
1)orrntl;iry Inyc.1.. 'l'llc, s11r1':rc.r t,c~npcv.;~t.rll.c 1list.ory tlclinit,cly sllowctl I,llc prcscnco of
M, = 10, t11c first, oric on a flat platc nntl the othcr two or1 concs, sllowctl alrnost, no
Innlinnr Ilo\r. a t R =- 4 0 x 10hvit.l1 =- 0.61, as coniparrtl t.o a wintl-t-rinncl
cfh:ct of cooling on t,mnsiCion. When cqn. (17.1811,)is inl.rgrat.ctl l i ~ rall frcclilc.ncicbsFor
wit.li 7',,./7',d - t of R = 12 x 10Vor tfllcend of transittion a t t J ~ csame Mac11 number
t n c a s ~ ~ r o r l r n[:I41
0.65.
wl~icll second-modc disturbances arc unst.ablc, tllc rcs~llt~ing maxi~nurnn~nplit,r~tlc
ratio (A/Ao),,,,, a t a fixcd Reynolds nurnbcr is fround t.o bc almost, intlcpontlc~11t, of
'1'11~rcst~lt~sof an i~ivestigat~ion by 13. R. van llricst and J. C. Boison [34] on a ~ ' u l / l 'This
a d . result suggests t h a t transition in llypcrsonic wind tunnels may be a
conr a t Me = 1 .!I, 2.7 ant1 3.7 arc shown in Fig. 17.31. Thc increase in the transition conscqucnce of 11nst.nb1csccontl-moclc tlist.~~rbanccs, a vicw wl~icllhas cxpt:rirnc-lltn.l
Itrynoltls nrllnl)or 1vit.h cooling is clcarly scc:n, as is the reduction of t,hc st,;~bilizat,ion st~j)port~. .1 .I4. 1'011,cr ant1 ,I. I). WhiCfic:ltl 1187j worc tJlc lir~l,t o ol~sorvcwc:ll-tl(.litlc.~l
ofloot. wit11 increasing Marl1 nr~rnhcr.'l'lic Int.t,cr trend cont,inncs to llighcr Mach nutn- rope-lilcc pcriotlic cl isl,urbar~ccsimrnctlinl.cly prcc:ctl ing 1.1.tl.tlxit.ioni l l 11 11.yl,t.l.so~ric:
Ijrrs, n.s mn,s sllo\vn by t.hc: srnall stal~ilizat~ion cffcct found on flat platcs a t M, = 6.0 bounclary layer. Similar observations have siricc been matlc by M.C. lqisclicr aritl 1,. M.
ant1 6.5, res[)cct,ivcly, I)y A . M . Gary (211 and 1). V. Maililalon ( 1561. 'L'l~cseeffects of Wciast,ein [G4, GG] and A . ~)cmctrinclcs[46]. Many of t,itc fcat.urt:s of thcsc no11-lincar
c.oc)lilrg a r r in c:olnl)lc*t,c.ac:rortl \r.it.ll t,llr I~cllavioirrof first,-rnotlc tlist,nrl)ances sllown disturbances, in partPicular a wavelcngt,ll of :~l)ouL2 0 arc rcmarltably close t,o t.hc
i l l It'ig. 17.27. Ilo\\,t:vcr, in I\vo cx~~c~ritncnt.s by N.S. I)i:r.conis, tJ.lt. .Jaclc atitl It..l. t,l~corct,icalproporl,ics of unstablc sccontl-tnotlc rlist.url)ancow. lPitrally, J . M. I<endall
\\'islli(~\vsl<i147, 101J, at. M, = 3.12, cooling I)cyontl tile rc:gion of st,al~ilizat,iorishown [I151 measured the spectrum of naturally occr~rringdisturbances well bcforc tmnsi-
in Fig. 17.31 rrsnlt.crl in a tlecrrosc r a t - I I ~ 1.hali
I an increase in t l ~ ct,ransit,ion Reynolds tion in t h e boundary layer of a cooletl cone (T,/7',d = 0.6) a t Me = 7.7. I l c found
IIIII~II)(~I..This p l ~ e ~ ~ o n ~ has ~ i rallctl "t.ransit,ion reversal" because it is con-
e n obccn a D r o ~ i o ~ n c maximum
ed at, a frequency witllin 7 per cent, of t,lic t.licorr.t.ic.n,lfrrclncncy
t.r:~ry 1.0 l.l~('cxl)rct,c(I trc1111. I t 11a.s :~lsoI)r(>11OI)SCI.VC(I in sI~o(:Ictunnrls by I$. E. of t,llc: no st, am~)lilicdsocontl-rnotlc dist,~rrl~nncc wl. t.llc c:ol~tl)n.rr~l)lc:
IIt~l.-pIt~t.t:
Ic11gt.11
Itic:ll:~rtls nnd ,J. 1,. Stoilcry 1195, 1961 011 a flat, at. M, = 8.2, and by I(. F. Reynolds number (= 113 of the colic I t c y ~ ~ o l dnurnbcr). s
Numerous experiments have been performed o n other nspects of la.ansit,iorl in
supersonic and hypersonic boundary layers t o whicll the mct.llod of small dist,urbanccs
has not yet been npplicd. An extcnsivc rcvicw of tJlis srlbjcct, IIRS bccn 1)rovitlctl by
M.V.Morltovin [IGO]. For coverage of spccific t.ransit,ion nni:ct.s, tllc rcatlcr is reli.rl.cd
to t.11~following groups of references: [13, 172, 2261 on tllc effect of lentling-cclge or
nose bluntness; [48, 117, 159, 224, 2261 on the cffect on a body of rcvolr~t.ior~ of an
angle of incidence; [23, 45, 102, 1821 on thc effcot of swccp anglc; :mcI 148, 65, 158,
2531 on the effcct of ablation.

f. Stability of a bour~dary layer in the prcser~ceof thrce-dimensional d i s l ~ ~ r b a r ~ c e ~

I. Flow betwcerl concc~~trie rotating cylinders. I n all rxamplrs tliscr~ssrtlso far

Fig. 17.31? Expcrinrc:ntnl tmtisilion dn1.a ohtni-
rrcd on a iOo-coneat. zero angle of incidcncc sho-
wing ~tnbilizingcffcct of wall cooling nt three
Mnrh nunrhers in a sr~personicwind trinnel, nftm
15. I<. van l)riest, ant1 ,I. C. l3oison [341
the Irasir flow under consideration was two-dimensional anti its sLai)ilitty was invc-l,i-
gated on t l ~ eassumption t h a t t h e disturbancc sl~pcrimposcdon i t was also two-
dirncnsional Moreover the disturbance was assnmcd t o I)c in the fonn of a pl;~ne
wave whir11 progresscd in t h e direction of t h e main flow. As far a s flows :dong :I
flat platc are concernetl, this srheme leads t o tho lowcst limit of stability bcrause,
a s noticed by H.B. Squire (Sec. XVI b 3), throe-dimensional distrrrbances will always
lead t o a higher limit of sLa1~ility.
Wlicn flows along cnrvcd walls arc ronsitlcrctl, i t is foitntl t h a t ;L tliff(~rcnlltintl
of instability must be taken into account. T l ~ ccase of flow bctwccn two rot.ating
626 XVII. Origin oI t.11r011lcnco
I1

conccnt(ric cylintlcrs of wllicll tthc inner cylinder is in motion ant1 the outer cylinder
is a t rest n h r d s nn cxnmplo of an ~inst~nhlo strat,ification caused by centrifr~galforces.
r
.Lhc fluid pnrt,ic:lcs ncnr the inncr wall cxl>ericncea l~igttercentrifugal force ant1 show
1

n t.rndency t,o I)rring proprllctl outwnrtls. '1'11~ stabilit,y of this type of Row was first
ir~vrst.igat.c-clI)y I,ortl Itzylcigh I If11 I who nssun~cdt,l~:rtthe lluid wa.s 12.on-viscou..~.
I l a forrntl t,llnt tJlc flow I)c:cornrs ~ t r ~ s t ~ ;w11o1
~ b l o Lllc j)eripllcral velocity, I L , tlcorcxsrx
with the: ratlirrs, r , more strongly t,llan 1 IT,t,llaL is, whcn
const
?L ( r ) = ----
r
-- \vit,l~ n >1 .
(~~nst,nl)lc)

T l ~ ecase of n V ~ . ~ C . O I Ifhti(1
S urns first, invrst.ignt,ctl in detail by G. I. Tnylor [I401
who used thc? frnmc\\.ork of n lincnr t.hrory for tollispurpose. When n certain ftcynoltls
11rr1111)cr
llns 11rc.n cxcrrtlrtl, t,llrrc nlrl)csnr in t.hc flow vortices, now lrnown a s Taylor
vort.icrs, whosr a x r s nrc Iocntcd along tlle c.ircr~rnfrrenccant1 wl~ichrot,n.t.ein altrr-
nn(,c-lyopposi(c, clircctior~s.I'igrr~.t- 17.32 cont,nins n schemnt,ic represcntnt,iol~of t,llis
~not,ionwhic:l~is clrnract,rrizrd 1)y i l ~ I';act r t,l~nt.
t.11~
nnnn111.sLet.\vccn t,he two cylintlcrs
is cornplct.cly fillctl by t,hcsc ring-lilic~vort,ices. 'l'llc contlit,ions for tllc flow t.o 1)ccornc
nnsta.l)le can I)o exprcssctl with t.hc nit1 o f &cliarnct.crist.ic nttml~erknown ns t.he !Z'a?/lor
T,, of t.11~form
71.?1w1.bcr,

1 7 i ~17.32.
.
( a ) Tnylor vorl.ic.rs hct.wrrn t.wo con- (I)) Corrt.lrr vort,icr~i n thc 11o11ndnry lnyor
t.r-rllt.iv ~.\.lin#lc~rs.
IIIII(-I. ( . \ ~ l i ~ ~ c I.<)IIII
l t ~ ~ .~ I I Z . 011 11C ~ I I C I L V OW.IIII IGg. 17,:):). I ~ l ~ o t . o ~of; r'rttylor ~ ~ ~ ~ vt)y\,i~,~\s
l~~ Irtptr~ lqig. l7.:P?,t~ fur 1 1 1 ) ~ I)I)\~IVIM)IIvt)~~t.t,~rl,ric
I V I%O.II. 11) R - !l,4.5; T,, - - 41.3: I ~ L I I I ~ I I I L ~ .
olll<rrc.).lit~~lt.r:!I rc~nt: ti - width of :tti-
1llll:lr g:ll): h tlrigllt o f cyli11rlf.r.rclll.
! I ( ! / ) - hnsc flow
d - lronnclxrg Inyrr l l ~ i r k t ~ ~ ~ s ~
rolnI.irrg (:yli~~tlvrs. ~~(.tr(!r
-
IF. R O ~ I I I ~ ~ Z - ~ ~111111
I I I 11.
I ~ 1lt:in
onnnt, of vort,t:x ior~nnt.iotl; 1)) R 322: 1, - - 141: attill I ~ L I I I ~ I I I L ~o): R --- Hf;X; T,, :tH7: ~ I . i l l
I I L I I I ~ I I I L ~ : 11) R . :\!)l;l\; T,, 1715: ~ , I I ~ I ) I I I ~ * I I I >
(17.21). A - I Y ~ V P I V I ~ E I Iof
I didttrttnnrc
528 XVII. Origin of turbulence I1 f. Stability of a bo~inclaryIayt:r in Ll~oproscnm of tl~rcc-di~ncnniotlrbl
elisl,e~rl):i~i~~c~s
52!)

I I I ( : I I ~ , \vit,I~
t ~ i c n s ~ ~ r c t r ~'I'his
r ~ ~(::III
l ~ s l)c
. infcrrotl very clearly from the pictures of sclch t h e transfcr of energy from tlie base flow t o t,he sccondnry flow ant1 t.11~viscous
'l':~.ylorvorl,icc,s ol)t:ait~otlI J I?. ~ S c h ~ l t ~ z - ( l r n n oand w 11. IIein [204], several of whicll energy dissipation in t>hc secotidary flow. The t,ransfcr of energy f r o n ~t.hc Onsc:
hnvo I1t:t:n rc,protlnrcti it1 I'ig. 17.333. In their experimental arrangement in which the flow t,o t h c secondary flow causes a Inrgc incrcnsc in tltn torqrtc r c q ~ ~ i r rt.o( l rol,:~t,c
p i p 11:t.tI l.l~ctlitr~c~~sion or d .= 4 mm, and td~cinner ratlins was R, -- 21 m m , the t.l~(: inner cylinder. 7'hc tliagmm in Fig. 17.34 cotit,air~sn compnrisor~l)ct,wret~I,IIC
vol.t.ic~r.s :1.1)1)(':1~:(1 ;LI> :L ~)t-ril)l~crnl volorit,y, I / ( , which corrcsponcls to n lboynoltls t.l~rorrt.icn.llydcrivctl :inti t,hr cxpct.irnt.nt.ally ~iicns~trrcl
v : ~ l ~ of
~ r 1,11(,
s t.orcj~tc,roc*f'fi-
n ~ ~ t n l ~R v r (Ii( / / v : .: !)4.5, lcig. 17,:i:I:~. It, is t~ol~c\vorl,l~y t,l~;~l,
t,l~t:flnw rctn:iitit:tI r i c t ~ l ,C , , . '1'11t- 1:1l.tt.r is clt:finc:tl as
lihtniit:ir :I(, I.11t' I I I I I ( : ~ I I~igl~t:r Ibt:y~~oI(Is I I I I I I I I ) C ~ S of R r---322 (T, --= 141) allel R -:= 8(i8
(T, =- :1,47), I<'igs.17.3:i IJ, c. 'l'urbulcnt flow ditl not bccomc tlevelopctl until a Rcynoltls
rl111nl)crR -= :l!)fiO (T, = 1715) had bcct~mncl~ctl,Pig. 17,:lDtl. It, should I)c sl,rcsscd
r n ~ l ~ l ~ n ~ . i rLl~nt, : ~ l l tShc
y first nppcnmncc of nc~ltralvortic:cs n.t the limit of stnl~ility
in nocortlnr~ccwit,h cqn. (17.20) and t.hc pcrsistcnce of arnpliIict1 vorticos a t higher
Tnylor n u r ~ ~ l ) rtlors r s not in a n y way imply t h a t t h c flow has bccome tr~rbnlcnt.On
t.llr contrary, cvcrl if the limit of st,ahility is exceeded by a large margin, t h e flow
rcmains wt,Il ortlrrcd nntl Inminnr. Turbulent flow does not bccome developed until
'I'nylor, ant1 t.l~rrcfort:, ltryr~oltlsnumbers vastly cxccctling t.he limit of st.al)ilit,y
111 :rcl(lit.ioi~t.o l.ltc? t:ttrvt? wltic:l~(:orrt~spotttl~ 1,o Irliis lit~t.:t.rt.lt(:oi~.y,:III(I wlli(41 I!-:i.(l~
: ~ r rnl I,nit~c(l.
lo :L Ior(11tc t;ot:ffit~it:~~l, (,'M . - 047/T,, Sor ~ / I I ' , O.OW, I , l t t * ( 1 i 1 1 ~ r ; ~
( : t~ n
I I ~ , ; I ~ I I : +t , l i t :
.I. '1'. S l . ~ ~ n r12181
l, sitc:t:t.rtlccj i t 1 con~putingthe flow pattern of the 11nstal)lc
Intl~it~:trIlo\r in I.Itt: prcscnrc of 'raylor vortices ant1 with thc non-linear terms in
(.llr wl11at.iot1of' 111o1,ionrotnineel. Ilc disrovnretl the sxist,once of equilibrium bctwcctl
c:ltrvc ~)rovitlc:dIry .J. '1'. St,~~nrt,'s
-
rtotl-lint::~rtl~(:or.yas w(:ll 11sot~t:givt:tt l),y ;L l.I~tbory
lor turl)ulcnt flow; t.hc Intber leads t,o tho formltl;~1,lial.Cnr T,,-".2. 111 all, \vt: m:ly
t1isc:crn t,hrcc rcgirncs of Ilow, cncl~circ:umscril)c:tl I)y l.ht: 'l':~ylor r ~ ~ ~ t n l tin t : r t.lto
li)llowit~gway:
T, < 41.3: laminar Coucttc flow,
41.3 < T, < 400 : lntninar llow wit11 'I'nylor vorl,ic:os,
T, > 400 : lurl~tllor~tIlow.
Agrccmcnt bctwccn theory and cxl)c.rimrr~tis cxrcllrt~tin the first I.wo rangost.
An extension of Taylor's theory can bc fount1 in a stutly 1)y I i . Iiircl~garssner[IOG].
A detailed experimental investigatioi~of Couettc fio\r, particularly in transition,
was carrird o u t in 1965 by 1) Colcs [291

E k c t of an axinl velocity: The preceding stability calculations have been

eatended by I-I. Ludwieg [I 32, 1331 t o includc the case whrn the two ryl~r~tlct s arc
also axially displaced with respect t o each other. Let u ( r ) denote the tangential
velocity, a n d let ~ ( rdenotc
) t h e axial velocity. If we now introduce the dimensionless
velocity gradients
u=--
r dzl -a n d G=--,
r dw
u dr u dr

wc can writc t h e staljility criterion for n non-viscous fl~tidirt t,l~cform

liig. 17.34. I'lonf hot\rsc:cnt.wo conornt,ricrylir~tlrr.q:torqno cocflicicnt for inner cylit~dcrin t,rrms
t l'lic cxperirner~tnlmsulkq displnycd in Fig. 17.34 dernonstrntc furtl~orthat an increase in the
Taylor nomber, that is, that an increase in tho ltoynolrls ntimber a t a constant value of d/.R,,
of t.hr 'I'nglor t~ntnl)cr,T,,.
Inr~c:rc.ylit~clc.rrnt.atnw,oi~tcrnylinclrr at rest,.
Ilol:rlivo gap .size: d / J l r -.- 0.028
wo ltavc CM -
cansen n trflnnition fron~cellular to tnrhlrlcnt flow. R'hcn thcr flnw is tc~rl)rtlct~t
Td-0.2. and I~cr~cc, nt constnnt d / R t a l ~ o(YM w ( ( I , d l v ) - o . Z
~(:RIIIL wa.9 discov(:red IIY { I . It~i~:I~nrtlI,
-
(1,> 400),
R (1 2. 'l'llc sartlo
((201 i n (:l~np.XI X ) WII(:II 110 ~t.n(li(:(I I.II(I I:ILH(: o r I ~ I I I : : ~ ~
~ I ~ : : L Y I ~ ~ c I (In(: - ~ I. 'l'aylor 12411.
I I ( ~ I I ~G. Couette flow between flat parallol walls. I t is romarknblc t,lint l l ~ csame depen(lcnce of the
I.inv:ir I.l~c*c~r.y f r r n i ~cqn. (17.22). Non-linear thnory due t,o .J. T. Str~art[.2IRJ torq~tecoefficient on Iteynolds number exists for a disk rotating in a llrrid at rcst, eqn. (21.36).
630 XVII. 0rigi11ot t.~~rhr~lrncc
Jl 1. S1.nltilit.y of n I,oc~~lrlnry
lnyrr in b l ~ nprrurncc 01 t . l ~ r r ~ - t l i ~ ~ ~ r r ~(li~t.t~rI>:~~~rt~u
siot~nl 53 1

(8) la1111nnrflow
(11) laiilll~nrIlo\v \vIlh 'l'nglor rrrl-ticrrr
(c) I I I I I I I ~ I ~ . I I 110w
I wIl11 V O ~ I I ~ . P R 200 LOO 600

This inequality cont,nins Rayleigh's criterion from eqn. (17.19) a s a special case
( d ) t t ~ r b l ~ l flow e~~t 11.3
~iyt~rn~tnt+,: <-:d IF
ant1 r c s ~ ~ l twherl
.s 7o = 0 is n s ~ n m c dhere; we then find t h a t 1 5 > 0. The stability + Fig. 17.37. R.nngen of In~ninnrnlld l,rrrl)~tlet~t, flow it1 n11tii1111uI ~ C ~ I Y C ~ t\vo I I concctitric. cyliutlc.r8;
calnnlntioti which led t o eqn. (17.23) took into account disturbances which were
inrlrr cylinric~.rotntrs. o11t~:rcylitldrr nt. 1.081, it1 prmRltro of nxi:tl I l o ~ v :plot. i l l t.crr~~n o f ' l ' r ~ ~ l oI I rI I ~ I I .
not ~icccssnrilyaxially symmetric; the In.t,ter turned out, t o be the "moat dangerocla" I,t.rT,, 1111rl IIIIIIII#('). R.,; t l l l ~ l l ~ 1 1 1 . 1 ~ l l l l ' l l 1))'
( H # I . I < I I ~ I $I I I I ~1':. ~
(I. 151gt1rI I I!)J
ones nntl dotrcrminct1 (,Ire litnit of st.:~l)ilil.yin~plicdby t h c ineqrlnlity (17.23). l'ignro
14' = axial velocity
17.36 shows a n example of a n unstable flow which contains vortices in the shape
of spirals. I f . Llldwieg's tllcory has bccn compared withexpcrirnent.nl resulk [134] Tllc flow t,l~rought h e annulus bct,wcen two concentric cylinders, mit,l~thc inner
in Fig. 17.36. Every bnse flow invcstigated experimentally is represented by a point cylinder rotnting and the outter cylinder a t rest, on which nn axinl vclocit,y component
in t,Ilc I;, 271 plane. The open anti full circles cllaracterize stable and unstable flow, is superimposcd is of great, practicnl import,nnce. Such flow patterns occur in the
respe~t~ivcly, i t being riotcd t h a t vortliccs were observed for t h e latter. It is seen hydrodynamic l ~ ~ b r i c a t ~ of i o njournal Ilearing ns well ns in 1 . 1 1 ~air rooling of c$lec.tric
t.11n.t~I T . I,utlwiog's st.:~l)ilil.y crit,criorl from rqn. (17.23) is fully confirmed hy ex- gcnernl.ors. A Itnowlctlgc of I,ltc Ilow l)~tt.(,(:1.11 for 1 . 1 1 c~rlrl~lrtl.io~loI'l
is rcclr~ii,c*tl ~ lit. ~ . o I . I ~ I I ( *
l~t~rit~~(~nI,s. of the bearing a s well ns of thc cooling cfTcctivencss of t,l~cgcncmbor. 'l'llc cling~.ntn
r - - r -1 - 7 - 1 - - 1 1 1 1 - r - - - - l in Fig. 17.37, drawn on the basis of mcasc~rcrnentspcrfortnccl by J. Kayc nntl E.C.
Rlgar [I 191, nllows us t o d ~ t ~ e r m i t,hc n r prevailing flow rcgimc - Iarninnr or f.~~rbrilcnt
- for nn nnnultrs wit.lr n givcn nxinl sl,rcarn. 'l'llis is tlet.rrrninctl by two cl~nr:~.t:t,cristic
nrirnl~crs,l . 1 1 ~l'itylor 11t1rr1l)c.c. T, tlrfitic*tl in ~ C ~(17.20)
I I . nntl by n Ilcyrloltls ti11111I)t'r
forlnctl with t,hc nxinl vc1ocit.y If' nrltl tlic witlth, (1, of l.llc nnnultis, viz.

E x p e r i n ~ m tp o i n t . ~to tllc cxistcnrc of four zones:

( a ) xL low ltryr~oltlsnllnrl)cr \villi T, < 41.3; Innirnnr, st~~c*:ln~lirlc-
flow;
(I)) Tnylor nrtnll)cr in the rnngr 41.3 < T, < 300 will1 low t o tnotlr~.ntclic~yr~oltls
numbers R,; laminar flow with n syste~iiof Taylor vortices;
lnrnrr!rrcl polnls
will1 slnl,lr flow
olmsttrrcl pnitrls
w i l l & I ~ I ~ s I . I I I v llcbw
I~~
ll,,!,tnI,l#~
If<#,"
fr0,,1
l l ~ .Ii.:l5 ((1) ~iiotI(~~.:~l,t~ ~ t ~<
'I':tylor r i ~ t t t t l TI, ~ ~ 150 n.1111 o l ~ l s R,
I:~.rgt.I < . c ~ y ~ ~t1t1n111t.r.~ 100; "tIis-
ortlot,ly", t'11lly tlcvc~lol)c.tlti~rbtilrnl.Ilow.

I . 7 I':,yl,vrit~tr~~t,:ll ~rritiraI.i~rl01 l,l~csI:~l,ilil,yt,l~ooryfor flow I,oLlver~lbwo concerlt,ric,

r n l : i , l , i ~~ ~~l~i 1 1 1 1w~i~l ,rl u~mxinl t~~oI,ior~
s ~ ~ ~ > t ~ r i t i&lI,cr
i ~ ~ o11.s ~l,~~dtvicg
* ~ l , [l:%4]
R - - (.Itl, J ~ , ) 2 ~---v fi50 ~f/~~
14'1111 t3~trv~?:l i ~ ~ ~~~f's~:~ltilil.~y,
it, :tvtwrdit~x1 0 t ~ l r (17.23)
~. Sphere: 0. Snwn(zlti nntl .I. Zirrc.1) 12:)01 ~)erro~~rnc~tl sitrlilnt i t ~ v c ~ s ( i ~ : ~ tto
iot~s
S11:1clt~l :trr.:t: c:,yl,rri~~~r?nl.nlly
tlrt~rt~~itlrvl
l i l l ~ i t .01 ~ t ~ ~ b i l i t y those tlcpit:(c(l in Pig. 17.34; (,llc>yt~sctl (.WO c:o~~cctltricasl)llc~rcswill1 #:I(, t.:t(icis
632 XVII. Origin of t~~rbr~lencc
11 f. Stability of n boundary layor in the prcacncc of three-din~rnsionnl tlisturbnncc.~ 533
rl/N1 < 0.2. 'l'llc. o~tt~ctrspllcrc was a t rest, whereas the inner sphere rottat.etl. 'l'lle vortices) which arc known a s Taylor-Gocrtlcr ~ o r t ~ i a c s'rhay
. arc of the sarrro Itind
c11aract.t-r o f the Ilow in ~cleha sp1tcrit:al annulus is also tlct.crn~incdby tho Taylor a s t h e Taylor vortices fiom Fig. 17.320.
nurn11c.r fro111rqn. ( 1 7.20) ant1 t,hc Iteynoltls rlurnber formed with the annulus witlt.11,
The crtlculatiorl of the amplificat,iotl of tllcsc thrrc-dirnensionnl vort.iccs wit11
d , and I.hc ~)t:riplt~raI ~ c l o c i t ~ y(II,
, t.hat is by
time bawd on t h e method of small disturl~anccsleads t,o a n cigcnvalue 1)rol)lctn in a
manner similar t o t h a t discussed in conriexion wit.h t.wo-tlimensionnl tlistnrbances
(Chap. XVI). The influence of viscosity was t,nlren into arconnt in t.hc ir~vcsligat,ior~
under discussion. The first, approximate, solution of U ~ i svcry tlifficnlt cigcr~vnlue
111 t.11~
range of validit,y of linrar theory, t h a t is bcforc t,hc appearanoc of Taylor
prohlern was publishcil in 1940 by 11. Gocrt.lcr (721. I,nt.cr, in 1973, 1'. Svl11111,z-
vort,ices of t.11~lzintl sl~ownin Wig. 17.32, tile torque not.ing on t,he inner sphere is
Grunow [204a] formrllnt.ccl a tnorc nocnrnt.c: t,hcory in t.hnt, he troolt in1.o :~.c:c:ct~lnt. :ill
Lcrrns of first ortlor of s~nc~llrtcss.
'l'ltc tlingrri~rlin Fig. 17.:18 c~c,nl.:si~~x
l ~ i r rI I I I ~ I I : , I . ~ ~ . I I . ~
rcsults. It is seen that, the minimum of lrhc limit, of stnl~ilil.yo c c - ~ ~I)c:t.\vt*t.n
U o fi/v = 4 to 6 when thc rclr~tivccurvat,rtrc in ()/It! := 0.02 1.0 0.10.
rs R, -
The phenomenon of transition in boundary layers on bodirs l~lacctlin cxt,ct.nnl
S ~ , ~ C I L Iinvolving
~S 11ot.11(!onvex anti c:onc:~~vc wcdlx W I I H i t ~ v t ~ ~ l O ~ ~I :~xl I. It ~~ :( I ~ ~ I I I ~ - I I I ~ J
by 1P.Clallser (171 nntl 11. W. J,icpmnnr~ 1127, 1281. Sotnc: of l.11t: rcs~~ll.n ~~l.ovitic.tl try
1I.W. Lieprnann are illnstrated in Fig. 17.39. 'rhc 1)lot in Fig. 17.3!):1 conlit.tns l.l~c
with rlenoting t.11~torque, ant1 R r the inner radius. t h e ~ r e t ~ i c aprcdictiorl
l t h a t the effect of c ~ ~ r v a t u on
r c t.ho critical Itcynol(ls number
in the case of convex walls is vcry slight and t h a t it is s~nallorfor concave, tl1a11for
Whereas in t.hc 11rcrcxlingt:asc wit.11 rot,at>ingconccnt,ric cylinders t.hc entire flow convex walls. Figure 17.39b shows a plot or the pammc:t.cr
fit-ltl is either latninar or t.l~rl)~llcnl,, dcprntling on t.hc valucs of t,he Taylor and Rcy-
nc~ltlsnr~mI)ers,t,l~c:case of l.l~c- sphere is more colnplcx, bccause different flow regimes
cat1 occllr s i r r l ~ ~ l l , a t ~ e osidc
~ ~ s11y
l y sidc. AS t . h ~Reynolds number is increasctl, Taylor
vortices. ant1 hence also t<rrrnsition contli(,ions, appear first near t h e plane of t h e against, cSzt,/ R. This pa~.n~nctcr describe-s t,hc r k c t of c ~ ~ r v n t ~ on
u r ct,l.ctnsit.ionin t.ltc
ec111at.or whereas t.hc How near the polcs rcrnains laminar. Scc also rcfcrcnces (101, boundary Inyer; it corrcspon(lsto t.llc 'I'ny lor n u r n l ~ t of
: ~ cclr~.(17.20) liw flows I~t:t.wcc.t~
162, 1031. rotating cylinders illrtst.ri~tcdin Fig. 17.34. The graph of Vig. 17.:i!)b shows t.hat.I,~.:insi-
tion occurs for
2. lln~tticlnryl n y r r ~on corncove wnlls. A similar kind of in~t~ability with rcspect,
t,o i,l~rcc-tlirnr~~sio~~:il
tlist,url):~nccsoccurs in flows along concave walls. I n a bountlary
layer fornlctl o n :i convex wall the ccntrifirgal forccs exert a stabilizing efTect
whose rna.gniL~ttlc howcver, is numqrically small, as was already shown in This numerical value is considcrnbly larger t.han t l ~ ccorr.c*spontlinglitnit, of st:~l)ilit.y
Scc. XVS ttl. In contrast with that, the tle-stabilizing effect of ccntrifi~galforces on which places itself at. 0.4, a s seen from Pig. 17.38. In t.11isconncxion it is ncsccss:~ry
concav.: w:~llsIc:tds t o a ttype of instability which resembles the patkern of Taylor t o note t h a t the bourltlnry Inyer tdrirlrncss B must t,ltrrc be clirninntccl in fi~vorl~.
of
vorticcs shown in Fig. 17.323. The existence of the latter effect was first demon- the momentum thicltncss Bz = 0.047 8t.
sbrntctl by 11. Cocrtlcr 1.741. Cansidering a basic flow in the x-direction given by According t o k1.1,. Ilryden 1381, Ulc nunlerical valuc in (17.25) tlt*l)c,ntls, in
11(a:) (11-tlisf.:rr~ccfrom t,l~owall, x-measured a t right anglcs t o flow direction in addition, on the intensity of t,urbulence; its vnluc is cont.ainctl I)ct,wccn (in.ntl !I, \vl~c\rc
t.ltc pln.11~of t,l~(!wall, Fig. 17.321)) iL is a s s ~ ~ m ct thla t t,llcrc is s~~perimposctl
on it the lower limit correspontls t o a n rxt-crnal int,cnsit.y of t~urlr~~lcncc T 0.003, t.l~v I=

n i,hrcc~-tlinic:nsio~~:~I tlist~rrl~ancc of t h c form higher value correspontling t,o R considerably lowrr interlsiLy.
u' = u,, (y) {cos (az))c f l , - -

11' - vl (y) {cos (az)) eO1,

t
llere it is tleccssnry t,o b c ~ irn ~nirldtl~ibt,t l ~ cIoontiotl of Lhc LOIIO of I,rtir~sil.iot~
t,o lic ronsitler~lblyfilrtiler downstrenln thrill l.hc tilllit of ~L~biiity.
~nlst,nbledist.~~rbnncen. \vl~ctl~er conj)lod wit,h st:~t,iol~:~ry
IIIIIRI, I)r cxllr(.t.rcl
This is thlc t.o t.i~rfm.1. l.tl:lti
waves or wiI.11 progrcsnir~g\vn\.t.s o f llle
T o l l ~ ~ ~ i e t ~ - S ~ l ~typo l i c l ~(See.
t ~ i ~XVlh),
~g tnllut llnvc thnc to ntllpliry or, i n otllcr \vortls. (Inti1
ui' =- ui1 ( y) ef" .
{sin (m)) #' 1 t,iic nlnplificnt.ion f:lct.or has had n chance t,o ~Ltnil~ ik approprinlc vnhrc. 0 1 1 thc olhor I I ~ I I I ~ ~ ,
in the case of a Corlette experinlent wit11the inner rylitltler rotntilig nnd t l ~ rorltcr st~:~linn:iry,
I1c.rc- /I is rr:rl nntl tlrnol,c:s l,llc arnplificntion f;~ct.or,whcrens 1 1 2 rr/a reprcscnt,~ Fig. 17.33. \rre 1r111strxpcct that the cxpcritnent,nlly obncrvc:tl. criticill I<rgllolcln I I I I I I I ~ ) ( ' ~:%t
1vI1ir11Taylor vorl,irrs first, :Ipprnr o11g111, 1~0 11:ivt: $1 v1i111t~ \vl1i141 is vwy 190st- 1 1 1 t11:aI L : ~ V ( * I I 11y
, .
12h(-i\~:ivt~lcr~gt.l~ of 1.11~t l i s l ~ ~ r l ~ : i n.t
l ~ criglll,
c anglrs t,o I.hc princ.il):il Ilow tlircot,ion.
I I I ~ : vort,it,es It:lvt* t.l~t: SII:II)C sho~vnin 1 1 . i ~ . I7.:i21), l.l~(:ir:txr,s I)cing ~):ir:lll(:lt,o I,~I(:
I.l~c?nry. 'l'l~iri iri ~ I I I ~1.0: 111r Snt.1, 1,11111111, I I I.~IIHI,ILIII,
~ I L I A :OF rr~I:t(,iot~
of tlint~lrl):lnct:nooclrrri : ~ :It connlnnt I<o,ynoltln n ~ ~ t t ~ l ~'I'IIIIH.
OII? IIVOI.(.HH IPS I \ I I I ~ I I ~ I ~ I . ~ I I ~ I I I I
r ! r . (.III: ~ ~ r t ~ l ~ l i ( i t : : l L~~L(.I.CII.
i o ~ ~ :III.:I~IIH
It:~sic:flow rlirc~c~t ion. 'I'lrc- prc.sc.111,~ ) r o l ~ l r ~
isrconc:c!~.lletl
n will1 sl.:ln(ling waves (ccII111:1r its nl)proprinl,e vnluc 11roviclc:d Lhnt I.l~rrxprrilr~ont11,nt.s long c-tlol~gl~; Rrn Ilc~rc! I8'ix. 17.:1:1.
 XVII. Origin of t.urh~tlcnccTI f. Stability of n holtntlnry layer in t.llo ~roncnrcof t,hrcc-tlitnct~uic~t~nl 535
clist~~rl)n~~c~~.n

A very t,horor~gl~ cxprt.itnc.nt,al invrstigntion or t.rnt~sitiirunloug n ~.OIIV:IV(\. c.~~~,vc.tl

Fig. 17.38. 1.it11it.of ntnl)ility ( P = I)) for t,ho
I)ol~tltlnrylayer 011 n <:or~cnvr, cltrvc~i\r.nll it1
t,ormn of ratio ()/I< of I,ort~~tlr~ry-lnyc~r
t,l~ickncnnt.o rndius of crtrvnt,urr, after F.
wnll was rrccnt,ly mt.ric!tl or~t.I)y 11. I3ilq)c.s 1 161 wllo c*tnl)loyrtl tnotlrls tll.nggc.tl n . l o t ~ ~
a wnt.rr r1in11nc.l. 'I'llrsc. c ~ x l t c ~ t ~ i t ~
l,l~t.o\v
~c~t~ ligI1L
( s 01, t,hc origin of lonKitlttlit1:11 \.ot.t i t c j
liltc those in I'ig 17.32 1). 111 t.llis ront~rsiorlstsr tl~c:I):rl)cLl.sI)y I". X . 1Vol.tttlnttn I N(;(iJ
and 11. (:oert.lcr RIICI 11. Ilnsslcr 1H:tJ.
1tecent.ly 11. Cot!rlIc:r clrcw nt.l,cnt.ion t.o Ill(: fact, t.l~:rL t.hc s:rlnc 13'1~:of ill-
stn11ilit.y cat1 occur tlcnr the for\vnrtl st.:~jinnl.iot~ p o i t ~ toi n l ) l t ~ l TI~otlyi r t ;I sl,rc::~.rn.
Tha nerrssnry rontlitinll t,llnt tAr. sI.rrnlnlinrs m ~ l s tI)(: ronrnva i t 1 I,l~ctlirt*rl,iot1of
i ~ ~ c r r n s i voloc.it..y
t~g is 11rrc 1)rrsct1t,.So f:tr, t , 1 1 ~t ; : ~ l ~ v ~ l n t ,~i o) ~ ~ ~ ~11.I (:ot~rt.l~r
r r~fso r t n 1t.y
7 t i . I l i t i ~ r l Xi ~ I I I I to-Iitttttsio11111s t : ~ t : i tlIo\v
reprcscr~t,ctlit1 I'ig. 5.9 I ~ n v csllowt~t,l~cc?xisf.ct~rnof i~t~st.nl~l(: tlist.ttrI):~r~c~c:s, I P I I ~ r, ~ o
litnit, of st:~.l)ilit,yi l l l,l~c* ~ < I I . ~ IoI f r~ l < , ~ ~ . ~ ~ tI ~
I I oI ~lI(I lI sN * C:I.II
~ I B V g i v t ~ r ~I .~ ; S ~ I I ~ I ~ ~ I I I ~ ~ I I I S
j>crSorttircl by N . A . 1:. l'iercy iit1c1 I<.(:. l~,ic~l~nrclsot~ 1 170, I7 I 1 sitggc>slt,11;1t t l fIo\v ~ ~
in l,l~c~~cighbonrhood of tJ~c,forwnrtl s(,:~.gnn.t,iot~ point 011 n rirc:liln.r ryli~lclrrtlors
indortl I)cromo unst.:~l)lc.Itcvicws of t~l~rrc-tlir~l~~t~siot~:~.l (:ll'~c:t~ ill t . 1 ) ~t81l(~t)rY 01'
sl,abilit.ywere given by I t . (:ncrt,lor [74J. Sfc :tlso t,Il(: nlorr rc~crtlt.1)nlwt.sI)y .I. I<c.st,itl
cst, nl. [ 1 181 n111l 11'. Sntlrll c t t nl. (232, 2331.
,.
. I l ~ ecotisitlrrnt.iot~scollt.nit~cdit1 t , l ~ cprcsctlt src:t,ior~togc?t.llrr wit.11 t l ~ o s ci l l
Chap. XVI ant1 Sees. X V l l a, 11 lent1 t.o the follomit~gpivtctro of' t.m~~sit,ion irt tllc
bour~tlarylnyrr of n solid body (c. g. nrl n.r:rofoil); tm.n.si18ioti011 flat, anel convex
walls is gover~lctl I)y t l ~ oitlst,i~l)ilityof l,ra.vclli~lg,t,\vo-tli~ncttsiot~n.l
'I'olllnien-
Scl~lirl~l.irlg
waves w l ~ c r c ~t.llat
s on c:ono:ivc w:ills is povc:rnctl by t J ~ cst.:il.ionnry
Taylor-Gocrt.lcr vort,iccs.
3. Stal~ilityof t l ~ r c e - c l i ~ ~ ~ cbot~ndnry
~ ~ ~ i o ~ ~Inyrrs.
nl 'l'ltt! clc:t,n.ils ol' t,lt(: I)TOc3(?SR
of t.rnnsit.iotl in n t , h r c c - ~ l i m e ~ ~ s i oI)o~tn<lnry
ml Ir~gcr:LI)J)c:I.r1.0 Ijc r~~f.iroly (lilrcrent,
from tl~oseassooint.rcl wit.11 tllc t,wo-tIilnc~rtsiot1:11 flows c:ot~sitlrrc.tlmrlicr. Onc csnrnplo
of this t,yl)c of t.r.;trlsit,ior~is nfTortlctl Iry t.11~c:xsc of n tlislc rot.nt.itig i t 1 n lllritl nh rrst,

Fig. 17.40. 1'llot.ogrnl)ll illttntrnt,itlg

t.mt~nit,ionill t.ho bountlnry layer on
a disk rotnting in n Illlid at rest after
N. Crrgory, .T. 'r. St.ltnrL ntld \V. S.
Wrilltrr (771. I)irrct.io~~of rotnt.ion iu
ro~~r~tnr-clocka~iue;ul)accl n = 3200rpm
radius of disk = 15 om
Stnlionnry vor1irr.r nrc rf!rn forming in an nn-
I .7 hlr:~s~~rc~m
o fe ttltr of I.v:~tlsitiono ; ~slighbly ronrnvr ~ v n l l n . nftrr I{. \V.
~ t pni~~l. nlllnr rcgion or innrr radius lli = 8-7 cm End
n = 10.1. T ~ I lttnrr
ouLer r n < l l l ~ I<, P r n d l l ~ scon-
I,it.1)1!1n.1tn1 127. 12Hl; ( n ) cril ir:d lZ.r.yt~ol~l~
IIIIIIII>~T
IJm 421,
1'
vrrslts z:
62
(b) t.hc oharactcriut,ic rlilulcs Llw l i ~ t t i l01 s t ~ h i l i t y ,wiltx
.
R i " Iti w'/w = 1 - 9 x 10'.
~

q~~ar~t,it.y
r1wf21r vcr.wu f:f Tra~tril.lonnrrllrs n l 1 1 ~ .ntllvr rntllllr wttrre
R" - - 11,) < I ) ' / * - 2 R X t o s
b, - 1nctt81~11I.1ltn I I ~ t ( . k ~ ~ ( . s It
s: - rndills OF rltrvn1.11rrOF wnll
536 X V l J . Origin of t,urhr~lcnce11

for which tJic tlrt,:~ilsof t~hclaminar laycr arc known from See. V b. A pliot,ograph ant1 A. Vt~gcarid .I. II. I'rcston [62], assnmcd 1,ltat t l ~ cp o i t ~ t of - t,ratisit.iori wns
iIl~~st,r:~t~itig the prot:css of tIransition on a rot-,nt,irtgtlislr ant1 t8nkcn by N. Gregory, loc:rt,ctl a t t . 1 ~posit,ioti of roughncss elcmcnt,~,wl~cn,tlicywcrc Inrge, or t.li:~L t.lic*ir
.J. '1'. Sttiart. tint1 W. S. Walker [77] is rcprotlucctl in lpig. 17.40. 7 ' 1 1 ~photograph shows prrsolico 11;ltl !to itlll~t~ticq 31,!~II.ylit:r~f.Irry W O ~ Csrnall. Ilowovnr, A. I ? ; L ~ oh:is SIIO\I.II
t.hat. in an nrtnnlar rcgion tttierc n p p y r st,at.ioriary vort,iccs which assutnc t,lrc shape l,ll:~t,tlic point of t,ratisit,ion moves cotltirt~~o~lsly upst.rcam a s t h e height, of ~,II(,
of log:trit,limic spirals. 'l'ht: intier ratllns of t.l~isregion tnarks t,l~c? onset, of inst.nbilit,y r n i r g l ~ n c sc~l o ~ n c t ~ tis~ siricrc:~~sc~I
11tit.il i t ~llt.imnt.clyrcnches t h o posit,in~i of t , 1 1 ~
: t ~ i t l t.rrlt~sit~ioti
oc:c:urs :el. I,IIc oltt,c:r mtlilrs. 'I'll(! i11nt.r r:~(Iius(:orr~s~)oti(ls
1.0 :L Itcyti~ItIs ro~tgliric~ss c-lt:tr~c!ttt.s t,liotrisclvc.r.Cotisccl~re~it.ly, in (lisc~~ssingt,l~cinfl~~(:rt(:(:
of ~ O I I ~ ~ I I I ( ! S S
ntrtitl)rr of R, -1 l t t 2(L)/v = I.!) x 1O5atltl ;et tlic o r ~ t cradiusr we havc R, -- RO2(01, = o ~ il,r:~r~sit,iori, it* is r1cc:ossary to provitlc arlswcrs t o tlic following t.hrcc cl~lc:s(.io~ts:
=. 2.8 x 10". ,J. 1 '. S t r ~ a r tcomplcn~cntc:tl t,hc cxpcrimcntal work witpl~a n analytic 1. What is thc maxitnt~mhcigl~tof roughncss elcmcnts bclow wliic:h n o iriflrrc.nc~c~
st,rrtly of thc stahilit,y of sr~clia rnot?ion. I n it,, IIC assrlmctl t.11~existence of t l ~ r c e - on ttrnnsit.ioii exists? (Critical t ~ c i g h tor ro~lghncssclcmcnts in I:ctni11:1r llow,)
tlimrrisiorial, pcriotlic dist~lrbanccswhose forms incl~ldcda.s special cases the pro- 2. What, is the (larger) limiting height of a ronghncss clcmcr~twhich carlscs t,rn.r~sii.ion
grrssirrg 'I'olltnirn-Sclilicfitirlg waves a s well as thc ~ t a t ~ i o n a r yt,l~rec-dirnensiol~d
, t,o occur a t thc rlcmcnt itself?
'I'aglor-Goertlcr vor1irc.s 'I'hc results of his calculations sliowcd qrtalitntivc agreement 3. llow is it possil~lct o tlcscribe tlic position of t h e point of transition in tl)c rang(,
with I,lic cxpcrin~c~nt~:tl rcsrllts of Fig. 17 40. int.crmrdi:~tc bctwccn these two limits ?
Anot,lier case of t,l~isItincl occurs on a yawecl flat, plate in supersonic flow when
the :~ssoria.t,ctilantinar lw~rntlnrylayer t)rcoinrs ~rnst.at~le. As ~ l i o w ncxpcrirncnt~nlly 2. Sit~glc,eyli~~tlricnl ro11g1111ess~ I ~ I ~ I C I I A~ Rsinglt!,
. (:,ylin(lri~::cl(or t.wo-tli~iivti.
sion:i.l) ro11g1111t:~s
(!It~nit:t~t,
~ r s t l ~ ~t.~ik(-s
l l y (.It(: (i)r~tiof, H I LIL~ wire
, wliit:h is II.I.I.>L~.III.II
\)y .J. ,I. (:inorlx 1841, t,i\c \1o1111tIary
I;~yrrtirvvtops ~ollgit.61tlinalvort.ic:rs wl,ich ~)rotl~lcc:
t o t11c wall a t right ;~nglcst o thc stream direction. For (.his type of roughr~cssnlo-
transit ion.
mertt,, S. Goldstcin docll~cctl from ol(lcr mcasurcments, t h a t thc critical hci~/?tl,
g. Ttle i ~ ~ f l u e r ~ofc erougl~rlesson transition i . c. the height wliicl~just does not alTcct transition, can be reprcscnl.ctl 1)y

I. Introtl~~ctory remark. Tlic prol,lcrn which we arc a1)out t o examine in this

sec.t.ion,rlamcly the qnest<iotiof how t.hc process of tran~it~ioti tle~)entlson tllie rorlghncss
of t,l~csolitl walls, is one of consitlcral~lcpmct,ioal import,ance; so-far, however, it I I r r r u: .= 1/GDiiC,
dcnot.r,s t,lic friction ~ r l o c i t ~an(\
y T, is t,hc s l ~ r a r i n gstrrss at. t lit.
has not. I)cen possiblc t o analyze it t.ltc.orct,icnIly, Tllc prol)l(:m ~tntlcrcotrsidcmtion
wall in t,hc laminar borlritlary laycr a t t~hcposition of thc roughncss clc~ricnl..Ac:c:ortl-
Itas g:i.inctl in irni~ort.atic:cin tflre rcccnt 1)astZ,l ) a r t i c ~ ~ l a rsliy~ i c cthc adventl of laminar
ing to I. Tani nricl his co-workers [236] the m i n i m ~ ~ nIloigltti for which t,r:~nsit.ioli
arrofoils in acrotiaubic;~l applic:ations. 7'hc vcry cxtcnsive cxpcritncntal material
occl~rsa t the c!lcmcnt, it,st:If can be f o ~ l n dfrom tlic relat.ion 71,: k,,,,/v = 15, whcrr:~s
nollt:ct,cd i ~ ] 1.)0 d:'.t,c incltrtlrs information on thc cfrcct of cylindrical (two-tlirncnsional
rougl~nosselcmc~it~s), point-like (t,hrec-dirncnsional, single roughness c l c n ~ c r ~ t and s)
A. Fagc ancl J . 11. 1'rest.on 1621 quote
clislri1)rrt~ecl ror~gl~ncss clcmcr~t~s.
Many of the invc~tigat~ions inclucle addit,ionnl d a t a
on t,ltc: infltrcrtcc of pressure gratlicnts, t , ~ ~ r b ~ ~ lir~tcnsity
cncc or Mach number.
(:cncrally spearking, t,he prcscncc of rougllncss favonrs transition in t l ~ csense . T 1
l h c prcceclirlg rlinmctrrist~icvalucs apply t o cirenlar wirrs. Tn thc casc of fl;~t: ~ 1 1 ( 1
t,liat, utrtlcr oblicrwisc itlcnt,ical cor~c~it~ions transition occurs a t a lower lteynolds errj)~)cdcross-sections or for grooves the valucs arc cor~siclcrnblylarger, whcrcns for
rrt~nibc:ron a ro~rgllwall Llian on n smooth wall. l ' l ~ a tt,liis shoul(l bc so follows clearly sharp rlcmcnts they become smaller.
from t,lic I,llcory of stal)ility: t i ~ ~ _ e ~ i ? t eof n croughncss
c elements gives rise t o arldi-
11. 1,. Dryden I391 provided a n argument of a ditncnsional nature wl~iclilcatls
t,ioi~altlistur\)anccs in tho laminar stream which tiavc t o bc atltlcd to those gcncratG4
t o a n empirical law for t h e determination of the position of the point of transition, r,,,
I)y ~ ~ I I ~ I ) I ~ I Rant1
I ~ ( Yalrcady
~ present, in the boundary layer. I f the distrlrbanccs creatctl
in tcmm of thc Iteight, k of the roughness clement and its position, r,. 1)rytirn
by roughncss arc bigger tiiar~t,hosc due t.o ti~rbttlcrlcc,we ijiiistckji+ !,h<it.a1gs
tivgroc of a.nlpIiIicat,ion iiiH IiE%iifii6iEri~t.o eff'cct transition. On the othcr harlcl, if
discovered t h a t in incompressiblc flow all experimental p o i n b for the c:asr wlirn
t.hr rongliricss clt~lncntaare vcry small, the resulting dist11r1)ariccsslrorrltl Iic bclow tran~it~iori does not occnr a t tlic roughricss clement it,sclf, i. c. when z,,:- r,, arr:trijic
t.hc 'I,lircsltoltl' which is chitmnt.cristic of t.liosc gcncmtc:cl I)y tlic t.nrbulcnce of I.llc t~hcnisclvcson n single curve in a plot of tlic ltcyrioltls nurnbcr R,, ( I R,,,/v fornlc:tl
7.7

frcc: sl,rc::i In. In this case, t h e presence of ronghncss woi~ltlbe expoctccl - t o h a v e n o with t l ~ cclisplaccment thickncss dl,, of t11c boundary layer a t the point, of tra11sif,ion
rKt:ol, on transit.ioti. 'rhc preceding consitlarations s l k w complete agreement with against the ratio k/O1,, where dl, dcnotcs the di~placemcnl~ tl~icknessa t t h e position
ox~)crirncnt..\Vl~c:ti t,he roogtincss clcrncnts are vcfy large, bransit.ion will occtlr a t of the roughness clement, Pig. 17.41. The diagram in Fig. 17.41 cont:airis a n i~rrxiliary
t,hr point.s wl~crcl.llcy arc present thcmselvcs, as is, for cxa.mple, t h e case with t h e scale of R,,, = U xtr/vt.
t,ril)ping wirc on the sphere .shown in Fig. 2.25. I n this connexion t h e reader m a y ... .-- .-.

wish .to consult the paper b y ,I. Stuepcr [220]. t The two lteynold~numbera on the axis of ordinates nrc rclahtl Lliro~tglibhc: cclllntior~
l'hc earlier papers which nddrcsscd t~hcrnsclvcsto this problern, 11amcly those
by 1,. Scliillcr 12021, 1. l'ani, R. l l a m a anti S. Mitaisi [235], S. Golcl~t~rin[67],
638 XVII. Origin of t ~ ~ ~ r b n lIcI ~ ~ r r

As t,llc Ilrigllt k is incrc:rsctl, t,llc posiI.ion of Lhe point of t,rarlsit,iorlztrmoves closer

t o tllc ronglincss clcn~cnt,which nicnns t,llat t l ~ ccurves in Fig. 17.41 arc trnversctl
froni left t o right. 'l'he expcritncnl,nl points begirl to tlcvint,e from this curve upwnrds
a s soon ns the poirtt of tmnsit.iorl has rcncllctl tho rougllness element, i. e. when x,, -. x,.
i t is nlso RIIOWII in Fig. 17.41. According t,n ,Jnp:tricse inonsuremcnls [2:17), t l ~ c
'I'llcy t.11~11 lie nlorlg tlla fnrnily of st*rnigl~t lines wllicl~contain r,/k a s a parameter
llypcrbole-like branch of the curves in Fig. 17.41 possesses 11nivers:~lvnlitlity,
ant1 is given 11y
both for flows wit11 cliKcrent, weak pressure gmtlicnt,~,nnd with different intensities
of turbulence. Ir~creasecltlrrhnlence eauscs merely nrl enrlicr deviation of the cnrve t,o
the left,, in the direction of the t~irb~rlcrlcc-tlepet~(letlt crit,ionl IEeynoltls n111nl)crof
R flat. plat,c, (R,,,),.., = Rrtro . 1\11 ann.lysis c-ot~plrtlwil.l~ntltlil,ionnl I I I ( ' : I U I ~ I . ( . I I I ( - I I ~ ~ X,
IIRVC I(vl I < , I < ~ : L ( ~ I I (11091
: ~ l,o (:oIIc-III(I~~ I,II:L~, IL ~virc:JI,I, n,ll ~~u.ljil,r~~,ty
1>osil,io11is I'111ly
efi:ct.ivc if
Ut
2 !)OO . (17.29)

Tllo graph of this cq11nt.ion has brcn innltltlntl in 1Pig. 17.41 ; I,llc cqrlnt.inll ngrc-rs
well wil,l~cxpcri~nents.I t sllortltl be not.c:tl, Ilowcvrr, f.llnl; oven in l,l~ccnso of :L "f~rlly
effective" hipping wire, there retnnins n ccrtnin inininll~n~ distance bctwccn tlic
posiI.ion, T,,, of 1 . 1 1 ~l.m.nsil.ioll ~)oinl.itntl t l ~ c~)osiI.ion,
x k , of I1l1owire iI.srlf. A(:(:or~lit~l:
t,o I<. I<rxc:nlc:r, t.llis tlisl,:~llccis given by

Pig. 17.41. 'I'l~rrri1,ic:nl I~.rynolclnnr~lnbrrfor l:~.tninnrI,on~~cltiry Iayrr nn 8 fi~nc:Lionof t,llr mlio

of t~riglil,k ofn)npl~nrflnelc~nc!nL14, t,l~r
dioplnrct~~cnl, I I~i[:knracrof I l ~1)onnclr~ry
r l ~ ~ ynl.
c rI.l~r11oniI.ion
of f . 1 1 ~ rongl~nmsrlrt~~cnt,,
dl,. for singlr, t \ v o - d i ~ ~ ~ r . ~ ro~~glinrss
~ s i o ~ l d rlr111(.11t,s
in i n r ~ n ~ ~ ~ r r ~ ~ ~ i l ) I ~
fl0\\.
'I%P ~ s t r : ~ ~ t ~ xrv
r r t~~: t~l i~~ C v ll~si~t r~l l yr r ~ ~ ~ ~1,s
~ :~~ ~ l n rlq ~a tx. l(17.28)

")t
localion of wire. 7-.~~-J
Fig. 17.42. DisI.:~nroI~ctwrrnpoint of trn~rnil.ion,r f , , nntl 1 . 1 1 ~posil.ion of I.llr t.ril11,ing~virr.
rk. for " f ~ ~ lrll~c:cl.iro"
ly I IO!))
opcrat.ion, plot.lsd f r o ~ nc~lrl.(17.:10), nll.rr I<. I<rnc:~~~rr
 g. The influence of roughness on transition 54 1

'I'ltc rorrrspontling curve is rcprcscntcd in Fig. 17.42.

According t,o TI. 1,. 1)rydcn [30, 401, i t is possible t o take into account t h e
n tjllc t,nrl~rllcnccintensity by plotting t h e ratio of the critical Reynolds
~ n r i n t ~ i oin
r r n rorlgh wall t,o t,hat for n smooth wall, namely (R,t,),o,,h/(R,tr),mOolh,
n l ~ t n l ~ for
:I.S n. fnnct.ion of k/OIk, Tl'ig. 17.43. When j~lottcdin t,his sgstfcm of coorclinatcs, the
Fig. 17.4:). llntio of Llrn orit.icn1 Rcynolds
r(\s111l,sof tnc:rls~~rcrncnt,swit,ll difforont it~tcnsit~ics of t,rlrl)tllcncc fall on a single
nurnbcr on n flat plate nt incidence
cnrvc whic:l~nlca.ns that, tfhcratio (R,t,)ro,,,/(R,l,),monlh is a function of tho single para- with n sir~glerorrghl~essclen~orltto that
nlct.cr k/R1,. 1'11t: t,llrcc questions posctl a t t,hc cnd of t~hclast section can now be of a slnooth plate, nfter Drytien [:J!)]
easily nnswcrctl wit,lt t,lre nit1 of t,l~ct.hrrc graphs of Pigs. 17.41, 17.42 and 17.43.
Rztr -= (1 xt,Iv
Very tlcl.n.ilrd cxperimcnt,~concerning the influence of n two-dimensional, discrete k-l~ciglttof rouuhnesn element dlk - dlnplacc-
men1 tl~lckrressof t h e bolrndary layer PI
tlao meg11-
rorlglnlcss elcmo1t (wirc) on transition wcre perforn~edreccnt,ly by P.S. IClebanoff ncns clclnenl. Mcssllrement dlrc to Tan1 12361
ant1 I<. 1). 'I'iclsl.rorn [107n]; t,hcsc were conccivcd as n continuat,ion of earlier work
[1071)]. 111 pnrt.icrllar, measurements were made in t,he disturbed boundary layer
close I)cllintl t.lir roltgllnrss c.lorncnt. l'licsc mrasnrcrncnt,s Iced t.o tho conclnsit~nt.hat,
t,l~c.I)cllnvio~lro f t,llo tlist.llrl)c:tl I~ortntlaryInyt:r c:in I~cst,I)(: undcrsl.ootl if 1 . 1 1 ~c:lli:c:l,
of rortghllcss is c.onccivrt1 ns t.hnt of n, strong, wavcliltc tlistrtrbancc which vigorously
tirst.n.bilizrs t.llt*11o11ntln.ryInyrr and t.hus has tlhc same effect a s nn incre.we in the
t l ~ r l ) ~ ~ l c lint,vtlsit.y
lcc of t,llc: free stream.
'L'hc! irlfl~loncoof rongllr~esson transition is considernl)ly smsllcr in compressiblc
t.han in inconiprcssiblc flow. 'l'llis fact can bc d c t l ~ ~ c cfrom d Fig. 17.44 whictl refers Fig. 17.44. Inflr~onceof singlc, two-
t o s flat, plat,c a t zero incidence and which, a s far as t,hc rcsr~ltsfor compressiblc ditl~rnsiotlalroughncaa clcmonts on the
flow arc concerned, is bnscd on the rncnsl~rcrnerlBporformcd by P.F.Brinicii [12]. crit,iral llnyrroltls nnrnl~rron a flat plate
ill compresxil~lc?flow, as rncn811rcd by
Tho mensnrcrncrlts wore pcrformctl with the aitl of cylintlrical roughness clemcnts
of circl~lnrcross-scct.ion nt R nractl number M = 3-1; whcn plottot1 in t h e coordinates P. 1'. Ilrir~ich[N]
of l'ig. 17.44, they arrange thcmsclves in a family of cllrvcs which cover tlic shadetl 1- llcigl~tof ~ i n g l erougltness rlemenl;
d l t - disl!lnrrlnrnl tlvicknrss of bounclary layer
n.rc:I, in t f l ~diagram,
e butf whicli still st.rongly clepcnd on tho position xk of t.11~rongh- x l roltgl~nessc l c ~ r ~ c n t
noss clcmnnt.. 'I'llc cllrvc lor incom~)rcssil~lc flow, shown in Pig. 17.44 for t,hc purpose
of cornpnrisoti, i l l ~ ~ s t r a t et,hc s fact t,llnL at, high Mach numbers the boundary layer k
--
c:n.n 't,olcmt,c' a cor~sitlcrnblylarger rongllncss clcmcnC t,hnn in irlcomprcssiblc flow. dlk
Aorortling t o t,hc gr:~ph,t,lle critical height of a roughness elcmont is somc 3 t o 7
t.irnc,s lnrgcr t,ll:~nin incomprcssi1)lc flow. ISxperimcnts performod by R. 11. Korlregi
[10RI :kt t.11~ ovc~t~ I~igllcrMn.c:h numbor of M = 5.8 showed t,llnt a t such lnrgc Mach
n~llrlI)rrs:L t,ril~pirtgwiro protlnccs no t,~lrl)rllcncca t all. On tho oChcr hnrltl, tltc
hlowirlg of air into t,lto honrltla.ry layer seems t o bc efft:ctive in promoting transit,iorl
c:vrrl in con~l)rcssil~lr flow.
rct:c>nt.t.irnrs, 15. I t . van 1)rirst. ant1 C.B. I%lurnc:r [R7] unclcrt,oolr a series of
111
~In
I I I C ~ S I I ~ ( ~ I Y IOII \vit.ll i1.s axis p:~.rall(:It,o t,hc stren,m at, n Mach nr~rnbcrM,
~ ~c:otlr
.S
2.7; t,his w:~s :i ronlintl;~l.ionof cnrlic,r worli I:lfi]. In atlclition 1.0 varying t.he din-
- Fig. 17.45. It~llt~t?nrr of prc:sstlrc
g~ulict~l, :III(I s~~rf:i(,c
ro11g1111t:ss
tnrln~rof l . I ~ t , c.irr11l;l.rt,ril~l)ing wirr, l.llc cxperiment.crs also variod its position on t.hc on s;intl-rovcrcd \v:ill o n j~osit,ion
aonc. n,s wc.11 a s t.11(- 1.al.c: of lirxt. t , r n ~ ~ st,n ft~it. of 11oi11l~or ltr:insit,i(~i~
for ittrc7111-
I
pressiOl(: flow, as mcns~tred by
3. I)is~ril~~rla.tI rnlighl~c-nn.'I'l~(>r(: oxisl, c1111y
sc:atll, rc:snll,s oonccrning ntcnsr~rcn~c~rlt.~ K. C . I~ri1111t [I;:!]
(111 osil it111 i t 1 1,111, ~ I I ~ ~ ~ S ~ 01' - I I~~ -lV i s ~ ~ r~o ~ ~i gll ~ n~ 1oI!)].
s~s l A~ p:Lpt:r l IC. (:. I ~ r i t ~ ~ l I ~
~ ~ ~ l)y k, r ~ ~ l ' t~l t ~v ~ n t w l r r ~ t 1 ~ 1 1 -
s : t n ~ I - ~ slzv.
II;:!1. c.oit I:I ills :I 111,ic-I' tlvsc.~.il~l ioll of :HI i~tvc~sl.igi~.f.ic,ri i t 1 to l.I~c: inlll~t~~t(:(:
of :L l)rtsssIIrt: rwsr 1 ~ nr!
~ 9io!llt~(.tb(.v 0 1 1 tmtt~ili~an WIIV~I
gr:~tlicwl.a1111jir:lin sixr, k,, in l.ho prcsc,llc-c: of sarltl rorlgllncss. 'l'lle rnt:as~tremcr~l.s l ' , i s I" < J 2 l l
\ ~ c ~ r~ vI , I . ~ ~ I ~ I I Ii Il l, I :I~ t:on\-t-rgt~nL:11111 n tlivnrgerlt, clrannt:l of cira~tlnrcross-senl,iot~
J,
 11. Axinlly xytn~r~ct.ricnl
flons 6tR

of 1.lte p i p wittlr respect t o s r ~ c hdist.rtrbnnrcs. 'J'ltis was tlonc. I)y '1'. S:trl)k:tyn. \ v l ~ o
perfor~nc~tl mrns~trentcnt~s l ~ i t n s r l ll l 9 7 l ) l n t ~ t lw l ~ owrol,c%n auinrnclry ~):r~)('r OII I,IIC
11!)7t~Ins \vPII ns otr f . 1 1 ~t9~r(~ot~cl~ic:~~1
scrt),i(~~:I, t.t-sr~Il,s(I[ vnt~iotiso l ~ l i ~ ~ t ~ : 'I'II(*OI~-
~~t~l~lt~i~
et.irnl mlculnt,ions nlwrnys lent1 t,o t , l ~ tliscovcry
c o f n litnit, of sl.:tOilit,y mlric.l~c\sc.c,rtls
thci cxperirncrtt,nlIy mensetrc~tlcrit,icnl Itrynoltls ~rctrnl~c:t 1)y a witlc nlnrgi~l.
'I'lrr sl~:~l)ilit.yof Ilng(*u-l'oisrl~illrIlo\v i t 1 n 1)ip: will1 ~ ~ n , r a l ) o lvc-loc:ilyie tlisl.t.ibrr-
t,io~rwit11 r r s l ~ r c t ,1.0 infinitcsirnal U~rrr-di?nr~~siol,nl tlist,~trl)nncc.swns lirst str~rlictl
I)y M. IArsscn n.ntl P. t l . Singh [12(i:r.l, w l ~ oeo~~sitlet~ctl t l i s l ~ l ~ ~ ~ l ) nol' l ~ c: ~~zeis~ r r t ~ l l ~ : t l
p(*rio(licilt.yr ~ t ~ i t yN.o inst,:tl)iIit~y\V:I,S fot111(1Stjr l<,(*~yttol(ls ~ t i t t r ~ I ) c . t,:k~rgi~ig
~~s 111)
l6(?00. '1'11r t.csttIt8 W C I T (:otrIit~tt~(:(l Sot, ttro(l(*s01' iitriI,y :LII(I Itigltet. o ~ ~ l :txi~trttlIr:~.l
t*~,
prriodic:it,y up t.o Itc:yt~oltlsn~trnt)crsof 50,000 I1.y I I . S:~lwetr at111(1. 15. (:~.osc.l~ I 197 (:I
rrsitig a tlili't~rrtrt~ tncbt,l~otlof solttt,ion 01' IIrc rig(:11\~:~111o ~)t.ol)lc.ir~.
T h e st,abilit,y of t , l ~ cslc!irli?lg 11-akc!tnotlrl for a. trn.iling vort-rx, \vl~c-rrtlic nsinl
1t:rs l)(-(,trr s ( - ( ~ c ( l (Tlrn(:e,
~l. this v:rIttc ~l(:t,c:rrnittcst , l ~ crit,i(:n,l
r rot~glir~ess
nncl n.nswrrs flow lrns t,hc wnlcr vc,lorit,y tlist,ril)rrlio~~ n t ~ t lt.lrr swirlit~gIlo\v Itns I I t ( , (lc.(':tyiirg V O I (('S
CJrrrsliott 1 r)osc.tl r:rrlic:r. 1l.ottghnrss is scc.r~t.o rxc-rt, n.n ittllrtc~rrcccornpnrn.l)lr: t o dist,t~it)ut.ion,w n s ~ t , ~ l t l i cby t l M . I,cssctt. I'.J. Sing11 ntrtl 1'. I,. 1';tillc:t 112(il), 12(i(.I li,i.
t.Ir:~.l.ol' l.lrr prrssttre gr:r.tlirr~t, nl, vn.ltrcs rscc~rtli ~ r gI,II is limit,. n x i l ~ ~ r t t ~ l ~~n~l lcyr i o d tlist,errl)nnces
io of ~)c~riotlicit.y 11ni1,yntttl I~iglrer.11, \r8:rs(;)1111(1 l11:1l,
n srnnll rirrrottt~tof s\vit.l (:or~I(li.relt~r(~ I.II(- ~~ti~ritntttrr (-t.il.i(s:tl lt,(~yttoItlst1iit1111(.t. 11). :IS
~nnclra s 60 per cent.. At, larger arnoetnts of s w i ~ , lt311c , I~iglrc-I.x ~ i r ~ r r ~ t ~tr~otl(~s
l ~ : t l \vc:rc
Inore drstabilizctl t,Itnn t,lre lower ones nntl at, st.ill Inrgrt. nmottn(.s of swil.l. I l ~ c *flow
11. Axinlly x y ~ ~ i ~ ~ ~ c tflows
ricnl was st,abilizctl.
r 3
I l ~ cmost i ~ n p o r l ~ x nc:r.sc l, of :it1 :r.si:rlly s y m n ~ c ~ t , r i r flow n l is t.Itnt, exist,itrg in Oltlcr expcr.in~c!ttw ((l11n.p. X X irr 1631 nntl 1541)ns well n.s III(JI'C r ~ r r o t ~~ .tc . s t ~ l tof q
n st,r:r.igltf ~ ~ i p i.r c. , w11c~1t.11~vc-loc:it,y ~)rolilcis l)n,ral)olic. This case \rrns ir~vcst.i- t h e npplicnt.ioil of st.nbili1.y t,ltcory for n.xi:tl flows wit-11 n swirl c*ornl)onont ( 132. 1 :K1)
gntrtl vc-ry early by 'I'll. Snxl 120.51 \\rlto \\,:IS nrln.l)lc t.o discovrr nrry inst.nl)ilit.y; sttageat thnt, evcn n very srnnll t.nngrtrt.i:rl vclonit.y oonrl)otrctt~t.co~~sitlt:t~itl~ly t.(~ltt(:(.s
ho wns cclrtnlly r t ~ ~ : ~ l )Irowc?vcr, ln, t.o provo f,hc c x i s t c ~ ~ cofc sl.sl)ility for ,711 Rcytrol(ls tho st:bl)ility of Ilngen- ['oisc~~illcflow. For t.llis t,rason, 1'. A. Mnc:krotll, I l fi4, Ifi.51
nc~nrl)cv.s.Sotnc: t i ~ t t rI:rl.rr, , I . I'rc-l,sc:l~1 177J st~c~cc.c:tlc~tl in proving (.hat tlrr nttnlysis studied t0te stability of I n ~ n i n a rpipc Ilow wit.11sr~l)crinrposc.rlricgici rot,nt.iot~I t y urny 01'
of 181~r sl.:~,l)ilil,y o f t.l~c.sc: ~):~r:tl)olic: vt-loril.,y 1)rofilos can IN? rntlercccl t80 t.lrnt, of l)lnrrc t~iotlcllitigt.he Ilo~vo f rrnl int.ct,cst. f n this cnsr, t,hc tlisf.rrrl)n~rccntovrs itlottg :I sl)il.nl
, l , ~ ~(i. r , pitre slt(%nrllo\v). Sine(: I,IIV l:il,l.rr is st,:~l)lcat :ill l < ~ c ~ ~ n o~li(rl~sn i I > r r s ,
( ' o t t ~ ~ l flo~v clown t,ltc n.xis of t.11~ pipc. 7'11~r c s ~ ~ of l t . (.Itiscn.lortlnt.io~ris tlc,l)ic:l.etl i t 1 lcig. 1 i..l(i. '1'11t.
I.II(* S:IIII(* is s(>rtt1.0 IIC t . r ~ ~ :1,l)o111,
c 1110 l):lr:~I)oli(! vc:lo(~it~yprofilrs it1 a, pipe. '1'11r sn,t~rc limit of stni)ility (irt:nt.r:tl clisl,t~rl)n~rccs) is sl~o\vnhrrn it1 l.lte ~,l:wrr R+..R,. \~II(.I.(. R +,
conclrrsion \\.:IS rc~nel~otl I>y (:. R.1. C'ot~c*os n t ~ t l. I . 12. S(-IInra ( I HI, by C. I,. I'c*l<t~t~is 1 lG!)l (I) l<z/it is t11r l L ( ~ y ~ ~ o lI (I lI s
I ~ I I ~ ) (fot.111t~1
,~ v(~loc~il~yI(. \ V I I ~ . I . I Y I S
\vil,l~t,Irc: p(*~~il)lr(~r:~l
a s \vc,II ns 1)). scvr,rnl c*ot~t(.trr~tot.nry i~~vvs(.igntors (5.4. (;(in, 148, 175 1: it. \vxs Iil~nIIy Rx = (1"11'/11 rrfc:rs t,o t,hc r r ~ n x i r t t rvc.Itx!it,y ~~~~
cwnlit~~~rctl by '1'11. S r x l n~rtlI<. Spic.ll~c,~y 12001. '1'11is fact is sctrprising Sor t w o 1,cnsons.
It'it.sl, Ilc.e:~itsc~ Ilo~vsi l l 1)il)es(lo r ~ r ~ t l r r gtt.nnsitio~r. o In f'nrt, ns t h e ren(11't. \vill I . c ( - ~ I I .
III(. c.nt.lic.st c~sl)rt~irnc,t~ls o n trntrsilion I I : I ~ ( , Oc-cn pc,i.I'or~nctlby 0. l<.rynoltlso n ~)ilx's.
S , ~ o t ~ t l l iyt .is tliflic-tilt t o vistinlizc- the Ii11.t th:rt )~:t~.;tl)olirvclocit~y profile-sin c.ltntttrc~ln
c.:111 ( S t c X\'l (.) - - - I ) t t I ~):rt.:tl)olicvcloc.ily ~)l.olilcsin ~)ip('sc:~nttot.-- Oc nr:rtlc 1111-
stnl)lc l)y v ( ~ I SIII:III .~ ~lisItti~l~:t~~ lCoi,
v r sIlr(~sr
. r(~:rsotis~ t t l , ( ~ ~ n pIT
t , s l ~ c i t ~~gt t : ~ ( lt eo
invclst igate this m;tI l r r sf i l l ft1t~1111~1~. 1101 11 nn:rlylirnlly nt~tlcxltc~t~imrtttnlly. 111 this
C ~ O I I I I O X ~ ; ) I iI t III:IJ, I N > I I O I ( Y I I I I I I I l < . . l . l,vit(, 11251 l':til(%(l t o O ~ ) S ( \ I T Pntty nt~~l~Iili(~:rtiotr
o S s t ~ ~ : r Inxi.sytri~rr~~Iric~:rl
l. tlisIr~i~l~:i~rc~c~s tt.:ivc4ling tlo\vrtst,rcntn i t r n eircv~lnrpil)t, n t
I l ( ~ y o r , l ~nr~tnl)ri.s
ls ns l~iglra s R -- 11000. '1'11. Scsl .atit1 I<. Spirlbrrg 12001 t~st:tl)lisll-
c~lIIr:rt i t r ~,rlnliotrt o nsinlly syrr~nrctt~ienl Ilo\vs Sq~tii.c'stlreoron, tnrntionc,tl in Sot.. Fig. l7.4G. St.:lt)ilily l i i ~ i i l of ll;tgr~i-
X\'I I) 3. I I O Ionget. Iroltls. nt~tlt l ~ i t tsyrntnc.t~~icnl planr waves nrr, thrrcforr, n o l o ~ t ~ c r I'oisroillc flow i l l n c.irct~l:trpipr wif.li ~olitl-
hot1.y rofntion, nllcr P .A. Alnrltrotlt. Il6.t.
IC,R]: R,,-,rr = 83 nlt,rrT..T. I'rtllcy rl841;
oobsr~.vrcl11nnti111lr Ilon.
544 XVII. Origin of t~~rbulcnco
11

T h e mm.srirctl jmints r e p r e s e n t obscrved n e u t r a l d i s t ~ i r b a n c evortices at t h e [7] Bradow, A . I,., and Visconti, F.: lnvest,igation of bo1111d;rryIaycr Itryt~oltlsnrrn~l)crfor
I ) o ~ ~ n ( l a rbet,wcc~ti
y clamping ant1 a ~ n p l i f i c a t i o n .T h c a g r e e m e n t bctwccn t h e o r y a n d trar~sitionon an NACA 05(215)- 114 airfoil in tho 1,nt)glcy two-dir11c11nior1111 Io\r.-t.~~rb~~-
Icncc prrsnllre tunnel. NACA T N 1704 (1948).
e x p c r i t i ~ r r i t is vcry g o o d . 'l'hr t,licory confirms t h e supposition t h a t small velocity [8) 15rinicil1. P.F.: Ro~tt~dary layer transit,io" a t ~ n c 3.12 l ~ \ril.h n n ~ l\ v i l . l ~ onittRlr
~~f ~ O I I ~ ~ I I ~ ~ . S S
c~otnl)onrnt.sin t.hc t,n,ngrnl,inl tlircct.ions cnrisc Ilagen-l'oiscnille flow t o I ~ e c o m cu n - elcrncnt. NACA T N 3267 (1954).
stal)le. [9] 1311ssmann. K.,and Miinz,H.: i>io Stsbilitiit der Iarninarrl~Itc~ib~t~~gxnc~hicht ],lit 1\1J4:111 -
gnng. .Ib. tit.. I,rlftfahrtforsol~r~ngI, 36 -- 39 (1942).
[lOl I~llaslrlanrl, I<., lrlld IJlric:l~, I<.: Sysl~:lllnl.isc:ll~:~~llt.c~rullr~lllll~(.ll iil~(:reIc11 I ' ; i l l l l l l ~ ~ ( 1 ~ 1 .
~ i i t ' r ~ t . 011
s t , I ~ oi t ~ l . t ~ r ~ t i i t ~ tf:tcI,or
, c t ~ ~ yof l i ~ r g ctlisLurbances p r o p n e z t c d d o w n s t r e a m I'rufilforn~ atrf tlic J.ngc d w lJtnnclllng~ttrr~klc!s.l'roprint. .lh. <It,. l . ~ ~ f l f : i l ~ r I ~ f o r s ~I!l,I:! ~l~ltt~g
i n t . 1 1 ~inlrt, scsc:f,iott of :L pipe. Siliiilar c x p c r i n i c n t , ~were performod I)y E. It. L i n d - in 'l'cohn. Hcrichtc! 10, !I (1943).
1111 i{looln, M.: The cffcc:t. of snrfncc roc>ling on lntninnr I I ~ I I I I ( ~Itiyc*r : I ~ )sI:~l)ililj.
~ Ji\S IS.,
p r r ~11.701 w h o rnatlr I,lic tlist,url)ance visihlc b y t h e use of polarizeti light ant1 a 635-fi3t; (l!j5l).
I)~-~.c~f~.ii~gctit,, wcalc so111tion of bcntoriitc. IC. R . 1,indgrcn w a s aljlc t o s h o w t h a t [I21 I3rinicl1, P. F.: Boundary laycr tmnsit.ion a t Mac11 3.12 \rith :rncl \villtouL nitlglc. r o r ~ g l ~ ~ ~ v n s
cvrrl st.rorig initial d i s t r ~ r b a n c c sclccay in t h e i n l e t l e n g t h w h e n t h e Reynoltls eletnenb. NAOA 'FN 3287 (1954).
[I31 Orirticlt, P. F., and S~rntls.N.: ERecL of blunt.r~cmon t,rht~si(,ionfor n c.otlr :~ncl:\ 11t,111,\\
ilurnhcr of t h e flow ( b a s e d on t h e p i p e d i a m e t e r ) is small. A t R e y n o l d s num1)crs I
cylinder nt. Mach 3.1. NACA 'I'N 397!) (1!)5?).
f r o m n l ) o i ~ tR = 2600 n p w a r d s t h e process o f t r a n s i t i o n begins. It i s characterized [I41 Brown, W.R.: Exact, aol~rtionof the atnhil~tycqnnt.iotld for Iritninnr I~onnrl;iryI I G ~ O ~in R
b y a n amplificatiori of t h e initial d i s t u r b a n c e s and by t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f self-snstaining cotnprcRsil)lc flow. Ilonnrlary 1,nycr anti Flo~v(:onl.rol ((:.\'. I 1 ~ ~ t ~ 1 ~tn~~l .~) .~ n n ,2 .
\'()I.
t u r I ) ~ i l r r ~flashes
t w h i c h e m a n a t e f r o m fluid l a y e r s n e a r t h e wall a l o n g t h e t u b c . 10:~:~--1048. Ibrg:rtno~lI ' r ~ m ,NOWYork, l!l(il.
[I51 Iirrtoke-ISonjn~r~ir~, I'.: Wave! forntrtt,iot~i t 1 lrin~i~~lir flow I I I I ~ V I 1111
I i ~ ~ ~ . l i l ~ IIIIIIIV.
(.il ,I l''R1 :!.
T h c preceding pcculi:~riticso f l a m i n a r flows tlirongh pipes forcc u s t o re-considcr 554 -574 (1!)?7).
tlic rclat.ion b e t w e e n t h o t h e o r y o f s m a l l clisturbances a n d txansition a n d , i n p a r t i - [ l f i ] Bippes. H.: LxpcrimcnLcllo U I I * ? ~ R I I C ~dcs I I I Ila~~~ir~:ir-turb~~lot~lnl~
I~ Un~nrl~l:igc.n :LIB t:itlc.r
colar, t o pose tJic question as t o whctlicr t r a n s i t i o n c a n alwmys b e s a i d to b e d u c parallel angcotrvmten konkaven Wand. Dim. T . U. Berlin, 1972; Sifz~~ng.bcr. 1iridt.l-
t o a n nrnplificat,ion of sn~nlldisturbances. N o conclusive a n s w e r t o t h i s q u e s t i o n c a n berger Akademie der Wiss. Math. Natnrw. I<lnsse, 1972, Springer, Berlin, pit. I 0 : I 180;
see also: Bippeo, 11.. and GiirtJer, 11.: Acta Mcc:lianicn 14, 251 -267 (1972).
at 11rt:scnt b e g i v e n witttiont f u r t h e r w o r k o n tlie beliaviour of small, t h r c e - d i m c n - [I71 Clanser, L.M.. and Clauscr, I?.: The effect of curvat,r~rcon t.hc f.rannitinn fro111I:i~nirl:~r lo
sional disturbances. I n t.1iis connexion i t s h o u l d also b e rcmcrnbcrcd that t h e l i m i t turbulent boundary Inycr. NACA TN 013 (1937).
o f s t a b i l i t y f o r plane P o i s e ~ l i l l cflow which lies at R,, = 5314 as s t a t e d on p. 480, [IS] Corcos, G.M., and Sellars, J.R.: On the stabi1it.y of fully tlcveloped flow it1 a pipr, , J ~ M
c:orisidcral)ly exceeds t.hc critical Rcynoltls n u m b e r for t m n s i t i o n o b s c r v c d i n 5, 97-112 (1959).
[I91 (~zrirnccki,I<. Jt., Itnl)inson, lt. 13.. t111c1 lliIl,on, .Jr., ,I. ti.: lnvc*el,igt~l,io~~ ctf (Iist,ril,1~1~~(1 3tlr-
c l ~ n n n c l s .!I'his is inconsistent w i t h t l ~ tch e o r y wliicli a s s e r t s t h a t t-he limit o f s t a b i l i t y face rougl~nwson a body of revol~lliona t n Mach nntner of 1.61. NACA T N :12:1(1 (1!)54).
m u s t a l w a y s o c c u r at a lower Reynolcls n u m b e r t h a n t r a n s i t h n itself. I t o w e v e r , [20] Czarnecki, I L R . , nnd Sinclnir, AIL.: An investigation of t.11~ elYrcts of licat tr:lllsfrr
a t t h e present, s t a g c of knowlcdgc, a n d i n tlie f a c e of t h o p r e s e n t i n t e r e s t i n t h e boundary-layer transition on a parabolic body of rcvolntiot~(NACA ItM 10) aL :I Mncll
subject,, j~iclgerncntm u s t b e reserved u n t i l f u r t h e r results bccomc available. rlurnber of 1.61. NACA Rep. 1240 (1955).
[21] Cary, A.M.,Jr.: Turb~ller~t boundary layer heat transfer and taransition Ine:tsllrcrnet~tsfor
T h e stlal)ilitry of a l a m i n a r b o ~ i n d a r yl a y e r o n a b o d y of r e v o l u t i o n w a s also cold-wall conditions a t Mncli 6. AIAA J. 6 , 958-959 (I!)G8).
in\rrst.ig.zt~ctl Ity , I . I't~rtscll [17C,J;in t,his c o i ~ n c x i o nc o n s u l t a p a p r r b y 1'. S. Granville 1221 Ccbeci, T., and Smith, A.M.O.: Invest,igation of heat trannfcr rind of sltction for t,rilIltirlg
laminar borrndnry layem. J. Aircraft 5, 450 (1968).
1821. 111 r a s r s wl~c,r~ t,lir rat,io of' bonntlat~y-laycrt.hiclrncss t o curvature is v c r y s m a l l [22a] Cebeci, T., and ICellcr, I-I. B.: Stability calcrtlations for a rot,nt,ing disk. AGAl1.l)-CP-224.
c:o~nl):irwl n.il.11 ~ i n i t , y t,lic
, rcsult,ing st.n.l)ilit,y cclr~nt~ion for t.hr axially s y m m c t r i c a l
r a s r l ) r r o ~ n c sielc~nt,icalwit.li t,l~at.for t h c I)l:~riccase. llcnc:r, all r r s u l t s ol)t.nincd for
7 -- l t,o 7 -3) (1977).
. .
[2:)] Ch:t1)1nnn,G . T . : Sornc effcots of lending-cdgc s\verp in bot~tldnryI:iyrr f.r:~nsilioll:it s1ll)c.r.
t,he Iatt.cr mi1 11c cxt,rntlctl t o a p p l y t o t h e f o r m e r witlioi~t,r c s r r v a t i o n . sonic s p c d s . NASA T N D-1075 (1981).
r241 Cole~,I).: Me~qr~rcrncnts of tttrbltlent friction on a an~oothIlat plat*, in sn)>crsonir*flow.
* J A 8 21, 433-448 (1954).
References [25] Czarnecki, K.It., and Sinclair, A.R.: An itivestigation of the cffect~of heat tr:~t~sfrr 011 II
~,arabolicbody of revolution (NACA RM-10) a t a Mach nutnber of 1.61. NACA Rrlt. 1240
111 Ahbolt. .J.lI., v o t ~l)ornl~oKA.15., ant1 Stivrrs, I,.S.: Sltrnrnary of airfoil daL7. NACA
L 3 i1955).
Il.cl). ~ 2 (1954).
4 [26] Culnk-Atit,ic, P.: Hitzelml~t-Mcssrl~~ge,~ dcs In~ninnr tnrbrtle~ntcn IJn~scl~lngc~s 1,c.i frc.irr
[2] Alt,l~n~~n. I>.: Sl,tlt,tgnrt.crProfilk:it.alog. Inst. Acrodynarnil~of SI,tlttprt Univ. (19721. l<onvcklion. .11). FVGI, 19Ii4, 171 - 170 (1905).
1:)) All(: Ilk1 24!)!): 'l'r:itlsi t.ion ant1 tlr:ig rnrasnrct11c.nt8on the 1lonll.ot1I'xrtl sn~npleof Inn~innr 1271 Colsk-Atll.ic, P.: I)rcitlirnct~~ior~alc dcs I~ttnin$irt ~ ~ r l ) t ~ l c [nJ IlI I.-( ~ ~ ~
SI.:il)ililiit,sc!r~~:I~cit)ll~t~gcr~
flow wing c.or~.rt,r~tc:t.ion. Pnrt I: by . J . H . 1'rcst.on nncl N. (ircgory; J'art 11: by K.W. scl~lagesbci fraier I<onvcktion I#IIRYriner vcrt.iknlcn ~chciz(.cnPlal,Lc. Sif,zrll~gsl~c~ri~~!~!c
I<i1111tc.r; l':~rt, I I I : .Joint, I>iscnssion. 1leielcll)crgcr Akatlcrnic: (lor Wiss. .]It. IO(i2/(i4, 315.- 416, 1loitlolltc:rg (1!)(14).
[:!:\I I{r:t81cy. .l. A,: (!:tlc~~l:lt.iorlo f Lhc Inrninnr I,or~ntl:+rylayor nnfl f)rctlict.ion of I.rannit,ion
on n sl~rnrctlwing. Alt(! Ibhl 3787 (1!)7(i); ItAI': 'I'R-7:)150 (1!)74). . (jro\vOcr.
1281 z
ll.,J., anel I)nll,e)n, C.: Xl,:~l)ilil,yof l'oi~t!~tillcflow i l l :i lti1tc. . I . C:ftr111~1tl,. l'l~ys.
7, 12-31 (1971).
[4) I ~ j n t ~ ~'l'.i IS.:
n , lI:lTc(:ts of IL flexible 1)c~tntrlaryon l~ydrotl~r~ntnicnt8nbilily. JFM 9, 513- [29] Colcn, I).: l'rannit.ion ill circnl;~rConct,l,c flow. JFM 21, 385- 425 (I9(i5).
.6.!2 \ .. . I.\,.
.. .- 1 I!)(;
[2!)al 1)iI'rirna. It. C., nnrl St,ttnrt,, ,J. T.: Nonlocnl c:N'ect8 i t 1 I,hc si,t~l>ilil~y of f1t11r I ~ V ~ ~ I ~t a t~, - ~ Y ~ I I
151 I$cl~:lrd.11.: 1,cs to~~rbillonfl cell~tlairesd a m nnc tnappc liquidc. Rev. (:en. Sci. I'ure Appl.
cenl.rir rot.at,ir~gcylintlcrs. JIFM 54, 3!)3 - 415 (1'372).
11, 12(il 1271 and 130!9- 1328 (1900).
-

I61 Illootn. M.: 'l'hr rlTrrt of ~ ~ t r f n croolll~gc on Inntit~:~r honnelxry layer st.al1ilit.y. .JAS 18, 129hj I)il'rirna, It. C., ant1 Stuart, J . T.: 'I'he nonlinrnr calr~~ltitiot~ of 'l'ttylor-vortrx flow I J ( ~ I I ~ ~ . ~ - I I
lit15 Ii:W ( l!)51 ). eccentric rotating cylintlcrs. .JFM 67, 85 - 1l l (1'375).
646 XVII. Origin of turbulence TI
(:1o] VOII l)ot.l~l~nll', ,\. 15.: Illv~,ntigntiol~ of Illo I)olltlclnry h y r r nt~outn sy~l~nrrt,ric.al nirfoil it1 n
[62] Fnge, A,, :~nrlPrrston, ,I. 11.: 0 1 1 t,ral~sitiollfro111Ia111in:ir t,o t.r~rht~lc~it, flolv i l l t.lie hc~r~l~elnry
\villrl I I I I I I I I . ~ of 101v t11rh11lrn(:r.NAf:A \Vnrt.inlc l(r1). 1, 507 (1940). Inyrr. Pror. Roy. Soc. A 178. 211 - 227 (1!)41).
l:!l 1 I)O~-ISVII, 11.: L I I I I ~ ~ ~ S I I ~ ~ I1111 I I Iri11ige11
I I ~ I ~ I l'rofilc~~
I Illit gcri11gc111Wiclrrutnncl it11 I k ~ r r i r I ~
(.Kt\ l~(*in~IL. 11;.(2.: L J I I I C ~ ~ I I ~ : I I I I I I ~ Ciihcr
I I clir Al~l~ii~~gigkcit clcn IJn~srI~lngrs ln~~~i~~nr-t~~rt)~~l
l<l<*i~~c*r ~.,,.\\~(*rl.c, JI). 111, ~ , I I I ' I ~ : I I I ~ I ~ ~ O ~ ~ I~ ,~ 54
I I I .I I57 I ~ (l!)40). v o ~ i~ l r r~ ~ l ~ r r l l i i ~ ~ l ~ r ~ ~ r1111cl n ~ ~ lclcr ~ i gl~) ~r r~i~tr l ~ v c r t ~ c1)isn. i l ~ ~l3rn1111nrl1\vrig
~~g. l!l5li: ,111.
1:$21 v:ul I)ric*st. 15. I<.: ::ooling rc~c~nirotl to sl:lljilizt: t.I~c?Inlninar bor~ntlnryInyer on n Ilnt. 1,l;itr:. 1!)5li Schiffhn~~t.crl~n. (:cscllscl~nft, -50,180 - 203 (1!)57).
,l,\S IS'. (;!Xi I;!)!) (1!)5l).
[ORnj Frrnlziel, 1'. N., lanrl:rlll, Al. 'r., n11d I,l~rnlny,I,.: St.rnct,nrc of t,t~rl)rllrnrr an0 c11-;1gr~.cluc.-
[3:I[ v:t11 1)rirsi. 11;.I<.: ('nIc~ll:~t.ioll of t.11~ st:ll)iIily of t . 1 ln111i1in.r~ I101111drtrylnyrr in a. c.onlprrs-
sill l ~ I it i I : I I i t I I r :~i ~ ~ s f t 1r . I , I 812 (IfM2). tion. lLJ'l'~\hlS ~ I I I I I Wns11illgt.011,
.. I). C.. 7 - 12 .JIIIIC107fi. 'l'llr I'I~,ynirs of I~'llli(ls20,
No. 10, l':~rl, 11. 11. S I ~ - 2!)2, S l!)77; :iIso I$. A. '~'II~IIII i l l l'rciv. 111trr11. ( ' o ~ ~ g r r si 1s1 I < I I I ~ O -
[:!,I] ~ ; I I II)~.irst,15. I<., :IIICI1Iois011..J.(!.: I ~ S ~ ) I . ~ ~ I I I ( 011 * I I ~I IRO I I I I ~ ~ layer
: ~ ~ ~ tr:~nsit,ion:it, srlpcr-
sollie: sl)c.rcln. .I,\S 2.1. 885 8!)!) (l!)57). logy. Nort,l~llollnncl, A~nsterdn~n, Src:t. 11, p. 1:I5.
[:I51 vat1 I)ric.sl. 15.11.. :ln:l Rlr(!n~tlry,\\'.I). : I1o111itl:lryInyrr I.rxllsitiotl on n 10 drgrrt: ronc :it. [64] liiscllrr, h1.C.: l'url)~~lont, I)ursL~n11el r i ~ l g011 ~ n rtirle in 11rlil1111 a t Aln = 7.6. I\II\A J . 10,
h1;1c.111111111l1~.r2.HI 11s rllkvlrcl I I c.st.rr\tilo ~ rooling. ,lAS 24. 780 7R1 (I!)57).
-
1387 l:!S!l (l!l72).
(:I(;( ~ ; I I I I)ri~*sI,I*:. I<.. ~ I I II %~~ I I I I ~ ( * I '(.1 . I%.: ~~olll11~:l.I'y ~iiyc-rt.r;ill~if.io~~ lit, s t ~ ~ ) r r s r ~ 41)e*1.(1s.
~ii~: rli5[ I~iscll~~r. hl.(!.: A I I ~ ! X ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ I I ~i ~ ~ :~I \I ~I .cI ~I sI l i g of
; t IIi Io ~~ I~I I I I I:l.yvr
, ~ : I ~tr1111si1io11
~ ,181 :I 10- 11:lIr.'
,I ,l ~ r ~ ~ c ~ - ~ l ir011g1111rss ~ i ~ ~ ~ ~~,lI'rc,l,s ~ ~ : ~ l *I ASS 29, !)I)!) --!)I(!
~ ~ i o(SI)II~!~IY). (l!)li2). 1i11gIe:~ O I I C I I ~h l : ~ , ~I;.!).
l ~ NI\SI\ l)-57(ili (l!)70).
[:I7 1 V:III I)ric.st.. I<. I < . . :ltrcl IIlrtt~ic~r. (!. I%.:Ilol~~~elnry liiyrr t~rlin~itiotl : Iir~!c-~I.re~tn~ 1.11rl111le.11rr [(Xi[ Vifivllc~r,hl.(.:.. nnrl \ V ~ ~ I I R 1,. ~ ~hl.: ~ -(!OIIC
~ I I ,l,r:~~~sit~ion~~.l l)f>1111(1;1r~~.I:iyrr n l ~ r r ~ e ~ l/\I,\I\
. ~ ~ r ~.I. -.
o~lcllbrrsntlrcs Rrntlic.~~t, r.lli~rln. Al ,\I\ J . I, I:lO:l-- I:lO(i (1963) 10, I;!)!)- -701 (l!)72).
HI I)rytlcn, H.L.: Itccrtlt nelvn~~crs on t.11~n~ccllnlricsof boundary layer flow (R. v. Misen, I06nJ (inrg. V.K., n11d Rol~loa~l, W.T.: i,inc:lr spntinl stabi1it.y of ~ripoI'oi~c~~illc (lo\!'. .II"BI 54,
alltl '1'11. v. Iikr111h11, ~(1.).~ \ ~ I V : I I Ii lCl ~Apl~l.S hterl~1, 1-40, New York (1048). 113-- 127 (1!)72).
[:I!)] I)ryclrn. I I . I,.: Iloviru. of ~)rrl~lisl~erl d n t : ~on t,llc c h c t of ror~ghnesson transitiol~fro111 [07] Gol(lntcin, S.: A not,e on r o n a h ~ r m .AlK! Jbhl 1763 (1!):16).
ln1nirl:rr to Lnrbule~~t Ilo\v. *Ii\S 20, 477---482 (1953). [(is] (:olelntein, 8.: 'rile stability of ~ i ~ c : o l lflllitls s ~)rlwccllrolnlilig rylinrIc.rs. I're](.. (!:11111)r.
[40] I)ryclrn. 11. I..: I5HrrLq of ~ O I I ~ ~ I I I Cnnrl S R sllct,ion on transit.ion fro111 Inn~innrto tllrhlllrrlt Pllil. Soc. 33, 41--61 (1!337).
Ilo~v.1'11111.Sc.icnt. c!t, 'Trrl111.(lr Ali~~islhre r l r I'Air I'nriu (Sl)JCT)40-60 (ll)54). [fl!)] ( ~ c ~ l ~ l s tS.:
, c iOn
~ ~ ,t.11~ ul~:il~ilil,y of n~~p(!rl)osc*~l slrr~tnlsof fl~ai~ls nf c l i l h c * ~~lcv~sitic~x.
~t l>rt)c;.
[41] I)ryclrn. I I . I,. : 'l'r~lrlnitionfro111Inn~innrt,o t.rlrlllllc~~t, llo\r. a t nnhsonic and s~~lwrsonir s~,errls l<e)y. Sot!. A lJ2, V2:I (I!K!!t).
I'roc.. (hnfc~rrnrron Ilig11-Sl,ee*el~\rrollnntirs.Nrw York, 1955, 41 -74. 1701 (:olrlstri~~. 8.: I,olv-elrag : I I I ~ ~110Liollnirfnils. I1t.h \Vrigllt Ilrotllcrn I,crttlrr). .I,\S 15,
[42] 1)rytlnll, I[. I,.: l t ~ c c n ti,~ ~ v r s t ~ i g i ~011t i tllr o ~ ~11roI)lc111
s of tirnl~sit,ior~. ZF\Y 4;89 - 95 (I!)5(;). l8!)-215 (1!)48).
1431 I)~IIIII, \by. I)., and I,in, (:.(!.: 0 1 1 1.11c:stn11ilit.yof Llln bou~ldnrylayer it1 n conipressihlc Il~tiri. [71] Giirtler, H .: uber tin11 Einfl~~ss tier Wnl~tlkrii~ilnrrlllg nnf clir ICIIISI~~IIIIII~ rlvr ' ~ I I ~ ~ ) I I I ~ I I % .
,JAS 22, 455 --477 (I!)55); scc: :11so Jz\S 2 0 , 577 (1!)53) ant1 19, 491 (I!)!?!). zAsrnr 20, I R H - - - (1!)4o). I~~
14.11 I)llllllillg. It. \,\I.. ti~ldUIIII:IIIII, 1:. I?. : ICfi.cts r~fs\vrop nrirl angle?of nt,tack on bonnrlnry layer [72J (;iirt,lrr, 1.1.: [ h e r ei11e c l r e i d i ~ ~ ~ c ~ ~ n il~~sl,:tl)ilit.iiL o r ~ : ~ I c I:t111i11:1rrr( ~ r r ~ ) z s c : l ~ i r la11 ~ t c1<r)11-
!~~
tr~llnit,iot~ ~ I I Iwings at. M:le.l~ n~rlnl~cr 4.04. NACA 'TN 3473 (1!)55). knvcli \4~A11clcl1. N~rrllr.Wifis. Cks. CiiLLi~lgell.hlnLI1. 1'11yn. I<l:rrine, NCIICIFolRc. 2, NO. 1
[45l L)~CIII, 11. I<., nncl Murplly. .I. S.: I'l:lt plnt,c. Iion~~rlary layer LrnrlniI.io~~ nt hyprrsonic spretln. (I!)JO); ser :tlno ZAMM 21, 250-252 (!!!41).
All\A I'nl)rrli5 128 (I!lfi5). [73[ (:iirt.lrr. ti.: I)rricli~~~r~inion& I~~nl.:~l)~l~Lii.t. (lrr cbrnrn S ~ . I I I I ~ I I I I I / <grg(vl~iI)t%r ~~~.I~~~IIIII
141il I)~~lllct.rintlc~s, 12. : Ilypr:rsonic: visc.c~~~s I I I , ~over a slcllder cone. Part 111. I,n~ilinnr instnbil- wirbrlnrtigr~l St.iirrnlgc11. I7ift.y Yrnrn of I%o~lllclnry-I:iyorI<rsmreh (LV. ' l ' o l l ~ ~ ~nncl ic~~~
it.y ;111tlt,r~illsil.io~l. A l Ai\ I'til~cr74 KI5 (11174). 11. (;iirt,ler, rtl.). :JO:t-- 314. J<rnn~is(~l~~vcig, l!)55.
[471 l$i:ic.ollis, N.S.. .j:rr\z, .I. 11.. alld \Vi~llic\r.~ki, It..).: I~onllelnryhyCr t.ransition a t Mar11 3.12 1741
- . (:iirt,lrr, H.: I)rrirlir~~e~~nio~~nIcu zor St.;i\)ilit.iitnt.hrorie I:tn~iiln.rcr(~rr117.sc~l1ic~l1lm. ZAhlhI
by c.ooli11g nl~tlnose I I I I I I I I ~ ~ I I ~ . 'l.N 3!128 (1957).
NI\CA 35. 362163 (1955).
[48] ~jivrisl~illn. V. : ' T l ~ r r c - r l i t ~ ~ r ~ ~I )s(i ~c ~ ~ ~ n ~ l~ I : i rt,rstlsition
y - l a y e r on n ullarp 8' cone a t Mnrh 10. 1751 Cra.l~villc,1'. S. : Tllo rnlor~lnt~ion of vinc.or~srlrng of bodies of rc:vol~~t ion. Navy I ) ~ ~ I : I ~ ~ , I I I ~ I I ~
AlAA -1. 8. 852-85(i (1!)70). The 1)nvitl 'L'nylor Moelel 13nni11.H.ep. No. 84!) (l95:I).
[4!)J I)o~~glinrLy..lr., N.S., nntl Slri~llcr,.lr., F.\V.: 'l'rnt~nibionR,cyr~olrlsnnrnher ronlpnrisons [7(i] (>rc.gory, N., a1111\4'allccr, S.: The rll5c.l on t~r:111sit.i011 of i s o l ~ ~ tR~I tI l~ ~ I I ~-sc.~(.s~.I.III.('.Y
I . ~ ill

ill ~ r v r m lnlnjor t.r:tllsonic t.ulll~cls.1\1 AI\ I'npcr 74-627 (1!)74). tlir honn~l:t.ry Itiyor. AIbC 1bM Id, 436 (I!)T,O).
[50[ vnll I)riont., 15. I<.., allel I%IIIIIIC~, C.B.: I I O I I I I ~ R ~ Y - ltr~nnit~ion ayer a t R I I ~ R ~ R O I I sperds:
~P [77] (iregory, N., St,un.rt,,.I.T., and Wnlkrr, W. S. : 011t,llo st.:il~ilit.yr)f t.l~rer-~li~nc?~~sio~~;~I I,~IIIII~-
I l o r ~ ~ l ~ clli:rts ~ ~ r s n\vil.ll I~cat.t,mrlsfer. ,\II\A .J. 4, 603-007 (1968). nry lnyrrs wit11 npplirntion to t.he florv t l ~ ~to r . it rot;tting flisl<. I'l~irl. 'I'r:lns.Iloy. Soc:.
[SI] van \)rirst., I$. It.., a1111Mr(:nltlry, \V. I).: 'Tllr rlTrrt, of rontrolletl t,llree-ditnel~sio~inl rorlgl~. I,<)II~OII A 24S. I55 \!I9 (1955).
nrss or1 I ~ o ~ ~ n c l lnyrr ; ~ r y tra.nsit,ioll at, s r ~ j ~ r r s o tspertln. ~ic .JASS 27, 261 -271 (1960). [78J Gnslrr. M.: A note or1 t,hr rolntion I)rt.\rtec~~ Irrnporally-i~~c~~~e:~sir~g : i ~ l c l sl,;rI.i:~lly-i~lc.rt~:~si~~g

In:![ I)IIIIII.I). \\I., r i t l ~ lI,ill, C.C.: On t.11~ nt:rl~ility of tllo Inniinnr hotlndnry Inycrit~nco~nprrsnil~lo dintnrhancen in I~yelrodynamicubl)iliLy. .lFM 14, 222 - 224 (lOli2).
(I~ticl..lAS 2". 455 177 (I!MR). [78:i1 (:;lnl.nr, hl.: 011 t.hc Roar nlong uwol~t,l r n d i n ~cclgrn. A(*ro. Qr~nrt,.199, Ili5 1x4 (l!Ni7).
( 5 I . I ,1 1 : I ~ . I I s i i ' i s c ~ ~ 1i r ill i I .. I . 2 218 [7!)( (:<*l,l~rirl,II.: I~~nt.nl~iliLy. t.rn11nil.io11; i ~ l c l I . I I ~ ~ I I I ~ ~i l: lI II ~I ~ I~ I I , ~ I I I I ~ ~ ~ - ~ I f10rt.s. I ~ I I I ~ ~I I\ I~ I~ II I I I : I ~
( I !)(;!I). I<.cvic\rfof I'lnid Mc~c:li~rnic:~ (M.VILIII)ykr, e.11.) 5, 213 24li (l!)7:I),
(!%;I1Srte.l, 11.: 'I'l~c?r~~~otly~~n~~~is~~l~r I%rgrii~lil~rng rlrs Il,ic.l~nrclsor~ncl~er~ l'r~rbnle~~zkriteri~~r~~n. [HOJ (:ohllnrt, JI.: N:il,~lrnle!onvec*t,ionflows nncl st~:~l)ilit~y. A < I V : I I I ( Yi l~l ~Ili~:lt' I ' ~ : I I I S ~ I . ~ !I. 273
hle~trnrcjl.Z, .56. It)!) (l!l:!!l). 344 (1!)7:!).
7 1 I . I .I . I S ~ I ~ ~ I I I. :~I tI Ir .f ~ r n ~ i rnt.r~divs i r on the ~t.:il,ilit.ynntl tr:111siti011 [XI] (:c*l)llnrt, 13.: N:~t.urriloonvcoti~~n flow, i~~sl.:rl)ilil.y nntl tr;r.~lsili~~n. 'I'rr111s. hShll5 SIT. ( I
t,o I . I I ~ ~ I I I ~ ~ I I (of
Y , :I ft.rc~-i~otiv(!t:Lie)~~ I1o111#1nryInycr. I'relc. of Lllc (:crler~~lI)iscussiol~on Ilcet 91, 2!):3 -- :!0!) ( l!)ti!)).
'I'r;t~lsli.r, Scl~t..I!)5l. 1111I)l.I)y 111nt..Meell. 15ng. London nnd ASMLC. 1.821 (:ranville, F. S.: 'J'llr pretlicLiotl of tr:lt~sif.io~l fro111In~ni~lnr to t\lrhltlrl~tll01v in I I O I I I I , ~ ; ~ ~ ~
I':vI*I.~I:II.I., 1'. la:.. I I I I ~ I l : t n ~ i l t ~II.Ji.:
~ ~ ~ , E x p c r i l i l ~fa1 ~ i ~ ~ v o s l i g n t iof o ~hol~llclary
~ layer layers on I~otlirsof revolut,ion. Itcp. No. :I!)00 of tllc Nnvril Ship Itrsmrrii nrltl I)~-vrlr,p-
t,r:i~lsitior~ e j l i n <!e)olc~l 7.5" t~r)l,:~l-n~~glr e v 1 1 ~:~t,A I ~ , ~ 10. I ' NASA 'TN I> 4188 (l!167). II~PII~ C. r ~ ~ t c I3rlh~?s~Ia,
r, Mnryin,nd, 1!)74.
Is!)[ I~;vl<t~rt,, I{. I<,. (:., S ~ I C ~ I I I<., I ~ ~: III II ~, St-l~~~c!iilrr, l'..J.: St.ntIirn z11t11 U ~ ~ i s c l ~ In111i11nr- lag [RRl (:iirt.lrr. H., and Hnsnlcr, 1-1.: Einigc I I C I I ~exl~rri~nentnllr I J c ~ o l ) n c . l ~ t .ii1,c.r r ~ ~ ~cl:ln g ~ ~Auf- ~~
t11~1)llle~nl tIc:r frrit-11 ~io11v~kti011~stri1llll1llg all e*ilirr s r ~ ~ k r e e : l iI'lnLtc. h ~ ~ Fifty Ycn,rs of trrt.e11 von I,iit~guwirl,cln in S t . n r ~ p ~ ~ ~ l ~ < t , s L r iSt:l~iffsIc'rlinil( i ~ i i ~ ~ ~ ~ g t ! ~20. ~ . li7 72 (l!l7:I).
. I3o11nd:lry-lnvw l<c~sr*:~r('li (\I 'l(ollt~~icn and If. (:iirt,lcr, ctl.), 407 -412, 196.5. [84] Gino~tx,. J . J . : Itrekl,ilit.6 rlc In couolic lilnite sllr nilrn rtl fl(\cllr:. ZIj'\V 15, :!02 :I05 (I!)(;;).
IOOJ lCli)il~~r. IT.:' I C ~ ~ I - I ~ I I ~ Sg~tI-? ~ ~ ~ ( ~ i nI s\ I:I I~V~C I~I (~~ ItI 'I rI ~VOII ~ ~ r ~ ~ ~ z ~ 11110 r l ~ i1'rolilt.llrorir.
cl~l,. r851 1jii1111nrrli11, (7.: i?her ,Ins E i g c ~ ~ ~ v e r t ~ i rrlrr o l ) il lr r~c~i ~
r l i ~ ~ ~ t ? ~ ~ nl~~st,:il~ilil,ii,t
i c ~ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ll ~: ~ ~ ~~i~ i i ~ ~ r t r c r
Zb'\\' S, 2.17 2liO (l!l(iO). ~ ~ r ~ ~ ~ ~ z3.11 n ~ I z~c ~l ~~~ ik ncW v~r ~l ~ i~I lI (~~l)ins.
rC~I I~.Iiroi1)11rgl!)54: .I. l<.:~.t,. hlvc41. AII:I~. I. 27!)
l l i l 1 lf;1111Ic~. It..: l , : ~ ~ ~ ~ i ~ ~ :fiir ~r~ l ~~ r ~o f~i l sc ~~ ~ griissrr
~ ~ l nls ~ l ,i.lOfl.
~ ~ :I I~I ~l, . ~A Il. ~c;$,?,
. I~I .2:VJ
~ ~ 2,111 :V2l; sc-t. IIIHII Z,\AlAl ,L5, :!Ill; 3Ii7 (l!l55).
( l!)l;!l).
M8 XVIT. Origin of t.nrhrtlrt~ccII

[ ~ ( II J~ S I I I I I I P(1.:
~~~ Znr
I I .111stnl)ilit,iit~stl1corirdrr ebenen Sln~~l)unIctst~rii~i~r~ng. J'ifty Years of I1131 I<uethe, A.M.: 011 the character of the instahilily of the Intniniir bortntlnry Iayc>rttcrlr t.ltr
Ilo~~nclnry-lnyrr I1encnrc-11 (\V. l'olln~irn ant1 11. (2iirtler. cd.). 315-327 (1955). nose of a 1)111ntbody. J A S 25, 338--:33l) (IIIRU).
I871 tJ:irri~t,15.N.: I\ (liglit ir~vcstignt.io~~ of Irr~ninnrant1 I , t l r l ) ~ ~ lI)o~~n(lnry
r~~t In.gcrn pnwing [I141 Kcntlall, ,J.M.: S~tpcruoni~ bonnctnry lrtycr st,n.hilit.yo x ~ j ) r r i t i ~ ~l>ro(>.
~ ~ I .1301111tli1t.y
~. ImYrr
througl~shoc.k wnvrs a' frill-rralc H~y~iol~lu-11u111I)crs. N:\(:r\ 'l'N :305li (195:)). Transition S t ~ t d y(:ronp Mcctitrg (W. I). h4cC:utlcy, ctl.), II. AC~ORI~IL(.C or^).. (!:;I., l!iIi7.
[RR) l l a ~ ~ s n ~ n n\\I.:n n . FI~~gn.cltr nncl l'echnik. Ziirirh 4 , 17!) (1!)42). [I 151 Kendall, t J . M.: Wind trnntol cxpcrin~entRrelating to s~tporsonioant1 I~yl)rrstini~ 1)onntlary-
[$!)I Ilmd. M.11.: 'Tho I)o~~ntl:rry Itiyer wit,l~~listribnlcrlr ~ r r t i o l ~t\I<(:
. 11M 2783 (1955). layer transit,io~~. A1AA d. 13. 290-2!)!) 11!)75). \ - ,
I!)()\
. . llrrtrl, 11.: St,r~tItt.tlr,lportn. llc\vrg~tt~g. Srrirs: 13ir)logi(>IIII(I l'rcl~t~ilc, l<ra~~nskol~f-Ver- e r , 'raylor vortices bcLn.ccn eccentric cylitlclcrs. I'l~yn.of I'lrtirls 19, 1 --4
[I101 ~ b s c l ~ n ~ i e dE.L.:
lag, M:rinz, I00 1!)5, I!)(;:!.
- 11 ., . .,,.
,- 97fl\
[!)I] Iliggins, IL.\Y., ant1 Pnppnn, C.C.: An cxpc.ri~~~c.~~t;~l itivcsl,igaliot~of thr rfTrc.t. of srtrftice [1171 I<rogntat~t~, :.'l An expcrimcr~l.al invrstignt,ion of I:i~nin~ir and L r ~ i ~ ~ s i l ~I IiDoI L~~ .~ t.r1111sf0r
~il
l ~ c ~ t ion
(l!)51):'
t ~ 1,ortntlnrv
e " Invrr. tr:rnnit.ion on n f1:it plntc? in snprrsonic Ilon.. M;\(:rl 'l'N 2351
[!I21 Ilols1,cin. (1.: hlcnsrtngen zur I , : ~ ~ n i ~ ~ a r l ~ tlor : ~ l tlZc:il~rt~~gsscl~irl~t,.
~tng I.ilicr~t.hal-llrric.l~t
S 10
to n sl1ar11slen~lercone a t Mam = 5, irtcl~~tlir~ clt'ccts of angle of aLt.nc:lc 1111tlcirnt~~~~fi:r(.t~t,i:il
he:lh t,ransfcr. 1)iu. I ~ r a a n r h w e i g1975; A ~ A AI'aprr 74 028 (1!)74); s(!(: lkls,, Z I ~ \ I
101 - I15 (l!j77).
- ,,*
17- 27 (1!)40). [I 17e] l<iiche~nnnrt,D.i S t , o r t ~ ~ g s b e v ein g ~ciner
~ n GassLriitnr~ngtnit (:rct~zs~:I~icl~t. I)iss. (:iiLbitt-
(931 tlrtnng, I,. hl., nnd ('hen, 'l'.S.: St:~l~ility of tlrvelol)ing pipe flow snbjrctrtl t,o no11-nxisynl- get1 1938. ZAMhl 18. 207---222 (1938).
tnrtricnl rlist~~rl)n~rcc~n. .I lchl 8.1, IS:! I!):! (1!174), scr also 1'11yn. Iflnicls 17, 245- -247 (1!)74).
- [IIX] I<ml,itt. ,I., and Wootl, R.T.: 0 1 1 l.lto sL:il)ility of t\vo-di~t~(?~~siot~r~.I r I t i g ~ t ~ r .lIo\v.
t i ~ ~ ,J~ lghl
1!)4] Van Ir~grtt,J. I,.: A snggrst.ec1scvni-cntl)iric;~l~ ~ ~ r t lfor ~ othe
r l ralcrtlntion of t,l~ebonndary 44, 461 --479 (1970).
I;~vertraclsit.iot~region. 'l'echn. Univ. Uc1). of :\eronnutics. I)elft,. Report V.T. H. 74 (1956). [I191 I<nye, J.. and Elgnr, E.C.: Modes of adilibatic nntl dinbntic flrtirl flow in :LII ~ I I I I I I ~ Iwit.11 I~
19.51 Jnrk, .I. Jt., and I)iaror~is,N.S.: \':irintion of bonntlary-lngrr transition ~ v i t heat l ~ tmns- innrr rot,ating cylintlcr. Trans. ASMIC 80, 753- 765 (IMH).
frr on l,wo borlier of rovolrttion a t a Mach nntnhcr of :1.12. NACA T N 3562 (IDRR). [I201 I , n ~ ~ ~ l r M.T.:
i l ~ l , 0 1 1 I,IIc nl,nl)iIil,.yof n I:~rnin~iri ~ i c . o ~ ~ ~ ~ ~lio1111t111t.y
r i : s ~ i l l~r.,yrr
~ l ~ ~o w r 11 lit-xil~lv
(901 .Jacobs, 13. N., ru~tlShcrn~rin,A\.: Airfoil nc:ction rl~~~r:rrLrriuLirs as rtnbctr.tl I'g vnri~ilionn fIll~flb('1~.la'h! I:], l;o!) (!:I2 ( l!llP2),
of the ILeynoltlnnun~bcr.NACA TJt 5Mi (1!):!7). [I211 L:~ufcr, J., and Vrc*baloviclt,'1'11.: St,:~.l)iliLy ~intltr:it~niLir)nof IISIJJ)C~HOII~(: 1:1111in:ir I~OIIII<~-
[97] Jcffrcys, 11.: 'I'hc insLabilit.y of a lager of flnid hentcd below. Phil. Mag. 2 , 83:i-844 (1926); ary layer on a flat pl:iLe. ,JI'M 9, 2~7-2!i!) (1960).
see also I'roc. Jtoy. Scc. A 118, 1!)5-208 (l!Y28). [I221 J,rcn, L., and Lin. C.C.: 1nvmtignt.ion of t l ~ rnt.al)ility of t.110 liin~ittarI)o~tntl;~ry I;ryrr it1
1081 Jones, 13. hl. : I?ligltt expcritnenLq on the bortndnry Inyer. \\Irigllt Brctl~ers1,ect.ure. J A S a compressible flnid. NACA TN 1 I15 (1946).
.5, 81- 102 (l9:!8); also Aircrnft 1':ng. 10, 135--141 (1938). [I231 Lees. L.: The st,nbility of tlrc lntnirlnr bo~tndarylayer in a con~prcssibleflo~v.NACA TN
1991 Jones, 13. M., nnd Head, M. R.: The red~rc:tiottof drag by distributed suction. Proc. Third 1360 (1947) and NACA Rep. 876 (1947).
Anglo-An~ericanAero. (:onference, llrigl~tott109-2330 (1951). [124] Lees, I..: Co~nmentao n the "Effect of surface cooling on Int~~innr b ~ ~ n c i a r y - lsL31)iIityw.
a~~r
[I001 .Jack, .J. It., and I)iacot~is,N. S.: Vnrir~Liottof bo~tntlery-layert.ransition \vit.h heat transfer JAS 18, 844 (1951).
on two hodics of rcvol~~bion a t a Marh ~n~rnlrcr of 8.12. NACA TN 3562 (1955). r1251 I ~ i t e ,1%.J.: AII exl~critnetltaIinvestigation of tile k t a b i ~ i t .of~ I'oinenillc HOW. . I I ? ~ I5,
[I011 ,laclc, ,I. It., \Yisnic\vski, Jb. .I., ant1 I)iaconis, N. S. : Effcctn of extrcn~cs ~ ~ r f a ccooling e on 81 --:I6 ( 1959).
I)ortndnry Ingcr t.ransitiott. NACA 'I'N 40!)4 (1!)57). [I261 Lessen, M., and Gangwani, S.T.: EfTect of wall at~lallamplit~tdc~vnvinrssOII t l ~ csl,ability
[I021 Jillir, l).Mr., ant1 Ilopltins, E..T.: 15fli~c.t.sof hfaelt-n111111)er.leading-edge blunt,ncss and of the Ian~inarbortt~dnrylayer. Phys. Plnids 19, 510-5L3 (1976).
swrep on hont~ctnr,y-layc:rtransil.iotr nn rr. flat. j)lntc. NASA 'I'N 1)-1071 (1M1). [126a] Lessen, M., and Singh, P. J.: The stability of nxisyrntnetric free shmr Iayrrs. .j lghf 60,
[103] .Jor~rs.W. P., llnd I,nu~~tler.13. I<:.: 'l'lte prcrliction of lantinnrizat~ionwith a two-equation 433-457 (1973).
n~oclrlof t.rtrhulo~rc..I. t1e;it. and h1:lss 'l'mnsfcr 15, 3301 -314 (1!)72); see also JIpM 5 6 . [12Gb] Lessen, M., Singlt, P.J., and Paillct, 1g.L.: Stabilit,y of n trailing line vorhx. I'art 1:
337 - - 351 ( l!)72). lncisvitl theory. JFhf 65, 753-763 (1974).
[lO4j .I;tlTc. N.A., Okntnrrra. T.'r., and SntiL11, A.M.O.: l)etermination of spatial amplification [126c] Lessen, M., and Paillet, P.L.: Stability of a trailing line vortrx. Part 11: Viscorts ~ I ~ c o r ~ .
fachrs : I I I ~ tl~cirapplir.ation to ~)rcclicfingt,mnsition. ATAA J. 8, 301 .-308 (1970). JFM 65, 769-779 (1974).
/I051
. ~
1<11y,J.M.: 13onntlnry layer flow along n flat, plnt.e wit11 uniform suct,ion. ARC Ithf 2628 [I271 Liepmann, H. W.: Investigations on latnitlar boundary layer stabilit,y and trnr~sitior~ 011
( l!)48). curved boundaries. ARC ItM 7802 (1943).
[I()(;] liircl~giisnnrr,K.: I)ir InstabiliLiit rler St,rii~nungzwischen zwei rotierendcn Zylindern [I281 Lieptnann, H.W.: Inveatigatiotl of boundary layer transition on concrive ~r,;~lls. NACA
gcgrtiiil,rr 'I':rglor\virbcl~~fiir belicbigo Sl~nlt,breiten.ZAMP 12, 14--30 (1961). Wartime Rep. W-87 (1945).
[107] I<irrl~~iuunrr, I<.: 15inign I%rinl~ir:lc znr St.nl)ilitiitx+tl~coric volt St~riitrt~rngert an korllcavcn [I291 Lieptnann, H. W., and Fila, G.H.: Invrst.igations of efl'ect o f n ~ ~ r f a te~nprrnturc> ce n111lsittglc
untl cr\viirniIrn \Viintlen. 111g.-Arclt.31, 115-124 (1!)62). roughness e1ement.s on boundtcry layer transition. NrlCA TN 11!)6 (1947) and NACA It(!p.
1107n.J K lcl)n.t~olT, 1'. S., and Tidst,rom, I<. I). : Mechanisn~hy which a two-dimet~sionnlroughnew 890 (1947).
olctnenl. in~lnrmI ) o ~ ~ n d a In.yer ry tmtisit.ion. I'liys. of I'l~titls ,5, 1173- 1188 (1972). [I301 Lindgrcn, 1C.R.: Liquid flow in tubes I, I1 ant1 I l l . Arcl~ivfiir I'ysilc 15, 97 (1!)69); 15,
[1071)] I<lcbnnoff. 1'. S.,'l'idut.roln,I<. I)., and Sargent,. J.: The threc-di~ncnsiondnet~zrcof bound- 3 (1!350) and 103 (1959).
ary 1:~yrrinstxlI)ility. ,I PM 12, 1 -34 (l!)r,2); see qlso JIZS 22, 80:)-804 (1!)55). [I311 Linkc, W.: Ubcr (fen St.riitn~tngs\ridrrstllndcir~crIicl~eiztct~ cl)c~nctt 1'lnt.t.c. l , ~ ~ f ~ , f ; ~ l t r t -
I1081 I<orkcgi. 1t.lI.: 'rrnnsit.inl~st,ntlics and rlcirt-friction ~ncn.sttre~nct~l.s on nn insnlntatl flat, fors~111111g 19, 157--160 (1942).
pinto at. t i M1ic11 ~nttnl)crof 5.8. .JAS 23, !)7-- 102 (1!)5(\). [132j I,ntlwicg. )I.: St.nl)ililiit (lor Striint~tt~g in cin(!tn zylintlriurl~(!t~ I I I I I .,ST 1:)s
J ( , ~ I I ~ ~ I IZI+V
140 (l!)(;O).
[IO!)] I<riinlrr, I<.: Ill)c~rclic! Wirknng vort St~olpc~rrlriilttcn nuf den C.ret~z~cl~icl~tutnnr,ltlng. ZI7M' [13:1J Ludwicg, 1-1.: Ergiinzung zu tler Arbcit. "St.nl)ilit,iit tler St,riitnnng in citte~t~ sylinclrisc:l~c!~~
9, 20- 27 (I!Nil). Itingraum". ZFW 9 , 35'3-361 (1961).
11101 I<ranter, M.O.: Ilortntlary I:ryer stnl)ilization by,'distrihnted damping. J. A~ner. Soc. [I341 Lndwieg. H.: Experi~nentcllcNachpriifung der Stabilitiibt.l~oorienfiir reibungsfreir Strii-
Navnl 15ng. 72. 25-33 (1960).
mungen mit scl~m~~bcnlinienformiger~ St,rotnlinien. ZFW 12, 304-309 (1964).
[I 1 I ] Iiriigor. 11.: t)hcr (Inn I':ittl111~~ dcr Abs:i~~gnng auf die Lage der IJtnscl~lng~Lellc an Trag-
. fliigclp~~olilct~. [I351 I,anfcr, ,I.: Factors nffeoctittg transitsinn ltrynolds ~ntntl)crs011 tnodeln in s ~ ~ l ~ r r s r )rvintl ni(~
Ing.-Arcl~.19, 384--387 (1!)51).
tunnels. JAS 21, 497-498 (1964).
[I121 I<iit:l~nnt:rn~~, I).: St.iirr~ngnl~ewrpungen in ciner Ganstriitn~rnglnit Orenzscl~irht.ZAMM
[I361 I,ar~fcr, J . : Aerodynnntic noise in supersonic wit111 t.nnnrls. JASS 28, 685 l;!)2 (I9til).
IX. 207- 222 (I!):!H): l)iss. (1iittingen I!):!H; sre also note hy H . (:iirtler, ZAhfM 23, 179- [I371 Laufer, J.: Some atati~t~ical properties of thc pressure field ratliated by a tnrbrtlcnt bortttct-
183 (l!)43). ary layer. I'hys. Fl~tidu7, 1191--1197 (1964).
550 X\'ll. Origin of t,11rh111rnrcTI Itefcrences 551
(I:18\ I,:~nirr. ,I., nntl Mnrtc, .I. I:.: lksrrltn n ~ ~ nt lcriticnl c\isrrrssion of trnnsition-1loy11olcls- I1651 Mackrodb, I'.A.: Stabilit,y of Ilngcn-l'oinouille flow wit11 ~ ~ ~ p o r i n ~ l ~rigid o n r t lrot,nt,ion.
I I I I I I I ~ I)I(I:~~Y L S I I ~ ~ I I I ~on I I ~i ~nSs ~ ~ l i ~ronrs
t r d nntl llnt plntrs in st~l~ersonir n.incl tunnrln. Jet, J J W 73, 153--104 (1970).
Propnlsion I.:rI)., 1'11sntlc:nn. (:;rlif.. I < ~ o20--!I0 . (I!J55). [l(iG] Michel, It.: I)Btcrrni~~ntion cl11 point de trnnaition el. cnlrrll d r In t,rilit~i.ca r l c ~profiles tl'niles
[I391 I,:~r~fc:r, J . . n.nrl Vrrl)nlot,iclr, 'I'.: Stirhili1.y:~nrlt.rnnnitio~~ of n s~~prrsonic: Inn~innr11o1111clnry en inconrprcuail~lo. ONISltA l'r~hl. No. 58 (lffi2).
1nyc.r on :i flirt. plntc!. .l1'1\.1 9 , 257- 2!)!) (I!)tiO). (1071 Nncl~tal~ei~n. ll.lb.: St,nbilit.y of Llle free convrct.in~~ ho~lt~dnry lnyrr flow. N,\(:,I 'I'N
11401 I,&R, L.: 1'110 nt.:rl,iliLy of t,llc I:In~innr1)01111clnry Inyrr in n con~prwsil)lcflow. NI\C:II TN D 208!l (1003).
I:%(iO(1947) and NI\(!I\ I<cp. 87(i (1947). IIRRJ Nnmsiml~n.It., nntl Srncnivnnnn. I<. R..: R.r:l:rr~~inn.riznLio~~ in 11igl1l-jncrelrr:rt,ctl t , ~ t r l ) ~ ~ l ( : ~ ~ t
[ I41 1 l,rrn, I,., n11t11,in. C.C.: l ~ ~ v r s t ~ i g : ~of l , ito. ~1 ~nl.:il~ilil~y
~ of t,l~r1n.111innr1101111clnr.v I:ryrr in n Irot~nclnryIc~j~rrs. ,llV~ll i l , 417 447 (1!)7:1).
ot~n~lircssil~lt~ Iluitl. NACA 'I'N I l l 5 (1!)4(i). [IC,!)] I'rkcris, (:.I,.: St.nbi1it.y of t.11~ lnnrinnr Ilo\rp through n nl.rnigl~t,pillc in infinit~c.in~:~l dis-
.11421. 1r.m. I.., nn11 l<.t~uI~olko. IL: SI.l~.l~ilily OF t.l~rr o ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ r r 1nnli11n.r
s n i I ~ I c0o1111clnry Inycr. J I'M t . ~ ~ r l > n nu~' lc~qi r nrr
l ~ syn~t~~cl.rirnl 111>011t.I I I P nxis of l.l~c pil)c. I'ror. Nnt,. A(.lrtl. Sri. \V~~:il~ing-
12, 655.- 6!)0 (I!lli2). ton 3.1, 285 (1!348).
[I431 1,irlln1:11111. I I. \V.. :tncl I'il:~. (:.: Invrst ig:tI ions of rn'rrt. of s ~ ~ r f ntrtnl)crat.trrr rr nntl xinglr ll7Oj I'icsr(!y, N. 11. V., : I I I ~ l < ~ i c l ~ t ~ I{. l n ~'1'11~
r ~G.: ~ ~ vnri:tt,iot~
~, of velocity : I I I I ~ I I ~ I ~ I I~ ~I I ~P X- V 1.0 I,II;
~ O I I ~ ~ I I I I . SI *S I ( * I I I ( * I I I ~O I I 11o1111~111ry-l:i~(.r I I . : I I I X ~ ( N,\(!,\
~ O I I . 'l'N I I!lli (1!1.17) rind N.\(!:\ 11.(?11. FIII~I':I~(! of 11. ~a,yli~~tk*r 111ovi11g l,11ro11gl1 :r V ~ R < . ~ I I SI111id.l ' l ~ i l . k l : ~ (i, ~ . !I70 !)7li (l!l2S).
[I71 I l'irrt.y, N. A. \I., : L I I ~ l < i ~ ~ l ~ ~ rI(.r ~ J ~'1'11~
(:.: o t ~I , ,I I ~ I I I I I I * I Ii l~l ~I!' r c ~ of
~ t :I 1)otIy tnr~vingI I I ~ o I ~ ~ I I
:r vinvot~sI111itl.l'l~il. hl:~g.!). 10:lH- Ill41 (l!l:lO).
..,.,.,. (1721 I'otlrr, J . I,., nntl Wl~it~licltl, J . U. : Enkclo of slight. ~ ~ ol,l11111,11ttss sc :111t1r o ~ ~ g l ~ n011 r s1)o1111r1-
s
(1451 Linkc. \If.: (Il,cr tlrn Strii1nt111gswitlrr4t;1nfl riner bel~eiztonr b e ~ ~ cI'lnttr. n 1,nftfnhrt. ary lngcr brn~tsit~io~t in s~~porsonic flown. JIPhl 12, 601 -5:)R (I!)(?!).
f ~ r s c l ~ ~1.9, ~ n157 p -- lti0 ( 1!)42). 11731 I'ranrltl. I,.: J':i111111na s ~ ~ ~ l ~ i l i s i c rI<rii.ftc
c ~ r ~ l Iw~ I (lie I ~ ' ~ I ~ I P I I II,rrt,~~rrn ~ ~ I I Z . 011 : I ( * ~ ( , ( ~ ~ I I I I I I I ~ ( . R
[I461 l,r~~vvll,11.. I,., nntl I<rfil~ot.kn, 15.: Nr~n~crir-:~l nt.1111yof t.11~ utnhilit,y of n I~cntrtl,wntnr nntl rclntcd liel(ls, ~ \ n o l ~1!)2!), r ~ ~ ,1- 10: 1lrrli11, I!I:lO: noc ILIHO (:o11. WorIis 11, 778 785.
k)ortntlary Inyer. 1)iv. I'lnitl. Tlrer~nnlnntl Acre. Sci., (I:~.se \\'rstern lteserve Univ., Cleve- [I741 I'rnndtl. I,., :in(I ltrirl~:~rrlt,, El.: lCinIl~t.u~ VOII L \ ~ r i r ~ ~ ~ c s c I ~n11f i c ltlir
~ t ~l~C~ i~ g~ ~ g~~~n~~l~
I ~ I I ~Ol~io, . l<.rp. ITl\S-'l'It 7:l---!I:! (l!)74). cincr l.~rrl~ulc~nten Sl.rii~n~lng. 1)t. 1Porncl11111g No. 21, 1 10- - 121 (I!):l4): see nlso ('011. \Vorku
[I471 1,loytl. J . It.. nnfl Sl~nrro!~, 1':. hl.: 0 1 1 t l ~ instn1)ilit.y
r of nntnrnl ron\.rct,ion flow ~ I inclinetl I I 8 85.1.
plntn!~. ,I Fhl .12. 4lM-- 470 (1!)70). (1751 1'rn11~II.l. I,.: Ilrricl~tiil)rr nrt1rrc ~ I I I ~ ( : ~ S I I C ~ I I I I iil)rr I ~ ~ : I dI : ~ s\'(TII:III~II (lrr I : I I I I ~ I I : I ~ ( ~ I I Iki.
11481 L o s s r ~ ~M., . Sncllrr, S.. nntl I,in. 'l'.\'.: Sl:~l,ilit,yof pipr I'oiscnillc flo\v. l'hyn. F l ~ ~ i d 11,
s b~~r~gs~l~iic~t~,'inshc~qo~~tlcrc tlrn I n 1 1 1 i 1 1 n r - t ~ ~ r h ~ ~ l(J~nscl~ln.g.r r ~ t c ~ ~ h1it.t. (11.. i\k:~tl. l ~ ~ f t -
I404 l40!) (l!)li8). I:~l~rtforncl~~cnc 2. 141 (I!)42\.
. . Mrlts\,~~.
114!)I I).: St:~l)ilit\ visro~~.; flon ovrr roncnvr rylindri~~nl nnrfn,c.cn. I'ror. Roy. Sor.
A 2fl,?. 253 265 ( I!)kO). . ,
( 1501 hlic,l~rl. It..: ICt.uclr clr 1:r t.mnsit.ion S I I ~1c.n profilm ~l'nilr;i.t.:lhlissc~~~rnt d'un rrit*re de 11771 ~ r c t s c l l .J.:
, Ubrr (lie Strrllilitiit tler I , n r ~ ~ i ~ ~ n r s t r i iin~ ~c~i ~ntr ~n~~g r r n t l c ~l~l o l ~ r111if Iireis-
tl6bor111in:rt.io11 tlrl r)oint tlr Ir:rnsition ct. onlcnl cte la tmin6e dc profil en incompressible. fiirn~igrn~ Qt~crnrl~nitt,. Zt2hIM 21, 204- 217 (I!l41).
ONICI<A lt:~lq)(>rt. '1/1578 14 (1951). [I781 l'rrtx(:l~, <I.: 1)ic Stnbilit.it einrr (:II~IICII I , ~ I I I ~ I I : L ~ S ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ I I I11ri
I I I ~ l)r~~rl<gcfiill~~
~ 111111 l)r~~c'lt-
[I511 Alnck. I,. M.: (!otnpc~tnt,io~~ of t,llc stnl~ilit,yof t,llc In~ninnrrotnpressihle bor~nrlnrylayer. anstirg. ,Jh. tlt. Li~fl.fnl~rt.forsch~~~~g I,58 -75 (1041).
hlcll~oclnin ( ! ~ I I I ~ I I I ~Pl~ynivs I I ~ ~ (I%.
~ I It\ltlrr,
~ cd.) 4. 247--299, Academic Prew, 1985. [17!)] I'rctnc.l~. .I.: I)ic Anfnchnng innt.nl)ilcr S(.riin~ungcnin cinrr Inn~innrcnI < r i l ) r ~ ~ ~ ~ s s r l ~ i C . I ~ t .
[I521 hl:rr.lc, 1,. hi.: 'l'l~rst.nl,ilit,y of t l ~ ~.nn~l)rr~sil)lc r 11rrni11nr Ilo~~ndnry lnyer according to n direct ,111. dt,. I,r~ft.f:rhrtforscltq 1. 64-7 1 (11142).
~ ~ ~ ~ t n c rsiocln~l~ t i o A(:Alll)Ogrnpl~
n. !)7. l'nrt I, 483 --SO1 (1005). [IRO] I'rctsch. .J.: Un~scl~lngbrgir~n uncl Al~nnng~~ng. .]I). dl. I , r ~ f t . f : ~ l ~ r l I ' o r ~ cI.~ lIu ~ 7~ ~(I!)42). g
[IR:l] Mnrlz. L.M.: 1~011ndsry lnycr ntnltilit,y t.llrory. .let Prol)nlsion l ~ b . Pnandcnn,Cnlif., , Rep. [I811 I'ntc, S.R.:M C ~ I I ~ ~ I nntl I I ~ Icnrrcl:~t.ionn
I~S of tmnsition lby~iolcln~rr~~nl)crn ,111 sll;crl,
!)oo - 277 (~!)cin). slet~tfcrcones a t 11igl1sl)cotls. Ali\i\ .I. !I, 1082--10!30 (1!)71).
[I541 hlnrk, 1,. M.: I,inr:~rslnt)ilit.y tl~corynntl 1 Ilr prohlrnt of nupersonic boundary-lager transi- 11821 Patn, S.lt., and Grot11. IC.IE.: l301111rIi~ry-lnycr tr:rnniLion I I I ~ - : L ~ I I ~ C I0I1 I1 ~s\vrl)t I ~ ~ ~ wings
lion. i\IAtI .I. I.?, 278---281) (l!l75). wit11 supersot~iclentling etlge. A I A I Z .I. 4, 7:17-'!:38 (I!Jfili).
ll55j M:tvk. 1,. M.: A I I I I I I I ~ , ~ ~ ( . :tnt-tl~otl I~ for t l ~ rprrclirtion of higl~-nprcdI>o~~ndnry.lnyer tmnsi- [I831 l':~tr, S.It., ancl S r * l ~ ~ ~ c(.!.,I.: l e r , 1\11invmt,ignt.ion of r:~clintr.tlncro~lynnn~i(: noinn ~:llt'tsO I I
t i o ~11si11g ~ linr:~r 111i*ory.I'roc.. ('onl. O I I r \ r r o t l y ~ ~ n ~~~\ ~ n ni cl y
, ~ r H~r111iring
n ;\tlvnncctl bo~~nrlnr,y.li~yc.r tr;~nsiI.irn~ in R I I I I ( ~ ~ S: O I I I I~I/II~~ :I ) ~ ~ R O I I \vi11<1
~C I I I I I I I ~ I,\I:\,\
S. -1. 7, 450
( ' O I I I I ) I I ~ < * ~ S ,N,\S;\ Sli-:!47 (11175).
457 (I%;!)).
I ITilil hlntltl:~lon. I). V.: 15fl'rvt I I vnrying ~ anll trlnprraturc nntl totnl ternperntrrre on trnnsition [I841 Potter, ,I. I..: Olisrrvntionx on lllc i n f l ~ ~ r nof r r :LIIII)ICII~. prcsnurc 0 1 1 I ) ~ ~ ~ ~ t t I : ~ r yLT:III- -li~ycr
Ilry~~olcls r111111brrnt hlnrl~(i.8. A ~ I \ ~,I.\ 7, 2:155-2357 (1!)0!J). sit.ion. AI AA .I. 6 . 1!)07 - 1011 (I!)liH).
11571 M:I(III:II~II. I). \I., :111rlIlr~~rlrrson, T.,\.:llypcrsn~~it: trnnnitio~~ ~1.11dirn on n fllrnrlrr ronc [186] I'ottcr, .l.l,., nntl L\'l~itfic~lrI, .I. I).: ICni~,tsof 1111itI~~cJ'IIoI~IH tr111111)rr. IIOS(. ~ ) I I I I I I . ~ ( . H S : I I I ( ~
I ~ 1 1 1 1 :1 l l l g l ~1 1 t i \ \ . 6 7 - 177 (I!)(i$). ro~~gl~nc!ns on I ) O I I I I I ~ : I ~ , V 1:tyt.r lr:t~~siIion. A(:I\I<J) l<t!l), 250 (l!)(ill).
I 1581 M:~rvin..I.(:., :1t1t1,\kin, ('.Al.: (:o~nl)inrtl rl1i:c:ts of nlnss n<lrljtior~nntl nosr I~luntnt~ns on (1871 L'oLlor, J. L., nntl N'l~itlicltl,.J. I).: I%orr~itl:~ry-1nyc.r lr:~r~siIion ~ ~ ~ l cI~ypcsrsonic
lor c:r~nrliLi~~~s.
O o ~ ~ ~ ~ ( l i ~ r yI-rli :~~nys fi t~i ro ~AIi\t4 ~. <I. 8 , 857-8ti3 (l!)70). A(~~\IlI)ogr:tpI~ !)7, l'art 3, l --GI (l9ti5).
[l5!)l h1ntc.c.r. (2. (:.: lClli!(*t of ~vallrooling nntl nngle of nt,tn.ck on bo~rntlnry-layertmnsition on [I881 l'ctllcy, 'T..l.: 0 1 1 t.11~ in.stnl)ilit,y <of \,isco11s ~ I O W i l l n rnl~i(llyrot:~ting~lipv.,lI"hl 3:;. !I7
s l ~ : ~ rc.o~~c.s l > : ~ hl t .. - 7.4. N..lS:\ 'I'N 1)-li!)tlX (1!)72). 116 (l!l(i!)\.
I lliO] hlorltovin. Al. \'.: (:riIirnI c \ ~ n l r ~ ~ t iofo r tr:~nsition t Tron~lnnlinar to L~~rbrtlrnt shenr layers ~\ r

[18!)] I'ntctl, It.(!.. : I . I I ~IIci~(l,hI.R.: I<cvrrsion of l ~ ~ r l ) ~ ~tol cI:i~~~in:rr nt flow. ,II:Al 31, :lit :$!I2
a-it11 c ~ ~ ~ l ) l ~ ~: tI sI Ii Is~ y l ) r r s o ~ ~ i ~trnvelling
:~IIy I~otlies, Air Force l'liglit I)gt~nn~it-s Lnb., (I!)fiS).
\ Y r i g l ~ t - l ' a t t ~ ~ Air r s c ~IT(>rvr
~ ~ I{:ISP,Ol~io,'rl< 1%- 14:) (l!)09). [19OJ lr)r(I l<nylrigl~:On ronvc(-tio~~ t s :I l ~ o r i z o ~ ~lt;:~~yl r rof I111icl \ ~ I I ( % I I tlrc 11igI11,r
c n r r c ~ ~ in
IItil] h l t ~ ~ ~ r rII.I<., ~ t r . nncl .losrlrl~,I). I).: \'inro~~s inromr~#rssihlcflow betxveen concenfrio rotn- t e ~ ~ ~ p c r nist ~~I~I t.11~ Ir c 1111(lrrsi(1~. 1'11iI. bli~g.32, V2!l ( l!)lfi) or Srirnlifir 1':tpcrs 6. 4X2 --441;.
ling spl~rrrs.l'nrt I: l{nsic fIo\v. .llchl .I!), 285) - :304 (l!)7l).
[lli!I ~ I I I I I S II!.~ II<.. I . nntl .Iosrpl~,I). I).: I'isror~si~~con~prcssihle flow I,ct.\vrrn con(-rnt,rirrotating [I!)I] h r t l Itirylrigll: 011t11relyn:tn~ic<s of rrvolving f111ids.l'roc.. I l o Soc. ~ A 9.3, 148 l5,t (l!ll(;);
spl~rrcs.1':trI 11: lly~Iro~lyn:~niic. sInl)ilily. JPhl .I!), 30.5 .:!I8 (1!)71).
rr~,rintorlin Scirntilic. I'nncrs. ~, . fi.. 4.17 -45:1.
!1!)2j I<icl~:~rclson. I,. 1'. : 'l'llc s111)l)lyof r:nvrgy fro~nnntl lo :it~nr~sl~l~r*ric~ cvlcli(.g. I'roc.. I < I , ~ .Soc.
(Ili:ll ~ I I I I I S OI!. I II<., , : I I I ~ Ih l c n g ~ ~ l ~ ~M.:r l zV
, ~ S ~ Oi InI(R* o ~ n p r r ~ s iflow
l ~ l r bet,\vcrn ronrentrir rotn- A 97, 354 - - 3 7 3 ( lIY2li).
Ling s j ~ l ~ r r r s1':lrt . I l l : I,inrnr stn1)ility and expori~nc.nts. .Jl'M 6.9, 705-71!) (1!)75). (I9:Il Iticprln, F.: ]):IS I ~ r ~ ~ s t r i i ~ ~ ~ r ~ ~ ~I)c.i g s ~i~nrbool~i~l~tl~) ~r c . s s Ii 'l ~) l~ ~~ ~ ~ ~~I ~I I ~ ; I ~ S I ~ ~ ~ I I111g.. II:II~!~~II.
(lli4l hln~.kro<lt.I'.,\.: SI:rbilitRt volt llnge~~.l'~,is~~~~illr-S(rii~~~~~~~g~~~~ nit iil~rrl:~grrterstnrrrr ,\r,41. If;, :%;:I : m i (l!l.lS) 1111cI 1 7 , !)'I l l l l i (l!).f!)).
Ilot.:Itiot~.hlil I . Rl:~x-l'l:~nc.lt.lt~stilI I I I'iir Sl,rii1111111gnft)rsc'111111g nntl 1\\.1\ No. 55, (:iittingr~~
(I!)? 1 ): srt- nlso Ztlhl hl 5.3. 'I' 1 1 1 1' I 12 (l!li:%).
552 XVII. Origin of tnrhnlonco TI

Tin41 Itr*shot,ko. IC.: St.abilit,v I,heorv na a ellido to the evaluatrion ot t.rnnsition data. AJAA J. 7, 12141 Nt.ender, W.: Lnminnrprofl-Meauungen des NACA, oino Ausrvert~~t~g znr G R W ~ I I I Iall- II~I~
L-..., --.. ~. "
1086-- lO!)l (l!)69). gctneincr Rrltonntni~neiiher Latninnrprofilc. I,rrhfnl~rttcct~nik 2. 218--227 (l!)sfi).
[215] Skrnberg, ,I.: A free-flight investignt.ion of the posail)ilit,y of high Itc!y~~oltlu-~~r~~~~hrc. suprr-
ll94nJ Itesl~otko,I<.: I4or111clnrylayer atnbilit,y and trnnuitiot~.Annual Review of l'l~~itl Mechnnica
(M. Van Ijykr, etl.) 8, 311 -:14!) (1976). s o ~ ~Irr~ninar
ic bor~ntlarylayera. J A S 19, 721-733 (19R2).
[216] S b r ~ ~ b e r gJ.: , The trnnuition from a tnrbulcnt to n larnir~nrbonndnry Inycr. Il~~llintic
[194b] ltcsl~ot.lto,13.: Trnnaition rcversal nnd Toll~t~ien-Schlicl~t,ing inatnbility. Phys. of li'luids Itrscarclr IAnhornt,oricsI b p . 006 (1954). Al)erdccn Proving (:rool~tl, Mnryltrnrl. I J S A .
6, 335 -342 (191;:)). 12171 SL~lnrt,,J.'l'.: On I,II(: nl,~&l~ilit.y nf vi~t.ol~u llt)\v IIOLWOOII I I I L ~ I I I I C ! ~ 1 t I l b 1 1 c ~~ I lI , l ~ t ~j I ~ ~ ~ H or , *11I ~ c ~ ~ ~
1 1!)5) I ~ ~ ( . I I I I ~ < I It.
H . I<.,IIIICI SIs)llory, . I . I..: 'I'rtr~~nil~io~~ rcvc~rnr~l o ~ 11.
r Ilnl, l~lnl,f.111. I ~ y ~ ~ o r ~ ns1)0011u.
nic: col~l~rn I I~
I I~
I ~rI I ~ : ~liclcl.
. ~ ~ ! I'roc:. I{,oy. Soc:. 1,o11clo11A 221, IN!)-- 20(i (1!)64).
A<~AItl)ogrt~ !)7,
l ~ lI'nrt
~ I, 477. ~.48!)(l!)ti5). 1218J Stuartt, .I.'l'.: On the nonlinear n~echanicsof hydrodynatnic utability. .JFM 4. 1 -- 21 (I!)58).
[I!)(;] Itichnrtln, 1%.I{. and Stollcry, .I. L.: 1"nrLhor cxpcrirnenk on t.ransitior~rcversal a t I~ypcr- [219J S t ~ ~ n r.J.'r.:
t, On tlirec-dimensional non-linonr efTccta in tho stnbilit,y of parallel (lo\va.
sonic spocrls. AIAA J . 4, 2224 -2226 (1966). Atlvnnc:c!n in Anro~~nut~icnl Scicnccs ('1'11. v. I<hrrnh~~, ctl.) 3, 121- - 142. I'crgilt~~e~~) I'rc~s;
[1!)7] Sato, FI., nncl 1<11rilci,I<.: 'l'hc ~ncc:haninmof trauaition in the wnka of a l.l~inflnt 1)lnl.c: Now York/Lontlon, 1!)02.
plnccd pnrnllel to a r~nifor~n flow. JI'M 11, 3321-362 (1961). [220] Stiiper, J.: ljer Einfluss cines SLolperdrnhtes a ~ dcn ~ fUmsclllng dcr Q r c ~ ~ z s r l ~ ia11 c l ~cincr
l.
[197n] Snrpknya, 'l'.: A note on t,ho stability of tlcvcloping laminar pipe flow s~lbjectedto nxisyn- ebenen Platto. ZFW 4, 30-34 (1956).
metric nnd non-axiry111111ctric disturhnnccs. JFM 68, 346 -351 ( 1075). [221] Sanntor, R.J., Dc Carlo, J.P., nnd l'orillo, 1).3.: Hypcm-~onicbo~urrlarylnycr t r a n s i l i o ~ ~
[l07hJ Snrpkeyn, 'l'.: Evolntion of s~tlnlldist.urbances in the luminar tra~lsitionregion of Hagen- data for a colt1 mall slender cone. AlAA J. 3, 758-760 (1965).
~oiseniiloflow. Ann. Rep. Nat. Sci. Fonntlntion. N U Ilydro Rep. No. 027. T S (1966). [222] Schlichting, H.: Zur Enktchnng dcr Turbulenz hei der I ' l ; l t . t e n n l . r i i ~ ~ ~Nnrhr. ~ ~ ~ ~ g(:cs. .
[l97c] Salwen, H . , nnd Grosch, C.13.: Stability of Poiseuille flow in n pipe of circnlnr crosu Rec- win^. Giittingct~.Mnl.11. I'IIYR.JCIILRRO, 182--208 (1033).
tion. .JPM 54, !)>-I 12 (1972). [22:1] Shcctz, N. W., Jr.: I%o~~n(lary-lt~ycr Lrn~~uition on co11c.n ILI, h.yl~crr~ot~it: H I ~ ( ' ~ ' ~ I H 1'
. 1.0(:.
- - Schlicht.ing, 11.: Uber die Stabilitiit cler Couette-St,riirnung. Ann d. PIIYR. IT, !)Or)-936
11081 SYIII~~IR ~V
011 I I~I U I ~~ : O I I R lt.ct111c:I.iot1(S. (:. Sl~n~iglor
I)rttg 1111el (1. S. \Vc!llu. .Ir., ttel.). ~ ' I ~ * I I I I I I I
(1932). i'rczis (l!J00).
[Inn] Schlirhting, Ft.: l'urbnlenz der Wiirmeschirhtr~~~g. ZAMM 1.5, 313-338 (1935); see also [223n] Sihnlkin, M.:'l'rnnsit,io~lfrom tt~rbr~lcnt ~ n r flow. l'hys. of IPIuirIs 5 , 280 - 284
t.o l r ~ n ~ i r pipe
I'roc. I'orlrt.11 Int. Congr. App1. Mcch. 246, Cambridge, 1035. (1962).
> ,
[ZOO] Sclrlicl~ti~~g, 11.. and Ulrich, A.: Zrtr Rerechnnng des Umscl~lngeslatninnr-t~~rbnlent. Jb. [224] Steinbeck. I'.C.: Effect8 of unit Reynoltls nnmbcr, nouo hlrcnt,ncss, nnglo of stt.;~(.lr,anel
dt.. I,r~ft,fnl~rt,fornrI~~tt~~ - I , 8 35 (1942). Ilchilcd prcscntnt,ion in Iteport of the Lilienthal- roughness on trensitior~on n 5" l ~ i ~ l f - i ~cone ~ ~ g lact Mach 8. NASA TN [)-4!)(il (I!)(i!)).
Gcnrllsc:I~nft.S 10, 76 1:35 ( 1940).
-
[226] Sternberg. J . : A free-flight.invcstigal.ion of the posnihility of high ltcy~~olrlu-nr11111,rr sn1)er-
[201] Schlicht,ing, tl.: Ilic B c c i n l l r ~ ~ s ~tlcr ~ n gGrenznchic:ht durch Absnr~gunguntl Arlsblauen. sonic l n ~ r ~ i n 1)onndayv
ar layers. J A S 19. 721 -73:) (1052).
Jb. dt. Akn.d. d. l,nftfal~rl.forscl~rlr~g 00- 108 (1943144). [226] Stetson, K.F., ant1 R.unht.on, G . H . : Shock tnnnel invcst~igalionof bonntlnry Inyrr taran-
r2021 Schillcr, I,.: llantll)r~rhtler 15xperi1nc11t.aI-PI1ysik 11': P a r t 4, 1-207, I ~ i p z i g ,1932. sition a t M = 5.5. Al Ah J. 5, 8I)D-DO$) (1967).
i203j Srh~rbnncr,(:. 13.. n ~ ~ S c lk r n n ~ u k d 11.
, K : 1,alninnr bonndnry layer ourillations and stabil- [227] Strnziunr, A., l'r1t111, J . M . , nnd ltcsl~ol.lto.15. : 12xpcri111e11l.nl ~1.11dy of ~.II(Isl,nhilillyof IICII(,CII
i1.v of Ia~nin:rrIlo\v. Naf.ionnl I<i~renuof Standnrds ltruorirri~Paper 1772 (1043); J A S 1 4 , lan~innrboundary layer8 in water. 1Z.nporLI"l'AS/TR 75-- 11:3, 1)rpt. of Vlnicl ' l ' l ~ r r ~ rrncl ~~nl
6 5 - 78 (1!)17); scat: nluo NACA I b p . !)()!I (1047). Aero. Sci. Crwe Weslcrn Ilescrve I J I I ~ v(1976). .
[204] S ~ : l ~ r t l l . z . ( ~ r ~IF., ~~~ n .cr d, wIIcin,
, FI.: 13ciI.rr1gzrlr Co~lcttc-Sbriin~r~ng. ZVW 4, 28---30 (1!)66). [227a] Stuart, J.'I'.: Hydrodynalnic st,ahilit,y. In: ltoscnltcacl, L. (cd.): I,atr~ir~nrborrndnry
1204~1S c l ~ ~ ~ l t z - ( I r r ~IF.. ~ ~ oRIICI\ v , Bel~bal~ar~i, V.: 13oundnry layer stahilit,y a t longitudinally layers, pp. 492-579, Clarendon Presn, Oxford, 1963.
cr~rvcdwa.lls. ZAMI' 24, 4!)!)---RO(i (1978) and ZAMP 26, 493-49.5 (1075). [228] Sparrow, E.M., nnd H ~ ~ s a1t.B.: r, Longit,ndinnl vortices in nntrlrnl ronvect.ion flow or1
[2041)1 S ~ l ~ r ~ l ( . z . G r n ~F.~ :o Zur w , SLnbililSt der Co~~ettc-Strijrnrnlg. ZAMM 39, 101-- 110 (1959). inclined platcu. J F M 37, 251 -253 (I$)(;!)).
[204r] Sch~~ltz-(:rr~now, IT.: 7'11c stnl)ility of Couctte Row wit11 rrspoct to two-din~ensionnlper- [229] Szewczyk, A.: Stabilit,y nrrd trar~uitionof the frcc-convact,ion In.ycr along a vert.ic.:il flat
I.~~rl)at,ir>ns. III W. Ipiwdon (cd.): Pluicl I)ynnn~ics'rrunsncl.ion 3, 83-93, Wn.ruznwa, l!)(i7. plate. Int. J . llcnt and Mnsu Transfcr 5. !)0:3---!I14 (l!)02).
[204111 So\rult.;~-(:r~l~ro\v, I?.: ICxnktc ZngRngo zn I~ydrotlyna~ninrherr l'rohlcmcn. 18. 1,otlwig [230] Sawatzki. O., and Zicrep, J.: J)as Sl.rort~fclditn Spslt zwischr~~ zwei kon7.cntrisol1~11 1<11gcl-
Prllntlt,l Mc~uorialI,ccLurc, BVW 23, 176 -183 (1075). fliichen, von denrn die innere roticrt,. Act,:r. Mrrhnnicn 9, 1 3 - 2 5 (1970); ucc also ZAlllhl 50.
[206] Sexl, 1'11.: Z I I St.nhiliG<tnfr;lge
~ tlcr Poiuonilleucl~e~~ und der Couette-Striilnung. Ann. J'l~ys. 205-208 (1070) nnd Eight,l~Syn~posilr~n on Navnl Itescarch. SH.C-17!),275 287 (1!)70). -

(4) 83, 835--848 (1027). [231] Sexl, Th.: Uber dreidimensionnle Slbrnngen der l'oiset~illcscher~Striin~r~ng. Ann. Phys.
[200\ Sexl, 'I%., and Spielberg, I<.: Znm Stnbilitiltnproblern dcr Poisenillo-Strii~n~~ng. Acta 83. 836 f 1927).
- - - - ---,-
- - 7

I'hys. Arlstriil.cn 12, !)---28 ( 1958). [232] Sadell, W. S., Sntera, S. P., nntl Maedcr, P. F. : Analysis of vorticily nn~plificationin t,l~e
12071 Shnpiro, N.hl.: Effccln of prcasurc grndirnt ant1 heat transfer on the stabilit,~of the corn- flow approaching a two-dimensional sta.gnat,ion point. ZAMP 21, 609-710 (1!)70).
prmsihlr I:ln~ino.rI ) o n ~ ~ d liryern. n r ~ JAS 23, 81-83 (1960). [233] Sadell, W.S., Sutora, S.P.. nnd Mnedcr, P. F.: An in~estignl~ion of vorticity a~~~plific.atiot~
[20X] Shrn, S.. nucl I'crnh, J . : 'I'he li~nit,ir~g wall t e ~ ~ ~ p e r n t rotios'reqr~irecl
~ure for con~plekfltabil- in stagnation flcw. ZAMP 21, 717-742 (1070).
iznfiot~o r 1:1111innrbonntlnrv .. lnycrs
. wit.11 blowing. J A S 23, 280-287 (1950). [234] Tnni, I., and Mituisi, S.: Contribr~tions1.0 the tlcsign of nerofoils anit,nblo for high sl~crcln.
120!)1 S i l ~ ~ ~ ~A., til ~ ~ , .I. V.: ~ j c ~ e r ~ n i n a t iof& houndnry lnycr t,rn~lsiLionon ~ l ~ r c c
s t n. ~ ~~I%crlccr, Aoro. ltes. Inst. Tokyo, Imp. Univ. Rep. 198 (1940).
s y ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ci~irftlils t . r i r i in
~ , t.11~
l NACA f~lll-smlewind t.un~~el. NACA T l t (i37 (1!)38). [235] Tani, I., Iiams, R., and Mituisi, 8.: On the permissible roughness in the lnminar boundary
[210] S ~ n i t . l A.M.O.:
~, Or1 I.he groa~thot' Taylor-(:iirt,lcr vort.icm along highly concave walls. layer. Aero. Reu. I n ~ t Tokyo, . Imp. Univ. Rep. 199 (1940).
()r~nrl.AppI, h411ll1. 1 3 , !t:!:%- 2V2 (1955). I2301 Tnni, I., nnd I l n n ~ e T.: , Some cxpcri~ncnkor1 tho effect,^ 01 n s i ~ ~ g ro11gl111rs11 lo ~II~~IIC:III,
121 1 Srnit,h, A. hl. 0 . :'I'r;r~~sil.io~~ ~)rrssr~rc grntlicnt. nnd slnl)ilit.y theory. I'apcr prmcnt,cd a t tho on boundary layer transition. J A S 20, 28!)-2!)0 (1053).
1X. i n l r r ~ (~: o . r ~ g r r soS ~ A11pl. Mcnh. 2:%4-244, I3rr1ssels,1957; see rllso JASS26,220-
31.
[237] Tani, I., Juchi, M., and Ynmamoto, IC.: Further experiment8 on the effect of a single
245 ( I !IS!)). roughness element on boundary layer transition. Rep. Inst,. Sci. Technol. Tokyo, 1Jniv.
(2121 Spcitlc~l,I,.: I ~ C P ~ I I ~ ~~I lI rSrI Sn n~ ~I iI rI~~a rGre~~zucl~icl~l, c~~ d ~ t r r hpcriodiscl~cStiirnngc~~ der 8 ( F g . 1954).
B i ~ n t r i i ~ ~ ~21p\V r ~ n p .5. 270--275 (1!)57). [238] TUIII,I.: Boundary layer trnnaition. Ar~nr~nl Rcvicw of Ipluitl Mrch. I , IT,!) -l!)T, (I!)(;!)).
...
[2l:!l Sl nl(lrr, ,I. I< I l t ~ h t ~ ~M. i nMr.,
, n11(1' l ' c ~ ~ ~ l c l 'r.
n ~11.
~ d: , A t l c t c r n ~ i ~ion
~ a lof I he Intninr~r- [238a] 'J'ntst~n~i, T.: St,nbilil.y of the lo~ninnrit~lct-llowprior 1.0 l,hc f o r ~ ~ ~ a lof
I'art I : J. Phys. Soc. Japan 7, 480-496 (l!)52). I'nrt. 11: ,J. I'lrys. Soc. Japnn 7, 4!)5-502
i o In' o i ~ c ~ ~rvgi~~ir. ill~
t.r:i~~sit.io~~:~l- a ~ u lt~~rl~r~lrl~t.-l)o~~~~~Iary-li~yc:r trn~pernt.~tro-recovery factor 011 a lint plilte in
s~~~~c-rsonic: Ilow. KA(:A '1.N 2077 (I!)5O). . c
(1952).
554 XVII. Oripili of t,rlrbrllonec TI

[23Hl1] T ~ I I1..~ 1111~1

, S:~t(i,11.: lloitndnry Inyrr t,ra~initionhy roupliness elemelrk. J. Phys. Soc.
J ~ ~ 11, I I 1284.-
I 12!)1 (I'JR(i): src also I X r Congrco Il~tertintionnlde Mi.canique AppliquCe,
Actcn. 11'. 8 0 - ~ 9 3(1057).
12391 Taylor, O . I.: Internal waves nlid t i ~ r l i l ~ l ~ ninc cn flnirl of vnrinhle drnsity. Rnpp. Proc.
Verb. Cons. Jnterliat. your 1'l':xploration dc la Mcr. LXXVJ Copenlingen, 35-42 (1931).
12401 Tnylor, G.I.: Ell'ects of vnrialiori in tlennity 011 tlie stabilit,y of superposed streams of fluid.
I'roc. Roy. Soc. A 132, 49!)-523 (19:31).
12411 ?';iglor, (:. I.: Stability of a v i ~ r o n sliqnid c.olit,nined het.wcen two rofnting cylintlers. Pliil.
Part D. Turbulent boundary layers
Trans. A 223, 28I)-~~34:3 (1923); scc also l'roc. Roy. Soc. A 1.51, 4!)4-512 (1035) and 157,
540---A64 nntl 565-578 (I 936).
[242] l'l~roclorsen.'r.. nntl Garrick, .I.: (2cncrnl pot,cnt,inl t,ticory of ztrhit,rnry \\ring section. NACt\
TI< 4V2 ( I!W!).
\ ,

12431 tllricl~.A,: 'I'llcorrtinrlic Utit~cr~~lcllilligrrl iihcr (lie \Vitlrrwtnntl~crs~inr11in clllrrh 1,nniitiar-

Iin.lt~tt~g lnit, ~ \ b s i ~ i l g l ~ Nrllrift~n
~ig. 8 13, No. 2 (1!)44).
(10. Altncl. (1. Li~ft,falirt,forrrcl~~i~~g
12441 \\'cntlf, L".: 'l'r~rl~nlcntcSt,riili~r~l~g z\visc.hc~lzwci rot.iornllclon konxinlc~i% y l i ~ ~ d ~1)i48.
rr~. Fundamentals of turbulent flow
(:iitt.ingc!i 1!)34. I ng.-<\rc:l~.4. 577 --5!)5 (10:33).
[245] b'ijkrr, 11.: 0 1 1 t.ho clcterniinntion of the t,rnn~itionpoint from niensurerri~ntsof tlie ntnt,ic
p r r ~ ~ n nlong
re n snrfnrc. Holl. l3cr. A 1210 (1051). n. Introductory remarks
[246] Mrijkrr. IT.: Stlrvry of tratinilion point ~neaxilrelner~t~ nt the NLL, lnninly for t\vodin~en-
sionnl flow over n NACA 0018 profile. Iloll. IIcr. A 1269 (1951).
[247] Wliesb. W.: NAl~erilngn~veisc Jlcreclinung inid Stnbilitiitsverlinlte~ivon laiiiinnren Qronz- Most flows which occur in prnctirnl applications are turbulcnt, the tcrm
scliiclit,en niit A ~ I R I I I ~ dnrcl~ I I I I ~ JSirizolurl~lit,ze.1ng.-Arcli. 21. DO-I03 (1953). dcnot.ing n motion in w l ~ i c lan
~ irrcgrrlnr fluctr~ntion(mixing, or oil(1ying motion) is
[24R] \Vllwt,. W.: St,nl)ilitiibrnit~der~~dc Einlliisuc dcr Absn~tgcgrenzscliichtoli.ZFW 4, 81 -84 superimposed on the ~ n a i nstream. Several photographs of turbulent flows in an opcn
(1!)5(i). water channel are shown in Figs. 18.la, b, c, and d in order to illust,ratc the typc
[24!)] \Vnzznn, A. It., Oltnniirra, T.. nl~tlS n ~ i t l A.M.O.: ~, Tho stabilit.y of nrat.er flow over Itented
and coolotl flat, plalcs. J . Hent, T r a n ~ f c rDO, 109- 114 (lQ(i8). of motion under considcration, the pattern having been made visible by sprinkling
[25O] Wnzznn, A.13... Okanii~rn,'S.. nritl SlniLIl, A.M.O.: Tlic utabi1it.y in inconiliresail~lcflat the free surface with powder. The velocity of flow was tho same in all pictures, but
platr I:u~iiiinrboini~lnrylayer in wnt,nr \vit.h ten~peratnrcdepcndetit viscosity. Proc. Sixt,l~ the camera was moved a t different spccds along the axis of tho channel. I t is easy
Sol~t.limntcrnS e n ~ i l ~ nonr l'hcr~nalScioncon, Itnleigh, N. C., 184-202 (1!)70).
[25l] \V:rzznn. A.lt.. Oknniurn, T., arid Sniit.li, A.M.O.: The ni,nbility nnd trnr~sit,ionof Iientrd
to deduce from each picture whether thc longitudinal velocity of t h e fluid particles
n n ~ coo1rfI
l inronil)rr.w.il~)Rlnn~iiinrI~ouriclnrylayers. I'roc. For~rt,llInt. Hent Transfer Conf. was smaller than or exceeded t h a t of thc camera, and their appcarancc givcs a very
((1. (:rig1111 nntl 15. I-lnllnc. eel.), 2, 1'C 1.4, Elsevicr Yubl. Co., Amsterdam, 1970. impressive idea of the complexity of turbulent flow.
12521 Wnzzan, A.R., Olcalni~ra.'I?.. and Slnitll, A.M.O.: Stability of laminar bountlnry layers
n.t scpnrnt,ion. Pl~yn.of Fluids, 10, 2540--2545 (1967). The fluctuation which is superimposed on the principal motion is so hopelessly
12531 \Vilkins. M. E., ntiel 'l'anbcr, M. E.: 13onntlnry layer t.rnnsit.ion on ahlnt.ing cones a t npeetk complex in its details t h a t i t seems t o be inaccessible to matllematical treatmcnt,
rip to 7 krn/ucc. AIAA J . 4, 1344---1348 (I!)G6). but i t must be realized that the resulting mixing motion is very important for the
12.541 Wicgl~nrdt,.I<.: 'I?licoretische St,riitnungslchre. 'Scnbncr, Sti~ttgnrt,1006. course of the flow and for the equilibrium of forces. The effects caused by it arc as
[255] Wortniann, F. X.: 1':xl~crirneiitrllo Utitcrslrcl~ungonlarninnrer C:renzscliicIit.cn boi inst.nl)i-
lor Scliichtun~.l'roc. Rlevor~tl~ I r ~ t .Con~ressof Appl. Mcoh. Miinchen 11164, 815-825 if the viscosity were increased by factors of one hnndrcd, ten thousand, or even
--
(l!)65). more. A t large Reynolds numbers t11ecr exists a continuous transport of energy from
. . \Vort I I I ~ I ~F.I X.:
12561 I , 1,iinps~virI)clin itlst,ahilcn Inminnron Crcn7.scliirl1le11.Drr Jngcnirrlr R.?, the main flow into the lirrge cddics. IIowcver, cncrgy is clissipat.ctl prcponclcrxr~l.ly
1, 52 - JA60 (197 1). by the small eddies, and thc process occurs in a narrow strip insidc thc boundary
[257] \Vorf.liinnn, 1'. X.: \'i~ilnlizat,ion of t,rnnnitiot~.JFM 38, 473---480 (1069).
12581 \ \ ' o r t ~ i ~ a nP.X.:
~ ~ , 'l'I10 i~~cot~~profisiIiIc fluid ttiotion do\~t~nOrcnin of two-diniennioiin~ layer, in the neighbourhood of thc wall, as shown in dctail in ref. [25J.
Tollmien-Scllliclitit,g waves. AGAlbU Conf. Proc. 224, 12- 1 to 12.- 8 (1977). Mixing is responsible for the large resistance experienced by turbulent flow
125!)] Ximlncrn~nnn. Q.: \%'cclisel\virku~lgenzwinclien turb~iler~tnn \\'andgrt.nzscl~ict~trnnnd
flcxihlen \1'8nden. 1lcric:lil. 10/1!174 of t.110 Max-Plnttck-11inLituL(:iitLingcn, 1974. in pipes, for the drag encountered by ships and aeroplanes and for the losscs in
turbines and turbocompressors, yet, on the other hand, turbulcnce cnables 11s t o
achicvc greater prcssure increases in diffnscrs or along ncroplnnc wings and corn-
prcssor blades. These devices would all show separation if thc flow wcrc laminar ant1
free of turbulence, and consequently thc dcgrce of encrgy rccovery in a diffuscr wonld
be mall, and wings and blades would operate in a n unsatisfactory manner.
I n thc succeeding chapter we shall discuss problems involving /ully developed
turbuk~ntmdion. I n this connexion we arc forced to restrict oi~rsclvest o t.hc con-
sitloration of time-averagcs of turbi~lcntmotion, bccar~sca complcb tl~rorct,ical
formulation has so far provcd impossible, owing t o thc complcxity of tnrl)ulcnt
flncbations.
65(i XVI I I. Pundemcnt~nlsof turbolent flow b. Mean motion nlld Il~~rt,r~ntiot~s 557

Tn following this pat11 it ltas a t lonst ~)rovctlpossil~lct.o c:st,nl)lisl~r~crt.ait~

tllco-
ret,icnl principlcs wl~icha.llow 11st,o int,rocl~~cc
n 1nr:lsuro of ortlcr into tJlc ex~)rritncnt,al
tnnterinl. Morcovcr i n ninny cnscs it provctl possit)lc t o prctliot, t(11c~sc tnt%:lnv:~lltc.s
untlcr t,llc nssnrnpf,ior~of ccrtnin plat~sibloI~gpotllcscsnntl so to ol)t.nin gootl ng1.t.c:-
ment wit,ll experin~ctit.T l ~ cfollowing clixpt,c~swill givc a n nncount of sut:h ;L srlni-
empirical t,licory of tnrbrllent flowt.
T l ~ cprescnt cl~npt~cr will bc tlcvotctl 1.0 t.llc st.lrtly of t.ltc itifl~~cnce of Il~tc.t.~tnt.io~ls
on t,he rncnti flow. Tllc srlcccctling c l ~ a p t ~ \\,ill
c r bc c.oncc:rnctl wit.ll t,Itc?sc~l~i-c!tn~)iric-:~l
Fig. 18.l a. C:&r~lorn
voloril.y 12.15 ctn/scc nss~tmptions11sct1in t,hc c::llcl~lntion of t l ~ r l ~ ~ r l oti~ot,ion;
nt~ nlosl, of t,llc?tn arc: l i t l l i t ~ t l .
wit,h 1.11~ concept of ,n,ia:ing lenglh tluc t o I'rn~ltlt,l.'l'llc. r c * ~ i ~ : ~ i ~.II:L~)~,(:I.S
~ ~ i l l g \\'ill t . I ~ t * t i
ctcxl wit,ll specific groups of t , ~ ~ r l ) n l ernnt.ions
nt on t,I~isI)nsis : ~ r l t l will in(:lt~tlt:l . I ~ t : IIOW
t.llro~rgl~ l)i~)cs,along ~)lnt,c.s,in t , ~ ~ r I ~ n l t1101111(1:~ry
:nt~ l:~yo~.s \vil,lt I)I.(*ssII~(* g ~ . : ~ l l i ( ' ~ ~ l s ,
and free t11rt)ulcnt flow, i. e . the flow in jets ant1 wn.l<cs\vllcrc no rcst.ricl.il~g,rvnlls
arc prcsct~t.Cont,ril)lrt,ions 1.0 t3ltc t.rent.lncnt of tlct,:~.ilctl~)roble~iis (:an [ i ) ~ ~ nint l
(:or ~fc-rcnocl'roccctlings 1.3, 17, 17n, 181.

- --
Upon closc ir~vcst,ignt~ion it appears t.llnt, t.Ile most, st,riliing f~::~t,~rrc: of l , ~ ~ r l ) ~ ~ l ( * r ~ t ,
Iiig. I X . I 11. C:~n~or:t
vr:lority 25 c~rl/scc rnot.ior~consist,s in tllc fact tlmt tthc vcloc:il.y :lntl prossllrc : ~ nt fixt:tl ~ ) o i t ~int . s1):ic.c
d o not remain const.ant with tirnc but, pcrforni vcyy irrrgl~lnrfl~~t:t.~t:~t~ions of lliglr
frequency (scc Fig. 16.17). T'hc lumps of f l ~ ~ iwl~ic:l~ tl pc:rfnrul srrc:lt fl~tc:Luntionsi l l t.l~c
tlir~ct~ion of flow ant1 nt right a.~lglcst.0 it, d o 1101, co~isist.of single 111oIc~c111t:s :IS ~ I S S I I I I I ( - ~ I
in ttltc: Itincl,ic t,Ilcory of gases; t,l~cynrc tnnc:roscol)ic I l t t i t l I):LIIs of vil,ryil~gsn1:111S~XI'.
I t nlny be notctl, by way of cxnmplc, t.l~nt~ nlt.l1011g11t , I ~ t : vcIocit8y I l ~ l ( . t , ~ ~ : ~i tl l, i o ~ l
ch:annel flow does not exceed scvcrnl per cent.., it, ncvcrt,hclcss llns n drrisivo itlllucnc:c?
on t-hc whole colrrse of tlle motmion.Tllc flr~ct,~~:~l.ions rrr~tlcrco~~sitlrt.:~t.iot~ I I I : I ~ IIC
visrtalizetl by realizing t,llnt, ccrtniri bigger port.ions,of t , l ~ cHl~itl11:~vc:t,hcir own in-
t.rinsic n)ot,ion wl~ichis s~tpcritnposctlon t,llc 1n:li11flow. S1tc.11/hid l~rrllsor 11i111ljs :~r.c!
c:learly visihle in t,he pl~ol~ogrnphs, Pigs. 18.1 11,c, (1. 'I'llc: sixc of sr1c.11lllritl I):~lls,
wliicll c.ont,in~~nlly ngglornrmt,o :lnd disint,(-gr:~t,(:, (It~t.crn~int*s t.Itc: nr(tle o/ I~o.IJ~(IPIIcP;
tht:ir size is tlet,crtn~ncclby t,llc cxt,crrl:ll c.ontlit,iotls :~ssoc*i:~.tt:tl \ v i t . l ~ 1.I1c: Ilotv, t11:lt is,
for csalnplc, by t,llc rncsl~of n scrocrl or Ilot~cgcolnl~ t,l~rortgh\\,hic.ll 1,111: st,rc:~tnl~ntl
p:~ssctl.Scvernl qunnt.itnt.ivc nienslrrcniont.~of t.lic n~ngnil,~~tlcs :~ssoc-i:~t.c~l wil.ll s ~ t c l ~
fl~~c:t,rt:~t.ions will Ile givon in Scc. XVl l l (I.
In nnt,ural wincls tSllcsc f l ~ ~ c t , ~ ~ n t ,mn.tlifost
ions t~ltcti~st:lvosvcry clt~~.rl.y in 1.111:
form of s ~ ~ ~ ~ a l l i nn(I
t i c s soft.c:n :tt,t,ain :I, n~:~gnil,t~tlc: . t , I ~ vI I I ~ %\vi11(1
or 50 1)1:r c : t ~ t ~ t ,of :III
s ~ ~ c cT
( ll. ~ size
c of I.~~rl)~tlt~ncc! l ~ t :I)(.
clonlc:l~l.si l l t01c: : ~ t . ~ l ~ o s l ~V:I.II r c j~ttlgc~l, li)r ~ ~ I : I I I I I I I ~ * ,
by observing t.lrc ctltlying of n corn f i t ~ l t l .
-- - -- -- .--

t Scvcral workers, in pnrt.icnlnr J. hl. Ilr~rgvrs,'I'll. ~ o Ji:ir~n;ill n :t11(1(:. I . 'l'nylr>r cl11i1cc.:u.ly

dcvclopcd a tllcory wllich nxceetls t.llrsn l i ~ n i knncl wllioh is I)nsrtl on sl.nl.ist,ic:nl~,nl~rt.l~l.s.
Fig. 18.1rl. Cntnrr:t volocit.y 27.6 rtn/sen JIowcvrr, (,his I.llcory 11ns not so far I)cctl nl)lr: 1.0 solvc 1.11t. ~ I I I I ~ ~ : I I1)rt11)1t~111 I I ~ I I (t:~I l~v ~ ~ l i r ~ ~ ~ t ~
cnrlicr. \Vc (lo noL pro1)oso l,n consi~lcrI.llis sl:ttidit~:tlt11t.ory of I , I I ~ I ~ I I I ~ iIt 1I ~t ~111% - ~(.III:I~III~I,~
of I , l l i ~I)ool< I ~ I I I Irtsl't;r I,IIc rt*:ttlorlo 1110 ( ~ o ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ r r(*virw~
r - I ~ r t Ivy ( : I ~ I I . ~ . ( , I I I . I I1>11.
~ ~t i .vI<. ~ A. A .
' ~ < ) \ v ~ I s ~ I ll;2\,
I ~ I .I.(). Ilinzc [ZOJ,6 . (!orrsin 171. t!.(j. l,in [:!5, :$Ill. .J.(!. I{.<)II.JL [4Ii,421, 1'. l < n ~ r l ~ l ~ ~ ~ \ v
121. I).(:. J.c~lie[:%4], M . .ll.osrnhlnttnntl C. Vnn At,(.&[45l. Il. 'l'ct~t~rkvs nnd rl.1,. ISIIIII~I'YI5fil.
558 XVITI. Fundamentals of tr~rbulelitflow

Tt, has alreacly bcrn pointed orlt, in Chap. XVI t h a t in describing a trlrb~llent
c. Additional, "appnrent" turbulel~tstresses
flow in mathcrnatiml terms i t is convenient t o separate i t into a mean motion a n d
into a flududion, or eddying motion,. Denoting t h e time-average of t h e ?L-component Before tlctlrlcing t,he ml:~t,iorl1)otwccn tlie mean motion :mtl (,It(: np[)arc:rtl, st,rosscs
of v r l o ~ i t - by
y 12 and its velocity of fli~ctuat~iorl
1)y 7~',we can write clown t h e following caused by the fuctuat~ionswe shall give a physical cxplarrat,ion which will illustrate:
rrlatior~sfor the vrlority components ant1 pressure their occurrence. The argument will be based o n t h e rnomcntr~rntheoron.
Let 11snow consider a n elementary arca CIAi n a turbrtlcnt strcarn wliose v c l ~ c i t ~ y
components are u, r t , 10. The normal to tho arca is imaginctf parallel t o the 2-rrxis
arid tlic clircctions y aritl z aro in the plan0 of dA. T h e mass of fluicl passing t J ~ r o r ~ g l ~
a s inrlirntcd in eqn. (16.2). When the t,~~rl>r~lerrt.
stream is comprrssil~lc(Chap. XXTII), this area in timc clt is given by CIA. ~u - dl and h011c:c tho flux of ~nomc:nt.~~rn i l l tlic
i t is necrssnry t o inc:lutlc Il~~ct~r~at,ions
in t,hc tlonsil.y, Q, and in t h e te~nperat~rlrc, z-dircct,iort is (I,/, dA . Q u2 d l ; correspondingly t h e flrtxcs in t,hc ?/ ant1 z-tlirockions
T and t o put - - . -
arc (1.1, = clA p n 77 . tll ancl ( 1 . 1 ~= tlA p 'I io cll, rc:sl)cc:l.ivc:ly. I l c : m c l r ~ I ~ ~I.lt:~,l,
:ri~~~
Q z 3 1- Q' ; 7' 2' 4- yl' . (18. 10, f) trhc clcrtt;it.y is c o ~ ~ s t , ;we i t C ~ I C I I I : G ~ the
~ ~can C following tinlc-:~vcr:~gcs
for tlic lluxcs of
lnomcrlturn per unit time:
'rhc tirnc-averages are formed a t a fixccl point in space and are given, e. g., by

By ~ q n (18.1)
. we find that,, e. g.,

applying t h e rules in eqns. (18.3) and (18.4) wc find t h a t

In this connrxiori it, is understootl ishat the mean vnlrtcs arc taken over a sufficiently
long int.crval of timc, t l , for them t o be complet,cly inclepenclcnt of time. Thus, by
clcfir~iLion,t h e t.imc-avcmgcs of all q~~ant,it.ics
tlesaribing the lluctf~iat,ionsare eqrlal
to zero :
- - - - - -
u' = O . , v' = O ; w' = O ; p' = O ; Q' = 0 ; T' = 0 . (18.3)
IIence, the exprrssions for t11c m o ~ n c n t ~ l m
flnxcs per unit timc become
The fcc?n.t~~re which is of f~~rtdarncnt,al
import,ancc for tho course of t u r b ~ ~ l o rmotion
consists in the circr~mst.nncct h a t the flrlct~~ations
it
u', v ' , 1u' inflliencc tile meart motion
-
tlJ, - CIA. p(Q2+11'2) ,
-
-
d.ly = dA . p(7i - 6 -1-
-
7 1 ' ~ '),

7Z, fi, 1% in s11c11a way titat the latkcr cxhil)its a n apparent increase in the rcsistarlcc d,J, = (1.4 . Q (7; . 9 4-u')
.
to tlcforrn:~tion. 111 otJicr words tltc presence of fluctuations manifests itself in a n
aplnrcnt, incrcasc in f.hc viscosity of thc funclamental flow. This it~creasetlrcpp.renl Tltcsc q ~ ~ a n t ~ i t idcnot,ing
cs, I.ho ratc of cl~angcof momentum, I~avr:t l ~ oclirncnsioii of
visco.sit?/ of tlic mean st.mnm forms tlic cer~t~ral conccpt of all t,l~eorcticalconsidcra- forces on t,he elementary area cfA, and npon clividing by i t we obtnirt forces pcr unit
(,ions of f,url~~tlont mottion. We sliall begin, therefore, by endeavouring t o obtain area, i. e. stresses. Since t h e flux of momentum pcr unit timc t h r o ~ ~ gahn arca is
R c:loscr insightf into t,hcse relations.
always oqnivalcnt, t o a n cqunl artcl opposih fornc oxcrtcd o n tlra a r c s l)y tlie sur-
rountlings, we corlclr~dct h a t t h e arca undcr corrsidcmtion, whiclt is n o r ~ n a lt o- the
11, is r~scfrrlLo list here scveral rnlcs of operating on m e i n time-averages, a s they +
z-axis, is act,cd upon I)y t h e strcsscs - e (iiz p)in the 2-direction, - p (ii 6 -1- u' v ' )
will be rc:qnirctl for rcfi:rcncc. If / and g arc t,wo dependent variables wliosc riteall an(1 - p(Q tZ -1 IL' I I J ' ) in ti10 z-(iirec!tiori. 'I'IIo li~,sl,of l,ltt! l,l~rc:ois
in t . 1 1 ~?/-~list~c:t,ion
v:tIurs arc to Ijc li)rrnctl :11i(1 if s c11:110k:s : I I I ~ 0110 o f t,he i ~ i d c ~ ) c r ~ vn.ri:tl~lcs
e l ~ ~ ~ t t z , 11, a nornlal s1,ress nnd tJtc I:bt,ter two are sitraring s t r r s s ~ ~ qI .t is t.1111~ scrn t.ltat t,hc
z, 1 l,lirn t l ~ cfoIlo\ving rules :~ppIy: sr~l)rr~)osit~iori of flr~ct,n:bl~ionson the mc:~n motion gives rise 141 t.hrco atlclit,ional
st,rrsscs
- - -
ozr= - Q u ' 2 ; tyzr = - Q U' V' ; t,,' = - Q 11'70' (18.5)

actiltg or1 f.hc r l e ~ n r n t n r ysnrface. T l ~ c yarc t,crmccI "app:~rc~tt"or It?e~7toldvstres~es

of t ~ ~ r b u l r flow
n t and nlust be adtlccl t o tltc strcsscs causecl by tho steady flow a s
explained earlier in conr~cxionwith laminar flow. Corrcsportclir~grxprcssiorts apply
in the case of rlcmcntary areas normal to the two ramainirig axcs y aritl z. 'l'ltry
 XVIII. P~tndanlcnlal~
of t~~rbulcnt
flow (1. 1)crivntion of tho stress tot~sorof npllnt.cvtt. I ~ r ~ r l ~ tfrir.l.iotl
~lo~~l. 56 1
560

lorrn t,opctllrr a c,omplrt~c~ t r t s stensor oi l ~ ~ r b u l e /low.

nl Eq~~ationst
(18.6) were first
tlctlncrtl 1)y 0. It(-ynoltls 1431 from the equations of motion of fluid dynamics (see
also the next srct ion).
It, is easy 1.0 v i s ~ ~ a l i-ztllat
c t , l ~ etime-averages of thc mixed products of velocity

a,,' -
fl~~ct.~t:sl.ions, S I I ( ~ I as C. g. TI,' 11' do, in fact,, diffcr from zero. T l ~ e
-
T,,' -- - - Q 11' 11' ~ : L I Ihe int,erprct,cd n.s t.11~
st,rcss component
t,ransport, of z-morncntfnm through
a srlrfacc 11or11rn.lt,o t l ~ c?/-axis. Consitlcring. for example, a mean flow given b y
a!!a~ + a!ay! 4-?
az
=0

IZ == I:(?/), I j --- 221 --- 0 wil.11 t14/(1y > 0, tPig. 18.2, we can see tlrat the Incan prodlick wltcrc V 2 d e ~ ~ o t ~1,apl:kce's
cs ol)crat,or. \Irc row in trod~lcct.11~
11ypol.11cscs t.rg:rt.dil~g
16' 11' is tlilTcrct~t.I'rom zero: 'l'llc pnrl,iclcs wl~iclrtravrl upwards in view of the trrrbulcnt, t.he decomposit.iotl of velocity componcnt,~a n d pressnrc itlt,o tllrir t,irr~c-avcr:lgrs
and fl~~ct,~lat.ion t,orrns from cqn. (18.1) ant1 form t,irnc-averagcs in tPhc rc~s~tlt,iltg
cq~~nt,ionst
t , e r ~ nby tcrrl~,t:llting inLo acc.onnt t11c rult>s frotn cqn. (18.4). Sit1c.c
a?/az = 0 et,c. t.hc ecluat.ion of contin~litybccomcs

From cqns. (18.7) ant1 (18.6~1)we obtain also t.11aL

Fig. 18.2. Transport of momentnm due
to torbt~lentvelocity flrrctuation
I t is seen t h a t t1he time-averaged vclocity co~nponontsand t l ~ cfluct~~:lt.ir~g ,rotn-
ponents each satisfy t l ~ cincompressible cqnat.ion of corlt,irr~~it~y.
flllc:t,ltatinn (11' > 0 ) nrrivc nt n layer y from a region whorc a smnllcr Incan vclocit,y Tntroducing t3llc?assumpt,ions from cqn. (18.1) int,o tltc rcl~t:~t,ion.s of tnot.iolt
17 l)rc:\.:,ils. Si1tc.c- t.llry (lo, otl t,Ilc wl~olo,Iwcsrrvc t,l~riroriginnl vcloci1,y 17, t.l~cygivc (18.0a, b, c) we obtain expressions similar t,o t l ~ o s egivcr~in 1.lln ~)rccctlingscv:t.ion.
1.i~~: :L ~lrg:~t.ivr cotnporlcr~t,16' in a Iitycr !/. Corrvcrscly, the pnrt.iclcs wl~iclrarrivc Upon forming averages ant1 considering the r ~ ~ l in c scqn. ( 1 8.4) i t is rlot,icctl t,l~nt.t.11~
frotn al,ovc t.llc I:~,ycr(11' ( 0) givc rise 1.0 :I. posit,ivc IL' in if,. On 1.11~ averngc., t.l~ercforc, quadmt.ic tcrnrs in the menti values remn.itr unalt.crctl 1)ccausc l , l ~ r yarc :~Irc:t~ly
a posit,ivn o' is "rrlosl.ly" :~ssoaint,ctlwit,l~n ncjin.tivc TL' and a ncgat,ivc v' is- "mostly" const,ant in t.imc. T11c t,ernls wllich arc lincar in tllc Lrcrb~~lcnt con~ponc:nts suc:lr
nssoc~i:~.l,(*c\ n We m:ty t.llus rspec:t, t,l~:tI, the t.ime-avcra,gcTL' n' -
wit,\, a p o s i t ~ i ~TL'. is not a s c. g. a~i,'/atand a2tr'/ax2 vanish in view of ccln. (18.3). ' r l ~ osntnc is t,rl~cof t.Itt:
ottly tlilli:rorI, I'rom 7,(:r0 I)r~t,also nrg:l.l,ivc:. 'l'llc slrcaring st,rcss a,,' = - p 11,' 11' is nlixetl t,crrns sue11 as c. g. G . IL', I)llt t.l~oclr~n(lr:~t.ic
t.c:rtns it1 t . 1 1 ~ llirc:l,n:~l.itt~
c:o~tl-
--
~)osit,ivctin (,Itis c.:~.scnntl llns t,lle snlnc sign as tltc rrlcvnt~tInrninnr sllcarit~gst,rcss lrone~itsremain in t,he eqnat,ions. Upon averaging t,hey assume t,lrc form 1.'" 71,' v' ctc.
T , -- 16 tl~i/tl?y.'l'llis fact is nlso csprcssctl by sl,a.l,ing t,llat t,llcrc exists a c.o~.rt/nlio?~ llrncc, if t.l~eaveraging process is carried out on cclns. (18.0), ant1 if silti~)lific~:~(io~ls
I)c*t,wcotl1.l1o longit.n(linal and t~mt~svcrso Iluct.uat,ion of vc~locit,ya t a given point. arising from the continuit,y cqr~at.ion(18.7) arc itrt.rocI~~rc*tl, 1 . 1 1 ~ follo\~ir~g syslctll
of ~ q n a t ~ i o nrcsi~lt~s
s

I l ; ~ \ , i t ~iIl~~st.r:r(.c(l
g ~ r : ~ l ca~ts(:(I l>y I ~ I I ~ I ~ I I I ~ I I I ~
t.lr(>,origin of t,It(, n , ~ I ~ l i t , i ( ~I'or(:cs
(ii a"- + ra?/ .,+= -)
r1.r
31,
,
02
= - GP( -
a!/
V:c . [.!m
i~> -I.
-
ili!'2

i,!, -I-
JJ!'

--il:
1l1'
I ( I 8.s I,)

Ilt~c-(.~~:~l.ion \ril.lt l,11(: :lit1 o f :t 1 ~ 1 1 ~ s i c:trg~trnc>nl.

:~l w o s11:tll tiow pt.o(:(~>rI 1.0 tl(*rivo
tit(- snlllc rxl)rrssiot~i t 1 :I. tnoro f o ~ n i : ~\ vl ; I . ~ : ~ t 1 ( 1 (iirtc.t.1y frorn t.llr N:~vi(:r-SI,oIzcs
c , c l ~ ~ : ~ t i 'i'lt(.
o ~ ~ sol,j(*cl.
. of sl~c:c~c~ctlirtg ~ ~ 1.0
: I ~ ~ I I I I I C Iis , (Icrivc tjhn cql~n.l.iot~s of
~noliotl\ v l ~ i c - l tnr~sl,
~ Ilr sn.l.is~ircl1)y i.It(: tin~c-avcr%grs of t.lle vclocit,y corn[,onct~t.s r 7
.I 11e cl~~a(lrnl,in tcrlns in t,nrl,~tlcntveloc:;l,y c o r n p o ~ t r ~ ~It:~vo t . s l)ecl~lI,r:~nsri~~.rc*tl lo
ii, i;, 171 :111tlof tl)r pr(.ss~rr(\ p. '1'11~ Nnvi(~r-Sl,ok(~s ccl~l:bI.ions(3.:)2) for inco~nl>rcssil)le t31~(: r i g l ~ t , - l ~ : ~si(1o ( l :I, ~ P I L S O I I\vIti(:l~will soot1 I ) ( \ ( - ~ I I I ( : ; I I ) ~ ) I I I ICeltts.
~ t ~ for ~ ~ ~ I I(1S.S)
~,.
IIOIV C ; I I I I)(% r~~\vriI~t.vtr in t l t c , rnr111 t,ogc:l.l~rrwit>llt,l~occlu:~I.iot~
(rf ~ o r t t , i n ~ ~(iYt ~~I yI . ,(18.7), ( I ( t l . ~ - t . l t l i t ~ ( :1.110 11r01~1(-111t11111(.t.
cor~sitl(:ralion.'I'hc Icft,-Irnntl sitlcs of ccpls. (18.8) arc l'~~rtn:tlly itlcnt.ic~:~l \\.it11 (111:
steady-state Nnvier-Stokes equations (3.92), if 1,llc vc1ocil.y c o n ~ p o n r r ~I(,, l . ~v, 111 arc
562 XVlI1. R~nclnmont.nIuof t11rI)ulantflow d. I~rrivntiotiof tlie utrrrm ten~orof nppnrent L~~rbrrlcnt
frictiori ,563

replacctl by t,heir time-averages, and the samc is true of t h e pressure n.ntl friction Crnemlly speaking, the apparent, stresscs far outwrigh tlir v i s r o ~ ~ romponc~ifs
s nntl,
f.erms on ttio rigtit-hand siclc. In a~ltlit~ion t h e oq~lationscontain terms which tlcpcnd ronsccl~~rntly, tlir Iattrr rnay 1)c omittrtl in rriany ncbtrlal r:isrs wil!~a gootl clc.g~c.c
on Llie tSr~rl~nlerit fl~~ct.i~at,io~i
of tlie slrcarn. of apl)roxitnal ion.
C o ~ r ~ p a r i neclns.
g (18.8) with cqns. (3.11) i t is secn t h a t tlie addit.ional t,erms
Boundary-layer eqnations: At tliis stage it may be iiscfr~l1)riefly to o ~ ~ t , l i tlir
nc
on t,lic right-liand side of cqns. (18.8) mtn be i n t ~ r p m t c da s componcnts of n, stress
form ctf the boundary-layer equations for turbillent. flow. In the rase of 1711o-di~raert-
tcnsor. I3y eqn. (3.lOa) 1.11~rcsr~lf,:rntsi111;7.~e:for(:c per 11nit.:1rt:a d ~ ~t,o
t :1,tic n.tltlit.ional
sionczl flows (15= 0) cqns. (18.7) nntl (18.8a, b, c), ~norlifiotlby the: I)r)~~titla~.y-1ayc.r'
I.crnts is s(:t.n lit> I)(:
approximations a s outlined in Chap. VI 1, lead to

Carrying t l ~ canalogy with cqns. (3.11) stmillfilrtlior we can rewritc eqns. (18.8) in
tho form
(two-dimensional, t,r~rbulcritboundary layer)
Due t,o the 1)oundnry-layer simplifications, t h e term

which is generated by the normal st,resscs, can be neglcctcd. A compnrisoii with the
equations for the laminar boundary layer, eqns. (7.10) and (7.1I), leads to the follow-
ing rules :
ant1 iipoi1 comp:tririg cqns. (18.9) with (18.8) we can see tliat t h e components of
(&) The velocity components and t.hc pressure, u, v , nnrl jv, are t o be replaced by
tlic strcsq ktisor t l ~ t cto the t,r~rbillcnlvclocit,y componcnts of t h e flow arc: their time-averages Z , 8, j5.
(b) T h e inertia terms and the pressure term remain unchangcd, whereas the viscous
term v ?72~/?7y2 must be replaced by

r
This is equivalent to stating t h a t the laminar viscous force per unit volnme a ~ ~ / a y
Illis stresq t.c?nsor is identical with tho one obtninacl in eqn. (18.5) with the nid of
1
must be replaced by
thc: ~nornent~r~rii t?q~rat.ion.
l'rom tlio preceding argument i t can 1)c conclutfctf tfhat, the cornponenl.~of
tllc 1ncn.n vc?lot!it,y of tr1r1)ulcnt flow satisfy t h c samc eqnn.I,ions, i. c. eqns. (18.9),
as those sat.isficd by laminar flow, except t h a t tho laminar stresses must be incrensctl where tl = palllay is thc laminar shearing stress from Newtoti's law, anrl .ct =
by atlclitional sl.rcr3.qos wliicli are givcn by t.lie strms tensor in eqn. (18.10). Tlicse - Q TG'?is the apparent turbulent stress from Reynolds's hypothcsis.
atltlit.iona1 st.rcsses arc Iznown k q o a p p r e n t ,or virtual S ~ ~ C R S P of
I F turhi~lent /low or
D o ~ ~ n d n rconditions:
y The boi~ritlary contlit.ions t o bc satisfictl I)y thc mrriri
Ile?/tsol*lm stresse.~.'l'hoy arc due t o tl~rbiilontflucti~atioriand arc givcn by the tiinc-
vrloeitey r o n ~ l ) o ~ i c n tin~ s cqns. (18.9) arc the Anme a s in ordinary Ianiinar flow,
mean vnlrlcs of tlie qr~adraticterms in tho t , ~ ~ r b n l ecomponents.
nt Since thcsc st~msscs
namely they all vanish a t solid walls (no-slip cotltlit.ion). Moreovrr, all turbuleiit
are atltic:cl to t l ~ corclitiary viscoi~sterms in Iyminar flow ant1 liavc a similar inflilencc
components must vanish a t t h c walls and they are very small in tlirir immediate
on t l ~ cconrse of tjlie flow, i t is often said tli& thcy arc caused by edh/ niscosity. Thc
nrighl~oi~rtiootl. I t follows, tl~rrcforc,tlint 1111 components of the trrisor o f :11)l):1,rt~nI,
t.ol.al strrssc~sarc l.l~c:snms of tlic viscoi~s~(.rcsscsfro111 cqn. (:%.25a,I))and of tlrcso
xt,rcssrs vanish a t Ulc solid walls a n ~ thc l only strcsscs which not nriw t,licrn arc t,l~c
:bpp:i,rcnt, sl,rc!ss(:s, so tI~:tt,e. g.,
viscous stresses of laminar flow a s they, generally speaking, d o not varlish there.
F ~ ~ r t h e r i n o ir te is secn t h a t in thc irnmcdiatc ncigh1)ourhood of a wnll the apparent
stresses are small compared wit11 thc viscous stresses, and i t follows t h a t in cvrry
t n r b ~ i l e n tflow there exists a very thin laycr next t o the wall which, in rssence,
behnves lilzc one in laminar motion. It is known a s t h e lnrminrcr svh-loycr nntl its
 564 XVIII. I~~~ndnmcr~tals
of tr~rbuletttflow

vc~lor.iticsarc so sn~:~.ll t , l ~ i ~I.l~c

. t viscons forces tlolninatc ovcr t,he inertia forces. 0.13 17 vcry close t o tho wall. It is clearly Recn frotn the clingram th:tt I)ot,l~I.~~rl)ctlcnt~
,
I 1111s.no t,~lrl~nlrnc:e
3
cnn exist in it. 'r'ltt: I:~.tninarsnb-layer joins a transit,io~iallayer components decrease t o zero a t t h e well, as st,atctl earlier. I'igrrrc 18.4 shows a lot.
in \ \ . l ~ i c * l the
~ vc~loc:iI(y fl~lcbt,~lntions aro so 1:lrgc t h a t tlicy give rise to t.urbulent shearing of tile mean value of the product - 7=, which
sl~rrssc~s wllic:h arc, i l l turn, ro~nparal)lcwith the visc:or~sst,resscs. At still Inrgor -is cq~l.zlt o the t,rtrl)~ll,:rtLsllt*:i.ring
tlist.nnros ft.oin t11c: will1 t,l~ct.~~rl)rllri~t, sl,rc!sscs cvcn1.11:~llycompletely out,wcigli stress except for a factor Q. The value of - 76' v' falls to zero in t.l~c! cor~t,rr0 1 t,l~c:
1 . 1 1 ~viscotls sl.rc%ssrs.l'llis is t h e act,n:~l t,nrl)~rlcntbountlary layer. The t.hickness
t,est section for reasons of symmetry, wltcreas it.s maximulrt ocrnrs near t.11~wall
sho\villg t h a t tllrblllcllt friction 118sits largest v a l ~ t ct,l~crc.'I'hc 1)rokrn line t/o sl~ows
of tl~c.In1ni11n.rsltl~-laycris so srnnll, in n ~ o s tcases, ~ trhatSit, is irnpossil~lc,or vcry
the variation of shearing stress which was obtiiinctl froin tllc ~nr:~s~~rc:tl l)rcbssllrc
tliffic:rlll., t.o ol~sc:rvcit, 11llt1crc ~ ~ ~ t ~ r i r ~~on(lit.iotis. l c r ~ l ~ a I NcvcrLI~cIc:ss,it is of tlecisive
tlist,ribution and independently of tltc measurement of vclocit,y. 'She tewo cllrvrs
itnl~)rt,anrefor t.l~c: flow ~lntlcrcorisicl~~r:~t,ion I)cca~rseit is t<hcscat of p l ~ c n o m c ~ i a
nrnrly coincide over t h e major port,ion of t.11~ Itrigl~t,of t.11~ t.cst, srct.io~\,
atitl t.l~isIrray
11.y\r.l~ivltt,l~osl~raring:t.t, t.hc w:~ll rid II(,II(:Ct.11~ visc:o~rst1r:t.g arc tlet.crrninrtl. !\'c
I)c il~l.arprrt.atlns a ~ o o (check
l on t.l~cr n c n s ~ l r c m c ~ ~it.t ,; ~ ;l s osl~ows1,11:~t
n.lt~rost.:tll'of
sl~nllrc:vc,rl. 1.0 (.Itis point l:~t.(>r in t.l~cI~oolc. -
th(?sl~caringstress IS due to t.urbulcrtce. l'11c two nttrvcs ~tntlcrconsitlcr:~t,iot~ clivc.rgc:
15rj11:if,ions(18.!)) :111(1(IS.10) c:o~~sI~it.~lt.r 1.110st,arLi~tgpoint for t,l~c:m:~.l.llrrnat.ic:xl rlpar t,Ile w:Lll,t,)lc cllrvc of -- TI,' I,' tlr(:rcasi~~g t,o zero. Irc.c,:~l~sc-I,III.I~III~*IIL(I~~c.t,tt:~t.io~~s
lr(,:11I I I V ~o f~ l~. ~ ~ r l ~ t ~ l c ! ~ ~~t ~ . - rl lo( l~~\ vl cor,
r ~ rnorc:
~ s , prc(:iscly, for trhc caI~:ul:~l,io~t o f t,l~c &c out llear the wall. The tlifirericc bctwecn the two curvcs gives I : L ~ I ~ I I : Lfrict ~ ion.
1 itnc>-:~vc-rngc*s of t . 1 1 ~magnil.~ltlcs\rltic:ll t1csc:ribc the Row. 'l'hc time-averagetl va,lrrcx Finally Fig. 18.4 contains values of the correlation coe//icie7rl, V J , I)ct,wccit t,ltc 10npit~11-
of t,l1(- t.nrl)~llc~nl, vc~loc:iOy rorr~poncrntsci1.11be intcrprct.etl a s t l ~ ecornporlc~tt.sof a clit~alnntl l.rar~svcrsefl~tcLrr:~l.iot~s a t t , l ~ snrnc
c point,; il, is tlc\litlc-tl l ) . ~
st.rc,ss 1.c:nsor 11111. if, n ~ ~ r sI)(, t . I)ornc in niincl t h a t snc:h IIII intcrprn1,nf~ion tlocs not.
in ilst~ll'Ic:i.tll,o v c y 1nnr11.l':(~n:~I.ions ( 1 8.9) :incl (18.10) F R I I I I O ~1)e IISC~I for a rat,ional
c~v:~l~lnt.ion of 1,ltc mr:l.ri flow as long as t . 1 1 ~relation 11et,\veell the mean and tlie
t , r l r l ~ l ~ l ccorr~l)onctltn
*~~t is not known. Srlch a relation can only be obtninetl empirically
ant1 Forms 1 . 1 1 ~rsscn0i:il col~t.cnt.sof all the I~ypothcscscor~cerningturbulence which
will IIC tlisc~rssctlin t,l~cs~lccccc~ing cl~aptcr.

C. S o n ~ cmcn~~rrernenta
on Ill~ctuntingtl~rbulcr~t
vclocitiea

In expcrirnc~nt.alwork on tnrbulcnt, flow it is nsual (,o mcasurc only the mean

v a l ~ ~ cofs 1)rcssorc and vnloc:it,.y bccansc t,hoy arc the only quantities whicli can be
~nc::~s~lred convenicrtt~ly.The rncasllrcmcrlt of the tlirbulcnt, fiuctuat.ir~gcornponetits
u', v', . .. t,hcr~isclvos,or of their mean val~lcsurrch a s 7 ~ ' u'
--
~ ,v', . . . is rather tlifficrilt
arid rcclrlircs cl:rl)or.ate crluiprncnt. Itcliablc rnc:isrrmrnent,s of the fluct~rat,ion-velocity
r o n ~ l ~ ~ t ( :IIRVOn t s O(:c11 o\~t,:~incdwit11 the aid of hot-wire anemometers. T h e measure-
ment, of tho mean values is quite sufficient for most practical appljcat,ions, b u t only
tt~rotrghtile actual measurement of tlie fl~tct~tating components is i t possible t o gain
n tlcepcr ~~ntlerst~antling of the mechanism of turbulent flow. We now propose t o give
a short account of sonic c ~ p e r i m c n t ~work al on the measurement of t h e fluctuating-
vc1oc:it.y c o n ~ p o n c n tin , ~onicr t,o present, a rnore vivid physical picture of t,he plicno-
I I I ~ I I I La 1 ~~1I orclcr
I to p i v ~
sorrle j~lst~ificatiort
l o the preceding rnat,l~cmat,icalnrgument,.
I I. Iteic:lia,rtlt 141J oarricd ant, sueit measuremct~tsin a wind t~lnrtel wit,h a
rect~atiglltartest scct,ior~1 In wide and 24.4 crn high. The variation of ttlc mean vclocit.y
over t,hc height of the tunnel, ii(?y), is seen plotled in Fig. 18.3; rneasuremenl,~were
matlc in t h e ccntml section of the tunnel. It is seen t o be a typical turbulent velocity
profile with a steep increaso ncar the wnll a n d a fpirly uniform velocity ncar the Fig. 18.3. Mens~lretnrr~t
of flunt~lnt.i~~g
tur- Fig. 18.4. B l m n ~ ~ r r tof
~ ~Il~rc-l~~~n.t,itlp
r~~t rotll-
ccnt.rc-line. Tlie maxirnurrt vclocit,y was U = 1 0 cmlsec. The same diagram contains h ~ ~ l r nrorn~~onrtttn
t in n wind tut~nrl, ponc~~ts i l l n c.I~~nnrl, 1lrif.ll:u.tll IcI1 I
~~ft,c:r
also plot.s of t,he root-rt~can-scl~larc values of the longit,r~tlirialand tr:tnsvcrsc compo- nt, I I I I I X ~ I I I I I I I Ivrlf,c.il,y 1J -- 100 cll~/n(?(! TI,"p r o , l l l , . ~ ;TT, (I,,. s)tc;tri~tgs l r v w TI,,.
: L I I ~ I1 1 1 wr-
~

nents ,1/2ancl 1 1 5 ro~pt:ct,ivcly.The transvcrsc flucLnatio~ttloes riot vary grcat,ly nltnr Ilriahnrtlb 1.41) rt,~,tt\,,n V S ~ . I I \ , . I V I I L vq
ovcr the hcigllt, of t.he cllanrltrl ant1 its avcragc? valuc is about 4 per cent. of f7, but no~t.tnrn,,.~t1a~nro 4~ .
or longitu<tlnnl ~ v ~ t : t n n ~ i ~ ~ n
I.hc longit.~tdinalt.llrI~irlcntcomponent c x l ~ i t ~ i al ~ spronorrttcctl steep maximum of trnnsverac llurl.t~nlion 1/;7i, nlrrn ~ c l o c i l ~
 566 XVII I. I~~t~~(lntiit~ntnln
01 t,t~rl)rtlrntflow

y~ ranges ovcr values up to y~ = -0.45.

Tlte rorrrlnt,ion rorffirir~lt~
Itlore r x l r ~ ~ s i vmcasrlrcment~s
e on t,hr t,~irhltlrnt,fluct~~lat~ions have also been
pcrformrtl it1 t,hc I~orintlnrylayer of a flat. ljlat,c n.1, zrro incidence. Figure 18.5 re-
prntlnocs some of t,llr rc~sultsol)l,ninccl I)y 1'. S. IZlcba.noff 1251 i r l a bountlary layer
on a fl:~t.plnt,r n.ssociat,ctl wit11 a st,rmm of t,he very low t,url)l~le~lce i n t r n s i t , ~of
0.02 0/, ( c / . Scrs. XVIcl ant1 XVI I1 f). at, a ltoynoltls nnrnl)cr R, = ( I , z / v = 4.2 x loe.
,.
I ho prnfileof 1 . 1 1t,en~poral
~ mc:m of the vrlocity, d,cxltibits ashage w11ic:h is very much
lilte t,lint in :I c:l~:crincl, I'ig. 18.3. 'Sllc vari:~t.ionof t,hr l o i ~ ~ i t ~ i ~ t lflltct.r~ntiotr
wit,h it.s protlortnc.rcl ~nnxitnri~n
innl
in rlosc proxirnit.y of f . 1 1 ~ w:di -n.s woll n s the? Il:it,t.cr
v<3
caortrscbof tl~c:crtrvr of t,r:~~rsvrrso osc:iIlat.ir,~ra t right a~rglcsLO I.ho w:~Il, , rloscly 1 / ~
rrsrrnble t,l~oseobtairiod i r l tho c l ~ a n t ~ eFig.
l , 18.3. It, is rcmarlcnl~lot.ll:~Lin tilo I~our~cl-
nry
---
1:iyc.r on :I flat platc, Fig. 18.5, t,he t,rnnsvcrsn osrillatiot~pnr:tncl t o tlro wall.
J/? , also al.t,ninsrorrsidrr:~blcv:t.l~~rs,
V : L ~ I I C Swhich, morrovcr, oxcet:<I~,IIOSC att,:tit~etl
-
l)y l/s. 'l'li(x ~ I I ~ , st,rcss - ut vf/r1L rnc:~st~r(!d(~IOSC to t , l w:LII
~ I I ~ ~ I I I si~ca.ri~)g ~
:Lgrctbs witll 7/,7 11: =0.0015, tho loc::~lv:rlrlr of t.hc skin-fri(:t.iot~(-oeflj(!irl~t C; i t r
the tli:lgram of Fig.2I.lO.A cornparisol~between Figs. 18.3 ant1 18.4 for t h e channel
:~ntlF ~ E18.5
. fvr the bouncI;~ryI:~yerreve:~lsthat the turbulent fluctilatinns a r e very
simil:rr in I)oth cases. 'l'liey ~ ~ r o v i daejrlstifiration for the :~pplic:tt.io~l of t.he laws
of trlrl)rllcnt flow dctluced from the slrlcty of flows tlirorrgh channels and pipes to
the tlcsrril)tion of the flow in a boundary layer. We shall make use of this gossi-
Fig. 18.5. Vsrint.ion of t . 1 ~flr~ctr~xting(.nrbr~lciltvc?locif,ycon~poilcnI.nin t.11~I~ol~ndnry
lnyrr
Oilitg in Cli:ip. X X I .
011n flnt p1nt.r at. zero incidnnrc, ns nicnsr~rrtlby 1'. S. I<lnl)nnolT[25J
(:. nt~tl1'. S. I<lal)atlofP 1.501 prrfornlnd also very mrcf111measure-
I<. Sr11111):1.1trr 1'5
t ' u r v r (1). t ~ ~ t g i t l ~ t \Oi Rn C~ ~I ~ I R ~ ~ O I I :
I I I I ~ I I ~of
I l ~ r t 1 r ~ ~ t .of
S t,Ilr i o rt,I~c
~ s tarb111rtlLvcbt:ity comlx,tant.s nncl of t1llemrrclation t:ttrvo (2). L r a t ~ s v c r ~narillnllnn
e ~,srnllt.llo wall: 1's
c:oc-flit-i~nt in :I. Lrirblilrrlt, bountlary layer or1 a flat wall wit,h a frcvoumble ant1 a n
trtls-~rscItrrssuro grxclient.
Curvo (3). Iransverne ~ r i l l n l l n nn l rigl,t nnglrs to wall:
- 1 / ~
Curvl: (4). Lurbrrlcnl shcnring slrr.;.;: n' v' = - rl/e:

,I. I,nl~fc.r1x21 prrfortnctl cst.c:l~sivo mmsl~rernrnt.sor1 t,llc flnctuat,ing ooml)o-

< rlcnolrs lncnn valocity

t l c ~ ~ ti sl l 11ipr floio. 15nrlirr rnoasitrcrnrt~t~s~)crformntl hy 1'. S. IClehal~olT ant1

%. I!'. I)ic,l~l1241 on arr nrtiIici:rlly t.hirIcc!netl 1)orlntlxry layer on a flat plate rlrmon-
r;tr:rtr~clth:tt. it, Ot~lrnvcssr~l)st.nnl.inIly lilcc?a n ort1inar.y 1)olintlary In.yer wit.ll n. corrt?. layer ant1 tile nenrly tnrl~rllence-frcocxt.crnal ~ t ~ r o nflrtnl,natcil
~n slfrongly wit11 time.
.Ll~ovariat,ion of the int.crrnitt.cncy f:~cLory ovcr t f l ~ wit1t.h
7 .
c of t.he 1)onntlnry 1:~ycr
s l i o ~ r c l i ~ t giirlc:rr:i.sctl
l~~ i~llt:t Icngt,h. 1)cL:~ilctl rc:sult.s on ttirbulcnt flow t.hrough a
is shown plottetl in Fig. 18.6. The value y = 1 sigl~ifiest h a t the flow is turbulent
(:II:IIIIIP~ rill1 I>(: Sor111t1dcscri1)etl in n. papcr by J . 1,aufcr [RO]. A s n h s e q ~ ~ cpapcr
~ i t by
a t all times a n d y = 0 corresponds t o a [low which remains laminar. I t can he inferred
* I . ( ' . 1,nrtrcnec: IR:1] ,:ol~t,ninsthe resrllt*soS his i~~vcst.igat.ions of t,he int,ensity of tur-
from the diagram t h a t t h c boundary layer is intermittent in that, respect from
1>1111~nrr in frcc jct,s,
y = 0.5 h t.o y = 1.2 0 . Turbr~lcr~t, j c k and wakes brhavc in a sirnilar rnnnnc>r ( c / .
'I'Ir(1 irlvc~slig,rntioi~s
it1l.o t . ~ t r l ~ ~ ~nsrill:i.l.ions
l c ? ~ r t ~ in t.11~I ) o ~ t n d a rInycr
~ of a. flat, [25n,26. 28, 631).
plnt,e tlrscri1)etl ill rrf. 1-25] l ~ n v cshow11, Crtrt,l~cr,t , l ~ a t,hc t klrbltlcncc a t the outer Apart from t h e dist.rii)ubion of t.110 vclocity llrlc:l.unl.io~~s,i t is nccossnry t,o provitlc
ctlgc? of tho horrntlary 1n.ycr is inttrrmit8tjcntfant1 rcscmblcs in this respect, 1.11~flow adclitional d a t a in order t o characterize a turbulcr~tstrcnrn. A qliantitativc statcrnerlt
i r t t.l~(,inlet, lcngt.11of x pipe dcscribcd it1 Src. XVIn. ?nd Figs. 16.2 anti 16.3. Oscillo- regarding tile spatial structllrc of turbulcncc can I)e obtained by simult,aneously
grnlris of t,llr osc-il1:rfitrg t,~irbulcrltvelocity rornponents dcmonstrate t h a t the posit,ion observing I,)II? velocity f l u ~ t u x t ~ i o ar ~t stwo ncighbouring point,s 1 a.ncl 2 in t h e flow
of t,lto fairly sharp I~orindn.ricshrt.\vcc~rth(: Irighly ,'t#urbulent flow in the bolltltlary ficltl. These allow us t,o dctcrmine t h e correlation funcLion
u'u'
t It tii:ly 110 r r ~ ~ ~ n r kIinro r t l in pnssirtg t.hnL t.l~rnxinlence of art npparrr~t.sllenring strew due to R= 1-1

vrlosit,y f l i ~ c L ~ ~ : r t . ial\vnys
t~nn ilr~plirs:r ca~rrclnt.io~tI~ct~rvcrr~t,l~cLitrhl~let~t vr~oc-it.~ con~pc~~~ents *j .j
z
in 1.a.o rlifirt-nl. tlirc.c.l.iotts. Sltr.11 oorrrl;~t.ir~t~ also cxistx in t,ltc cn4c 111 tiltr ( l i n t r ~ r b n twhich
~~r~
tirt\.r I P ~ ~ I . Iirivc.sl.ijintct1
I i n cotrtrc.xiot~wit.11 t,l~etl~roryo1shbilil.y ofI:rttiinnr r~lotior~; see rrf. [5H]
by C. I. 'I':~.ylor [52], '1'11~ tIi:r.gr:l~ni l l Fig. 18.7 ( l i s l ) l : ~ :I,~ ~t,y1)it.:~l
first, it~l~rotIr~cc(l s
 568 XVIII. F~~ndamentnls
of tttrbulcnt flow

c:orrc.l:~l,iotrfrtnc:I.ion for 1.1~:longit,~rtfin;~l Ilnc:l,r~at,ionsin tllo cross-scc:tion of a circular obtain t h e so-called autocorrelalion fundiota. The provision of spacc-t,irnc corrcl R t .IOIIS,
'
1)il)t- ol'(li:tmotc:r tl t,i~l<(:n ~ n t o G. I. 'J'aylor 1-54]. One of the hot
from a p t r I ) l i ~ : ~ t iduc t h a t is, of observations of two velocity components, oacll mcasurc(l a t a tlilrrrrnt
\r.irrs \V:LS pl:~.cc(lin t.ht: (:(:t~treant1 the oIfllcr : ~ at variable dist:~nncr. At 1. = 0 the location in space and a t a different inst,ant i n tirnc, allows u s t o gain a gootl tlr:tl
t.\r:o (Itt(~l.ll:lI.ions ant1 ?I,,' :Lro idcntic:ll, ant1 For this reason wc find t h a t R ( 0 ) = I of insight. As an example, we reproduce in Fig. 18.8 snch space-time corr~lnt~ions
1.11c.rc..As r is inc:rr:tsoct, t . 1 1 ~c:orrcl:~l.ionftinotion tlccreascs i n value very mpitlly, cvcri
: r s s t ~ ~ ~ t i irr ~
l g
1.Ilis
, 1):~rl~ic:rllnr
cxa.mplc, srn:~.llnegative values over a ccrt.:tin r:kngc.

Disl.anco from wall:

y/d = 0.24
T5orrrtdary-layer t.I~ickncss:
8 -
16.8 nini

Fig. 18.8. Space-time correlations of velocity flrtctuatiol~si n Ll~ct!~rl~trlcnl I)ou~ttlarylnynr on

e flat plate, as measured by A. J. Favrc, J. J . Caviglio and 11. .J. 1)nrnas [tfi]

ol)t.nincd by A. J. Favre and his coworkers (161 in tllc L n r l ~ t ~ l cbr o ~ nt n t l ~ ~ rInyrr

y on
a fl:l.t plntc. 'l'l~e1nrnpor:tl tlispl;~cctncl~~l,, t,,,, of t.lln I ~ ; ~ X ~ I I I IoI'(-:~(.ll
III~ (:Itrvv is inll)osc(I
by t.llo passage of t u r b ~ ~ l o nctlrlics;
t tho odtlics move \vit,ll nn n ~ ) ~ ) t ~ o s i t ~vc*lot.il.y ~:~l,c:
lgig. 18.6. t':~ri:tl,iot~ o i l , l ~ ni ~ ~ l , ( : r ~ ~ ~ i t , t c t ~ ( ! y I'ig. 18.7. Corrc.lnl.ion frtnc:l.ioti for tllc wliich is equal t,o 0.8 U,. 'l'11e tlccrcasc in the maxima is the rcsrxlt of ;L procrss wlticll
I':~(-l.or
)I i t t :L t,~trl~~~loc~I.
I)or~~~clnry I:ryor ott t,~lrl)l~lcl~t Ilt~ct~~~aI.ion of Clio longit~rcli~~al can be visualized as follows: With t l ~ c1)assngoof time, tpl~o t,url)ulc111, ntltlirs losr 1,Ilcir
:L 1I:tl. j1ln1.c :11. zvro it~ni(innc:r,its trlcas- con~]x)t~c~~t, o f vvlocit.y, u,', nrc~r~rctl it1 i~~tlivirlnalit,y t,hrollgll mixing with the s~lrroutldingI , l r r b ~ ~ l cflt~icl. ~ ~ t , Concurrc:nt,Iy,
11rc.1111y 1'. S. I( lc!l)n~~olf 1251 Lllc cc?t~trro f tt ])il)(? :b11r1 rc?l:~l,r(l 1.0 1 . 1 1 ~ ncw etltlics c:ont,iritto~~sly spring into being.
l l ~ t c t ~ ~ : t(-ott~ponrt~t,
ti~~g u2' :tt, clisl,nt~cer. An albrnativc tlcscript,ion of t,hc str~icturcof turb~llcriccis obt,:~inctlw l l c ~a~
I11c:ts11rct1tr1lts( 1 1 1 ~ to I,. F. (:. Si1t11no11.9 f r ~ q ~ ~ e , zanalysis
cy of the motion is provided instcad of a correlation fu~irt~ion. 'l'l~is
ant1 rcporlnti 11y Q . 1. 'l'aylor I541 leatls 11st,o t h e concrpt of the speclr~~r,~rr of n t.rrrl)~tlcnl,st,rc::~ni.f,ct I , clonot.r tlrc -- Src-
quency n . 7 ~F~(t nl ) (171, t.11~fr:~ctional con1,rnt of t l ~ rr o o t - t ~ ~ r : ~ ~ ~ - sv:I~II(-,
( ~ t ~ n rI (&: ' ~of,
, I
t.11~ longi1.1ltlinalIluct,uat,ion w l ~ i c lbclongs
~ t.o 1.l1cfrcqr~cnvyir~l~c~rvnl fro11111,- t.o 11. I tlrr.
1 Itis is oxplnint\d 1)y t h e rec~niremcnt~ of cont,in~lit,y
accortlirig t o wl~ich,a s we know,
'I'IIO fnnct,ion F ( n ) , whicll rcprcsent,~- t,l~ctlcllsi1,y of 1 . 1 1 ~tlisl,ril)r~I.io~~ ol' 1t'"il ? I , is
t,l~er:~,l,c.ol' flow tJlrougl~a n y cross-scct-ion ronains constant in time. T11e integral of
Ic~town ns t,l~c.speclml rli.slrihl~tio,aof 71,'" l3y tlcfi~~itiorr, \vr: ~nrlst,I~nvct
1 . 1 1 ~c:orrrl:~t,ion f~rnct:ionIt, t.l~atis, t h e qr~nnt~ity

? 7

[ 1 1 ~ : S J ) C C ~r d
ft111cl,io11~ ( I Ican ) bc i l l t,c~,p~~t:t.r(l as I It(; IPo~~ricr I I I I)(\
l I ~ ~ I I S ~ O I . I01'
yirlcls :I. c.ll:~~;tc:t.rrist,ic Irngtd~of tJle st,r~~c-l,ltre of tht: tturbnlcnce in t.hc flow. 'lll~is ntltoc.o~.t.clnt.ionf'tt~lctiont.'l:l~c: spcc1.r.n tlist)l:lyc.tl in IGg. IS.!) wrrc o l ) l : ~ i ~ l ( IIJ' ~l
lr11gt.11,\ \ ~ / ~ iisc l:IISO
~ Itt~o\vnn.s t h e s c d e of Iro.b7tleItae, e~t~ablishes a men.sllrc of t h e P. S. 1Zlcl)nnoff 1251 in t,l~ct,urb~rlcr~t bol~ntlnrylnycr Sormc,tl on :I f1:l.t pln.1.c. ICxcc3pt
c s t r t ~ tof. the rnnss ~ v l ~ itnovcs r l ~ ns R t ~ t i i at1(1
t gives ,in idea of the avern.gc size of t h e for t , l ~ cmensr~rrmc~it nl, tltc ont,er ctlgc of t,I~(tI)o~t~t(l:rry ~ --- 1). 1.llr ItigI~(~sl~
I : I ? ; c(?j/O
l.rtr-l)r~lrttI. tvlrlic-s ("I):IIIs of l.nrl~111cnr.c").111 1.11~cxam1)lc llntlcr tlisctlssion it* \rrnv
forltltl ll1:11. 1, v 0.14 d). (a
I S l.lto sc:c.ol~tl vrloc.ilty, 1 1 ~ 'in eclm (14.1:1). is n ~ c : ~ s ~ r rat. c d t l ~ t : same 1orn.t.ion
-
vx111(:ol' V(II):tl~vnjrsO ( : ( - I I ~ S;1.1, l , l ~ clo\v(tsl,I I I ~ Y I S I I ~ ( Y I l'r(~111(~1t(~y.
is r:~is(:cl,1,Itt: fnt~t:l,ionF(II,) 71,-5/:' in ~;ont:or(I:~~~t-c
A s I,II(, I ' I . I ~ I I I I 1I1 ,~ I I ( ~ ~ ,
wit11 1111% lIt(-o~.y~ l ~ * \ ~ ~ ~l),y I t ) l ~ ~ ~

l ) t r l :II. a (Iill'(-rr111,
~ I I S ~ . : I I Iof at, inst,arlt t l and 11.; a t ir~stnntt 2 = tl -1- 0, wo
~ < I,itnn (71~' t 'lhis \\as first rrrogtiizrtl 1)y (:.I. Taylor [47]
670 XV111. I'nnclntnrt~t~nla
of tt~rhrrlrr~t,
flow f. Energy diatril~nbionin tnrl)r~lrnt,st,rcntns 57 1

A. N. I<oln~ogorovr,C. 1'. von Wcizsncclzer 1641 and W. Ilciscnbcrg. As t,hs frcqrtency f. Energy distribution in turboletlt streams
bcconirs e v e n I:irgrr, F ( i r ) clecrensee u n d e r (,IIc acttion of kilicmnt,ic viscosit,y at, R

-
Tho snbaidiary, oscillntory motion conI.in~rallydrains nwny crlt?rgy frotn L11o Incan, principal
fa,ot,rr m t c st.ill. Arcortling t o W. 1Icisc~nl)crg'st,hcory [Inn], a t very ltigll v n l t ~ c sof n~ol,ionthrough the inkr~ncdiaryof the turbr~lcntutrosscs. UIlin~nLrly,this energy is ron~plctrly
I'reclucncy wr. s11o111de~bservet.lrat F ( a ) la-'. 'Chc t,wo t.heoret.ica.l in.ws a r c represent- clissipated into 1n:at owing to tho act,ion of viscosity. If wc i ~ ~ t . r o d the
~ ~ cvelocities
c from rqn. (18.1)
rtl in Fig. 18.9 hv t . 1 1 ~t.wo st.might lines lnhrllrtl ( I ) a n d ( 2 ) , rns~)cct.ively. into t l ~ ccxprcssion for Lhc dinsipation function fro111cqn. (12.8), we (::in isolnta a gronp of tnrlns
!vIiicl~clcpend solely on thc velocity grnt1it:nk of I.l~o!noan rnot.ior~.'l'l~ispart is kt~owrlan the
direct dissilmlion Irnclion. 7'hc rcn~ninderwhich oorrcnpor~clnto t,l~oolcrgy tlissip:rl.rtl by virttlo
of t.hc cxistcnm of flr~ctrrnt.ionsin known M I 1l1clurhirlent cfissiprlion /u.ncliotr. Ac:rortling 1.0 cqn.
(12.8). the turl~nlcntdissipation ftrnction is givcn Ijy Ll~cexpression

7 ' 1 1 ~direr1 dissipation fnnrt.ion rnakou n non-r~ogligihlccottlril)~rt.ion!)nly in t.hn nt>igl~l~o~~rhontJ

of solid walls. 111 t l ~ rc~nnit~clcr
r ~IIIIO~~;~
or Ll~ofield, t l ~ ct.nrl,nlcnt tlissipnlio~~ I I~I ~ ~ . ~ I O I I I ~ I~I R
v LrCrH

'Chc exprcnsion in cqn. (18.1G) R R R I I I ~ C Ra n t ~ ~sin~plcr

r l ~ forrn wllcn tho t t ~ r l j ~ ~ l ninn rhorno-
r
gcnco~rsand isotropic. A tnrhulent licld is (,crnrrxlIron~ogcneouswhen Ll~cslRLint.it:nl clislril)r~bio~~n
arc the same a t cvcry point in space; it is tcrrncd i~nt~ropic when tho distribntions rcmain in-
variant with rcspcct to srhitrary rotnations and rcflcxion of the coordinate axca. Taking into
account symmetry propertics and the req~~ircmcnt of continnity, it is pessiblr: to rcducc 1110
IPig. 18.9. I'rcq~~encyspect.rtrrn of
the longitudinal fluct~~ation in the .!.,
ri ht - hnnd side of cqn. (18.16) t o n multiple of a single term, for oxan~plo,t o n n~r~ltiplc
11s rnublccl (1. I. Taylor [53] to simplify eqn. (18.16) to t.hc for111
of (m
turbnlrnt horrndary layer on n flat
r e d1'. S. Klcbanoff I251
platc ~ n e a n ~ ~by
Cnrvo ( I ) : F
Curve (2): F --
n-513

Tl~eoryrlnc to W. EIcisc~~berg [I!)a]

Strictly upcakirrg. isot.ropic t.r~rbnlcnccdocn not, cxisL i n nnt~arc.A ttlrhulont, liold wl~icl~ approxi-
~ n a k sin it8 structurc the hypot,l~cticalcane of iaotro y cnn I)c produced by pasqing a parallel
strcanl t,liro~rgl,n wire scrcon a 4 is done in winti tunnc!. J>opartnrc~qfro111isotropy l~cot~mo~ I U C ~ I
larger in pipe Ilow, bonnclary laycm, ctc. Nevcrtlmlras, the 11ot.io11of isotropic: L11r1111lcncc
a c q ~ ~ i r ewitlcr
s applicnhilit.y if i t is rcstrictcd to clislrib~~tionfnr~ctionsof vclocit,~dilrcrcnccs
inatend of to those for~ncdwith rrspect to vclocitics the~nselvrs.Following A. N. Kolmogorovt,
J . h1arCel1n.l[:16a] pc:rfortnrtl tlct.n~ilcclrncnsr~rctncnt-7o n tile f r c ~ q ~ t r n rspect,runl
y wc ronsider correlat.ion fnnctions of the form
in flows wit.h l ~ o l n o g m r o n sturbulence. I n ~ ~ n r t i c u l a11c
r , in\~cstigat,ctlt,he effect, of n
strong t,wo-tlimrtisiond contrnction of the st.rcam.
I .
I IIC cllaract.cr of t , l ~ cspcctpr:rl dist.ril)~rt~ior~ of tllc c:rlcrgy of flrrc:t,l~at,ior~ lcntls u s (r/. rqn. (18.13) and Fig. 18.7), ant1 dcsig~~atc the t ~ ~ r b ~ ~ l:cLVn"locally
cc isolropic" whcn the
correlation fr~nctionrrmnins invariant with rcspoct to rotatinnu ancl rcflcxions of the coordinnLo
dirnct,ly ($0t,lic idcn tltnt s t u r b u l e n t s t r e a m does n o t contaiti etlclies of a clef in it,^! size a y s k ~ nin n rmf.rir:bd domain, that ia in a rrstrictctl range of distnnccn r hctwcrn poinlrq 1 and 2.
n111.v. Orr t.11~ c.ontn~.ry,t.llnrc I I I I I S ~ ,exist ot1tlic:s o f v r r y rna.tiy tlilrcrrnt sizes. A t very It in rollnil that ultch lorn1 isotropy r.xisln in uny Lr~r\)ulrntt11,w in a s ~ ~ f i c i c n bs111:lll
~ y inhrvnt
1:11,gc: I<c~yt~olsls 11rlrn1,nrs. t.llrsn ctltlic>s 111n.y tlifTc?r by ortlcrs o r ~ n : ~ ~ t ~ i l . onr. r t t l cfrorn r G I,, whcrc 1, has Ijecn tlelincd in cqn. (18.14) on contiition t.l~rrtthe ILCYIIOI~R r~~~lnbcr
n l l ~ ~ t , l l cIrt.r c o ~ t pnpers
. tlca,l wit,li tllc effect of turbulence int,ensit,y on t h e ilcvelop-
, r y 15, I!), 221. It,. I C ~ t ~ ~ n t ~ r1151
I ~ I V I I ,t 4 ' a t , ~ ~ r l ) ~ ~ll~t ,nn~t i, n , l t ~In..ycr I i t ~rnntI(:
g $1. clt,t,t~,il(~tl
i t ~ v r s t , i g ~ ~ t of'
, i o 1.110
i ~ wall IPI.CSSII~C I)oyntlnry Iayc:r rnc~lzingrtse of a n
01' a 1.111.1)11l~tlt
opticnl tnct,l~otl.I l c t,li~tsO i ~ c o v ~ 1 t~. t0~~n1t , l ~ eflow tlcvelops zoncs of high-arnplit3udc of the tnrbulenco haa bccomc large enongh. I t cxiotn even in shear flown, ~ u r l ras llowu in pipes,
prrssItr(! flt~c.t.~ta.t.ions ~ v l l i r lO~C C I I ~at, irrcgtilnr time .:nt,ervnls. T h e cxtrernn in wall- bonndary layers, etc., in which there arc preacnt large nl~carillgstresses, but regions in clonc proxi-
1)rrssItrc fl~~ct,rint,ions i t 1 t,hcsc zoncs move, nt, nn inst.n.nt-nncor~s convect,ivc velocity of rnit,y of ~ ~ 1 and
1 8 borrndnrirn are exccptcd. The rcgiona of locnlly isotropic trrrbnlcncc cxknd
~wcci~cly over ranges wl~cret,hc grnclionb of tho flectuntions (&&'/ax ctc.) m n t n e large valnrs.
40 t.o A00/, of n1rn.n st,rc-nni nntl i l l t.hr tlirr.ct,ion of t01c m r n n st.rrnm. Tllc vvnvo form
of s ~ t r llu(:t~~l:lt,ions
l~ 011angcs s l o \ v I ~~ ~i t . 1 1titnc. See also t h e papers by U'. I<. Rlnbe
[ l a ] , M . I<. l31tll [:%a],
-
S. * I . IZline c t n.1. {ZC,], a n d 1'. .J. M r ~ l h e a r n(38a.1, a s well a s
t t i r rrvirvvs I)y \I1. W. ~~~~~~~~~~~h 166, 671.
t The works of A. N. Kolmogorov are now acccaeiblc in a German as well ns in an English trans-
lation [18n, 18I,].
572 XVIIl. F~tndnn~cnt,nls
of t ~ t r l ) ~ ~ lflow
cnt

T h c expcrimc?nt~allyvcrifictl f a c t t h n t t h e critical 1;lcyrloltls ntrnibcr of 8, sl)i~crc:

\rSn8 fir~l,
o r ~ errjoys very wide np licnhility. A ditnensional argutnel~twhich
For tllis rrnnon, c q ~ ~ n f , i(18.17)
B
ndvanccil I)y A. N. I<ol~tlogorova ~ l dInter, i t 1 epc~ldent,ly,I)y C. F. von Wcizsnecker [li4] for wllich t,lrc d r a g coeffioit:r~t,tlccronscs st*coply(Fig. 1.R) tl(~l)c:rtcist;(.ro~lglyotr ~.II(: t l t s g -
rco of l.ttrl)trlc~~t:c of the: witltl trlnncl, is of grcaL pr:tct,ical i111port:cncc. 'L'l~c: \ ~ : t l ~ t r : OF
an11 I\'. Mrisrl~\,rrg[I!)IIJ,Irncln t.o 1110cstnl)lial~~~~rr~l. of I'rrrtl~rrtlctnilrr rcg.%rclingLl~efor111of the
corrrlntior~frtr~t:tiotrsfor srrr:rll tli~lbrnccnr or of tl~c!fortt~ol' the ~pcctrnlfurictio~lfor Inrgc fre- t h e critic:rl Tteynolds r ~ r ~ m b e is r t of t h e order of ( V D/v),,,, -- 1.6 t o 4 x 105 :r.~~tl
qnrt~c.ierr.We rnnst., tlowevrr, rcfrnin frotn p~lrsuingthis sul)jcct l~rre,excrpt for refrrring the tlccrcn.srs ;iviit.ll RII increasing int,ensit,y of t t ~ r b u l c n c c 'rliis . f : ~ c tis cvitlcttt OII 1111)-sionl
rendrr once morr to liig. 18.9.
,J ,Ire rirc~~~risl.n~~ccs g;ror~ntls1)ccnrlsc a. high inl.c?tlsit,y of turl~nlcllccirl t.lrr free strcnrn In:ids t o I.r:~usit.iou
wl~iol~ arc csscnt,id for the ondcrstanding of t ~ ~ r l ~ r t l carc
r ~ ctllcse:
c Tlio
t r t r b ~ ~ l cstrcnnes
~rl nrc c:rentccl predotnit~nrttlyby the lnrgc cdtiictl, that is, by ctldics \r.l~osesize is :it low l t c y ~ r o l d snr~tnl)erss o t h a t t l ~ cpoint of scl)nrnt.ion is slriStotl tlowttst,rn;atn
of order I,. As n c o n s c q ~ ~ eof n ~the
c instnbi1if.yof the flow, there nppenr crltlies of smaller a r ~ dstnnller ca~lsirigt.11~wake 1.0 d ~ c r c ~ s nntl c , t,llis, in t u r n , rctlucrs drag. 011t.l~oot.l~c:rh:ltrtl,
size rtntil, r~ltirnakly,thc grnilicn0s au1/az ctc bccornc so s h e p ill t l ~ cslnnllrat etldics that tltey free-lligl~t rncnsrtroncrrt.s o n a SI)II~TC 1)crSortrlocl l)y (:. 13. Millil<:t.~~ :I,II~I A . I;.
prodrtcc in t,l~ernn l.ransforrnnt.iot~of tncch:inicnI crtergy into I~cnt.'l'l~on~cctrnnicalpower wllicl~ IZlritr 1371 g a v e tlte surprising result 1,ll:~tin 1.llc frcc nt,lnosl)l~rrc~ 1 . 1 1 ~c.ril.ic:~lI < . ( ~ y ~ r o l ~ I s
ia t.mnsfrrrct1 fro111 I.llc rnrnn notion to t l ~ cI:irgc edtlies I)y tlrc ncl,ion of I.~~rl)rtlonL st.rcsses is rlt~tiibor of tIllc sp11cro is intlc~)c11~Ic111~ of t l ~ cB ~ ~ ~ I I ( : ~ ,oI fI ~I.III~~)II~(:II(:~:
c wl~i(:lt v:r.t.i(\s
i n d r p e ~ l t l c of
t~~vinrosit,y; i t rnscedcs 8ts.p \by RIGJ) to ever s~nnllcrcddi(.s ~tnt,ilB ~ i x cis rc~cIlccI
\vhctl it is tlissiynt.rtl. This ~r~ecl~:ininn~ is resl)onsil)lc:for the fnc:t t,i1n1,tltc ski11frictiotl as \vcll *q wit8ll t.llo w e a l ~ l ~ c rI'rrr-lliglit.
. t n c : ~ s u r r ~ ~ ~ cgnvn n l . s n rril,ic.:~l 1tc:ytloltls r r c ~ ~ n l ~ofc r
tllo di~t,rib~tt.ion of n1cn11velocities depend very little 011 Ll~eIZcy~~olds nut~~l)crit1 spite of tlw R,,, = 3.85 x 10" w l ~ i c h is larger t,llati t h a t for m o s t wirltl t,u~lnc~ls, al(,lrorlgli
fact Il~nt,all losnrs in energy nrc clrrr to the viscosity. n i m s r ~ r c m e n t sin low-t11rb111cnc:ct.rltinrls nppron.cll t,lro, vnlttc- it1 fligl~t..'l'l~i, I;I(.I.
l.lr:~l~ o I ~ I s I I I ~ : I S I I ~ O ~in
t.ltc c:ril,ic:~l I ~ ~ ( ~ y t ~11111111)1~r I 1'r1:0 IligI~(,is i t ~ ~ l ( ~ ~ ) ( . t t (,I' , l , . I.II(-
l~(.
wcS:l.lIlrr is c:sl~lr~.inc:tl I)y 1.11~ N ~ . :1.111:
~ . ~ I . ( . I ~ ~ I I I.IIII.I, ~ ~ I I I ~ i l l 1 1 1 ~ ( 11.1
I I I II .. (I ~I ~ I ~ I ~ I (*tl(li~.s * IIIO::~I~I~:I.(:
'I'l~rrc.l:lI ivr nr:~gnitrltlv of 1.11~: longil.r~tlit~nl nntl I.rr~t~svc*t.sc:
Iltit:l,~lnl.iottsof vcloci6y :t,rc s o 1:irgc l,l~:tt1J1t:y c!:it~t~ot :~lTc:cl,I,II<:p l i r ~ i o n i c t ~it1 a I,II(: Irl~itiI ~ o t ~ r ~ ~ l :I;tyc-r r~r,y
is a vcry iInpc)l~tnnt, v:~rii~\)l(:i l l witici-t.urlncl tnmsrlrotnrnt.s; it. tlrtcrminrs t h e tlegrce R ~j)It(:ro. In a n y c::isc, t~llcsr:me:isnrornotlb lratl tlo I,llc cor~rlrtsion1.l1nI.it, is r~c~<c-ss:rr)-
t,o wliic:l~rnc-nsurctnrt~t~s ~ ) c ~ . f o r n ~on
c t la lnotlrl can b r ilpplietl t,o t h e full-scale st,rnc- t o tlcsigri wind tunnols of low t,urbnlencc i l ~ t a n s i t yif rnotlrl ~ n c n s l ~ r c n ~ c:rlv ~ n tl o, ~bo
t r ~ r rRS \\!ell a s IIOIV n~rnsrtrcrnent,s~ ~ r r f c ) r m ein t l differc~t~l.
tunrirls can I)c cotnpnred npplicnl)lc t o tire tlcsigt~of ftrll-scale nircr:~ft. 'I'ltis is ~)arl,ic:trlnrlyirnl)orf.:~rrl,\\,lien
amorlg t.l~~~nscl\rc-s. \Vet have: alrtkndy mc~ntioncrlin See. XVIcI t,l~at,,i l l pnrt,icular, rncasrrrcmcnt,~a r c pcrli)rmcd o n low-clmg acrofoils \vl~osc Ooontlnry I:~ycrsrt:m:iitl
t.rar~sit.ionfroni Intninnr 1.0 t~rrrl~ulcnt. flow st,rot~gIytlcprnds on t h e n~ng;nit,rrdeof t h e (laniiriar ;~crofoils,Scc. X V I I b). 'I'l~rt:1rnmt:l~c~rist~irs
I : ~ m i r ~ ao rv e r long st,rct,cl~cs of srlclr
osrillat,inp vc,loc,ity c.ornl)onrttl,. 'l'hr w l ~ o l r(lrvclopmrnt. of tllr t,ut.l)rll(:nt 1)oundnry :~rrofoilsonn bc snccessfrrlly mcnsurctl only in low-I.url)t~lc~~cr. 1.1tt111t-Is. i. c. it, t,nr~nc.ls
Iayc-1 {.\I(: loc*a(ion of t,lrr scl)arnt.ion point,, a s well ns t.hc rat? of brat. t-ransfcr wltosc: inI,cnsit.y of tttrl)t~lcnccis cxl,rclnt:ly small (T w 0.0005; c / . 1141). Ik-ft:r,,tt(.t:
tlc1)t'ncl o n 111r itll.cvwil,y of t.~~t.I)rtlc.ncc i n t,l~c.h c t ~st,ream (ci. Scc. X l l g ) . 'l'lle nlagrli- oonI,nir~sa sllnlrnary of nrcnsrrromcnt~son t < l ~int.cnsi1.y c of (.r~rl.~trlcticc of i t Inrgc:
tnllc of t,hr f\tlr(~t:~t.ions in w givrn t,tltinr\ is t\ct.enninrtl by t.hr mrsii of i t s screens, 1111rnl)crof wirltl t.rrnncls.
---.
aritls o r I ~ o t ~ ~ ~ r o A1 n ~nl arrtain
)s. rlist,anrc f'rotn t,hc srl.c(3t1st.11rrr is isotropic t?~rh?slence ?i!c;i,,cc - t h e tlirect rnrasr!rcmo~t . o f , t h e yclocity fInc:t~l:~tiot~ ) l ~ / i ~ ,
is (,~tit.o
~vllichtncLnns t 1rn.t. ( h r Inran vrlocit,y Il11r111al.ions i r i t llr t , l ~ r c eeoortlinat.e tlircct,ions cliffic~rlt,~~,t~cmj!t* .ivcrc nintlc t o r$rtI Gile critio:iI ItcyrloItla nrrtnitor or1 n sl)~rc*rt:
a r c rclrtal 1.0 rnrlt o1,llrr: 81s tltc ~)nr:lmct,crw h i ~ l ! ~ ~ ~ l ~ s c tho r i b cis~ ~ t c t i s i tof
y t3nrl)r~lcr~cc in x wintl-I.~tl~ttr~I.
'rllis..oritical ITZyiioltls. ! ! u m l ~ s ~ a.sp!h~-~.,cn~l h b e dctoani!l~tl.~ i ! ~ l ~by c r mc:~srrrit~g

1)etwc:on tllc forwnrc

- . ,.
!Ilc !Irag, a s snggcstetl b y 11. 12. 1)rydcn 18, 91, o r by rnc.wr~ritlgt h e prcssrrm tlill'crt*nc:c:
~ , ~ g t i - c . ...... . . . - ...
.,. 9, lot? I ) o i ~ ~a lt ~ t lk poi^^^ at t,l~c:ro:w of l , i ~ csl)l~c,rc.;IS
st~ggcst~ctl by S . I[oerner [21] :.";~hcI?t,tcr n~ct~lrocl l ~ b y R. (1. L'lntt,
w n s , e ~ t , c n s i v eilsdtl
1401. 11. L,.Qrytfen ant1 A. M. K u e t h c 1.81 corrcletcd tlrc cri1,icni 1tcyt~;)"ldsrrtrnil)c-r for
? spllcre witfll t h e m e a n longitutlitl?I fluc*tua.Lio~l, Fig. 18.10, nntl discovcrctl l.lr:lt2t.l\csr
v . . .- .-- snt.isfy P ~ ~ ~ i ~ q u ~ . . f u _ t ~rc!at.iqrtsl~il,.
!t6 . - clunntitics - . c l r , i ~ ~ t ~ n 'J'llc
l v ~ l r l cof 1.l1(:c,rilicnl
'I'br (lrCrer o f h ~ r b r ~ l a n rofc a ~ v i ~ a~IIIIII(:I
l orprcssnd a8 en11 in rccl~leetl ~ ~ / u . . I t n y t ~ o l d snumber, &,, = 3.85 x 10" ~ ~ n a n s ~ l rolr c t la .sltll&rc:i i i f i Z C fliglii, c~or.r~.rl)o~~tls
1.0 vctlllrs a s low a s 0.1 pnr ccr~t,.,if n suflic.ir~rt11rlmk)t.rof fine-mesh sorccns o r honey- t o :I vnnis~r;iiglySiii811ilit,ciisiI;j~~iiS l.tiilii~lcnc,c,t -+ 0.
. .
c.on~l)sis ~lsatl,sc:o [Pig. 16. IClt. 13otlias of otfhor t,ltarr s~)lrcrit:alsl~:i,pcsnlso cxlri1)il. sot~lc.i~ifl~lrrrc:c, of (.I\(: itr(.c.t~-
sil,y ol' t , ~ r r l ) ~ ~ l con I)y Oltr rnt~:rsrtrc:rllc~,I(.s
n r eOl~cirdrag. 'l'l~is 11ns I)ccr~tlctno~~st,ral.orI
t [I. I,. I)rYtlnl~rincl (:. I<. Srlntl,nrtcr [I01 ~~tltlrrtoolc cxtansivr I I I C : ~ S U ~ ~ I I I C I Ion
~ R 1.11~3 cKect
otr Il:it, plates placrtl a t rigl11. angles 1-0 t.ltc st.rc:~rnwllic.lt 11:ivo 1yt.11~)t~rIi)t.tr~(vl by
of I)lnci~ig lilIc!-~nt~sl~ svrrrrls i t r 11. \r.intl I . I I I I I I ~or1
~ it8 h~~rb~~Ie IcvcI.
t ~ c #'l'1:1(! nd(liLion of 81 sirlglr
nrrcell r c d ~ ~ w t.11~
s illir011tlil.yof J , I ~ ~ ~ ~ I \ C I I C in c
( : t,llc rat,io 114 I 4- , wllcre c tlcnot~sthe resistance
G. D. Scl~rlbnucrant1 11. I,. J > r y ( l ~ t i1491.
cc~c~ffi~icntl,lto ncrccn; 11rnc:c: u.11c111 , screctls :rrc used, the rcductiot~in t,urbulence intensity .~.

is it1 t.11~rnt,io {I/(] - 1 - c ) ) l t l a .(~or~ncquent~ly, for n givot~prrasurc loss the retlrrctiort in trtrbulcnce t The crit,ical Ilcynoltln nnnil)cr of n upllcro is clcfir~ctlas t,hnt. fi)r al~ic.l~)tllr tlrrtg r~)r.flit:i(:~rt.
irltcr~sil~y is grcnl,cr \vllcr~n. I:irgc r~urnl)c%r of scrccrls of stnnll renisl.nrlcc is choscl~ill prefercncc nsstlnrm the e a ~ ~ v r n t ~ i ovnli~e
t ~ : ~ l of ell = 0.:j.
l,o ;I. 8i11gIt:s(:rcrn of I:trg(: rcsist:~.ncc.Acrortlirlg to ref. [IO], t,lle additiolt of n cotltrnction
corrr (,o (.\I(> ~ . I > I I I I P1)rin)in
~ \ v i t , I ~ it. %: areal rccll~rt.iorlof 1I1c nbsohlte va11te of t110 lo~\~itudit\nI.
-
:To t.lrc rotlvmt.ionnl vn.111~or r , ) O.B thrrc corrc~spor~tls 11 I)rr.sslrrt: cliltcrrllcc brl.\vt:rt~tl~c:
for~vartlst.ngnat.ionpoint, nlltl n point a t Llrc rrnr of t,l~rspl~creof ,I), -- 1.22 rl, wllrrc, (1 (I~IIoLTP
~si~ill:lI,in~ 1~0111~~0111~11l~. 0 1 1 1 . 1 1 ~ol,l~cr 11:rncl. tile t.r:ir~~vrrseco~~~potlcrlkq eit,her rcrnairr constntlt. tllc tlynnr~~ic
pressure in t l ~ cfrcc strcnm.
or I:\Y.II invr(::rtl~.
574 XVIII. 1~undnnlent.aluof t r ~ r l ~ ~ ~flow
lc~lt.

Jlct,nilctl invcst.igntions wllic:l~ were rnrrictl o u t by (1. I. T a y l o r [5:1] ancl 11. L. [ I ] I%nt.cl~clor, (:.I<.: The t11eory of hoinogenco~rutnrbr~lcncc.Cn~nhridgc,195:). repri~lt1970.
D r y d e n [ I I ] Icxt t,o t h e conclusion t.l~at,t,llc d r a g i n n s t r e a m c a n n o t b e a d e q u a t e l y [In] Rlnkn. W.K.: 'l'urhnlc~~t ho~rndnryInycr nfnII Ilrcnsrlro Il~rc~frr:rLior~u o t ~R I I I O O ( . ~ I ILII(I ro11gl1
. . - Ijy ,specifying Cl~c~napt,it.lltlcof t.llc: l l n ~ : i u : ~ t i oof
tlcscril,c!tl ! ~ t f l ~ q y + c i t y .c.o p p o r ~ c n t s IVILII. .JIW 44, 637- 6liO (1!)711).
alone, I~ccnlrsci t is n1s0 :~.ITt~c:t.c:!ll ~ yt.11~st,rricturc o f tllc turb.ulcnt. s t r e a m . O n t h e (21 13ratlohnw, l'.: An int,roclnctio~~ to tr~rbulcncenntl it8 tnenllrc~tlo~t.. I'crgnmon l ' r m , 1!)71.
[3J Ro\vdr~l,1C. 17.. Prcnkicl, Y.N., and 'J'nni, I. ((311.): Ho1111tlnryInyc~xn11c1t,~~rl)nlcnro. I'roc.
b ; ~ s i sof a t.llcory of t r t r b r ~ l c n ~ ctlcvcloy)ntl
: Ijy himself, G . 1. T a y l o r prr>J)%ecl t h e t JUG(:/IU'l'AM Syrnp. J(yoto I!)($, l'l~ya. J P l ~ ~ iSoppl. ds (1!167).
t . 1 1 ~c.ri1,irn.l l t c ~ y r ~ o l t tlr1rr11,c:r
ls or :I. sl~llc:rc: tlc:l~c:tltls o n t h e p:~m.tlict~cr [:!:I] 111111,M.I(.: Wall ~ ~ r e s s ~frir~e~ o t ~ r n tmsocintnrcl ior~~ wit.11 R I I I ) R ~ t.11rbnlcr1L
II~C 1)orlnrlnrv flow.
?JPM 28, 719-754 (1!)67).
141 Bnrgcrs, J. M.: A n~ntl~cmationl n~odcllil111slrnt.ingt,hc tl~coryof I.ur1~11lrnrc. Arlvnt~ccsin
Aj1111.Mccl~.\'ol. 1 (1%. van Mirrcs :ind '1'11. V O ~ I l < h r t ) ~ A(XI.), ~ ~ , New York, 1!148.
[hl Cllnrt~cy,(I., (31tntc-Acllot, 0 . ,nncl Altrt11ic11,.I.: I)cvoloptnet~tof n t.urbulrt~tl,ontldnry'
layer on n llrit plnh in en extcrnnl Ltrrhnlctlt flow. A(:AJtll Cold. Proc. 93, 27.1-27.10
whcrc: I, i s t . 1 1 ~scnlc of t n r l ~ l i l c n c c ,t h ; ~ t ,is, t,lrc irltcgrnl of t h e corrclat.ion f u n c t i o n (1!)7l).
dclined i n c q n . (18.14), a n d L) is t h o d i n m e t e r of t h e s p h e r e . II. U. Meier e t a.1. [36b] % 7

[61 Cooper. It. I)., nnd Tltlin. M.P.: T t ~ r l ~ u l c ~ ~ c~em s ~ r r e iwith n e r ~t.110
b hot-wire n t ~ r c r ~ o ~ ~ ~ e t r r .
ir~vest,igntctlt,he influence o f t h e scale o f turbulence, L, o n t h e t u r b u l e n t 1)onntlnry A ( ~ A l t l ) o g r n l ~No.
l ~ 12 (IRGA).
1n.yc.r n t low t ~ ~ r h r i l c n cinten8it.y.
e 'rhey obbained n l n x i m u n ~v a l u e s of t,he wall s l ~ e n r 171 Corrsit~,S.: T~rrln~loncc, cxperimctltal rnethod~.Flnnclb. l'hyrrik (S. Pliiggr, ctl.), Vol. 1'111/2
st.rcss w l ~ c t lt,llr scale is of t8hc o r d c r of t h o b o n t ~ d n r y - l a y e rt,hiclrness. Springer-Verlag, Bcrlin/GiitLingen/Heidclbcrg, 1903.
[a] I)rydo~,H. L., ntld Kuctlte, A.M.:Effect of turhnlerlcc in wind-tnt~t~cl mcn.unrcmcnta. Nt\(:A
1Ecp. 342 (192!)).
[9] I)ryclen, H.L.: Reduction of turbnlence in wind tnnnels. NACA l k p . 392 (19J1).
[I01 l)rydcn, F1.L.. Soh~~bartcr, 0.13., Mock, W.C., and Skrnrr~slncl,f1.K.: Mows~~rct~tcntn of
infall~ilyntld R ( - ~ I O of \ v i t i d - l . ~ ~ t t~~~~~ robl ~ ~ l ntid ~ ! n cbllcir
c rcIn1.io11tt) (.he ~rii.ir111 l<e?y110\11n
t l r r ~ ~ ~ of
h cR r ~ ) ~ I CNACA
~ C R . 1Ccp. 581 (1!):)7).
[I 11 1)rytlen. 11. L.: l'~rrl)~~lcnce it~vcut.ignt.iorirrnL 1110Nnt,ionnI l l ~ r r c r rof~ ~S h i ~ ~ c l a r tI'roc.. l ~ . lgift.l~
Intern. Congrcsa of Appl. Mcch., p. :302 (l!YJH).
1121 llryden, 11.L.: Turbulence and tlto boundnry Inyer. J A S 6, 8 5 - 100 (19:)9).
1131 J)ryden, H.L., and Scl~ubnrrcr,G. U.: T l ~ 118o c of damping scrccrrs for the rcrl~rc:t,iot~ of wirtd-
t11t111olti~rhulencc..JAS 14, 221-228 (1!)47).
[14] I)rytlcn, 11. I,., nntl Abhot,t,, J.11.: Tlto t l e ~ i g tof ~ low Lurbrrlot~cc\vitlcl LIIIIIICIR. NACA 'SN
1755 11048).
. ,
[I51 131nmerling, It.: Ilic Ino~nc~itane Str~rktr~ r lrc ~Wat~dclr~~ckca cit~crttrrl~rrlct~te~~ Strii~nung.
Mithilungcn nus dem Mnx-l'lanck-ltlst,it,~~t. fiir Rtriimung~forschurlg und rlcr Aorodynn-
111iorllen Vcmuchannstnlt, No. 50 (1873): nec also: En~~ncrling, It., Meicr, G. E. A,, and
Dir~kclncker,A.: lnverttig~t.ionof t.he i n r r ~ ~ ~ t n n smt ~l ~ r ~~ t : i ,of
~ tthe
r e wall prrnnnrc nndcr n
t u r h u l r ~ ~bonnrlnry
t, lnyer flow. 1\(:Altl) Conf. Proc. No. 131 on Noise Mrc:hnt~in~t~rr, 24.1 -
24.12 (I!J74).
...
[lli] Pnvrc, .l.J., (hviglio, J.J., and J)o~nns.11 1.: Space-tirnc tlo~rblccorrolnt.ionn arltl ul~ectra
in n 1.11rbrtlcnthorrndnry layer. JIPM 2, 313- 342 (I!J57); l'nrt,l~er ~pncc-timec:orrcl:rtio~~s
Fig. 18.10. re la ti or^ hct.ween the crit,icnl of vclo~ityill a t u r h ~ ~ l c t;oundnry nt Irrycr. Jl'hl 3. 844--350 (I!)BR).
Reynoldn nun~bcrof a ~pllerc!nnrl t11c [I71 l'avrc. A. J . : 1,n n16cnniqae dc In turl)rrlr~~ce. 1':ditcd by (br1t.r~Nnt,iorlal dc In Jlcal~crc:l~e
intensity of t ~ ~ r b l ~ l cof
n cthe
c tnnncl, nflrr Srietlt,ifi nr No. 108, Pnris, 1962.
rl7.1 I'idler. 11. ( n i . ) : S t r n c t ~ ~ and r c n ~ n l ~ n i r i s tof~ ~turbulence.
n Vol. 1 nncl 11. I'rocccclings,
H. L. Drydell and A. hl. IC~tcthe[8, 101 Berlin, 1077. 1,cctrlre N o b s in Pl~ysica,Vol. 75 nnd 76, Sl~ringcrVcrlng, 1978.
[I*] J'rcnkiel, 1r.N.: Ttlrbrlle~lcein Geopllysirs. J'ubl. by t l ~ cArt~erinal~ ~:oopl~ynicnlUr1io11,
Wanhington, I>. C., 1962.
[I*:l.] Fricdlnlrcler, S.K., ancl Topper, L. (cd.): ' ~ ~ r r l ~ r ~ l cClnnuir n c e : Ijnpcrs oft st,ntist,icnl t.l~cory.
~ l ~ t c r n c i c ~1'1~1111.,
c e New York, 19fil.
[IRIjl Q o c r i ~ ~11. g , (cd.): Snnr~~~clhn~icl z r ~ sr t ~ ~ t . i ~ t . i s c'l'l~wrio
I \ c ~ ~ t l ~ 'I.u~I)IIIoIIz.
r A~t11.cle111io-Vt!r1i~g,
1%t!rIi11, l!)5S.
,. [I!)) (:I.OCII. .I. I':.: 0 1 1 1 . 1 1 ~ir1l111r11~:c of frcc RI.~(.:LIII t.11rl~111c11cc on n t.t~rl~~rloc~t. I)on~~rlnr,y 111.yt:r.ns
I Ire sc:nlc: of t . r ~ ~ ~ l ~ r ~ l T,.
o l cinc ?n, wintl l,r~r~nc:lig tlt~l.orminct1by ttlrc n l c s l ~of t,lrc il, rc*lnl.c\s1.0 \11i11(l~,IIIIIIOI. A(iA1LI) 11.01). No. GO2 (11)7:i).
sc:r(;t.lls t,lll: l,it,(!l~ ~ , I I o tlir~:(;t,io~r:~l
ljl;~(lc;s.f j i t ~ c csnt:hil c ~ ~ ~e1issip:~t~c:
~ i r s IJlrir [I!)n] IIc:irr~~~l)erg. W.: % l ~sLnLisI.irrc11cn
r 'l'hcoric clcr 'I'r~rl~r~lcnz. %. I'l~yn. 124, (iJH (i57 (1!)4$).
r n c r g y fnstcr t,llan t.11~Iargc ones, t . 1 1 ~m e a n v a l 4 c of t.110 scnlc of t ~ n r b u l c n c c ,I d , [20J Hi117.e. J . 0 . : T ~ ~ r h ~ l e nMc(:rn\v-llill,
ce. Ncw York, 211tl ed. 1!)75.
1211 Hoerner, 8.:Vcruuclte mit Kugcln hct,rcffcnd lCen11zn111,'I'nrhnlcnz 1rr1r1 Ohrrll'. I l ~ t l l l ~ sf.~ : l l ~
iric:roasc~sa w a y from t,hc screens. 'l'hcrc e x i s t nrlmcrons tlteoretical ant1 experimental fet~hcit,.I,~~ft,fal~rt.forncl~~~~~g 12, 42 (1934).
itlvrgt.ipt,ions ir~t,"tJlc d e v c l o p m c n t o f k n r l ~ l ~ i r n cl )cc l ~ i t ~screerls;
rl in t h i s c o n n c x i o r ~ , (221 IIIIKIII~~IIII. (:. I).. Z ~ I I I I I I O ~ I I1).
I I It..
~ I ~111111
I I , I1~11ct.t. W. A,: '1.11~otTc(:t OF f r rrirr:1111 ~ tt1r1)11-
tllc.worl<s of (:. I t . I3nt.ollcior [ I ] , S. Corrsin 171, (:. C h a r n r y [5],I f . 1,. D r y t l e ~[I~11, I(-nrc 1cvc.l OII l , n r i ~ r r l ~I)o~111(1nry
~~~L Inycr I)(!l~:tviot~r.A(;AJtl)ogr~il)l~ I(i4, $!I- I I5 (l!l72).
n r ~ a n d . I . IC. (;rc(:n ll!ll, 'l'l~. v o n I ~ & C I I I &1231,
(;. 1). i l 1 ~ f f ' t r ~ 1221 I I C. C. 1,in 135, 361, [23] von 1Chr111hi1,Th.: I'rogrcrrs in t l ~ crrtntistirnl I,l~coryof L~trhnlot~cc. I'roc. NnL. Acntl. S<.i.
W . 'l'ol11nic.n I(iO. 611, shonltl b e consrilted. C\'ashir~gtorr.?.I, 530 (1!)4H); ncc crlso Coll. Works 11'. :l(i2---371.
(1. 1 . '17:1.yl(,r [5:{1,
576 XV1 I I. 1'11ntlnment.als of turbulent flow Iteferences 677

[241 I<lc!lia~~oll'. I'.S., I L I I ~ I I)ic:l~l,%.\!'.: S t > n ~I't::~t.t~rrs r or nrtifioinlly thirlrct~edf11lly rlcveloped [49] Schubauer, G . B., and Dryden, H. L.:The effect of tnrbrllct~ceon tlro tlrng of fl~tt,plates.
t11r1)11lrt1,, 1)01111ditry ln,yrrn \vi(,ll Z C ~ O~ir(!slil~rr ~rndie110. NA(:A Jbcp. 1110 (1952). NACA Rep. 646 (1036).
[25] l<lt~l~1111oI1', l'.S.: ( ! l ~ : ~ ~ ~ ; ~ ~ - t of a r i Is, IlI~~ IiItI I~I PsI I ( . ~ -in a l~out~rlnry lnyer wit,I~zero prf'SSLIrr [60] ScI1ubaner, (2. I%., and I<lebanoff, 1'. S. : 1nvcst.igntion of sopnrntiotl of t.11~ t . ~ l r l ) ~ t lI c, O~I ~I ItI ~ ~ -
gratlic~~t,. NA(!A 1h:p. I247 (l!l55). ary layer. NACA Itep. 1030 (1951).
(25n] Kim, J-1.'1'., I<lino, S.,I., t111r1Jl.eY~~olds, W.C.: 'l'lle prodr~rt,ionof t,~~rbr~lencc? near n sn~ootll [51] Sin~monn,L.F. G., and Salter, C.: An experirl~entaldekrt~linntionof t,l~cspectrr~tr~ of t.~rr-
wnll in n, t ~ ~ r b r ~ l cbor~ntlnry rit Irbycr. .II'M 60, 133 -1GO (1971). bulence. Proc. Roy. Soc. A 165, 73-89 (1938).
[B2] Taylor, G.1.: Statistical theory of turbulence. l'arts 1--4. Proc. Roy. Soc. L o ~ ~ t l oAn 161,
[2G1 Klinr, S.J., Jl.rynolrls, W.C., Srlln1111,l'.A., and Rrl~~stndler, P. W.: Tile strncll~reof tnr- 421-478 (1935).
b r ~ l r ~bonnt1:~ry lt Inycm. ,I IM ' 30, 741 - 773 (l!)G7). [h3] 'maylor, G.I.: Stntiuticnl theory of trrrbulenco. I'nrt, A, 13ffrrL of turbulcllcc 011 1 ) o t l r l t l : ~ ~ ~
1271 I<ovi~sznny,1d.S. (;.: 'Tnrl)~~lent ~ n c n s ~ ~ r c ~ n See. c r ~ t s1'.. of Physicnl Mcns~~rctnents in (:as-
layer. Theoretical disc~~ssion of rclaLionsl~ipI)ot\r.eor~scale of t ~ r r b ~ ~ l e nnnd c o crit.irnl renii.
( I ~ I I : I I I I: L~I(I .~S (~ : I > I I I ~ ~ I lI ligllP ~ ~Sl)rrd ~ ~ I I .At~rotIyt~a~nli(:s nnrl ,JeL I'rop111~io11. \'oI. IX (\Ir.It.
I,:rtlc~111i11rg, rtl.). I'ri~lccton IJnivrrsit.y I'rrus, 1954. 213--285. tanoe of ~ p h c r m .Proc. Jtoy. Soc. Imntlon A 151, 307 --:I17 (l9:)G); see also .J AS 4. :I 1 I :I 16
1281 I<OVII%LII:I.~, I..S.G., l<il~t;~~n, \I.. :III(I l~l~~(~lz\~~cltlt:r, It. l'.: 1,nrgcsrnIr rnot,iol~i t 1 1 . 1 1 ~it~t,c%r- (1!):%7).
1641 'I'nylnr, ( 2 . I.: (Jorrt:lttt,io~~ ~ I C ~ : L R I I ~ U I I I iOt 1I II ~~ I~I ~ I I I I I C I I Iilou,
, t . l t r o ~ t 11
~ lj)il~(*.
~ I'rcst*. l<ciy, S,),,.
I I I ~ ~ . I . ( . I I I rcgi011
. OF IL I ~ I ~ v I I I I I ~ I11o1111tl:~r,y
II. l:~y(sr.,I IZM .I], 28:)- 325 (1!)70).
A 157, a37-A4fi (I!):l(i).
[2!)J lio\~n.sz~~ny. I,. S.(:. : 'l'lic t ~ r ~ r l ~ r ~bolcntl:rry lct~l, I~lyrr.Atl1111nlItrvicw of Plt~idhfrrh. 2, !)R-
1I2 (l!170). [SD] Tnylor, (:. 1.: 'I'hc ~ p n c t r ~of ~m t~rrbnlol~ce. l'ror. ltoy. Sor. 1,o11tlo11A 164, 471; 4!10 (l!):!x).
[56] Tentlckcn, 11.. and IJun~ley,J.],.: A first. cor~rscin t ~ ~ r b u l c . ~'I'l~c ~ r c . M1T I'rcns, 1!)7.'.
.[:%01 . I,;tr~frr..I.: I~~vrnl,ig:rt.iot~
(l!)5l).
of t l ~ r b ~ ~ lflow n n t in n two-ditnensionnl chnnncl. NACU Ilcp. 105:! [A71 Tollmien, W.: Turbulente Stromungen. Ilanclb. der Exprri~nentalpl~ysik, Vol. ,I, l'art, I ,
291 -339 (1!)31).
[:%I1 1,nuTcr. .I.: New trertdu in expcrirnrt~tnlt ~ ~ r l ) t ~ l c rmenrch. nce Annual Review of Fluid Mech. [BR] Tolltnicn. W.: llbor dicl<orrolatio~~ tlor ( ~ e u ~ l ~ r v i ~ ~ t l i ~ l z r i lit1~ p(:rit,(li~(,l~ I ~ o ~ ~ ~ ~~~~ ~oI I~\ V~I I~, I~I . ~ ~ t ~ c ~
7, 3 0 7 326 (1975). ~ ~ g e ~ ~1.5,
kcntlc~r\ V i r l ~ o l v c r t ~ ~ i l l ~ZAMM . 9(i- - 100 (i!13~).
[:I21 I,nlrfcr, .I.: l'llc strl~c:t.urrof t . ~ ~ r l i ~ ~ lit1c nfully r e tlcvclopctl pipe flow. NACA Itep. 1174 (1954). I591 'I'oll~nicn, W., nncl Sr*l~iift!r,M.: X I I 'l'11t:orio ~ clt:r \ Y ~ I I ~ ~ ~ Z I L I I ~ I IZ:\MRl , I I ~ ~ ~:I/,I I II ~ ~ 17 II~.
(:%3)I,nr~rrnc.r,J.C.: Intensity, uc:nlc, RIICI spr~t,rnof t~lrIi~tlen(~e i l l mixing region of frcc st11>-
(1!)41).
sot~irjrt. NACA R.cp. 12!)2 (1056). [GO] Tollmien, W.: Fortschrit.k der T ~ l r b r ~ l e n z f o r s c h ~%~ ~ ~ g~ .n ~ n ~ l ~ e ~ ~ fIlcricllt.. : ~ s s o ~ %l\hlM
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[:%5]1 . i ~C.C. . : St.nt.ist,icn.lt.l~coriraof t ~ l r l > ~ ~ l r High n r c . Speed Aerodytln~nicuand .Jet I'rop~~lsiotl
33, 200-211 (1963).
[61] Tollmien, W.: Abtlahme der Windkannlturht~lew.nncl~t l c ~ rFIciscnbcrgscl~c~~ ~ A~~st.n~~scl~-
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[30l I.in. C . C . , nntl Ibc.itl, W. If.: I'l~rl)ulrntflow, f.l~eoret.irnlnsperts. Hondl~.I'liynik (S.Fliiggr,
ccl.) \'ol. 1'111/2, Springer-Vcrlng, Ilrrli~~/(~iit.ti~~gcn/~IritIcII~erg, IR6B. [li2] Townsentl, A.A.: The utrrlcture of turbulcr~tul~cnrRow. Cnrnl)ridgr Universit,~I'rcss 2nd
[3G;1] hlnri.cl~nl,.I.: IC1.11tlncxp6ri111e11lnlctlc In cli.for~rlnt.ionplane cl'rlne tt~rh~tlenc.e 11olnogi.ne. cd. 1970.
J . Mi.ranint~cI I , 2(i3 -2!l4 (1!)72). [63] Thomas, R.M.: Col~ditionnlsampling and ot,ller nlmsure~nentsin a plane t.t~rb~tle~lt x\,nkc.
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~ I . ; I I Ic.~lgl,l~ s(.111t: 101v s ~ r c t \l v i t ~ < l l . ~ ~1 1~0~1 r~011 ~ ( :1.Iic
l I ) O I I I I ( ~ I I ~ ,li~yrr
V ~ C V P I O ~ ) ~ IAlAA I(~IIL. [64] von Weizsiickcr, C. 17. : I)nn S p e k t r r ~ ~tler n TII~I)IIIO 1wi I I ~grossen I t e y ~ ~ o l d u ~Z:tl11t~11. t ~ l ~ r %. ~~
IOI~II~ \ r r n t I y n : ~ t ~'l't:sI.ing ~ic (!t)~~fcrt;~~ct:, S:I,II Oicgo, (!:11., April 1978. (>ot~f. ['roc!. No. 783. Phys. 124, 614-627 (1948).
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[G0] Willmarth, W. W.: Prerisure fluct~~ntions beneat11 turbulent boundary layers. Annnnl ltcview
[:I81 hlot.zf(!lrl, 11.: I ' r c q ~ l c ~ ~ ~ , : t ~ ~ t~11r1)111(~11t~cr
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~ ~ I . (I!):IX).
~ r JJi.l\l 71, of Fluid Moch. 7. 13-38 (1976).
,I:!~:Il hl~~ll~c::rrt~.
r
I'..J.: 0 1 1 I.llc* N I . ~ I I C I , I I I C of l)r(%ssllro1111rL11nt~io11>1 i l l ~ I I ~ I ) I I IsP lI I~I ,e flo~v.
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I:1!!1 Nik~~ri~clsr, .I.: I<il~(.~~~i~l,~grn~)l~is(:l~r A I I ~ I I : L ~citicr I I I I ~b~~rl)~~lt:nt.crl SLrii~l~t~l~g. ZAhlhI !I, Acndcmic Preus, Now York, 15, 159--254 (1!)7A).
4!)5 4!)0 ( 1!)2!)).
1401 1'1111.t.. .I<.(!.: 'l'~~rlil~lrncc f:lrt.orn of NACIA \vintl 1.11nnrlns tlrt.cr~~~incd hy sphcrr tests. NACI\
1l.Cil. 568 ( I !I:%(;).
1411 Il.cicl~nrcll..11.: hlcnsrl~~grn t.r~rl)~rlcnlar S c l ~ \ \ ~ n ~ ~ l t r lN;~tr~rwisocnscl~:~fter~
l~gc~~. 404 (1!)38):
src nlno ZAhlM 1.7. 177 180 (I!?:i:1) nr~dZAMM 18, 358- 361 (1!)39).
-

1.121 1bot.t.1~. .I.(:.: 'l'~~rli~~lrnl,t. S L ~ ~ ~ I I I I I I I11. R C(:. I I'.~ ' O I I ~ I ISt,~~t,t.pi~rt,,

IC~, 1!)72.
l,I:%l llryt~~>I(ln. 0 . : 0 1 1 ~ , I I vtly11:1111ir:11 tI~(;ciryof i ~ ~ ~ ~ o t ~ i ~ ~ rvisco~~u t : s s i l ) I111i(ls
l t ~ : L I I ~t11c drlrrn~i!~n.
1io11or Ill(* <,rilt?rio~~. l'l~il.'I'~:I,IIs. Itoy. Sol,. /,TI?. i\ l2:1 lG4 (l8!)5) :111tl-S<:i.l':il~!rs 1, 355.
144) Ilili~lvr,I1.S.. : L I I ~ I 'l'~lrl<t!r, hl.: S ~ C C ~ . ~of I I I~,II~I)IIICIICO
II in n mntrat*t.il~gstrcntn. Nl\("A
Il,c11. I I I:! (I!)%:%).
1451 I ~ o s t ! ~ ~ l ) l hl.. : ~ t ~IIIIII
l , v11.11At,l,:~.,(!. ( r ~ l . )St~t~Iist~ir:~S : 111ot1~ls nncl L ~ ~ r I ) ~ ~ l r]'roc. t ~ o c .S ~ I I I ~ ) .
U11iv. (';~lifort~i:~, S:LIIIlicgo (1.11 ,loll~t),1!)71. 111: I,rctr~rc: Notes i t , I'l~ysics 12, S p r i ~ ~ g o r -
\'~rl:lg, l!j72.
4 l o t : ~ I, : ' I ' I I ~ I I I I I I ~l t ~ ~ l n Ir y I i o ~ ~ ~ i r r s s iflow. l l e Progrrns i l l Aerol~n~~tirnl
Sc:in~lcvs2, I 2l!l ( I \ . I'crri, I). I < ~ ~ V ~ I ~ ~n11(1 I I ~{I,. I I(:.
: L11. I I Sl,crt~e.ed.), I'P~~:LIIIOII l'r(,ss,
Oxl'nr~l,I!)li2.
1471 'I':iylor. ( 7 . I.: 'l'l~o ~ I I ~ Y ' ~ . ~ I of I I I It.l~rIi~~It-nrr. l'ror. 1!.ny. Sor. A 164. 470--490 (1938).
[47r1l St.l~lirl~t.i~tg, 11.: Nol~rrrI l ~ ~ l ( : r s ~ ~ c h niillcr t ~ g (liew ' I ' r ~ r b r ~ l c ~ l z c ~ ~ t sNatllrwinsenncll:~f
tellg.

C H A P T E R XIX
Theoretical assumptions for the calculation of turbulent ilowe
a. Fundamental equations
I t is not very likrly that scicncc will cver achieve a complete understanding
of the merhanism of tllrbulence because of its extremely complicated nature. The
main variablcs which are of practical intcrest are tho mean velocities, b u t s o f n r no
rational theory which would enable us to determine them b y calculation-has-been
formulated. For titis reason many attempts have been made-to-create-a mathematical
basis for-the investigation of turbulent motion with the aid of semi-empiricalhypo-
theses. The empirical assumptions advanced in t h e past have been developed
into more-or-less complete theories, but none of them succeeded in fully analyzing
even a single cnse of turbulent flow. It is necessary t o supplement the original
hypothesis with additional hypothcscs which vary from case to case, a n d the form
of certain f~inctions,or a t least certain numerical values, must be derived experimen-
tally. The aim which underlies such empirical theories of turbulence is to deduce the
still missing f~indamcntalphysical idens from results of expcrimenta;l measurements.
The-turl~ulentmixing motion - - -
is rcsponsib!e not only for Fn exchange_@ momen-
tom, hut, i t rili6 GnhRnces thG transrer of heat an? mass in fields of .flow ~ ~ c & @ d
with non-uniform dist,ributions of temprrature or concentration. The methods for
the mlculation of turbulent flow, temperature, and concentration fields developed
so far are based on empirical hypothcscs which endcavour to establish a relationship
between t h r Reynolds stresses produced by the mixing motion and t h e mean values
of the velocity components together with suitable hypot,heses concerning heat and
mass trarisfcr. Thc morncntum cquntions for t h e mean motion, eqn. (18.8), as well
as the differential eqr~at,ionfor t c n l p e r a t ~ r e(not quoted in Chap. X V I I I ) cannot
acquire a form whirl1 is snitablc for being integrated unlcss assumptions of this kind
have brcn inlrotl~iccdbcforcharid.
.T. IZo~lssir~rsc~
17, 81 wns t.ltr first, t,o work on toheprol~lrmstnterl in the preceding
srrl,ion. 111 an:clogy wil,l~t,hc cocfficairnt, of viscosity in Stoltos's law for laminar flow
Tl=/L
i)u
--,
ay ,
, I n order t,o tlcvclop t l ~ cprccctlitlg rncthotl (irritiatccl by I~oussincscl)it is I I '(~ :.(:ss:~ry
11e introdricctl a miring cnr//icienl, A , , for i h c Reynolds stress in t-urbrllent flow by
prltbitlg
- , v , = A , dS-
t, - = - p n (19.1)
cly .
b. Pmndtl'a mixing-length t,llcory 5711
The turbrllent mixing cocfficicnt, A,, corresponds t o thc viscosity, p, in la-
minar flow and is, theroforc, often cnll(?cl "appnrcnt" or "virtjclnl" (nlso "cd(1ym)
viscosity.
The as~umpt~ion in equation (19.1) has the great clisntlvantagc that the cdtly
riscosity, A x ,is not a property of the fluid like y r , but clcpends itself on tlic mean vclo-
city Q. This can be rccognizetl if i t is rrotcd that viscous forces i l l ttlrbulcnt flow arc
approximately proportiorial to the s q l ~ a r cof the mean vclocity rather than t o its
first power RR in laminar flow. According to ccl~~ation (l9.1), this would imply tllnt A,.
is ap~)rnximntclyproportional t o t l ~ cfirst powcr of the mran ~ c l o c i t ~ y .
a lctldy) kinrrnatic viscosit,y E , - A , / @
Often, use is made of the apparent ( v i t t ~ ~or
which is analogous to the kinematic viscosity v = p/p. If this is done, t.hc cquatiorls
for t , l ~ shcaring
e stress are rcwritt.cn
and
It is now possible to i n t r o d ~ ~ cinto
e thc Navicr-Stokes equations for thc mran flow,
eqns. (18.9), the bountlary-layer simplificat~iorls.I n the casc of thc velocity I)o~rntlary
layer these will be similar t o the considerations discussrd in Scc. V I I a in conr~rxion
with laminar boundary layers. I n the casc of two-di~~~cnsior~:rI, inrolnprcssil)lr, t,r~r-
bulcnt Bow, with due regard being given to equation (19.1), wc obtain the: following
system of tliflcrcntinl r q ~ ~ a t i o n s :
which ~ h o n l d bc romparetl with ecjns. (18.12) ntitl (18.13). The preceding sct of
equations corresponds to equations (7.10) ancl (7.1 1) for Iarninnr flow, and tlrc bound-
ary conditions for the velocity components are identical with tllosc in the lamirlar
case, rqn. (7.12).
h. F m ~ ~ d t l '~nixing-lengtl~
s theory
~ IISC(I for 1 . 1 1 ~c:~Iv~ll:~(.iol~
'1'11~ Ilyl)ot,hrsos in eqns. (19.1) ant1 (19.2) C ~ I I I I OIIC
of a c t ~ t a lcxrcrnples if 11othin2.is known nhor~tthe dcprrrtlcncc of A , on vrlocifSy.
t o find empirical relations bctwceri the cocfficicnt.s antl the mean vclocil,y. Jn tlis-
-
cussing these, we shall confine ourselves in the prcscnt scchion to the vclocit,.y field
in incomprcssiblc Row because the latter is then intlcpendcnt of the tempnmt,~~rc
field. The calculat,ion of comprcssiblc-flow Grltls antl OF t,ernperatfrlre fmltls, a11(1,in
particuln.r, of the rates of host transfer in trlrl)~~lcnt , bo taltcri 111) in
r n ~ l ~ i o nwill
detail in Chap. XXIII.
580 XIX. 'I'lrmrclic~l~ y s ~ ~ n ~ p tfor
i o nt ls~ ecalrulat.iot~or t,nrhrtlrnt,lio\vn

I n 1925 L. I'rantltl 121j made a n import,ant aclvanoc in tfhis tlircction. In tlcve- Ilerc a' < 0. The valocit,y tliKerenccs ea11scc1 1)y t-11e t~r:etisvrrst: motion cnn I)(.
loping Itis I~ypot~hcsis we shall rcfcr t a tttc: simplest cast! of parallel flow in whicli the mg:irclctl as t,llc Lrtrbtllcnt velocity componnnt.s a t ?I,.1Iotic:c wc: can c:i.lc~~l:~t,c t.ltt5
velocity varic:s only from st,rearnlinc to st,rcarnlir~e.'I'hc principn.1 clircct,ion of flow t.ime-average of t,lie nl)solitttcv n l t ~ cof t l ~ i sI l l ~ c t ~ t n t i o: t~~t ,~ t\\,e
l obt.:~.itt
is ihss~~n~otl
pnrnllrl t o the x-axis arttl wo havc
-
IL=E(?/) ; 5=0; 5=0.
r
I It(: pmc:otlir~gt,ypc: of flow is rc.:~lixc.tl i t t :L r~c:t~at~gctl:~r
7
c11nr1nc.lfor wliic:lt 1,11(: rcsrllta E q u a t i o t ~(19.5) lrntls to t,l~ofollowing p11ysic::~lir~l.c:rl)rrl.:~.l~ion of t.11~mixing Ic:rtgt.l~I.
of rt~t:asirretnc:ttt,o t ~t,lrrl)olc!ot, vnloc:il,y c:ornl)o~~c:rtl.s
wc:rc? givt:tr in I'igs. 18.3 : t t ~ c l 18.4. 'I'hc: ti~ixingIc.11gtI1is I.II:L~, tlist.~lr~c:c: it1 t.l~c: t,r:it~svc:rsc:tlit.tv:f.iott wliic4t t t l r l s ( . Ito t:ovt.rc~~l

In t.11~ ~trt:so~t.
c:rsc o t ~ l ytlrt: slrc~:crit~g stres~ l ~ y:tn a ~ g l o n ~ c ~ r : a tof
. i t lI11i(1
~ ~ ~ p:~rt,i(:lost,ravc:Ilittg wit,It it,s origitt:t.I I I I ~ Y I I I vc~lc~c:il~.v
- <IT in ortlcr t.o 111:ilrc~f.hc tlilli~rcttc:~ bet,wct:t~ it.s velocit.y : a t t J L t ~ c ? vc1ocait:y i l l t.Itc> tlo\r
tryf= t t = - C) IL' 2)' = A ---- (19.4) lamina oqu:rl 1.0 t , l ~ crnc:Lrl t,ransvcrsc: Il~~ct.r~:at.ion i t t t8i~rl~lrloitt.
flow. 'l'ltc: cli~c~st.iort
dy
as t o w l ~ c t ~ l tltc
~ e r lump of lluitl cornplekly retains tltc vcloc:it,y of it.s original I x t t ~ i i ~ : ~
rrtn:iins clifforrtit, from zero. as i t moves in a t,ransvcrse tlirection, or whcttl~cri t pnrt,ly assltmrs t11a vc:loc.itj~
Wit.11 I,. 1'ra.rttltl we cat1 now visttalixc t,l~efollowir~g sitnplifiotl mecl~anism of t.ltc erossetl lan~ittaxintl cont,it~~tc.s 1tc:yottcl it, i t t :r ( I r : ~ . ~ ~clit.c:(:t.iott,
~ ~ c ~ ~ is c :l t ( , r ~
of t l ~ oinot,ioti: as t.llr f l ~ ~ ipasses
tl a101ig t.I~c> w:ell it1 t,~tr\)~~lc:nt.111ot.io11,flt~itlparticles lc:l't, (:ttt,ir~:l.yO ~ C Il'r:~t~clt~l's
I. eot~crpt,of :L titixiitg lt-t~gl,l~ is :~tt:~Iogo~ts, I I I P t,o :I c.c*rl,:~i~r

conlnscc ittt,o Iltml)s wltic:lt rnovc 1)otlily attcl w11ic:h cling t,ogc:t,l~crfor a given Lravor-
sc-cl Iengt.lt, I)ot.lt in t . 1 1 ~lot~git.~~tIit~.zI ant1 i t 1 t,11e tmrtsvcrso ctircction, mtn.init~gthcir
n~on~cwt.r~tn 1):rr:~llnlt,o r . It, will iiow \to ass11ti1ccl t , l ~ ast ~ ~ ac Inmp l ~ of flnirl, which
c~)tt~c-s, s:a.y. from :I, I:~jfc:r: ~ t , -- I ) :LIICI 11:~s a vcIot:it.y I?(!/~ - 1 ) , is (lis~)Iac:c~Iover a
clisI.at~ocI. i t t t l ~ ct.r:ansvorsc dircc:t.ion, Wig. I!). I . 'l'l~istlist.at~cc1 is known ns Prm~trill's
?n.irivg lcnglltt. As thr: It~tnl)o f fllti(1 r c I . ~ i t ~it8 s origitlal momr?t~t~tm, its velocity in
the new Iatnina :ct. ?I, is srnalIor t,Itnn t.ltc vclocit,y pri?v:ailing tft~crc.'l'l~c difference
i t 1 vc:loc:it,ic:s is t,ltori
poir~t,,wit.11 l,hc: lncntr free IP:LLII it\ Lho Itinctio t,ltcory of gi~scs,t J ~ ont:~in tlill;*rc~itc.v
being tt~nt.1 . 1 1 ~I:at.t.er concerns it.sc:lf wit,l~t,lte microsco[)io rnotiot~ of tt~ol~:c:ult~s.
whereas tltc present concept c1cnl.s wit,h 1 . 1 1 ~ntacroscor)ic: rrtotiort ol 1:trgc. :~gglott~c.-
rat,ior~sof flr~iclp:crt,iclcst.
I t may bc itnaginctl trl1at tile transvcrsc vcloc:it,y Il~lntuatiot~ origin,< L1,(:5 i t 1 t , I l ( ,
followirtg way: Considor t.wo lnmps of f l l l i r l meeting in :I In.rnirtn at. a tlist,:ai~c:c!jl,
t.hc slower orla front (?yl -I) prc<:e(ling t,l~of:i.st.c.r one from (TI,-1- I). 111 t.11c.sc.
t:irelttnst.nrtccs (.It(: lltrrlps will c:ollitlo wit.11 :I vc~loc.ity2 11.' : L I I ~ Iwill (livc:rg(: si(lc\\v:~ys.
'I'ltis is cquivalrt~tLo t,l~ccxisteticc of a t,ra~isvrrscvoloait,y cornponetit, it1 I)nt.lr
tlircct,ior~swith respect t o t,hc layer a t yl. If t l ~ ctwo I ~ t t r ~ pappcnr s in tfltc rcvcrrse
order they will move n.part a t a ve1ocit.y 2 TL' nntl t,ltc: olnpt.y spaco I)c:twccrt~t , l t c t ~ ~
will 1)c fillet1 from the slrrroitr~dingflnitl, ngn.in giving risc t.o n tmt~svcrsevc:lot:it.y
c:otnponet~t in tJtc two tlirccLions :at, ?I[. 'l'ltis a r g u ~ n c t ~itnltlics
t~ t.tt:l.tt t . 1 1 ~t.r:~ttsvc~t.sc:
rotnpor~cnt,11' is of t,llc sx111cortler of ~ti:~gnil.~tclc a s .I&' :lr~tlwc: pttL

111 orc1c-r t.o find att ox~)rcssiot~for t,ltc s1ic:arirtg stress i'rotn ccln. (1!).1) i t is ncocssnry
I . I . I. lGxplanat,iot~of t.11~
n~ixing-lrngtltconcept t o irtvcst,igat.c the tne:l.tl vnlrlc u'v' :L lit,t.lo closer. I t li)llows from t,ltc ~)rr!ectlit~~

- --
t In atralogy with tsqtl. ( I 9.5) wc can wrik
.I .
l t c a I:~st,exprossiott is oltt,:~ittc~tl I)y tlovcloping the frrnc:t,ior~u(?ll --1) in a 'raylor u' = I' .ti;
tly '
-

scrirs ant1 rtcgloc:l,ing :~.llltigttor-order t;cxrrns. In (.his t,mnsvcrsc tnotion wc havc

11' > 0. Sirnil:irly :L Ilttnp of flltitl w l ~ i o ltrrrivcs
~ a$ ?I, frorn trltc I:~mitia a t -I- 1 for LIlc variation of t,lle longil~tclinnl,t~trbulrntcotnj1onrnt ~ c 'wit.11 t,itr~r.llorcl' tlcnol*>s:t.Ic~t~glh
wlticlr varies with titne and wl~ictirltay asclttmo bot.11positive ntrci ri~~gat~ivc valurs. 11ct1(~r, rrot11
I)OSS~SSCS :a v r l o ~ i ( , \vltic:11
y oxccccls that, arourttl it,, the tlifircnce bcing eqn. (19.2) we ohtnin
-d;
r = - e v ' l ' . - .-= e., :I( (19.51))
cly cly '
and the virtual kinematic viscosity becomes
( 'I'lir term inirlurr length l~nsalso her11rtsrd. El= - ~-
'1'
 c. Fnrtlirr nas~~tnptione
for the t,tlrhnlent eltenring strc~s 583
682 XIX. Tlicoroticnl wsltmptionu for the calcltlntion of t~trbrtlel~t
Rowa
ing Icngtl~is ~ ~ u r n to
e dbe indcpentlcnt of t h e rnngnitt~doof velocit,y. The mixing
representation t h a t t.he lumps which arrivc a t layer y1 with n positivc value of V' length, ~rnlikeviscosity in Stokes's Inw, is still not, n property of the fluid, l)ttt i t is,
(upwards from below i n Fig. 19.1) givc rise "mostly" t o a negntivc c' so t h a t their a t least,, a purely local function.
product 7 ~ 'v' is negative. T h e lilmps with e negative value of v' (downwards from
I n numeroils cases it, is possible lo csl.nblish a simple r ~ l n t ~ i o ln) c t . ~ c c rt,l~c ~
nbove in Fig. 19.1) are "mostly" associntetl wit,h a positivc u' and the protluct IL' v'
mixing lengtl~,I, ant1 n cl~nm.ctcristiclength of tJrc rcspcct.ivc flow. F o r exntnplc, in
is ngsin negative. The qualifying word "mostly" in t,he above cor~t~cxt. expresses
flows n.lor~gsrnoof,lt w:~llsb tti~lsl.v:lttisll :lt, l.hc w:~.llil.scll', Ilt.c:ltls~ I ~ ~ : L I I R V C ~ Stno(.io~ts
O
tho fact t , l ~ a tthe npponr:trtc:c of p:\rl.ic:los for wlticli %' II:LR Llie op[~osit,csiglt t80tho
arc inhibitetl by its prcscncc. I n flows alotrg rough walls t,hc mixing Ic:rigtflt ricar t,l~r
nljovo is not completely -exclt~dcct I)ut is, ncvertl~elcss,much less freqnct~t.' r l ~ ~ s , w:~11 must, t.crt~lt.o n vnlrtc of l,hc same ortlrr of ~nagt~it~tttlc ns t.11~ solitl ~ ) r o I . r ~ ~ s i o t ~ s .
t,ho t,ornl)ornl avcmgc 14' v' is tlircrcnt frorn zero, nntl r ~ c ~ t i v lIcncc,
c. we assume,
-
U.V. :- cm.m. (19.611)
Pr:l.t~tI~.I's
cq~tnt,ior~
vbolio~t,nlo~tq~ r ~ n l((pipc,
( I9.7) II:IS I ~ C C I IS I ~ C C ~ S S ~ I n.l)plic:tI
III~ t o t,I~cR I . I I ( I ~01. iur1t7I1c;rt
l . ~ clrxtit~cl,pl:~t,t:, 1)or~rltlnryInyc*r),nntl to t,ltc t)roblctn of so-
called /rre lurOztle?~t/6111 'L'l~c
. Iatt,rr trrtn r.~fc!rsto flow wit,l~ont, solid ~vnlls,s11c1ins t(.I~c
with 0 < c < 1 (c f 0). Not,lring is ktiowtr about thc numerical factor c I ~ u t ,in mixing of s jet wit.11 t,hc snrrountling still air. Exntnplcs of sue11 npf)lic:at,ions will he
csscnce, i t appears t o be idcnt.icnl wit,h tltc correlation factor defined in eqn. (18.12). given in Chaps. XX, XXI, and XXIV. It. A. M. Ualbrnit,l~c t nl. [13a] provitled
Ttrc experimental resultts plotted in Fig. 18.4 give some idea ns to its bchaviour. good cxprrimcnt.nl s n l q ~ o r fort the ut,ilit,y of the tliixing-lrngt.lr cot~cc.l)t,.
Combining cqns. (19.5) ant1 (19.6) we now obtain

c. Further flssumplions for tho trrrbl~lcntslleflrit~gelresa

It, slto~~lcl
1,c iiot,ctl t h a t t,llc const.a.tlt it1 t,lrc almvc ~ ~ 1 1 a t i ois1 1diffcrcnt from that, l'r:tt~clt~l'scqtt;~t,ioti(19.7) for sIt(!:tritlg sttt-css i t t t.~trl)rtl(~t~L llo\v is st,ill 1111s:~tis-
in eqn. (l9.6), RS the former also contnins t,ltc factor r, from cqn. ( 1 9.6a). 'l'hc c o n ~ t ~ n n t , liit:l,ory i t 1 t,lt:~l.t . 1 1 ~:l.pp:~rt:ttt~,
Icittt:n~:tl,it:vist:osit.y r , t-(111.(l!).7l~),v:~ttisl~(;s :\I, poitlk
can now bc irlclr~tlctlwith the still llnltnown mixing length, ant1 wc lnny write wl)crc cl?Z/tl?/is cqilitl t,o zcro, i. o. at, poiltl.s o f n ~ n x i t n t l tor ~ ~t n i t ~ i t n t t ~vclociI,y.
~l 'L'his
is ccrtnir~lynot t.hc cnsc bccn~rsct ~ ~ r b r t l t ~mixing rt, ttlocs not. vnnielt : ~ t1)ni11k ol'
maxin~utnvc.1ocit.y ( r c t ~ t ~of r c clrnt~nrl).'l'lir I:~t.t.ttrvia\\? is c:onlir~nc~el l)y I~r~ic:lr:~.rtlt,'s
t~rc:~~srtrc-~nc~~t.s on l.ttrb~tlt:~lt~ Il~t(:Lu:bt.io~~s, Iiig. 18.:), ivlticl~sliow l,l~:ll.i t 1 tlic (:c:l~trco(.
the shearing sLrcss from cc111. (19.1) can bc writkt1 as
Cor~scqr~cnt.ly, t.hc (:l~a.t~n(-I t,l~c: lortgit,rttlit~nl:itit1 t.rnt~svrrsrIll~c:t.r~nt.iot~s bol.11 clilli:r fro111 xrro.
I n orclcr t,o count,cr thcsc diffici~lt,icsId. 1'rnntlt.l [2:1) rst,nl)lishcd n t:onsitlt.mbly
sirnplcr cqrlxtior~for tltc nppnrcnt kir~cmnticvi~cosit~y. It, is vnlitl only in t.11~ case
of frec tPurbulcnt flow nttd was tlcrivctl from cxt,ct~sivccxpcrirnct~t,nltl:tt,:r or1 frec
l'aking i t ~ t ~aor r o ~ t t.hnt
~ ~ t t h e sign of 7, t n ~ ~ schange
t, with t h a t of tlii,/tl!/, it is fout~tl turbulent flow duo t o TI. Itcicltnrtlt [24]. 111~ c t . t i r ~I gI t,his
~ I,. Prntrtlt,l
ttrw I~ypclt,l~csis
t,l~:tt~
i L is tnoro correct t,c) writc nss~tmetlt h a t the tlitnct~sior~s of t.11~
Ittml)s of llrlitl wllicli tnove in :I t,rnnsvcrsc tlircc-
Lion t l r ~ r i t ~turl,rtlcr~t
g mixing arc of tllc s:mc ortlcr of m:rgtiit~tttlc:IS t,hc witlLI1 of t,ltc
mixing zone. I t will I)c rccitllcd t l ~ : ~I.ltc
t , prcviotts I~yl)ot,ltc;sisitnl)lic:tl t,l~al.t,ltc?,y wcrc
small compnrcd wit,h t,lic t.ransvcrsc clin~cnsior~s of btto rc%giot~ of flow. T l ~ cvirttlnl
kinematic viscosity, s, is now formcd by m~tltiplyingt11c tnaxirnctn~tlifTcrcncc in tttc
time-mcnn flow velocity with n lo~gt,lrwl~ic:l~is nssrrrnctl to be proportion:~l to the
'J'lris is I'rrrnrlll'a ~~tdsi,~q-lr.trylh. h l y ~ l h c . ~ i . qIt,. will be SIIOWII lnt,cr Llrnt it. is very l~sefrll
i r ~the calc:~tlnt,iot~ of L u r l ) ~ ~ l oI~(I\\~s.
~tt widt,l~,I), of t.hc mixing zone. Thus,
Cor~ll)at.itrgcclr~.(19.7) wit,l~the Bo~tssincsqhypothesis in c q r ~ (. l 9 . l ) , wc find the
follo\ririg oxl,rcssiot~sfor tlrc virl,rtnl viscosit.~
Ilcro, x , tlcnottcs a ditnct~sio~ilcss t~~ttiiber t,o I)(: d ~ t ~ c r r t r i t(:x~)t:ritt~r~~ti~Ily.
r~~l 11. I;)IIows
f r o ~ nccp. (19.9) LII:LI~ F: rc~nninscoiistxt~t,ovcr tOic wl~nlt:witlt01 of every c:ross-sc:t.l.iott,
whcrcxs t,hc prcviotts Ilyl)oLl~csis(1!).71)) implice1 tl~nLit, v:~rictlkvcn il' t.Ir(: t ~ t i x i t ~ g
sntl for t,ltr v irt,ttnl kinrmnt,ic viscosit,y from cqn. (1!).2) Icngt,lt were nssun~cdt o bc consttn.nt,. lprom cqr~s.(l!).9) :~ttd(1!).1) we o h t , : ~ i ~ ~ t.ho

t On comparing t-hiscqtlation wit.lt cqn. (19.5~).it is sccn tl1:~t.nccorcli~rg1.0 Llrr prrsrl~t,I~yl~otI~c~iu

t.hc transverse fiuctuntion v' is proporlio~talto 17,,,,, -1T,,(,, alttl I.ll:~tt3hott~ixingloltgth I'
is proportional to thc witlth h. 1\11nltcrttntive h)pof.lrcxis ~rltiolrrc!lntc:n 1.0 bllc np[):rrc.ltt kinc-
I t is known from rxprrimrtrt.nl cvitlrnrr t,l~nt,t,rlrbrllent drag is roctglrly prol)ort.iorlnl niatic vinronity F , nlld is vcry sir~~ilar
to tl~id.ill cqn. (I!).$))
\\.a8fortrrulittcd by 11. 1trirlt:~rdl.[24].
t,o t,hc squsrc, of ve1ocit.y and thc same r e s ~ l l is
t obtained from eqn. (19.7) if the mix-
 tl. Von Klrrn~hn'ssir11i1:~rity
11ypot.11nsis 585

t,llrl~c~lr~tI~
sllc.arirtg st8rcss is given by identical laws. This is in esselltial ngrccmcrlt wit11 cxpcrirnenta, ntlcl t,hc cx11larlat,ion
turns on tllc fact t,l~athere tllc axcs of tllc vortices nrrango tl~otnsclvcsl)rirlcip:~lly
a t right nnglcs to tfhe main stream and to Cl~ocliroct,ion of Lllc vc1oc:it.y gr:ttlitrt~t..
By contrast, in a flow field in the proximity of a solitl wall there prctlorninat,~vort.iccs
ISxnnll~lrsof I.l~c: :~l)l)lieiil~ion
of this l ~ y ~ ) o l . I ~ ;tro
c s i salso given it1 C111a0. S X IV. whose axes arc pnrallcl tjo tho flow tlircct,iorl. Vor tllis rnason, t l ~ otcmpcml~tlrcIioltl
1)ccolrlcs similar to tJlc vclociLy lieltl tlircc1,ly.
A(x~ot~(1i11~ 1.0 'I7. ( :III(I 11.hl. 0. S t ~ ~ i 1l I, lI ~a l , a, ( ~ : ~ ~ l c ~ ~ I~ aI .~( Il~, i( oY It I~I I l)a,st>(l
!ckl)(svi .~>
on :I c o ~ r ~ l ~ i n : o~f~t.l~c.
~ i o~nixing-I~~ngt.ll
t~ rnc~thotlcxprrsst,tl I)y ccln. (1!).7) nnd an a.s-
slltnptiorl of' 1.11(! Itintl rrl~rcsc~nt.ctl I)y ccln. (1!).10) 11:l.s\\.it,l~st,ootlt.ho t,rst, of titno. The d. Von K i r r n i t ~ 'sit~iilarity
~ hypothesis
I . ~ (0 ( ?/ < yk) is tIc.s(:til)vtl I)y t l ~ ovan 1)rirst. 1121
illnor 1):irt of t.11(* I ) O I I I I ( I Rl:~.y(*r I t wo~llclbc vcr.y corlvcnicnt to possc:ss :L rule w11ic:ll :~llowctlus to clctcrlr~itlct,l~c:
mixing-1rt1gt.ll l i ~ ~ ~ t n r t l n dependence of mixing lengt,l~on space coordinates. T h . van Krirm&n 1171 tnadc
a n a t t e m p t t,o t:st,al)lisl~s~rclla rrrlc a s s ~ ~ l n i trh~agt trrrl)ltlcnt fl~~c:t.nat~iot~s
:tro sin1il:~r
a t all point of the field of llow (simihri/?y WLLP.), i. e. t.Ilat tllcy (IiIPcr from ~ ) o i r t~ot
point only by time nnd lcngth scale factors. A velocity wllicb ;s charnct.erist.tc of t l ~ e
turbulent,, fluct~lat.ingmotion nnn bc forrnotl wit,l~t,llc nit1 of' 1.11~I , I I I ~ ~ ) I I ~ (sIl(~:l~~illg
~III.
st.rcss by tl(:lining it., wil,ll I,llr n.itl of c . r l l l . (I!). I ), r1.s li~llo\r,s
:

'She cl~inr~t,it.y
v, is cnllcd the /tiction veloci!?/ ancl is a rnc:asrtrc of 1.111: i ~ ~ t . ( : r ~of
sit.~
turbulent, eddying and of the correlation which exists 0et.wcen the Ilr~ct.llnt.incrcorn-
?
ponents in the z and y direct,ions. For the si~nilarit~y rule under considcrnt.~onwe
imagine a two-dimcnsionnl tncnn flow in l,lir .r tlirccl,ioll, RIICII t.llntl ?j - N ( y ) 11.1ld
5 = 0 (parnllcl flow), and an auxiliary n~ot,iot~ wl~icllis also two-t1irncnsion;II. 111 t,lris
case it is possible t o show t,llnt the rnle t h a t

const,itutes a necessary c~ntlit~ionto secure co~npatibilit~y

I)ctwcrn the sitnil:r.ril.y
hypothesis and the vorticit.y trnnsport equat,ion (4.10).
Introducing a n empirical dimensiorlless constant x , von IChrtnjn matlr tllc as-
sumption t h a t t,he mixing length sat,isfics t,he equntion:
S(,r :tlso ref. I!)11 1.
A ~ ( ~ S I I I I , sitniI:ir
, t,o l , l ~ cOII(: (;ont.;~it~(~(lin ( X ~ I I .( I 9.71, 11:~sI)CCII ol~t~:rint~~l 11y
(:. 1 . 'I':~.ylo~ (:{21 O I I t.llc: l):~sisof llis vorl,ic:it,yI . ~ ~ ; i t ~ s ~I,hcory.
) o r l , I r l I'r:rl~tltl's t.llcory,
(.llc* :~ss~ltnl)t,iol~ is ~~l:ltlct.l1:1.1. t.l~(:rnr:\n vc,locit:y 17 rc~tnninsrotrsl.a11t.tl11r.ing1.111: t.r:~ns-
vcxt.sntnol.io~tof :i Ir~mpof' I111id;'V:~yIor's theory sl~l)sl.il,l~t.cs for t l ~ i st,hc Ilyl)ot.11csis 111accordance with the above hypothesis, tllc mixing Icngt.11,I, is intlcpnntlrnt, of the:
111:1t LII(: roi:~tion,t,l1;1,1, is t,l~nt,(lC/cl?y r(:tn:iit~s<;o~~st.nnl,. T11is y i ~ ~ l t~, l ~l (s- (*q~t:ition magnitude of velocity, being a f~inctionof t.hc vclority clist.riblrt.iorl only. 'l'11o r~lix-
ing Icngth bccorncs n prlrcly locnl fnnction a s :ilra:l.tly rcrcll~irc:tlc:irlic:r, :i11<1t.l1(: ~ 1 3 1 1 -
s t a n t x in eqn. (l'J.lS),can only bc clctcrrnirlctl cmpiric:ally. I t is a rrnivcrsni clirncn-
sionlcss constant which must have the snnic valrlc for all l,~lrbrllcntflows, providrtl
I t h a t the assrrmptions marlc prcviol~slyarc snt,isfictl (p:~mllclflow).
\vl~i(.ll clill'(-rsI'ro~n(~111. (l!).7) tnt:r(.ly l).y I,IIc f:i(:l,or.112. 'l'l~isnlc:tlls l,l~:it,I,IIP tnixing
l(~11gt11 ol' (:. 1. '1';rylor's vorl,i~~it,~~-t.r:it~sS~:r tl~(;or.yis 1nrgf:r l ~ ya f:tct,or 115 ~II:LII l , l ~ : ~ t , Introducing, finally, cqn. (19.18) into eqn. (19.Oc), we fintl tllnt t.11~I,~~rl)rllrrlt.
~ h c a r i n gstrcss is
i l l I,: I'~~:~~~clt.l'sI I I ~ I ~ I ~ ~ I ~ ~ . I I I I I - ~ . II' .: lI ~
~ I(I ~
S ~o'1'1111s
~r~~~ . lu - : 112 1.. 0 1 1 III(? I~nsisof his
o t ~ s i l r : ~ i o .~ ~I s. 1, ' 1 l o r o t 1 1 1 1 1 1I I : I I 1 i l s i o of t r t i v r n l ~ i r ctlilkt.c:ncc:s
:IIIOvor1ic.iI.y in t . l ~ ( ,111isil1::xonc 1)c~hintl:r c-ylit~tlric:nIrot1 oi.ct~rin c.onformity \vit.l~
586 XIX. Throretical aaatin~ptionafor the calculation of turhl~lcmtflow8

A . 1lrl.z [4] gave n very Inctd derivation of eqn. (19.18). I n latcr tiines von
J<&rm&ti'shyl~otliesishns bc*rn c.striitlrd to inrll~derompressihle tur1)iilent flows
too [20al; sc>rtlir paIwr I)y (: C I,iii r t al and tlie ot~scrvattonsmatie by G. IIamel
[9] anrl 0 13jnigun1 [(il
Bot,li vnii IZ:i.rn~iifi'slibw of' l,~trlnilt!tttfrict,iort, I : ~ I I(19.19),
. : ~ t i c l l ' r : ~ t ~ ~ l tI:L\v,
.l'~
1:qn. (19.7). arc easily applic?cl1.0 1 . 1 1 ~prol~lnmof fintlitig ~ I I I : velocity clistrihrttion it1
a mcta~igrilarchanitel. Si1ic.c t.Itis ~inivc-rsallaw is of fitntlan~ont,alim1~ortanccfor t,ltc
consitleratio~tsitt t h c ~r~cccntlirtg chnpt,crs,ant1 since i t is n p ~ ~ l i c s btloc circillnr c l ~ t ~ n t i e l ~
a s wcll, we s11:~lldcvotc a litt,lc sl)ncc t o its ~lcrivat~ion.
apparent, t,ilrbulcnt,frict.ion. This assumpt,ioti 1)rcnltsdown in t.11~ riciglil~orirl~ood of' tlic
wall wlicrc t.hc turb~llctitbountlarylaycr gocsover into t,llc 1:~tninarutib-I:~yt:r.We arc
t,lius let1 t o ntlclit.ionnl c:oiisitlcrations w1iic:li will I~cgivcnIntrr. 111wli:it I'ollows wn shnll,
t,hcreforc, exci~rtlcfrom consideration n sin:~11rcgion 1ic:ir l.lic cctitrc-line atit1 n stni~ll
rcgion rtcnr tlic wall. I I, is pnrt,icul:~rlyrc:rnnrltal)lc t.li:tt t.lin ttriivcrs:~lvc:locit,y-distri-
l)~rl,ionI:rw in its li)rtn givc:n 11y I ? ~ I I .(1!).21) clocs riot c:oiit.aitt citltc:r t,l~c: ro~tgliti~ss
or t,ltc Itcyiioltls iilrtribcr cxplicillyt. 'l'ho velocity-tlisl,ril~uLio,i law in cclri. (1!).21),
also Ititown a s t,lio velocity-delec.1 Irzzct, (:an be cxprcssotl in wortls a s follows: '1'11~
vcloc:itjy-tlintri1111t.ion nctrvc?s for n rccl,xrignlsr cl~nnnclC:LII I)c riinclc Lo coit~c~iclc if
tlic rlilrcrnr~cou,,,,, - u is rnnclo climcnsionlcss wit11 tltc ; k i t 1 of t,lic fricl.iott v e l ~ c i t ~ y '
a t thc wall, I?,,,, ntid ~ ~ l o t t cagnitist,
tl v / h . Tltis rcsult, wliicli turns oiit 1.0 I)(? valitl
for circular pipes a s woll, will I I ~coiitl~nrcd wibh cxpc~ritiicnt.nltnc::~s~trnmri~t.s ill

Tlit, c.h:~nnrlwill I)r nssiimrtl t o llevc a widt81i2 h arid the x-axis will be placed Sccr. X X c.
along its ccntrc-litic, tlic coortlinntc ?/ bcirig mcaqrlred from t h e latter. Wc shall
assume a corist.ntit prrssrlrc grntlient aloilg t h e axis, putting c7jila~= G t . Since
-- 0 , Ill(. slirnring stress is a linrar f~tnctionof t.hc wiclt.11 of the
(?jj/8a--1 i)~/tl?y
I-lianrtcl, i 1%

wlicre to t1ciiot.c~t l ~ cstmss at, t,lic wnll.

OJ1Ka
1. Voti Krirm61i's velocity-di~trihutionlaw. Applying von I<;irmi~n's~ i m i l a r i t . ~
rule, cclri. (l!).l9), t o cqti. (10.20), \rfc obtain
IGg. 1!).2. Univcr~nl vcloci1.y diatribtltion law
for turbulent channel flow, nfkr von KSrmirn
and Prnndtl [17, 211 04 - .
-A -
Intogrnt,ing twice and determining tho coristnnts of integration from tllc coiitlit.ion C l ~ r v c(1) c n r r e e p n t ~ dlo
~ eqn. (10.28):
tltnt u ?I,,,
=1 at, ?/ = 0, wc havc (:ttrvc ( 2 ) cortnpondn to rqn. (10.21). -.
y - ~ i i s l n n r rfrom wall O 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 10

-Y
h
Ii~t.roclucingt h e frictiot,:bl vclocity a t tlic wall, v,,, = itole , we cart rcwrite t.lic
lafit equation in dimensionlem form
2. l'randtl's velncity-distribution law. A similar velocity-clist,rib~~tionInw can
elso be tleclured from l'rantlt,l'a hypothesis for the turbulent shearing tress, eqn.
(19.7). I n the process of deriving the relevant expression we shall gain more i n s ~ g h t
into the conditions which prevail in the itnrnediate neighbonrhood of tllc wall a n d
(y --distnncc lionl crtit.rc-lirtc). 'I'ltis is t l i ~
form in wIii(:li t.11~
~ttiivcr~:~.I
vclocit:~-cli~t~ril~u- which we wrrc forcrd to cxclridc from tfhc prcccdiiig argnmrlit. We shall constrlcr a
tion law was deduced by von Khrm.iri 1171. I t is sllown t w curve (2) in Fig. 19.2. T h e turbl~lcritstrcam along a smooth flat wall and we sllall rlcnotc tlie clistnnrc I t oil1 t11c
prctlicte~lvclocity-disl.ril)i~tbnc11rvc has a kink ricnr tlie cent.rc-lirte of tlic clianncl wall by tlic symbol y, with u ( y ) denoting the velocity Jn the ncigl11)onrhood of t h e
wiiioh is dllc t o t h e fact t h a t t h e rcq~uremcntof sjmilarity cannot be satisfied Iicro, wall we slm.ll ansumo proport,ionaltt y bctwrcn mixing l c r ~ g t lnntl
~ wnll tlislnnc.c~,so Lhnt
l~cc:r~tse,in accordance witli cqn. (10.18), tlie mixing Icngt,li becomes cqunl 1.0 zoro nt l.11c
coril.rc. A t the wall, Ibr y = h, ccjn. (1!1.21) Icnds tofan infinit,cly large velocit,y wwliicl~is
cxplainccl 11y tlio faol, tliat molcc~ilarfrictlior~hixi bee11 neglected in comparison with tlie
1 - x y . ( 19.22)

IIerc x dcnotcs a rlinicnsionl~xsco~ist~ant wl~iclimust IIC dctlucctl l'rolri cxpcrimcnt.

---. ---
. This as sump ti or^ is rcasonablc, bccsi~scthe t n r b r ~ l o l tslirnring stress a t tlic wall is
t Proni lliin point, onwnrdu wc ~linllomit the hnr abovc the s tnhol 1.0 denote t.imr-nvcragcsas
confttniori wit11 lin~o-dcpcnclrritrjt~nt~titic:~
i~ no longcr poesiIlc. 1. They arc, of cottrue, contninccl in~plicitlyin the wnll at.rc~nr,.
 It*,nay I)c wort11 11ot.ingin pnssitrg Il~nt,it. is ~)ossil,l(:l o ol)l.:li~l1.l11. sin~l,l,:I.(%SIIII.
l.l~:it. 1 .- x ?I front tllc: vclocit,y-tlrfi:c:t. I:LW (I!).27), t.ogot.l~c~r wil.11 v o ~I < i~i i . i ~ t : i i ~ ' s
(y11:1t,io11for n~ixilig1(:11gt,l1.'l'l~is11rn.y It(: c%:~sily vcrili(%(lOy I II(- rr:1~1(~1.. l<i11:1 llj.. i 1
s l ~ o ~ ~I)c l tnot,etl
l t,l~at.t . 1 1 ~prccctlit~gn.rgrlrnc~nt,1)rovc.s l.11:1t. t,l~oc:oc%fliric~~~l,s x ill ( Y I I I ~ .
(19.22) ant1 (19.18) :~rc: itlrnI.ic:nl.
Wc shall t ~ o wrevert l,o t.11~ problrrn of tlrt.c:rrnining t.l~c,c.onsl.:~~~l, ol' i ~ t f . ( y ~ . : ~ t , i o ~ ~ ,
At, t,l~isstilgf: I ) ~ : L I I ( I I I i ~ ~ l , r o ( l ~ ~:III
c , r;~(l(lilio~~:tl,
(l f;tr-rc:xc11itrg a s s ~ ~ n r p I ~ in:hr~lcly
<~n, C', i r ~ccln. (1!).27). As nlrently mc:r~t,ionntl,t.lic co~rst~iint, shoi~ltl\)I. t l t ~ l . ( ~ r ~ n ifro111 ~l(~tl
t.llc: sl1c;tring strcss r c ~ n n i ~ roltsI:~nt,,
t.I1:1t, ls i. c. t,11:1tt to,w11crc to tlcr~otcstltt:
.-;. i h c ~ontlit~ion t.l~ntl.llc t ~ l r b ~ ~ lvclorit.y
rnt clist.ribt~t.ior~ ~nnst,joitt I . I I ( ~ I : l n ~ i ~ ~v(%lo(.if.y;tr
sl~cv~ring s1.rc.s~:it t11r \v:i11. Il~t.rotl~~c.it~g onc:c more t.11~fric:l.ior~vclociLy I cIisl,riO~~t~ic~n in t 1 1 ~itntn~(li;~t,c t ~ ( - i g l ~ l ) o ~ ~ rof o ( l \v;III \vl~c\r(-t,It(! I;ttrriti:~r :11i(4
l ~ ot,I~c
t . r ~ r I ) u l r ~s11r:xring
~t- strc,ssrs :lro of t , l ~ cS:IIII(: or(l(:r of I I I : I ~ I I ~ I ~ \\I(* I I ( I ~( -I (. ~ ~ ~ ( * I ~ I~ I. I I~V I I I ~
rorrsttnllt, of int3egrnI.ion C: fro111 t.hc> ror~tlif.ior~ t.l~:~t. 7~ - 0 :I{, $1 c*c.rt.:ii~t t l i s l : t i ~ l . r . ?I,,
Iro111 I,II(> \v:~lI. 111 l,l~isIII:IIIII{:~

I lorv t,hr c:ot~st,;~,~~t, of it1 t.c:gr;rt.iotl, (:, I I I I I S ~I)c tlet~crtnir~ctl

from the condit,ior~a t the
wnll :~tlclsc*rvcs t.o fit, t.11~
Iaycr. Ilo\vc.vcr, c:vc:n wil,l~ol~t,
t.l~rl)tilrntvcloc:ity clistrib~lt~ior~ t o Llrat in tllc laminar sub-
tlc*t.(:rrniningC it is possil)lc t o tlcdr~ccfrom eqn. (19.27)
il =
- -
v*o
' (I,, ?"." - I,, p)
:L I;l\v a ~ ~ : ~ l o g ot,o
l t st.I~:llin cclt~.(19.21). 111 spit,c of t,l~cf:lc:t t,l~:rtcc111.(19.27) is v:llid
only in t,hc ~ ~ c i g l ~ l ) o ~ ~ ror h otlto i o t ~t -- const.,
o t l w;~ll,I)(-~:RIIsG of t,l~ca s s ~ ~ ~ n p tt81~ati \\rl~irl~is t l ~ c : tlilncnsioriless, logn.rit.l~n:ic:.~ ~ t t i v r r s avc~loc~it~y-tlisI,ril)~~l,ioti
l I : I \ ~ , ;III{I
we sl~nllat,t,cml~tt.o ~ t s cit, for thc wl~olcregion, i . I?. I I t,o ~ 11 = h. Since a t y =: h we
asserts t.11at. the vrlocity, rcfcrrctl t o t,11(.l'ric:lion vclocail,y f 9 : , , , is ;I, f1111(:tio11 of' 1 . 1 1 ~
Irnvc u u,,,,,. we ol)t,:~in
-7
climc:nsior~!ess \\.rill clistnnce, ?/ 11, ,,/v. 'l'ltc lnt.t,c,r is :L ltintl ol' Itoy~~oltls I I I I I I I ~ ) ( ~ III:IS(Y~
.
on t.11~ wall clistnncc, y, nntl on t.11~ f'ric-l.ion vt.loc.il,y at. t.11c: \v:~lI. I':cln:lt,ion (I!).L'!);l)
u,,,, = "*O In li -tC , cont,n,it~st J ~ ctwo cl~~piri(>:~,l (:(;IIs~,:LII~,s, x : ~ t r ( I /I. 111 :1(:ror(l:1,11(:0 wit,l~1 . 1 1 ~ 111v\?io11s
rensoning wc may expect, tfl:nt, tllc: collst,nrtt. x is itrtl(~l)c:lltlcrrtof ~.II(,~ ~ : t l , nol' r c ~I.llc
: ~ t r t l Ilrr1c.c.. Ipy forming t,Ilc? vclocit,y tlifforcncc, wo c1cduc:c wall (\vl~et,lrcrsnioot,lr or rongh) ant1 t.lr:~t, it is, nlorcovc:r, :L ~ ~ r r i v c ~ ~c~o11st:1111, .s;~l oC

7',,,ar - 7 11

"*o
-
--
I
K
h
In - ;
Y
(y = disb:~nrcfrom wall) (ling clrnpt.cr, give a vnll~cof x
n:tt,nrc of t,hc w:d1 sr~rf:icc;rclov:l~~t,
--
tnrl)l~lcnt.flow. 13xpcrirnrnl.nl rc!sult,s, t.o Ilo tlisc:~~ssrd in gr(,:~t.(\r

n ~ ~ r n c ~ . i rv:rlnc>s
nl
( l ( ~ I , : ~ i in
0.4. 11'110 scc:on(l colrst,t~nt,.0, tl(,l)c*~ltls
l t . l ~ ( 'S I I ( Y . I Y > -

will I)(! given i l l (!II:I;). X S .

011 t,11(,

,I ,his 1111iv(:rs;11 v c l c ~ ( ~ i ( . ~ ~ - ( I:LW

l ~ f c tlrlc*
( ; l , 1.0 I'rnn(lt,l is s l ~ o w tplotlet1
~ ;ls c:ltrvc ( I )
i r ~ITig. ,1!).2. In t . 1 1 ~prc?c:c:tlingargr~rnentwe sr~cccetlcclin deriving a urrivcrsal vclocity-
clist.ril,~tt.io~~ I:lw from I'r:~~~(lt.l's law of frictior~in cornplcbc analogy with t h a t in
( ~ 1 1 1 . (1!).21), wl~ic:hwas olll.:lir~ctlfrom von I<ilrmlit~'s sirr~ilnrit~y
rrrlc. The only cliffe-
rent:(: is in t.l~c: fortn of t.llc: f ~ ~ ~ ~ c tof~ iy o/ hn wl~ich'appear
s on tire r i g h t - h a ~ ~side
d of
~:(]IIs. (1!).21) : L I I ~ (1!).28) r r ~ p c ~ c l ~ i v0r1~1 yreflexid11
. this will not appear incomprc-
we I.:LII sl~ortc-IIcv111 (I!).29n) to rrntl
hc:trsil,lc?, if wc: f.altc int,o nccol~ntthe tlifhmr~ccin t*hc assrrmptiotl concerning tllc

--
sllr:tring st.rcss. Verb 1C:'Lrm;in :~ssnmctl a linear slrcaril~g-stress distriblttion, bltc: +(I]) 7 A, I l l 71 1- I),
mixing Ic::rlgt,l~I)ring 1 u'lu". On t,110 other ]land, PranclI,l assumed a constar~l. wllc~l~c*
sl~csriitgst,ross and 1 ?I. l'ig~~rc19.2 c o r ~ t a i r ~a s comparison hetwccn t.11csr: two
I:rws. A I~rt.l~c:r c:omp:lrisorl witell cxpcrirncr~tis clcfcrrcd to Cl~ap.XX.
5l)O XIX. Tl~rorct,irnlnm~rmptionsfor t,hc mlculntion of t,rrrl~i~lrrtt
Ilo\vs

~~nivc:rsnlvc~loc:it~y-elisl.ril~~~t,ior~
'I'll(: I:Lw, nqn. (In.:]:,), wl~ic:l~ l ~ n snow I)ocr~dcrivctl
rigorously constant in t.rrrbnlcnt ns wcll ns in laminar flow, xr~clis c q ~ ~ l,o a l t,11:1t, :it,
for t h : (:tist>of :L fl:~t, wnll (rcc:t.:ingt~l:~rc:l~:~.ntlol)
rct.air~.rits f u ~ n l a ~ n c n t nirn1)orLancc
l
t,hc wall, to.11. Ltcicl~a.rtlt. 126, 261 carrictl o u t a n oxtcnsive invrst.igat,ion of t.l~iscSasc;
for flows t,llrongl~circular pipes, :LS will I)c sccn in t,l~cnext ehnpt,c:r. We may now
solno of 11isrcsulh can bc infcrrctl from Fig. 19.3 which sl~owsseveral vclorit,y 1)rofilcs
st.nt,e, in anticipation, that, it lo:~tIst o gootl agrecmcnt wit11 cxperimcnt.
observed in Couctt,c flow. 'l'l~c flow rcmzins laminar ns long ns the I ~ O ~ I I ~ I I I R
Tn nonclutling t,l~isc:hnpt>rr it may 1)o wort11 ~ t ~ r c s s i nonce g again tfhnt t.1ic two number R < 1600 sncl t l ~ cvelocity distribution is t,l~cnlinear t o a good tlcgrrc of
nnivcrs:il vclocil,y-clis(.ril)~~t~io~i Inws in cqns. (19.21) ant1 (10.27) were obtained for approximation. When t l ~ eReynolds r~umbcrR excccds tllc value 1500 the flow is
t,~irl)nlcnt~ flo\v, nntl t.ook i11t.o ac:nor~nt,,ap:lrt from t,hc small sub-layer ncar the trlrbulcnt. Tllc t r l r t ) ~ ~ l cvelocity
nt profilcs arc very flat near t.l~ecentre ant1 bccornc
wnll, only t,nrhnlont s l ~ m r i n gstrosscs, ant1 i t sho11lt11)e realizetl trIrnt3snch a n assump- very steep ncar the walls. A profilc of this kind is t o be ~xpcct~ccl in tnrl)r~lontflow
t,ion is s:tt,isfi(:(l x,l:~rg!r l~cyn?ltlsn~~rnl)crs.only, ( ~ o n s c q ~ ~ c rtile
~ t ~ vclorit,y-tlisl,ri-
ly if it, is rcmcnibcrcd t>l~xL t . 1 1 ~shearing st.rcss nonsist,~of n l:~.tninnrc:ont.rit)~~t.ion ,
I)t~l.ior~
law, ~):~rt.ic:~~la,rly t.l1:11, in ccln. (I!).:i:S), must I n rcjinrtlctl a s nn asyml)tlotfio
I:tw a.pl~lic:xi)lct o very 1:~rge ltcynoltls numl)crs. For smallgr-Rcyr~oltls- r i t l n l l ~ c ~ ~
w11c-1~.I?n~it!:~r. fi.ict,i(?l~I:xo~(,s,.somc ~ I I ~ ~ I I C I outside
IC:~ t l- .-~ -i .t .~
t t ~ ~ v e r y ~ - ,q~ll)-I:~ycr, -
. ( : x ~. o - , nn(I :i t , ~ ~ r b u I c nc o
t ~n l . r i I ) ~ ~ l , i o ~ ~
riihcnl, Icads t80 a powor law of... the form ,.. .

~ I I I Rt o turbulent mixinp. Ilcncc

wl~crcA , donotes t l ~ ernixirig cocfficicnt tlcfinctl in rcln. (19.1). 111 t,llis m:atincr t,l~c
wllcrr t.11~exponent 21, is approxilna(.cly rrlrlnl t o :,
I l t ~ tvaries somewhat wit.11 the velocity gradient turns o u t to be proportiotlal t o I / ( p -tA). Since A varies from
Itrynolrin tlnml)cr. 'l'liis point will also be t,akcn u p agnin in t l ~ succeeding
c cliaptcr. zero a t t h e wnll tto its maximnm in the centre of t,hc cl~anncl,t l ~ cvelocity profilc
must bccomc st*cep tltc wall and flat, a t t,Ilc centre, a s confir~nctl1p.y t,hc plots in
'rllc c:tso of so-cxllod C o ~ ~ c t tflow , c I)ct.wcen two parallel flat plat,es w l ~ i c lnre
~ Fig. 19.3. The t ~ ~ r b r ~ l mixing
cnt cocfficicnt increases wit,t~a n iticrcasing Reynolds
tlisplncc:cl rcl:it,ivc t,o circl~o t l ~ c r(Wig. 1 . I ) const.it,ut,rs a ver.y simple cxaniplc of a r~~~rnb e r the curvatr~rcof t l ~ cvclocitpyprofile bcco~ncs,correspondingly, more
anrl
flow i t 1 w l ~ i c lt~l ~ esl~c::~ringsl.rc!ss rc:rnnins c:or~st~ant,.
'l'l~n sl~c~aring
st.rrss T rrrnains
p r o n o ~ ~ n c r tcompare
l; t,l~cpaper I)y A. A . Szcri [nlnl.

f. Further dcvelopmc~itof theoreticnl hypotheses

Fig. 19.3. Vc10cit~yprofilcs
in prallel Coucttm flow
betwrcn two parallel plates
lnovitig in opposite direc-
tions, after H. Rcichardt
[25, 261
A t R - I200 Lhc flow Is Inmitlnr;
nt R .- 2000 nnd 34.000 tllc flow
Is L~lrbulcnt
Tl~ccnlcrrlation of Lurbrrlcnt flows on 1.111: bn4i~of 1,110 difl'crc~~t s ~ n ~ i - c ~ ~ ~ pI~yl)ot.l~(:s~s
irirnl
discusset1 previously, aritl carried out in rirt,:hil in t l ~ csuccoctii~~g cl~npkrs,is not sntisfact.ory
in so far as it is still itnpossiblc to analyze t1ifli:rcnt kinds of tirrbulol~tllow \vitl;'d~onicl of t.11cRntnc
l~ypothesiscoticcrning trrrbrllcnt frict.ion. Ipor cxatnplc, Prnntltl'a I I ~ ~ O ~ I I C011R 1.11~
~ H lnixing lcng1.11,
cqn. (19,7), fnil~cotnplctely in-tl!? casc of RO-cnll~d isotropic. trrrbulcticc ris it, c?xint,sbcl~i~~cl n
scrccrl of $tic ~cs11,bccni~win tliia em< tali(:vciociLy giatlicnL of 1.11~biuic flow ik D ~ ~ I I I L1.I0 zc:r~
cvcry.wJ~cr~, Tl~oliyPo~llcscslor bhc cilct;lniio~~ or clovclol)ccl Lur1)ilIcnt flow, ( ~ ~ H o I I R R ( ' I I i n Sees.
XIXb and c, have been considerably cxtentlcd by I,. I'ranclt,l 1221 in an at,tc~nptto rlcrivo n uni-
versally valid system of equations (tr~rbr~lnnt flow ncar wall, frcc turbulent Ilea., isot.ropic 1.urhu-
Icncc).
Energy eqemtioa: L.Prnntltl bnsctl I~isncw dcvelopn~cliton 1.l1cco~isitlcrntionof t.hc kinotic
- -
cncrgy of tnrbtrlcnt flnctuation, R = o ( r ' 2 + 11'2 + z),nnrl cnlc~rlatctlthc rltangc of t.lrc
cncrgy of the suhsirliary motion with tinrc, UR/J)l, for n particle which tiloves with Llic basic
stream. This is con~poncdof t,l~recLcrn~s:of t,hc decrease in cncrgy tltlc to internnl fric.t.ion i n the
motion of tlto 111mpsof fluid, of thc tmnsfcr of cncrgy from tho hnsic motion Lo tl~osilt)sidiilry
n~ot,ion- this term heing proportiotinl to (dlJ/dy)z - and, linnlly, of t l ~ ctrnnsfer of kinetic
energy from the more turbulent to the lem tnrbulcnt zones. T l ~ ccncrgy balnnce I)ct,wren t,lio~e
tl~rccterms leads t,o n differential equation for the cncrgy of the t,urbulent'sr~bsitlinrymotion
u.hich must be ndded to the systen~of differential equations for the Incan niotion; it l~nsthe forni
502 XIX. Tl~rorrl.icnlnsaun~ptionsfor the cnlrulntiot~of lnrbr~lent,flows

flnre j -- 0 for t.wo-tlitnrnsionnl Incnn Ilo\vn, j =; 1 for nxially symmetric nlenn flows (y-radial The length scnle L is nssr~nredt,o be n frlnct,ion of y/J. Thus,
clistztnce frorn nxis). 1,. l'rnndtl referred to tlie preceding as to the firot fundn~nent,aleqtlntion.
A srooncl equntion rcl:rt,cs tlie tllrhi~lentshearing stress with the velocity gradient of the mean
flow nnd is analogous to the oltl n~ixingeqnat.ion (19.2), but also contains the energy of the In c.ontrnst to 1'rnndt.l who thor~ghtof tlic tliil'rrnion of t ~ ~ r l ~ ~ onrrgy
r l c n l nn t.hr nrigrttIit,n o l ' r ~ ~ r r g y
t ~ ~ r b c ~ lnr~lr~itlinry
ent ~notitnr,lhnt is fronr regions where its valrre is high t,o tt~osealrerc it is IOU,,I%rntlsl~aw nnd collabor:~tors:isslttrie
that the ft~rxof dill~isionof t,ltrh~~lent e11crg.11~
is ~)rt)l~nrtionnl to ( ~ , , , , , ~ ) rt.
l l e lIcre T , , , , , ~drllot~n
inlrrvnl 0.26 0 G !/ < J. 'l'l~cfr~~ic:Iiot~
, .
I lrr two rclr~:~lionn- (I!).%i) ant1 (19.37) - c-orrt.ninthe tliree frce constnnta c, k , k, alrich inr~nt
t.lic ~nnxin~rtrri
valr~cof t.lie sliraring strr!ss i~l'l.l~e
(19.42) is dnfinod ns
(7 i t 1 c.c111.

I)r rlnrivrcl 1)). :L rrferrnec t,o exl)eritilo~rt,nlrrsnltn. 'rho length scnle I, is n locnl funct,ion which
rc!l~rrsc*nIn.rss(*nl.i:llly.l.hr nixing Iengtlr OF ~(111.(19.7). The defi~~itioti of this qrlntltit,y call, horn-
evrr, also I I 1):1sc:tl
~ O I I :tti intcgml o f t 111: rorrr.l:it,ion filnot.ion of t.lie velocity r o ~ n p o ~ ~ cniens~~rorl
nls
:II l\vo 11oinIs(S(Y. .l.(:. l<oll:~[2!ll, 1). I77 /I).
If 1l1r s l r r ~ c l ~ t of
r e t.r~rl)ulrricctlocs not cl~nrigcnlong ;I sI,rean~line,ns is the cnse with the
logarilh~riic~ I:~rvof t,lie \vall, nntl i f i t in nssr~~nctl that there is no diffnsion of t ~ ~ r b r ~ lenergy,
cnt
it is possil~lcto vqr~atr1l1r first t,uro t,crlna on the right-hnnd side of eqn. (19.30) and to show tlint

in vie\\-r)fc'ln. (I!).:l7). I'l~ttingQ E -7 1 ~ k/c~ urr

1 recognize thnt. eqn. (10.38) retltlcos to tho iirixing-
Irt~gthFOVIIIIII~Iof i.qn. (19.7) wit11 1 = 1,. l~in~illy,
if rve equate T, frorn eqnn. (19.37) nnd (19.7) me
tlcrivr t,l~at.
c -. &3. (19.39)
,.1Iir ~wr~.r(litrgrrl:rtiotl is ~ ~ s rnsc l :I rlrli~~itiot~
of 1. :rncl tllis lenves only two ndjnstnble const,nnt~s.
i ~ ~ ~ ~ slo inclic::ltn t,hnL c -= O.l(iR nncl k ,
nnn~rlyr tind k,. \':lrio~is i n v ~ ~ s l . i a ; l f:tpl)(s:lr = 0.0 arc the
\-:~IIIOR. 'JYIIIS. linallg, c.rlrt;ilio~~u
nlq)rol)rinlr 11111nrri(~n1 (19.38) nnd (111.38) yield
TI - c2I3 g B % 0.3 Q . (19.40)
Fig. 19.4. 1':rnpiricnl frlnctiot~s/, nnd lz
\vliich ocrrtr i t 1 P. llr:i(t~l~:rn~'n
of rnlcr~lntingt,rlrl~~rlrnt.
[lo] ~irrlhocl
1)ortntlnry layers;
111 the p c s ( ? ~ ~ofc rI~nniogct~ror~u t r ~ r l ~ ~ ~ l rsnc11
n c r .as Ihnt. fol~ndbehind n screen, only tho first of
t l l ~R I I O V ~IIlrf.(! I ~ I ~ I I I I ~ V(vlergy II~ trrtns i~ ~ ~ r r s r nt111d t , for (.ilia reason 1.110 tt~rbl~lence behintl tire ~ c rqnn.
e (I 9.42) to ( 19.44)
R(*r(~*n ( I ( - ( . I I ~ ~ I o \ ~ I I R ~In~ ~I ~: II CI('nscI I . of ~ I I I I I I I ~ 1101v:iIl
C~ I.l~reotortnu nre present,, but the tlrirtl
term (t.ransTr.r of I<inc.t.ic.c'nrrg,y fro111tnorc 1.0 less tr~rlnllonl,regions) is significn~~t, only near the
s.nII \vlrorc~.on.ing t.o t.lm vigorons crcnt.ion of 11c1v t.orOulrnce by \vnll slrenr, tlierc exists n zone
of ~~nrticnl:rrly Iiigli 1.1trln1lencr( r / . I'ig. 18.3). antl n m r tho rentre, where no turbulence is created
nt~rl1vlrrrr t.l~r!Ilo\v is. Ll~rrrforc.t n r ~ r lIrss ~ t ~ ~ r l ) ~ ~ lGr.~Sr. tC;Ii~nl~ko
,. 1131 extrncled the preceding
tnrt,liotl to inrlrttlr t.l~r cll'rctn of t.hr I<eynoltls n111nbrrnnd ~ierfor~ned rnlrnlations for t,lle t\~r\)nlcnt
I~oltnd:lrg I:~yrron n fI:it. pl:rtc. 'l'l~rc n l c ~ ~ l n corrrrtl ~ i ~ ~ n t,l~eregion of t.rnnsition inlo n visrous
s1111111yr'r IIH n.rll :IS I.r:~trsiI ion frotn l:r~riin:irlo trrr1~111rnt11011.. I. 14;. 13eclc\vit.l1nnd I). M. Rt~sl~nc*ll
161 rrl~*nlrtl (.II(. s : ~ l ~~i r~ : l l ~ ~ ~ t l an(l
: ~ I i(~xIcII(~c:(I
o~rn tllrir nl)l~lir:il~ility to b o r ~ ~ ~ t l lnyrrn
a r y wit.11vnri- I)iffcrc~~tinlcq~tntiot~ for IIIC lcngtl~scnlct '1'11~ a])l~Ii~!~il,ion nr I,IIc ~ l i l l ' ~ ~ r ~ :c(l~t:iI~io~ts
~ ~ l ~ i : t l (l!).:Hi)
nblc I)rrssllrc! gr:rclic.nIc. 'I'llop rxn.ri~incclthe rflkct of srlcl~~lrodilicat.ionson the ~rrt~ncrical val~~es nnd (19.37) for the cnlcrtlnt,ior~of n velocity field wit11 prescribctl initial nnd I)or~r~dary co11dit~i011~
of tlrr elnpiric.nl const,nl~t.s. cannot be perfornred t~nlesssome st,ntement is made concerning t.he Irngth scale IJ in t,lre nnnle
wny as in the caae nrit,l~the mixing lengt,h 1 in cqn. (1!).7). For t,his reason, .J.(:. 1tot.f.a 128, 2!)]
co~r~plcmentecl eqns. (10.30) nnd(19.37) with n t,hird cqrrntion u,liiclr serves to calcrllato I,. Nr~tnrri-
J?radsbnw'c r ~ ~ r ~ lIn ~ nt ld~: enietl~odproposotl I)y T?. Brndshnw, J).II. Ferricm and N.1'. Atnell cal cn~cll~ntiorla [:I2 a] have de~nonstrntcdthat the precetling ~y8t0tnof eqrln t,ionn I(~aclst,o sat.is-
I ] - n.lricl~is tlrsignetl principally for tlte c:nlcr~lationof trlrln~lentboundary lnyers - the ex- factory agreement with experiment without requiring any ncldit,ion~lR R R ~ ~ I ~ ~ 'I'lris
~ OisI Itrue
S.
p r r ~ s i i ofor
~ 1 . 1 1 ~l.r~rl)rllent,nllcnring st,ress fro111eqn. (19.37) is replaced by n linear drpentlcnce for lilany specific configurations, i11cIuding clinnnol flow. 11ipc flo\v, t \ \ ~ o - d i t ~ i ( : ~:111d ~ ~ itrxiall,y
o~~~~l
sy11in1ot.ricjets, frce jet surface and two-tli~ncnsional~vnlto. In rilodcrt~t . i ~ ~ l tnnny rs ticI(lil.i~nal
c.zlculat~ionnrethods hnve been proposed; they are in rssc.nce, sitnilnr 1x1 those clisc:~rssotlI~rrc.
&cent devcloprnenta in this field l~nvcbeen srlmrllnrized hy 1'. I%rsrlshnw[!?&I, 1%.15. IAllnd~l.ntuI
OII Irrrlinle~~t rnrray; t.I~iscorrc5sponcl.st.o rqn. (1!).40) with ol 0.15. Thr~nt,he enrrgy equation
7
1201, ,I.(:. ll,oLt8:i[:)I)], ( 2 . L. hlcllor rintl 11..J. ilcrrit~g120hl 111rt1\V.(:. Itcyt~oI~Is
11.1%.Sl)r~.ltling /2(;:1.l.
(I!).:lli) I I ~ R11rr11I.ra~isl'ort~rcd into IL clifi~rc111~i:tlcqo:~t.ior~
or t,hc t,rrrl)nlent.shearing stress. 111 the
('IIHC of t . \ v o . d i ~ r ~ r ~ ~ stnralr
i o ~ ~ n1lon.n.
l \vr obt.:iin f Cllrvatr~re of streamlines: The curvature of strearnlincs in t.r~rl)rtlcntflow prodnrrs IIII-
expecl.edly lnrge chnngcs in the structure of the t.r~rbrtlc~~cc. In rnost mscs, nnrh rliangeu are
one order of rnegnitnde nlorr i~rrport,nnt,t,hnn in the elt'cct, of t,l~clirrss~lrogrntlirnl, t~ortn:rl lo t.l~o
bourrdnry Inycr. 111 the case of ordinnry nrrofoiln, t,hc rficta on I I I O I I I C I I ~ , I I I I Itrnd l~e:~,t,
(,rtr~tsfr~.
nre conaitler:bble, hecorning ext~rctnelylnrgc in t,lic cnsr of t,r~rl~inr? :rrrcl rornprrssor I)l:~(lrn.'l'lio
present-tfny st>atr~sof our knowledge of these c t ~ r v a t ~ rclTerts,
~rr ant1 our nhilit,y t,o t~~:rstrr tl~r~ir
by cnlculntion, have been disciissed by P. Brndsl~aw[ll].
594 XIX. 'rheorcticnl nssornptions for the cnlculat,ion of t ~ ~ r h u l c tflows
tt

Reierences
[I!)] IColniogorov, A.N.: Equntions of t ~ ~ r b t ~ ln~otion e r ~ t of nn iricon~prcssihlo flniil. Izv. Ak.
[I] I3ntc:l1clor, (!.I<.: Energy decay atid self-prescrvit~gcorrelnt,ion fi~nct,ionsin isotopic bur- IYauIz. SSSR. Seria fizichcskaya 11' (1042). No. 1 --2, pp. 56--58 [ill Jtusni.z~t].
bt~lonoe. Q ~ ~ n r hppl. t,. Math. 6, 07- llli (1948). [20] Launder, B. E., and Spalding, D. 13.: Mnthonintical ~notlelsof Lurbulrnre. Acntlr-rnio I'rcsa,
[2] Batchelor, (:.I<., and 'ro\r~nscritl, i \ . r \ . : The nature of turbulent motion s t large wave London, 1972.
numbers. I'roc. Roy. Soc. I ~ > n d oA r ~I!)!), 238-255 (1949). [20al Lin, C.C., and Shcn. S.F.: Str~dicsof von ICiir~nhn'ssin~ilnrilytheory nnrl its c-xtc~~nion ti)
[3] I%at.cl~elor. (:. 1C. : 7'1ie thcory ofho~nogrnc:o~~s tnrbnlrnce. (?nn~hrirlgcUniversity Press, 1953. con~pressiltlcflow. SACt\TN 2642 (l!)Rl).
14) netz, A.: 1)ic von IC6r111kn.rcheAl~r~licl~keitsiiherlcg~~~~~ fiir turbnlenta Vorgiit~gci l l physi- [201,] Mellor, G.L., antl ticrril~g,H. J . : survey of the nlrun tnrl)ulrnl liclcl rlos~trc~notlt-Is.
kalinclier i\r~ffnnnsrlt~g. %r\MhI 11, 397 (19:)l). AIXA .I. 11. 590-5!JR (1973).
[R] I3erk\sit,h, 1. IC., ant1 ~lil~hllcll. 1). M.: 1)f:t.nilotldcsrri)~t,iorland rcsillt.8 of a method for co~ll- [21] Prnndtl, L.: Uber die ai~sgebildctcTurl)~~lenz. ZAMM 5, 136 -- 139 (1925) nncl I)rno. 211il.
p111.ingnlenn nnd IlurLnat~ingqr~n~~t.it.inn in t.~~rbulcnL I)oul~tlaryInyere. NASA 'I'N 1)-4815 Intern. Congr. Appl. Mcch., Ziirich ID20, 62-75; also Coil. Works 11, 736 751.
(10fi8). 1221 l'rnncltl, I,.: Uber ein ticlies h~or'ortnclsjut.c~~~ clrr nun c~hiltloter~ 'l'~~rl)t~Ienz. Nnrl~r.rlltnrl. Wins.
[Gl l%ji1rg11111, 0 . : 011t . 1 1 ~st.cnc1y t11rb111t:11t. Ilt>\valong nn i11611it,cly I O I I ~ sn~oot,I> I I I I ~ I 11ln11cwnll. (:iit,tir~grn 6 - lo (11145); nlso Coll. \Vorlcri I , , 872--888.
IJnivorsiLrl, i. 1lergt.11,,\rl)olc. N a t ~ t r \ ~ i l c : ~ ~ s l z ~ irclckc
~ ~ i : l i h'n.
g 7. (I!)RI). [231 I'rnnrlt,l, I..: I % k ~ n c r l c ~ ~zur
t i g Tl~coric
c~~ ilcr fr(:ic~~ ' I ' I I ~ I ~ I I cZ,\MM
- I I ~ . 22. 241 24:) (I!b42);
(71 IF~~ssinesq, .I.: ICsnni snr In t.1160ric drs C R I I X c o ~ ~ r t ~ n tM6ni. e u . p r k . Amd. Sri. X S I I I . 4(i, also Coll. Works 11, 86!3- 873.
1 aris (1877). [24] l ~ c i ~ ! l ~ n r (~csctz~~~rissiglccite~~
di, (lcr f r c i t * ~'I't~rlj~tlc~i~z.
~ !rl)l-l~'~~rsr~l~~~~~gsl~~~f~. , t l ~ i ,1st *.<I..
[8] Rol~%qincsq,,I.: Tlicorie tlc I'6coirlc1nent t,o~irbillotinntr t t ~ ~ n i i ~ l t r r ede. r ~ xliqilidcs dnns ICR 13crli11,1942; 2nd cd., 13crli11,1951.
lit* rcctiligncu A grnnde section (1.11yn11xale c o n d ~ ~ i et et cnrlnarrx tldcot~vcrta),qnnnd cet [25] l$ichardL, H.: Uber die GescliwindigkeibverLcilirt~g in ciner gcrndliuigcn turb~~lenten
i . c n ~ ~ l c ~s'cst
~ ~ e ri.gr~lnrisd
~~t. c r ~un r6ginic unifortne, c'cst-h-tlire, I I I O ~ ~ I I I I C I I ~ C Ipnrcil I~, n Louette-Striin~ung.ZAhlM-Sondcrhcft 36, 26-2!) (II)R6); src nlso Ilcp. No. !) of the hlnx-
travers tout.cs lea ~rctionanor~nalcsdit lit. C o ~ n p k slte1ic111sde I'Acndblnie des Sciences l'lnnck-Inst. fiir SLromur~gsforscl~u~~g. Ciiltingcn (1!)54).
C X X l l , p. 1200-- 1295 (18!)fi). [20] Reirhnrdt, H.: Cesetzrniissigkeit.cn dcr gcrndlinigcn tnrb~rlont,cn Coi~cttc-St.rijtt~urig.
[n] Ilan~r.l,(:.: Strcifen~nethodeund ~lin\icl~keitsl~etracIit~r~~~~cii 7.nr t r ~ r b ~ ~ l m t12e\vegung. en Max-Ylanck-inst. Fiir Str6mnngsforscliu11g and Acrodyn. Veraucl~snnstnlt, Giitt,ingen,
Abhantll. preuw. Alcnd. Wins., Math. Nnt,nrwins. KIn.qse. Nr. 8 (1943). Rep. No. 22 (1959).
[9nl Ilrarlsl~nw,I'.: 'l'l~e~tnclerst.nt~clingn.nrJ prrtlirtion of t , ~ r r l ~ ~ ~ Ilo\r.. l o n t . Acrotin~~t.ic.al .J. 76. - - I I I P ~ I I O IW.C.:
126111 ~ R . Con~pi~tntion of t.~~rI)nlnnt. flo!~.~.Ann. Ilcv. I'ltiid Mcch. (M. vnn Ilyko.
40:)-418 (1!)72). ~ i . 18. 18:)-208 (1!)7(;).
[ghl J?rntlsl~nw,I'.: 1\11i~nl~rovrri Van 1)ricnt skin fricl.ion forniuln for cotnpresniblc tnrl)ulent [271 Ilottn, J.C.: o b e r eine Metliotlc zrtr I%crccl~nnng turhitlcnt~crS r l ~ r r s t r i i ~ n i ~ i ~ g n f r ~%r\MM
l~lnr.
bountlnry layers. A1AA .I. 15, 212--214 (1!)75). - , 1' -204-T
50 - - 11970).
205 ,- 1

[If)] J3redshnw. I'., Igerriss, 1). 11.. and Atucll, N. l'.: Colc~~lntion of boundary-layer development [28] Rottn, J.C.: Recent e t t e t ~ ~ p tto a develop a gencrnlly n1,plicnblo cnlcr~lationtnrtliod for
g tnrbnlont cncrgy eqnntion. J17M 29, 503-616 (1!)67).
i ~ s i r ~the turhulcnt shear flow layers. A G A R 0 CP No. 93 (1972).
[I I ] Jlrntlslin\r~,I'.: 15lTccta of sLre;rtnlinc curvnturc on tnrhr~lcnt.flour. AGAltDogrnph No. IfiD [29] Rottn, ,J.C.: Turbulrntc Stron~ungrn.B.G. Tcr~hncr,Stnttgnrt,, 1972.
(1973). [30] liotta, ,l.C.: T ~ ~ r b u l eshenr
nt layer prcdiction on the bnais of the trnnspoi t cqnalionn for
[lln] Cebcci, T.. and Stnith, A. M.O.: A finite-difTerencc ~olut~ion of t,lic incornpreasihlc t n r l ) ~ ~ l c r ~ t thc Reynoltls stresses. I'roc. 13th Int. Congr. Theor. L\pl>l.Moth. Moscow 1972. Springer
bor~ndarylnyer cqunt.ions by UII eddy-vincosity concopt. 111: Kline, S. J., Morkovitr, M.V., Verlag, 1973, pp. 205-308.
Sovrnn, i:., ntid Cot:krcll, 1).,I. (etls.): Con~pntntionof turbnlenL bot~nderyInyen. Val. I: 1.711
. * Schmidt, W.: Der Mnusenanshusch in frcicr 1,nft und vcr\\n~~clte Erscl~einunncn.- 1 ~ 1 1 i b r-x r ~ .
Mctl~otls,prcdiction, and llow nl.ri~cltlrc.34(i-- 355 (1973). 1925.
112) Van I)rirst., 1':. It.: 0 1 1 t,nrbnl~nt(low nc;w a wall. J A S 2.1. 1007-- 1011 (1956). [Dla] Szcri, A t \ . , Yatea. C.C., and IIni, S.M.: Flow devclopn~cntin n pnrallcl plntr channel.
[I231 Ecltcl~nnnn,H . : 12xpcrinicntrllc U n t e r s ~ ~ c h i ~ n g ine einer
~i tr~rl)ulcntenKnnnlstriin~ungn ~ i t
J. 1,ubrication Tccl~nology,Trans. r\SMI!! Ser. 1' 88, 145- 156 (197G).
st.arkcn viskosen Wnntlacl~icl~tan. Mitt.. Max-Plenck-lnst.. Striinlungsforscli. 11. Aerodyn. [32] Taylor, G.I.: The transport of vorticity and hent tliroi~glr flrtids in trtrbi~lrnt n~otion.
Ver.ruchsnnst,nlt No. 48 ( 1070). Appendix by A. F ~ g and e V.M. Fai~lkner.Proc. Roy. Soc. Ifindon A 135, 085-705 (1932);
[12b] Eckcln~snn,il., U'nllnce, J.M., nnd Vrorlkny, R.: The wall region in t u r b ~ ~ l cshear nt flow. scc also Pl~il.Trans. A 21.5, 1-20 (1915).
J FM 5 4 , 39 ---48 (1!)72). [32a] Vollmers, H., and Rotta, J.C.: Similar solutions of the lnenn ve1ocit.y. t ~ ~ r h n l eenrrgy nt nnd
[12c] Jbcltcl~nn~in, H.: l'hc st.r~cnt,nreof v i ~ c o ~s~rl~layer~n and the adjnccrit wnll region in n t.url)n- length scale equation. AIAA J . 15, 714-720 (1077); see 81.0: Ahnliche Ldaungen der 1)iffc-
lcrtt cl~nnnclflow. JI'M 65, 4:V--4R!1 (1!)74). rentiulglcichi~ngen fiir gemitteltc Geocl~rr~incligkeibn, Tnrbrrlenzcnergio ond 'I'ttrbulcnz-
[13) (:lr~slrko, (:.S.: l'nrbnlcnt I~oundarylnycr on a llat plate in an i~~cornpreositilc fluid. Izv. liinge. IILR- F H 76-24 (1976).
Ak. Nn.l~k.SSSIt, Scr. Melch. No. 4, 13 --2:) (1!)65). 1':ngI. 1,rnnsl. in NASA ' I T I T 10, 080. [33] von Wrizsiicker, C.F. : D m Spektruni der Tr~rbulcnzboi grossen R e y n o l t l ~ s r l ~Bnhlen. ~n Z.
[l:!n] f:nlhrniLI~. It.A.M., nnrl Hc!ntl, h1.lt.: I4;tldy visco8it.y nnd n ~ i x i ~ iIengt,h g from ~nensurcd P h y ~ .124, 614-027 (1048).
booncIn.ry lnyer dcvelopn~c~~t.q. Aero. Quart. 26, 133- I54 (1!)75).
[14] (:lunl~ko, (:. S.: JIifkrcnt.inl cqr~ationfor t.~~rbr~lcncescriIo and pretlict,ion of turbnlent. I)ot~ntl-
ary lnycr on n flat plnta. 111: ' I ' i ~ r l ~ ~ ~ l o i t ,taclicniyn r~yc (M. I). Millionscl~cl~ikov, cd.).
Moscow, Nnukn, 1!)70 ]in l t ~ ~ w i n n ] .
(151 G'l~lshko,(:.S.: Trnnsition in t.hc t . ~ ~ r h ~ ~flow l r n trcgi~nc
, in n bonr~dnrylnyer on n (InL plat0
for tlihrer~t,t,nrhalcnc:c scnles of free atronn~.Izv. Ak. Nar~k.SSSJt, Mekh. Zhidkosti i gnzn,
No. 3, fi8 70 (1!)72).
[Icl J t * v l t ~V, . M . : ' l ' ~ i r l j ~ ~ lrnot.ion
rnt of Ilia11 tmlpcrnt:ire c o n t i ~ ~ r ~ medin. ous Moscow, Neukn,
1!)75 [in Iti~nnian1.
von I<hrrnbn. 7'11.: h1crhn.nisnhc ~hnlicl~lteit, land Turbt~lenr.Nachr. Gra. Wins. (:iit,t.ingen,
. Mnt.h. l'l~ys. l<lnqse, 58 (1930) end Proc. 3rd. Intern. Congress Appl. Mcch., Stockholm,
I'nrt. I, $5 (1!130,: NACt\ 'I'M 61 1 (11131); also Coll. Works 11, 337-346.
1 l R J volt 1Chrn1lr11,'l'h.: I'rogra-s in I,hr sl,zl.isl.icnl t,l~eoryof t~~rhulencc. I'ri,c. Nnt.. /\cad. Sci.
\ V : ~ s l ~ i ~ ~ g,?4, ~ ~ , &:%!I (1!)48); also (~oll.Works 11'. :Vi:! - 371.
t , n5:lO-
 a. ICxpcrirr~rntnlrmt111n for un~ootltpipt~n 597

t l ~ rrelation bring r q ~ l a l l yvatic1 for lnrninnr nntl Irlrl)~llrnt~not~ion. In tl~c-~)rc-sc.nt.

analysis t tlrnotrs t,l~csum of 1:iminnr nntl tttrl)~~lt-nt sIl(.aring strrss. '1'1111st , I ~ ( s
sl1r:lring stress clistril)~lt~ion ovcr n cross-srction iq linc*ar, and its I:trgc.st vnlue,
r,, orcurs a t tlic wall, wllcrc
CIIAPTER X X
to=
P, ;Pa (20.2)
I, 2 '

Turbulent flow through pipee I t is sc:rn t l ~ a t .the sl~ceringst,rcss : ~ t,hc

t wall, T,,, c:Ln I)(? tlct.c?rnlirlctltlirc.c:t.ly 11y
nlc.:tsnring l,l~c: 1tre:sslrrn gr:ulit?nt along t.11~~tipc.
'I'llc rc~lnt.ionshipbt:Lwrrn tell(:prcssurc grntlictlt, nntl t.llo raCc of flow Q :-- x 112 77
n. Experirnentnl results for smootli pipes
conltl IJC tlol.crrninctl trhcorotsic:~lly for t . 1 1 ~cnsc of laminar flow anti t.11~ rrsllltr ilgr(\c(l
wiI.11 c:xprrime:nt. 111 t,l~ccase of t ~ ~ r l ) ~ t l flow r ~ i t .SII(:II 11 r c l ~ I , i o n s l ~rntt i l ~ 01115' 1 ) ~
'I'llc c:~scof t,nrbnlorit flow t.hro1lg11 1)ipcs wns invcstigat~(1very tl~ororlghly
obl.:iinrtl clnpiric:1llyt, I)t:cat~sc att,c?lnl]t.s to pcrfortn :L 1t11rclytllcorctic:il :III:I.I.~s~H
in t.llc-~ ) n , sI)rcsn~lsc
I of i1.s g~.rat. 1)rnct.ic;~Ii~nport.ancc124, 31, 48, 40, 69, 01, 02, 71, 721t.
of t . t ~ r l ) ~ ~ lfIo\v, l : ~ r IIIL\~O so Iju. I)IY:II cnI~i~.t-ly
o n t ~rvt,n for one ~ ) a r I , i c ~ tC::IS(>, IIIIS~~(*(-I~SS~I~~.
Mnrrovrr, t,llr r(:s111(,sarrivcci at, arc i ~ n l ~ o r l . a nnot t only for pipc Ilow; t.hcy also
(:ot1(.riI)tll,(:1.0 l,lt(: C S I . C I I S ~ ~ I I of our f u n t I : ~ n i ~ ~ I~~t ~ : ~~lo w l r t lof
g c tSltrbr~lontIlow in
'I'ltis ~.t:I:tlion is nsti:~Il~r given by so-(:t~ll(~tl I(IIV.V 01 / ~ I ' c / ~ < ) I or
I /<IIII.V 01 ) . , * . ~ i . ~ / ~ r t ~ ~ r
A\,:~il:il)lt! I ) : I I ) ~ (.ottl.nill
*~s :i 1:i1.~1* 11111111)t*1. of' (~nll)it.it~:~I t~t~~t:il.iot~s I i ~ r 1.111- I:i\\, 0 1 '
gc~nc.r:rl. RIt:l.ltoels o f tIv:ilillg \vil.l~ ol,llt*r t~tirl~111cnt. I l o ~ s ,SII(:II :LR Llic IIOW along fl.irt.iotl i t 1 1tipc.x. I~clrl.llrrn~orc, l.l~colclvr c:cl~~:~l,ions wcrc: ofton givcsll in :i fi~rtn\r,ltic:l~
:I. 11:~f, l)l:~f,t: or :L st,ro:ilnliltr 1 1 0 t I j r , corlltl IIC clcvisrtl only on the I)asis of t . 1 1 ~tlct,:~ilctl
tlrlx!n(lrtl on t . 1 1 ~rrspcct.ivc syst,crn of' ntlit.s ant1 t l i t l not, sa1,isf.y lItc:y~iol~ls'sIna. of
c~slv~ritnt~nl.nI 1.c.sn1t.s ol)l.:~itlctlwil.lt pipe Ilow. sin~ilif~tltlt?. 111 orrlrr t,o ~ n : ~ k~ct s cof tlirnc~1rsio111~:ss vn.ri:tl)lt.n it, is now c : o r l l r i l o l l 1.0
\\'III*II:i I l t t i ( 1 is :11Io\vr(l 1.0 cnt(:r :L (;irt:l~l:~r pipr frorn a large: ronI,:~inrr,tltc nsr t.11~: tlitnrt~sionlossrorl'liric*ntofrt:sisl,nrlrc, A, nntl 1.0 t l c x l i ~ r c ! it, ( s c :LIRO ~ ~ ( 1 1 1 .( 5 . lo)) as
vc~loc~i(,y tlis(,ril,r~( io11 in t.llc' rross-scct.ions of t.lio i ? ~ l rlta n ~ ~ vnrios th with the tlisCnncc
fro111 t l ~ c : itliti:il crt>ss-s~~:I.ion. 111 sectrions (:IOSC to tallat a t cntrancc the velocity
tlisl.ril)~lt.ionis ncarlg tt~iiforrn. Il'11rl~1~cr t1ownstrt:am tlhc vclocity tlistribr~t,ion
cltnttgrs, owing 1.0 t,Itt: ir~ll~tr~tcc: of frict,ior~,rrnI.il :I f~lllytlcvc1o~)c:tlvelocity prolilt:
is :~l,l.:~i~ic:tl :rt, :L givt:n (:loss-sCc:l.ion: L I I ( ~ rctnains co~tst,ant~ downstream of it,. Tllc 1v11rrc rl = 2 1l clcllotts t.11~tlinmctcr of bl~ecross-sct~liotr.('onlparing rclm (20.2)
vn.ri:ll~ionof t11t: vr1orit.y profile in 1,11(: inlet Icngt<h of a pipe in lam.i?inr flow was \vilh (20.3) wc can tlotlncc tile relnt,iori
tlc~sc.~,ilrc:tlin Scc:. XI11 (l'ig. 11.8). 11,s Icrlgt,l~ is approximat~cly 1, = 0.03 rl . R
so I Il:tI, for R := 5,000 l,o 10,000 it, rnngcs front 160 t,o 300 pipe-dintnel,ers. 'rllc inletf
IrrlgI,l~i r l I?o./~~i/rt~l flow is consitlrmltiy sllort.cr t,h:rn in l a n ~ i n a rflow. Accorcling
1.0 l.l~t: I I I C : I . S I ~ ~ ~ I I I ~ - I pI ~(.~S t . f o r n ~by ~ ( lI[. I<irst,f:~t[33] itrs Icngtll is n b o t ~ t50 t,o 100 \vl~icliwill 1)c reqrrircd Inter. I n 191 1 11. Ulnsius [5]~ n a t l ca c:ril.irnl srlrvry of t,hc
dia.rnc~tcl,s,ljr~t.. J . Nilinmdsc (461 tlet,crrninctl t,llnt t,he fully formed velocity profile tllrr~esist,ing and nlrcntljr rltlmcrolls cxprrimcnt1:il rcsttlt,s nntl arrallgc:(I l,l~cvnin
rxisls n1rc:itly nftrr a n itllrt. Irngt,ll of 25 to 40 tlintnct.ers: the rcadcr may also consult. tlinirnsionlnss f o r ~ nin :~c:c:ot~clnncc I:LW ofsinlil:~rit.y.111: \\.:IS :rl)l(: 1.0
wit.l~Ilc~y~~oltls's
ref. 1751. cs0:il)lislr t.lic following cnlpirical cqt~:~.t,ion
:
In wlt:~l, Sollows wc sh:~,ll conccrn o t ~ r s c l ~ cmainly s with fully rlcvclopcd
I . ~ ~ r l ) ~ ~Ilo\\r l r n tt 11ro11gl1
. a st.migl~l, pipe of circ~rlarcross-~cct~ion. The radial coor(lirtatc
nlt.n.sr~rc~el orrt~w:rrtlsfroln t.hc nsis will I)c tlenotetl by y' and we sl~nllconsider a
l l t ~ i ( l(,yli~~tltsr 01' lt~ngt,It1, :III(I r:ltli~~s ?I' i l l /?r/Iy ~ l r ~ ~ r l o pl r~( ~
1 t t ~ l ~flow.
~ ~ l 'l%cc n t cylinclcr
. . is vnlicl for t,llc frict.ion:il rcsisI.n~it*o
~rrl~irh of sr~roolhf ~ i l ~ rof , s rirc.t~l:~r tvross-sct.(ion
is 1101, :~(st,(.tlt111ot1l)y :111y i~t(>rli:l, forces, so l,l~:it, in :it:(-or(l:~nc(> \ v i t , l ~c(]n. (1.9) ~vc:
(,:It1 \\.~.ilc- tlo\v~t I.II(. c~olc(liliol~ of c-cll~ilil)rirtttrI)c-t,wc~,nl.I~rf'orc,n tlrtc 1.0 sl~c*:rritig I is l os I stis is i / : / ~ I I , / I. / I - R tl(-~~olc.s Ill(%I t t * y l ~ ~ ~ l ~ l s

SII.I*SS T O I I OI(-t ~ i t . ( - l ~ ~ t ~ l i ~ t . t *:III(I l l ( . ~ ~1.111~

. I ) ~ I % S StlilTt~~.ctlt~t:
III.~\ p I - 11~:0 1 1 till(: (:t1(1 fnccs n t ~ ~ ~ i l )r (: :i rl t ~ ~ ~ l :\~v itt,, (I ~~~ ,lI I c tnt:an Ilo\v ve:lo(*it.yI? :III(It.l~r( l i : i ~ ~ ~ rofl , (f3It(:
, r l)i11v. A(.t,or-
i l l I I I ~ , I'OI,III
(ling On t,ltis rrs~tlt,t.11~ t l i n ~ t ~ ~ ~ s i oc,oc:ffiricsni,
nl~ss of rc~sisl.:ttlt~c: in :i. ~ ) i l ) ( : is :r I ' I I I I ( . ( . ~ ~ I I
of I.II(: Ibc:j.t~ol~ls rlt~n~l,c*r ortly. I t , is li)tlt~(ll.I~:il,l.11(: I5I:1sills l i ) r l l ~ t ~isl : ~ \x:llifl i t 1 I I t t .
mngc of Jtcynoltls n ~ ~ m l ) c Rr s= 6, rl/l, 100,000. C o ~ ~ s a c ~ ~y,~ ct,I~t: n t , prrsslrrc?
l tlrol)
in t,r~rbr~lcnt flow in t,l~nt, mngc is scc.11 Lo I)c ])rol)ort.iot~nlto 1Z71" At. I,llc I inlc \ V I I ( ~ I I
t '1'11~ li~lloningtlt~srriplio~~
is I;irgc.Iy 1,:isc~lon I.lle cx~)rrit~lrt~t.al
rcnults reportsod by J. Niku- 13lasins cstnltlisl~cdrclrl. (20.5), tncnst~rcmcnl.sfor 11iglle:r Itcy~ioltlsI I ( I I ~ O ( , ~ \v(>r(: X
r;1(13t~145. 4lil.
: I " ~ . ~ I I I.l~is
c.onhrsion
I 11oi11l.o~l!v:ir(In \v(* sl~:illo ~ i ~ 1.11(:
\\
il, !):IT :tl~o\wLIIC s y ~ n l )to
~ Idenote titno-averages bcrn~rnc
lotlgcr possible (as wc nlrcatly did on p. 586).
i l l 1 l i r t ~ c ~ - ~ l ~ ~ ~ ~c tl t~t : t~ ~n t~. i lLci (:: ~l id~ l 110
,
t 'l'llc mrsn vc1orit.y of flow tl~ronglia pipc, 6, \\,ill 1)c tlclinctl on iL
tllc maximum vclocit,y in tho cross-section.
- Q/nJlz, ant1 IJ U-ill denote
698 X X . 'I'11r1111lrntflow f,lrro~~gl~
pipen
a. Expc~.in~rnlnl
rrsr~llnfor sl~iootl~
piprn 5!)9

n o t av:~il:~ble.In Fig. 20.1 t,11c 13lnsi11sf o r n ~ n l a ,cqn. (20.5), is s c r n cornp:~rctl sviL11

c:xpcrirnc:~~t.nlrc-s~~II.s;
i l mprotluc:cs tllcrii vcry ncc:r~r:rtclg for 1tc:yrlolcls ~ r ~ ~ ~ > i l ~ r
"1) t o R -: IOO,OO0. Ilowevcr, ~)oirll,sol)l,:~irlccl: ~ Rt .: 100,000 t1nvi;rt.c ronsitlrr:tl~ly
upwarcls, a s seen from l!'ig. 20.1 in rt?lation t,o cxpcrinlcnt.al values r r l ~ o r t c t l IIJJ
.I. Nilrul;~.tlsc: (:18].
.I. Nik~~r:ttlso c::lrrit:cl o u t a vcry t . l ~ o r o ~ o.ul)e~~irncl~t.:~I
~gl~ invcst.ignl,io~~ int,o t . 1 1 ~
law ol' liict,ion ant1 vcloc!it.y prolilos in srnoot,ll 1)iprs in :L vcry witlo ~ : L I I ~01. O I~~~YIIOIIIS
n l ~ m l ) c r s4 x IO:'( R (3.2 x 10" V~c:locit~yl)rolil(:s For sc:vcrr~l Itcyr~oltlsIIIIIII~I(.I.S
;~r(: scan pIot.t,txl in 1Gg. 20.2. 1'11c;y :&re given in c J i ~ n ~ : t ~ s i o ~ ifor111 l r s s in t,l1:11* 1 1 , / / 1
h a s t)ccri plot.t.ctl against ?//It. I t will b c ~ ~ o t ~ i at.h:\.tc c l 1.11~vc.1oc:it.y profile 1)rc:onirs
f r ~ l l car s t,l~c:licynol(ls n u n ~ b o ri11c:rcnscs. It, is possi1)lc t,o rc:prcscl~t,it. 11y 1.11c: c%~nl)iric.:~l
cq~~stior~

where t.11~ o x p o r ~ c nn.

t varies slightly wit.11 t.hc Itcynolcls number. 'J'l~cplot,s in ICig. 20.:1
sllow t h a t t h c assumption of a simplc: l / n - t h - p o w e r law agrees wcll with cxpc:ri~ncnt,
.zs t l ~ egmplls OF ( u / ( J ) " againsl y / R , fall o n s t r a i g l ~ tlir~cs,wlicn n sr~i(,:~.l~lt:
c:lroict:
Fig. 20.1. Vrictional rc:sistsancc in a ntl~ootl~
pipe
f o r n h a s l ~ c r madc.
r~ T h c valuc of t.hc c x p o n c n t 7s is n = 6 at. tllc lowost, ltcyr~oltls
I ( 5 . 1 ) o r 1 n 1 - 1 i 1 i 1 1 c Cor l n t ~ ~ i l t rflow;
r cllrvr (2) rrwn cqn. (20.5). a f k r DIz?i.il~s(51 Tor
I V
lurbulrnl
I
Ilnw:
I
cnrvr! (3) r r n ~ ncqn. (20.:10).afl.rr I'ra~ttlll(521 Tor 111rbulrnt flow
n u m b e r R = 4 x 10R; i t increases t o n = 7 a t R = 100 x 10%nnd 1.0 71. = 10 at,
the liigllcst h y r l o l t l s n u m l x r , R -- 3240 X ICYR, nt,tn.inotl in t,his invcstig:~t.iorr.
W e shall not.(: 1lc:ro for f ~ ~ r t l rn:frrrncc
cr t,l~c:(:x~)rrssionfor t.llc r111ioof t.11(: I I I ( ~ : ~ I I
to t . 1 1 ~ ~ n a x i m u mvclooity, i Z / I I , w11ic:ll c::ln 1)c easily clcrivcd from eclti. (20.6). I 1 is
f o u n d Ifhat

I'ig. 20.2. Vnlocif,y diu-

I.ril~t~t.ior~i l l utnoolli
p i p for varying R e y
nolds number, after
Nikr~rsdao1451

Fig. 20.3. Velocity distribution in arn0ot.h pipes. Vcrificat.ion of tho ruurumption in eqn. (20.6)
 600 X X. 'I'~trl)cllrt~l,
flow t.llroc~gI~
pipr~ b. Il.clnt.iot~bc:Lwrr~~Inw of friction nntl vc.locit.y tli~(.l.il)c~(.iot~ 60 I

'I'nblr 20.1. Itnt.in of IIIC:LIIto n ~ a x i n ~ lvelocity

~ ~ n in pipe flow in trrrn~of the exponent n of v , / v = 9, which were nlrt:aely r~sctlin cqns. (19.91) :e11(1 (1!).:<2),\vc cat1 I,ri~~t~sli)rtn
t.110 vrlocit.y tlisl.rib~~t.ion,
according to eqn. (20.6) rcln. (20.10) t.o
4 = 8.74 1"7. (20.11)t
r 3
l l ~ r r swc have once more tlctl~~cotl cclm (10.:<5) w l ~ i r lwas
~ first, ol)t,ninctl k o n ~c : o ~ ~ -
sitlamt,ions of si~nilarit~y, cxcept l , t ~ a tt. 1 1 ~nl~n~oric.:~l
v:tir~rsof 1.11~consl,;~nt.s C! atlrl T I ,
w l ~ i c lt.l~cn
~ ren~:~inccl untlr.rt,c~rmir~c.tl, ;~r(:I I O W Itt~ownI'rom l,l~c: 1:l.w of ~ t i l ) ~hic.l.ioi~.
:
Rqrlation (20.1 1) l ~ n sbeen compnrctl wit11 .J. Niltrtrntlsr's rxpc~riinc:nl.sin I'ig. 20.4.
b. I t r l n t i n ~Lctwrrt~
~ Inw of frictiol~nncl vrlocity ilistrib~ttinn c-rlrvc (4). I t is seen tlint t.l~c:+-t,li-powrrI:I.\v :~grc,cswrll \vit,h rsl,c-ri~nc~nt. I I I ) to :I
l l c ~ ~ ~ ~ oIIIIIIII)(T
ltls of : L ~ I O I I ~R - 100,000. NO 11(-1.l.csr: ~ . g r ~ * r n ~(.:I.II
r n t , Ot. (:sI)(-(.(,(:(l
'1'11~ cv111:~tio11li)r t,l~c!\.c.loc:it,y tlist,rilte~l,io~~
(20.6) is rclst,ed. t,o 13lasir1s's law of 11cc::iusc: 13l:~si11s's oclu:ation (20.5) I'i.ot11 wl1ic.11 it w:w tl(~rivc~tl is v:tlitl only l o III:II
f'ric.t.ion in ccln. (20.5) r i r ~ t l t,l~isrclnt.ion, first eliscovrrc:tl 1)y I,. l'mntlt,l 151 1, is of limit., Fig. 20. I.
I'~~ntl:amc~~t.nl ilnltorl.n.nc:c in t.11~ t,t~eoryof t,~lrbulentflow; i t allows 11s tlo draw con- 111 order t o obt.ain brt,t,er agrconcnt, it \vor~ltlbe ncccss:~.ryt.o int,rotlltcr a s n ~ n l l ~ ~ .
(-Insions fro111p i l ~ rcxporimrnt.s wl~ichart: valid for t h e flat plate [321; use of t>l~em i o n ,A or { it~sf.('n(lof i. I1c-r(i)r~ning( ~ ~ I ~ I . ( - S I I O I I ( ~ ~ I I ~
c>x])onentinten R I a s i ~ ~ sc' s( ] ~ ~ : ~ t . say
will I)r marlt: in Cl~np.XXT. c-:~.l(~~~l;~.l.io~is
i l , is f'nl~ntll,l1:~1 t,l~(: CSJ)OII~.III, 4 i l l 1 . 1 1 ~v ( ~ l o ( ~ i I . ~ y - ~ l i s l . I . i l I:I\v
t ~ ~ ( \\.OIII(I
.io~~
i n g v:~111t:of 1 from (~111.(20.5) int,o eqn. (20.4) we ol)t,ain the
0 1 1 s l ~ h s t i t ~ i ~ t,hc II:LV~* t,o c ~ ~, l , e~tc.,r t : s ~ ~ t ~ ~ ~~ t I, :igr(v*~n(-~~I.
r c p l : ~ ~ ~1t-y iI v ~ ~ l ~ ~ , \vit,l~I I I ~ : I , SI I v:e111(>s. I~,Y
follo\vitig t > p r c ~ s s i ofor ~ ~ t.11~sl~enrings t r ~ s snt the wall: '1'11s rclnt.ion 4 (I x rlll"'t~as bccm plot,Lctl as cltrvc (5) in I'ig. 20.4, :~ntlit, is
seen t,hnt it docs. i l l f:lct, reproduce 1.11~ cxpcrimrnl:~l v:tlr~c-snt ItigIl(br l<rynol(Is
1111n1l)rrswitpi>a gootl mcasltrc of n g r c c t n c ~ ~1111t t , t , l ~ : ~(,he t fit, is ir~l;.rior:I(. Io\vc\r
Itynoltls n ~ ~ n ~ b c r s .
d it is I I C C C S S : L ~ ~tt.o clividc t,hc
t.l~(, r i ~ c l i ~11'~ sinstton(l of t,I~e;~1ia111et.cr
It~t,rotl~~c.ir~g
r~~irncric.:~l
l;~c.t,orin t.l~c.:~l)ovcc r l ~ ~ a t i oI)y n 2'14 -- 1.19. ?'lir~s we obtain.

(1) d = , In1r1111nr:
( 2 ) t r ~ ~ l s i c i ofrOtt1
u~ l~~llill:lr

In 111rbttlr~et:
: ~ t ~ift l \vc clinri~~:~tc: I.II(- I I I ~ ~ I vr1ocit.y
II 77, wit,l~t.he aid of t.11~
~ n a x i ~ n ~vclority
rm IJ
n l l r r I l r i v l ~ n r r l l[551
Iry ~ n i t . t . i ~ii/lJ
~ g = = 0.8 \vl~ic:li. :ts sc,rll f r o n ~'I':~ltle 20.1, corrcspor~tls:~pproxilnatcly
(3) wtn. ( 2 O . l 4 ) , turbuI,!nt,,
v t:~:l ,7, i. c. t.o :t Itc:y~~oltls1111m0crR = 10" ~ v c11ave
10 ; I I I c ~ x l ) o ~ ~ 11
nll Rcysolds n l l l n h c r ~ ;
( 4 ) win. (20.1 I ) , 111rbt111,1il.,
R ,10';
( 5 ) 4 = 11 5 v l l l g

Y v,
lcqq-bg--"-

Fig. 20.4. Tho ~ ~ ~ ~ i v evelocit,y-diat.ribe~t,io~~

rri:~l lnxv for ~ n ~ o o pi1)t.s
t,l~

'I'II(- l)rt~(;edit~g : I ~ ~ I I I I I C I sl~o\vs

I~, t,l~;it, t,I~c+ - L ? I , - ~ ) ~ ) I P ~ T ?)eloriL!/-(/i.~/~i~)?~.Lin?&
Lfl,111 can
t Upon generalizing for otl~orexponents. \\ r ohtnin, with K. W~rglrnrrlt[82:1]. I I / V * -- C(n) x
x and t h r following nr~nlrricnlvnlnos:
(?It l * / v ) l / n
l)r t1~:t~ivc:cili.o~n I3l:tsil1s's rcsisf.ance forlnr~ln. It 11ns already been shown bcfort:
~ , I I : I ~ . ' s I I ~a.~ Inn.
I :~grcc-s\vit,l~rspc~ri~iic~nt over n ccrt.niri r:ttign of R ~ c ~ I I o It~~I~s~ r n b c r s ,
n.ntl it is scc.11 ~.II:I.~, t,ltcrc c,xisLs :L rclnt.io~~ I ~ c t ~ w c oIll:tsius's ~i law of friol.ion anel I,hc
71-(,It-power\~cloc~ity-tlist.ril)r~t,io~~ law. Introtll~cingthe al,breviations li,/v* = 4 ant1
602 XX. 'r~rrbirlcntflow thro~tghpipes r. IJtiivcrsaI vc1nt:iLy-di~trib~~tioti
laws for very large R.ryttnlds rii~t~~l~cru fi09

For fi~t~llre
rcfcrcnco we now propose to write down a n cxprcssiori for the friction with A , = 11%nntl Dl = - (11%). In ns free constants. W c s h x l l a ~ ) ~ )this l y eqlrnt.ion
velocit,~11, from eclii. (20.10). We obtain without ch:tnge t o pipe flow. Comparing it wiIfh t.11~rnt:nsirrcmctit.s pcrforniccl I)y
v , = 0.150 u ' ,J. Niknrntlsc!, a s showri by curve (3) in Irig. 20.4, it is scc:n tlinl, cxc:c:llotit ngrernlor~t
is obtnincd not only for poirlt,s near t,lic wall but for tllc wliolc r:liigo 111) 1.0 t,he axis
t s fortritl t o I)(:
of ttlie pipc. The nilrricrical values of the c o n ~ t ~ n n:arc
A, - 2.5; I), = 5.5 .
'I'liis gives I.llo follo\viny: V:LIII(:S of x ntitl f I :
This cnn also be written in tlimr,nsionless form a s

llt*tit~:I,lt(- i~tiiv(-rsnIv ~ ~ l o ~ : i l . , v - t l i s l . r i l i tl:tw

~ l ~ i tfor
~ ~ ~vcry l:trKt. lLt*y~~t)I,ls
~~t~tril~t~r
has the Ibrmt
4 = 2.5 1113 -k5-5
where c; denotes the local skin-friction coefficient. This relation, which is equivalerit
t o the one in eqn. (20.5), is known a s 13~~.silis's
relation \r-ill be used later.
Inw of skill fcicthn in pipc flow. This 4 -- 5-75log Y) 1- 6.5 . I (slllool.ll)

c. Universal velocity-distribution lawe for very large Reynolds nutnbera
r
7
1110fact t h a t the exponent in t.hc law of pipc resistance a s well a s in t h e cxpres-
sion for velocity dist.ril)ut.ion clccrcascs with increasing Iteyr~oldsnurnbcrs si~ggcstR
t h a t bot,li must tend asymptot.ically t o some expromions which are valid for very
high Ibynolcls riirrnbcrs ant1 wliit:h milst ront.ain the logarit.lim of tlic intlcpcndcnt
vnrinl)lc, a s i t is the limit of n polynomial for very small values of the exponent.
A tlct,ailcrl cxaniination of expcrirncnt,nl resillts for vcry large Reynolcls numbers
shows tlint such lt~gnrit~lirnie 1:tws (lo, in fact, exist. I'liysically such asymptotic
laws nre chamctcrizcd by t,he fact t.li:rt I:~minar friction becomes completely ncgli-
gihlc c o r n p ~ r e dwith turbnlerit friction. 't'lie great advantage of such logarithmic
laws, a s comparrd with the Iln-th-power laws, consists in their being a ~ y m p t o t ~ i c
exl)rcssions for very large h y i i o l d s numbers; they may, therefore, be extrapolated
t o arbitrarily large values beyond the range coveretl by experiment. On t h e other
hand, when t h e I/u-th-power laws arc used the v a l i ~ eof t h e exponent n cllanges,
a s the range of Reynolds numbers is ext,cntled.
Sucll a n asyn~ptot,iclog.zrit,limic law lins already been givrri in ecln. (19.33) for the
rase of flow along a flat plat,c. I t was dcdncecl frorn Prandtl's ecluntion (19.7) for
t.ilrl)~rlcnt shearing strcss nntlcr t.lic assi~n~pt,ion taliatthe mixing length is proportiorlal
..
t,o 1 . h ~tlist.:arlc:c frorn t.hc wnll, 1 = x ! / , ~ t l dwas valid for small w:tll (li~taiiccs?/.
l his rquat,ion II:IS 1-l~c: form:
4 == A, In 3 4-Dl (20.13) t
.~ .
I5.y a rcnsonitrg siiriilnr 1.0 I.llc otir givt:n in l.Irc> ~wc:rc:cling wct,ion it, is 1,ossiblt: t,o
arrive a t a corrcspontling llnivcrsal nsyrnl)t.ol.ic rcsisl.:rnc.c: forrnitl:~front l,l~c-:tl,ovo
1ririvcrsn1 velocit.y-clist~ribiil~i~~ii
crllint.ion.
1Scl11nt.ion(20.14), hcir~gone for I.~trl)lrlontIlow, is v:alitl only ill rcgiolis wlicrc
1.Irt. I:rrninn.r slit:arirrg strcss c:tn I)c ir(~,nl(:c.I.c:tlin c.oinl):lrisori wit.lt l.lic I.rrrl)itlc~tit
sbrcss. 111 l.lic irnt~ictlint,~ ~ i n i g l ~ I ~ o t ~ r lof
~ o I,llo
o t l w:all, wlic:rc: Iflie I,~~rl)trlc:t~l.slic:~rilig
sl,rc:ss tlc~c:rcnscs1.0 zcro :~ritl I:arr~irt:ar sl.rc,ssc:s prctloinin:atc, tlt:vi:ttiolts from t.llis
law most, be expect.ed. 11. Rcicliartlt. [54, 551 rxtcntletl l.l~isItind of ~nrnsnrcri~c~nt to
inclirtlo very small tlist.nnccs from t,llo w:~ll in n Ilow in n cliniincl. Curve (2) iri
Fig 20.4 rcprcscnt.s the l.rxnsit.ion ft.0111 t.hc Irrlninar sub-layer ( c / . Scc. X V l l l c )
1.0 l,lte I.ttrl,rrlotit. I,onntl:~ryInycr. 'l'hc c:~~rvc! tlotto1.c~cl11.y ( I ) in 1 . 1 1 ~:~l)ovt:cli:rgrnin
c:orrosporitls t o Inmiiiar llow for wlrit:ll T ~ ,---- 11 11/!/. \\'it,lr T,, = p v * 2 wc. ol)l.:~ii~
Irronr (.his it can l)c sccri t.1i:~tfor \~:rlrlrsy 11,111 < 5 (.lie cont.ribut,ion fro111 t ~ t r h t ~ I t : ~ ~ t ,
fric.l,ioit may be complct,cly ncgl~:c:tctl c.or~tp:arntlwith 1:rniinar frict,ion. 111 Lhc: r:Ln,ne
5 < ?/17*/11 < 70 botfh cor~f.ril)~~t.ions :ire: of t.11~ snrnc ortlcr of magnittrtlc, wllc-rc~:as
for y v*/v > 70 l , l ~ c1nmiri:rr (!on1riI)~tt,io~i is t~cgligil~lc:
rotnp:~rc.cI \viI,lr I ~trl)r~It~ril,
frit!l,ioii. 'I'lt~rs:

t 11. Ikic:hnr~ll.[fir,] intlirntcd a refined cxpremiort for thp vclocity distribution. I t covcrs the
wliolc ratigc of distances, frotii the wall of the pipe a t ye= 0 to the centre-line a t y = R, i. c.,
it is also true for thc la~ninnrsub-layer, to ahicll eqti. (20.13) does not apply. I t is also valid
in the nciglibortrl~oodof bile cc~itrc-line,wlterc ~ricasurcdvelocity-distxibution curves sliow systc-
~natic:clrvintions fron~cqn. (20.13). In particrtlur, the transition region shown ua curve (2) in
Fig. 20.4 iu wcll rrproduccd by tlrc forrnltln. Thin ~~nivcrsnl velocity-distribrltionfnw wan dcducccl
with thc aitl of bl~rorcticnlrubitr~ntinnsaricl vrry r:rrrf111riicnsttrc*~ncnlrt
of t l ~ ctz~lrb~llr~it
mixing
coefficient '4 rlrlinrcl 11y cqtt (I!).I). (hmparc also a pnpcr by \V. Sznbicwski (741.
604 XX. Tl~rl)r~lcnt
now t,hroagll pipcs

Ilenc*c t.l~et.l~ic*kness
of t . I ~ t ? laminar sl~l)-I:~jtrr
is scvn t.o be cclrral t,o of ecp. (20.14n) is applicnl~le.I n tlic ,tmnsittion (mixctl Intninnr-t~trbr1lt:11t~) zonc, t.llc:
velocit,y clistribution is represented by Itciclrnrdt'rc Inw, curve (2) in Fix. 20.4. 'rllcsc:
tlirce laws t.nlrcn t,ogctlicr nrc now rcfcrrctl t,o ns t l l ~ "hlw
c of 1,111. wr~ll"; ~ 1 ~ I)rit.st,'s
1 1
integral represents another form of this law of the wall. Itnport,ant consitlerat,ions on
We now propose t,o compare the cxl)crimcnt.n.l resnlt,s on vrlocity-rlistril)utior~ this topic can be found in a summary arl,iclc by F.11. Clausc:r [5n]; see also t,llc p:lpers
mcasr~rrrrlcnts in pipe flow with t.he altcrnntivc ~ ~ n i v e r s nequation,l which was by 1 j . n . Spalding [G8a] ant1 G . 1ilcinst.ein [33a]. Furt.hcr discussions arc givc:n in
clcdl~rc-tlin Clr:~p. X I X in t.hc form ( I / --u)/v* .-/ ( l / / R ) . It will be rccalletl t h a t refs. [Ba] of Chap. X X I and [46, 471 of Chap. X X I I I .
i t followcd hot11 from von I<:i.rm:in's similarily t.l~coryaritl from Pmntltl's nssumpt,ion
aI)ol~t, t.hc sl1c:iring st.ress, t.ogct,hcr wil.ll t.ho rcl:~tion1 x for t,he mixing Iongtll. -7
Since tlic simpler assrlmpt.ion o n t.hc lnising lcngt,l~,1 .- x y, tlocs I I O ~ .S(,OIII
In tlrc first (:%sowe ol)Lninctl cqn. (1!).21) nntl i l l t,Ilc sc~contlcase cqrr. (19.28) w:is t.o be sr~it,ablc:for the wl~olcpipc tli:unctcr, it :l,ppc:Lrs ~)rcli:r:~t~le
t,o tl(:tl~tc.nI,I;C
ol)t,n.inctl. dcl)cnclencc of mixing Icngth on tlist,nrlcc tlirect,ly fro111 cxl)critncnt, nntl t.l~oi1.0
apply Prantltl's hypothesis

o f n sr~iI:tl)lyclrost~t~
-
'I'lle uni\.c~t.s:l.lvc.loc.it.y tlist~t.il)nt.iollcn.n Oc calcr~lat,otlover 1.hc wholc ralige, t,liat
is I'I.OIII l 1 1 ( ~wall ( y 0 ) lo I.II(- xonc, of' I'r~llytlrvclopttl t.t~l.l)ulence,by t,lre applicat,ion
I't~nc!tionof ?/Sot. t.l~c% rllixing Icngt,ll. Such n reln.tion was tlcvclopetl
by 11:. I<,. V : ~ I I I)t.ivst. 112) o n t11c. 11:wis of n.11: ~ , t ~ g ~ ~ t\vIlicll
~ i c t i tIvn~ls
, on SIc11~c.s'~ soll~t,ion
for :I I1:l.I. ~,l:if,c\ v l l i c - l l osvi1l;~Ic.sin its ~ I \ V I I 1,lnnc (St,ol<c.s'ss c . c . c , ~ ~ t l I I ~ o I I I ( . I ~ I , Set:. V 7 ) ;
it, 11:~st l ~ v~ O I , I I I

The, constant, has the vnlnc il = 26. For very litrgc values of we retricve t,lle rela- I t is now possible to calc:~~lnt,c Lhc v:triat.ion of nlixing longtll \\,itsll ? / / / I tlirrc*t.ly
t,ion I = x?l, I,lrt in ~ . I I ( Loverlapping rrgion bctween laminar and t,~~rbulent,frict.io11 from cqns. (20.16) n.nd (20.17) togct,l~crnlitl~ t.hc ~ncnsr~rctl vc1ocit.y tlist.ril)r~t.ion
tile val~rcsof I :Ira s~nall(:r.111 ortlcr t,o ir~tcgrnt.ct,hc eqrtntion ~ ( y ) .'l'hirc calcr~lntion ~ n cnrriotl
s orlt. 1)y .J. Nil<l~r:itlsn[45] \vllo ol~t.:litrc:rl ~.II(:
rcmnrk:ihle r c s ~ ~shown
lt it1 Fig. 20.5; it, rt*prt,st%~~t,s
t , l ~ t : v:~ri:rt.io~~
of' 111ixi11z I(~t1gl~11
over thc dian~ct,cro f tllc pip(: for t,Il<: c::~sc of s~noot~lr ~)ip('s:t11(1i t S(:CII t.lr:it it. is
intlcpcn(Jcnt of the Itcynoltls rtrrml~c~r, wl~c,t~ vnlltc-s I~c.lo\v 1 0 h n . c c:xcl~~tl(*tl. 'I'l~is
for :L rot~st:~nf
v a l l ~ rof ro we first. solve for c l ? ~ / t l f /ant1 ohtnin fu~lct.ioncan I)c rcprcscnI.c:tl l)y the enrl)iric::tl rc.l:~.t.ion
11
(IT]'
IL = 2 v*J--
1 I 1 1 1- 4 (v* l / s ) Z ] ' / Z '
0

Next., wn int.rotlnco t.hc exl)rc~ssionfor 1 from ecln. (20.lfih) and arrive n t a vclority
~ l ~ i ist i~l l lgood
(lisI~.il)l~l~iotl ~ ngrecln~ntwit.h t.hc (?xp(:ri~nc~lhnl
1.t:s111t.s tlisplayctl in
Icig. 20.4. 'l'hc c-xpression tlnc to 13. R. vnn Ihicst was S I I C C C S S ~ ~:tpl)lictl
I~~~ t,o t,he
of tclrl)l~lrnt.I)ountl:~rylayers a,ith suct,ioti anti I~lowing[58j ns \vcll ns t.o
c:;rl(~~tlnlior~
conil~'(~ssi1)lr flowst.
which SIIOWS t.ll:~tl'mrltltl's I~ypoLl~rsis,
I For sln:rll (I~S(.:LII(:PR
x ?/, is co~~lir~nc-tl
-Z-

Ilnw of t l ~ cwnll: 1701.sl~fficbirntlyIn.rgr tlistanccs from the wall (fr~llytlevclopctl from l.llc wn.ll, \vit11
~ I ~ ~ , the v(,locit,ay(list,~.il)~~t,ion
I , I I ~ I I I I I ~ I:r.y(br), , r ( l the loga~,iI,lr~ni(;
is r c p r ( ~ s r ~ ~ t by law x -- ()-.I 1 , (20.I!))
cl~~t,lrrl i l l v(111. (20.14). 111 tllc zonc nrnr t.l~c\vaII (Inminar srrblayer), th(>linear law
It can IIC shown, f~~rl,llcr, t,l~:~t,
thc v:l.ri:~t.ionof ntixil~gIt:ngl.l~wiL11 \v:~.lI tlisl.:~ncc.
~ ~ ~ .
. givrri in eqn. (20.18) remains valitl for rol~glrnrrtl not only for slnootl~pipes. I"ig~lrc20.li
111 :I rcx?r~it, p~~l,lir:ilio~i, \S.C. l<(-ynoI(ls ( , \ I I I I Illcvictv~
I~~ or 1?I11i(l blcc*l>:~~~ics, Val. 8, p. 187) rcprcscr~t~s t,hc rcsult.~of .J. Nikrtratlsc's 1461 rnensl~rc~nlrnl.s on pipt:s :~.rl.ifiri:tlly
rrl~wlnt l ~ tn Ill(: I I I I I I I ~ ~ v:1111r ~ ~ , ; ~ i ~l - - 26 of v : ~ n I)ricst.'n collslnnt is s~~il:iI)Ic O I I I ~for bo~~n(lnr,v ro~rght.nc?tlwil.h sn.ntl of tliK(trc.rlt grain size, :ln(l t.111:l ) r ( ~ ~ ( ~ (sI~:~l~cr~ionL
li~tg is S(V*II 1.0
I:IJY*I.S ~ r . i l l r :I xrro I)rtsssllrrarnclicst~l;111tl o111g:rlong n n i n i ~ ~ c ~ r ~ ~n.;~ll. i r n l ~I nl ~t,llc:
: [)rc:sc!ic:r of be c:onlirnlctl. 1~'11rl.llcrn1orc,it may now I)(: cxpc:cl,c:tl 1.11:rt 1,11(: vc:loc:itfy tlist.t.il)t~lior~
I~lotr.il~g or s~~rtiorl (11. of :I I I ~ ( * S R I I ~pr:~(lir~it.
P t IIV I ~ O I I S ~ R IAI ~ .~ 1 1 1 1~ S S I I I I I Cc:o~~sitlrr:il)lp clilfcrrnt cnlc:rllntctl I'rorn 1.hc mixing Iengl,ll from c.cln. (20.18) will I I ~v:tlirl: for r o l ~ :IS
~ l wr.ll
~
~ : I I I I ~ H ,\Vit11 :I I ' : ~ v ~ I I I . : I I , I c ~1,rcssIlrc graclir~~t or \vitIi l,lo\vi~)g.tllc vn111vs IIIIIY exc~c(lA - 2G
11). ti witlr 111nrpin as for ~trloot,lrpil)rs.
606 XX. 'l't~rht~lc.rit
flow throl~gltpipes c. IJnivcrsnl vcloqil.y-di~trihitl.io11
laws Tor very I:trgo R(:y11oIe1s1111tl1l~crs 607

For btic. s:ikt, of silnplic*it,yt.11~

cx~)rrssionfor tlic tnixirtg lctrgtlt can bt: writ,tcn a s

wlicrc / ( ? / ) / I { )- > I for ?//It + 0. I~it,rocl~tcitig

v* = iT"/b
:LII~Icon~I)initigcqti. (20.17) r 7
1 hus wc? hxvc :xgi~inI)c(?ti10c1 to t.110 ~lriiv(:rsaI \~cI~(-ity-elisI.l'il)tt(.iO~t lilw. ('(111. ( 19.2 l )
wit.11 rcltr. (20.IC,) we? ol~t.niri t,ltc following tliffcrcntinl equation for l.lio vcilocity
;iti(l cqn. (lCl.28). 'l'lie: csscnt,i:~Ig~~trcr:~Iiz:~t~iot~ wliic~ltl t : ~now 1)c:oti :~t*lti(>v(-~l (!ot~sist.s
(Iist.ril)~~t~ion
-. in t,lir fnc:l, t,li;lt t-ltr ~~riivc:rsnl law in ccln. (20.22) is vnlitl for ro~rgli:IS wt,ll ;IS li)t.snioot.lt
+!. ljipcs, tt.licf~t~t(:t.ion k 7 ( ? j / H )1x:irig t . 1 1 ~S : I I ~ I : i l l I)ot.Ii oases. I':(III:I~ ion (20.22):tssc:t.(.s I ltp~.
-
; . -- z--"*
4;)
c.11rvc-s ol' vc>loc.il.ytlisl~rilntl,io~t
(:ttrv(! for ~ l v:~.ltt(-s
l
~jlot~l.c:el
()I' I t ~ ~ y t i o lritttiiI)(~r
~ls
ovvr 1 . 1 1 ~~)ip(:rntlitts c~ot~l~r:tc~I, i t ~ l o:1, si~tgltr
a,tt(I for a l l (10gr~:c:sof r o t t g l ~ ~ t ( ~il's(s( ~, - - - ~ I , ) / I J *
whrricc:, hy irit~:grat.ioti is plol~t8~!(l ill t4(,r~ris or /I! II', lTig.20.7. I t , t r i : ~ j f 1 ~ :ttoI~~:tl~JI:LI, l.lte :I l)ovt. lijrt~tol' I It(!
"I R vclocil,y-tlist~iiI)i~t~ioti 1:lw was lirsL tletl~tc:c:tl I)y 'l'. 15. St,nnt,ol~1721. At1 c:xl)lic.it csx-
~)rcssionfor F ( ? / / R ) cor~ltlIpc ol)t.nitic:cl I)y ovnlttnl.irig tlic itil.cgr:~l ill (:c111. (20.21):
it is, Iiowev~~r, s i n ~ ~ ~1.0l c~ii:ikr
r IISO of t.lto :tlro:uly Itnowti Ihrtri or tlio vc:loc:il.y-~lisI.~~il~tt-
ti011 Inw for smoolli pil)thsns give-11 iii c:(111. (20.14). Ilonc:c>,i t 1 :t wn.y sirnil:lr 1.0 c.clris.
(20.9) nntl (2O.I0), wo Iinvc
R
IJ ?L -- 2-5 v* I r i I' =- 5.75 v, log
Y Y

r.. -- I1
= 5,75 log
R
- . (20.23)
"* Y

'l'ltis (~111:~tiott in Fig. 20.7 11s(:ttrvc ( I ) :t~i(l

is sc:(:n ~11ot~I~~:tl ( X ~ t:sl~~*ritti~:ttl~:il
I ~ I I I I I ~ ) : L ~\vil.lt
rc~s~tltsforsriiool~lt nncl roltgli pipes. I t c-o~it,:litlst.It(: onil~iric.:tl r o ~ i s t . : ~ tK~, t ,wl~osc~

Iiig. 20.5. Vnrinl.iot~of n~ixing11:iigt.h ovcr Wig. 2O.(i. V:lri$Jion of rllixiltp \c.ltgldl ovcr
p i p clintnctr:r for ~tnootlipipes nt cliffcrcti~ pipc tlinnlckr for rough pipea
Rcynolcls titiin1)crs Cntrvc (1) ~ ~ O I rqn.
I I (20.18)
t:nrvr ( 1 ) from rqll. (20.lR)

IJerc Iflie lowor litnil, of in1.e-grnt.io11:1t. yo, wlrorc t.11(: vc:locit.y is cclll:~l Lo zero, is ol'
tlic orcler of l,lic tltic:krlc~sof tlic I:t.miriar s r ~ l ~ - l n yand,
c r tlicrcforr, proport.ional 10
rj/n, 3.s seen from cqri. (20.15a). 'l'li~~s yO/II = F , (n* R / v ) .Tlro ~naxirnllmve1ocit.y 11 Pig. 20.7. IJttivcm;rl vcloci1.y-11isl.ril~trlioi1
Inw
in t,hn mnt.rc: of t l ~ cpip(! c : ~ nI)c: ( I c ~ I I ~ from
M ~ cqtj. (20.21 ) and. I~coo~ncs for smooth nnd ro~tgl~ pipe8
O l ~ r v (c1 ) from r q n . (20.23). I'ra~ldtl;
rllrve (2) from cqn. (20.24). vnn KlrtnLn:
eurvc (3)from eqn. (20.25). 1)arcy
 tl. Universal rrsint,ancr Inw for s ~ ~ l o r piprs
~ t , l ~rrt vcry Inrgr Itry~~olcln
IIIIIII~IP~S 60'3

tllllncrirnlvnl~rox := 0.4 u:lrr :tlrc-:ttly givnn in cqn. (20.1!)). '1'11~agrcctnont. ~ ) r t w c r ! ~

t l ~ r o r yarlcl rxl)c*rimc~nt
is v r r y gootl.
'I'ltr ~tnivc-rs:rlvoloci(,y-tlisl.ril~~tt.iot~
Inw r;ul I)c tlctlr~ccclalso from vo11 K:i.r~ndn's
sirnil:~ril.yI;L\v, ccln. (1!).21), \\,ltot~nr:we ol)t.:tin

\rit,ll ?/ r1t:noiing l.l~otlixt.nnc:c frorn t.11~w;tll. 'l'llis rq~~;ti,ioll, sllo\\.11 R S ( : I I ~ V ( > (2) in
Il'ig. 20.7, also n.grc:cs woll wit.11 I.llo c:xl)c~rimrr~t:rlv:~l~~c:s, if x - :0.30 is c:l~oscl~.
ld'ig~~ro t ~ s:t~ltlit,innalcurve (3)whir11 is l)nsctl (111 f1, I)nr(;y7sI<)]
20.7 o o t ~ i , : ~ iILII (:tnpirit::~I
C * ( ~ I I : L1):trr-j
~ . ~ ~ I tlorlr~vctl
I. ii. in 1455 fro111his vcry t::tr(xf~ll ~ ~ ~ r * : l s r l r t ~ ~or n~ cvc:iclcil.y
.t~is
tlisll.il,rll,io~l:~nclin ollr ~)rosc-ntnoi.ni.ioll iL can bo writ.t,on ns

I):~r(,y'sl i ) r n l ~ t l :g~i v w goo(1 : i g r ( * ~ r n ( - tat. ~ t ;ti1 poit11.s c:xc:cpt I.llose t1c::tr i.ltc: \v:~ll
wit 11 !I/ It <* 0.25.
11, is worI,l~pnint,ittg olri, ltrr(: t.l~:tt~IIoI,~I 111iivors:~1v ~ l o ~ i t ~ y - ~ l i s l ~ r i l:t\vs, l~t~t.io~~
(;(1ns. (20.23) arttl (20.24), 11;~vc:I)ccll obt.ninotl, a s soon from t l ~ carg~rnlenl,in the
Ir(:cc(ling c.llal,l.c~r.for t , \ \ ~ o - t l i m r t ~ s i oflow ~ ~ : ~inl n cl~;ttlt~rJ. 'rho fact f.)~nt,1 . h novor-
~ ~
(,llt:lcss ngrro \rvll wil,l~t.11~t:xl)c~rirnrt~inl rt*s~lll.sfor i.11~(:as(:of pipe flow mit,h axial I'ig. 30.8. I)it~~cnsiot~lrssvirlual
s y tnlnot.ry rntr I,c t.;~ltcllns proof t.l~nl,t.l~nrcis a far-rcnclling silni1arii.y I)ntwcen t,llo liittr~~~atic
viscosit.y for sn~oot,l~
\:c.lo(.i~.~ tlist,ril,~tlioni t , t,llt: two-tlitnc~nsionalnntl axially sy~nlnct,ric:~l cnsns. Tt will piprs plot Lrtl fro111 N i k ~ ~ r : ~ d s ~ ' s
I,(, I.(Y~:IIIV(I i.lt:~,l, i t ) l:~tnin:~,r llo~vlit(, v(*Io(~it.y ( l i s l , ~ ~ i l ) ~is~par:tl)oli(:
t ~ i o ~ ~ in 1)ot,l1(:nscs. [45] rxlic~rit~~c~r(.:~l
~.c.st~lls
S l ; ~ r l . i ~\vil.l~~ g (;. I. ' l ' : ~ ~ ~ l o tv~o' st ~ l ~ i ~ ~ i t y - iI,llrory , ~ ~ ~ ~ it,s f is
~ ~~r ~ 1 s1)ossil)lt:
t) to
t l c ~ l l t c . c . :I ttt~ivc~rs:~l vc.1oc~iI.y-tlisl riI)t~lintt I:IW of I,Ilc form of crltl. (20.22) brri., ovitlt:nbly,
wit 11 :I 1.11I I V I io11 If7(!//I<) \vltivlt (1iITt:rs I'rotn l~ltosonppe:tring in l'r:tt~tll,l's o r VOII
t<:it~r~l:irl's c~:tl~~ltl:lI.iolts. A c~on~p:trisollI,t.i.wc~c~~~ 1.11~~ rcs111t~sol)t.ninrtl frorn G . I. 'ra.v-
lol.'s vori.ic:il.y-t,r:tttsli:r t.l~c.olyant1 rrotn 1,. I'rat~tll,l's ~ r t o r l ~ o r ~ t ~ ~ ~ m - I , r1,llror.y n t ~ s f ~ :isr ti. Ilttivcrsal rrsistarlcr law lor snlootll pipes a t vcry lnrgc I{cyt~oltlst l l ~ ~ t t l ) ~ ~ r s
t,ot~t:iittc.tl i l l ~ ) : ~ l ~1,y - r sS. (:oltlst,c:irl [20] :~rltl (:. 1. 'I';rylor [76]. No ~rnaqnivoc~:~l
(l(-~:isiorli l l Iirvo~lrof c-itl~chrof t,lto i,wo i,ltc:oric.s coultl, I~owcvcr,I)(: ol)t.nir~ctl. 1tc:trnc:ing t.11~si.cl)s i l l t l ~ c:~rgrlmc,tlt of Soc:. S S O , wllic.lt II;IS lctl 11s Iron1
(:not1 i ~ l s i g l ~it1t.o i , i . 1 1 ~~)ltysic:al :~sl)(:(:t,sof flow t,l~rottgl~ ;r pipe r:Ln I)(, g:titlod f3lnsirrs's rrsist,ancc?for~lluln1.0 i , l ~ c4 -iSI1-l>owcrvrloc:it,y-tlist,ril~r~t,iot~ Inw, \,c: c.:tt~ 11ow
\)y vot~sitlt.rit~ r t h r vn.rint.ioli of t.he a p p a r e n t lcinematic viscosity, F , , over t h e cross- tlcrivo iL IICW ~ ) ~ ~ ) ( : - ~ c s ~ s ~ ,f'orln~lln
RIIcc from 1.11~ ~ ~ n i v c % rlog:~.rii.lltn
s:~l it: vc.loc:il,y-clisl.ril,~t-
b :
s(y:tiott o f ~ . I I ( , 1 ~ rvltit.l~ 1 ~ is ~scrn ~)lol,lrcli n Il'ig. 20.8 011 t.11~1):tsis of . I . Nil~~tr:~tlso's l,iotr I:I\v. 'l'l~c. log:tril,l~nlic:vc:loril~~~-tlisi.ril~r~l~io~t I:rw i t t c(111.(20.2:j) w:l.s tlt:ri\~c:(lI I I I ( I ( . ~
c ~ x l ~ . ~ ~ i t n~.c.sltlt.s. c ~ ~ ~ t St.n.t.i,ing
:~l wit.11 T =- Q ~ , ( d l ~ / dfrom ~ / ) oqn. (19.2) \vc c:~n inscrt t.lto n.ss~l~r~l,liott 1.11:11.l i ~ t ~ t i t lKri(:t.iott
i~r W:IS tt('gligil)l(: (.o1111):1r(%(I \\,il.lt I . ~ ~ r l , ~ ~ I.l.i(*i,io~t
lt:~tl.
whit41 III(~:I.III~ l,ltnt i t rorrltl I)(: c~sI.r:~l)ol;tr,c:(l
I l l ( . v:lltl(*of T f't.0111 (*(,ti.(20.17), t111(1I~rtic-e\trc c a n ol>i.nin t,llr vnrintrion of c , from
( l I c . ~r~t.:,sllrt.(l vc.Ioc.iI,y tlis(riJ,~lt,iolt.'I'l)(: :~1)1):tr(~ni, 1tinotnnt.ic viscosit.y is intl(:l)nndcnt, .
,1Ilc s : ~ . m 1n:k-j
r now I)(: rx1>ont1atli.o 1112t . r ~ ~of
1.0 n . r l ~ i ( , ~ . : ~
r *tlrc r(:sisl.:~.t~c,c*
I:tt.gt:
~ . i l ~I l t ~ y t ~ o l t 111t111I)t~rs.
I;lw : ~ l ) o ~1.0t l I,(:
ls
~ (ltbtlttt.t.tl.
of I,II(. I~.c~ytioltls 111111111(~r. j ~ t s t:IS \vns (.II(: cb:~sowit.11 i,11o mixing lotlgi.11. llowovc!r. ,I ,llo li)llo\ving rc:nsortittg will I)(: l)nsc-tl o11 ;L p:tl)t'r I)y I,. I't.;rt~tll.l 1521.
t.llr l.g1,o of vnrinl.ion of c , is nl~lcllInor(, complex t , l l ~ nt,llat of I, I'ig. 20.5. T l ~ c
IJpon itlt.c!gr:ri.ittg (:tin. (20.23) ovc.r 1.11~: c,ross-scc:l.iot~:~~l
:I~(.:I wo ol)tnilt t.11t: 111(~:111
t ~ ~ n s i l l l ~ ~ktlls l ~ ~Il:~lf-\v:~y I)rt,\vt:c~lt.11~ \\tall ant1 i.111.axis. and on t h e axis F, becomcs
vclooiijy of flow
tr(>t.ystt~:~ll I , I I ~ . t1oc.s not, r(vl~t(:(:1.0 zorn. (!onsitlt:fil~g 1,110 tlin.gr:trn in I'ig. 20.8 il,
I I I I I S ~ I,(! ~ ~ O I ~ ~ - I,II;I,I, ~ : ~ I it,
I ~ \VOIIIII
~I I)(; in11(:11~ n o r o( l i l ' ~ i c ~to~ \tii~t ~ d:t p\n~~si\)lt: \\yl)o- fi, := (1 - 3.75 v* , (20.21;)
t,llrsis t I ~ s ~ ~ . i l )1 llc i t ~vari:~.i.ion
g in F , t.hn,n was t,llo case wit01 the mixing IcngU~,I. This
c.irt-~tiltsl:ltlc:('\VRS :itIv;l.r~t:t~l ( V l x l i ~(SCO.
~ X I X 1)) a s a, rc,ason it1 f:tvorlr o f intrrod~tc:ing
I . l t v tttixing l(.t~gl.l~ it~l,ot,Ilc c!(]~t;~l~ions r a l , l ~ r rl,lt:tt~I,IIc a p p ; ~ r c : ~vis(:osil,y,
~t an(I l*ltis
vic,\v is s ( ~ l 1t o I,(- I,or~lc-011l. 1)" (:x~~(~rit~~t:rli.:tl rt:s~~II.s.In ortlrr t.o cornpnro I;~rninar
GI0 X X . Turbulent flow t,lirongh p i p d. Univcmal rcsint,nnceInw for stnooth pipes nt vory lnrgc Rcynolrln nilnil)crs 61 1

many authors have been plotbcl. The nnmerical coefficients for tho avcr:tgctl cnrve
passing through the experimental results cliffcr only vcry little from the preceding,
clerivcd values. The straight line (1) passing thrortgl~ the cnpcrimcntal points in
Fig. (20.9) can be representetl by t h e eqriet~ion
and from tlic: i~niversal~clocit~y-dist,ril)~~t.ion
law, ccln. (20.14), we have

which coml~iricclwit.11 aqn. (20.20) gives

This is Prandll's w.niversn1 1n1o of friclioiz for smodh pipcs. I t hns been vcrifiecl by
,I. Nik~~radsc's1451 expcrimcnts u p to a Reytiolcls riumbcr of 3.4 x 1 0 ~ s r i t ltlio
ngrcemcnt is seer1 to be cxccllcnt. l'rorn its derivation i t is clear that it may bv
We can introdr~cethe Rcynoltls number from extrapolated t o arbitrarily large Reynolds numbers, a n d i t may be stated t h a t
measuremcnfa with higher Rcynoltls nnrnl)crs arc, t,licrcforc, not rcq~~irctl. V:tl~trs
compatcd from cqn. (20.30) are given in Tahlc 20.2. The ~iniversallaw of friction
is represcntcd by curve (3) in Fig. 20.1.
so that we obtain front cqns. (20.28) and (20.29)
Teblc 20.2. Coefficient nf rcsint.nncc for smooth pip8 in tcrmn of the 1L:ynolcls nr~rnhnr;nee rrlnn
8 1 I'ig. 20.!l
1= -- -- = ------ -
-
(2,5 In
-;-

(u,~ f A) - 2.5 In 4 )I2

-
+ 1.75)' 1 .;------
2-035 log u
(: fa) -0 D l )'
or
-
l'a
= 2-035log (bp ) / I ) -0 0 1 .
According t o this resr~ltthe univerml law of friction for a smooth pipe should give
a straigl~tline if 1 / d j is plotted against log (R d a ) . This feature agrees extremely
well with experiment, as seen from Fig. 20.9, whcrc the results of measurements of

l'lie ~ ~ n i v c r s aelq ~ ~ a t ~ iagrees

on well with Rln.siris's rqcl:~l,ior~ (20.5) up to R .= los,
hnt, a,tf liiglier V I I , I I I ~ S l3lasi11s'~
c q t ~ n t ~ i cIc:vil~,t,c!s
o~i progrt:ssivrl.y tiioro fro~rit,111! rt:sttIl.s
~ ~ L , c q ~ l .(20.00) rnait~t~ains
of n ~ e ; ~ s r ~ r e m rwlicrras good ngrccrncrit.
'rho flow of gnscs tlirongli srnool.li pipes : ~ vcry t liigli volocit.ins was irlvcsl.igzl.ctl
11y LV. l ~ r o ~ ~ s(lU].
s c l '1'11e vltri~~tion in l)rctsstirc 11,1otig;L pi111: 1'1)r 1lifTc!r1:114,I~I:I.SS llow
mtcs is rcprcsei~tnxlin Fig. 20.10. Tlic n1irnl)ers shown agninst t.11~curves iticlic::t\a
the fraction of maximnrn mass flow tlirougl~a nozzle of cc~naldinmctcr and with
cq11a1 stagnation pressure. The curves which fall off to the right refer to srtbsonic
flow, whereas the increasing curvcs apply to sr~pcrsonicflow. 'Che l a t h r curves
Fig. 20.9. Univernal I:rw of friction for a n~noothp i p include jumps to higher pressures and subsonic flow cFTectcd by a shock. The cocf-
rrom eqtl. (20.3n). I'mwlll: cttrvc (2) rrota rqn. (20.5). Illnslsl
Cervc ( I ) ficic~itsof resistance are not markedly diflercnt from t.l~osein incompressible flow,
 Lvvl 3![tl1:.1[~~i'l~ k)11,+ JO 3+(t3dllWd 311c+ JO L.)!l!l1~.)![lIdl! 3l[,I, 'llO!')~)dS-SSC)J2 ~ ; ) l l l ) 3 l r ) JO 3(1,Ct[s
<Ih.[ll:JlUI!N .I.).JJIf '110!1:1O~-~iIO.h)JU[II~LIU
-!.I,) [ l : J ~ ' ) l : ~ ! l l b , ~JO 3d!d 1: JOJ Kq!;)o( "11') 110 lad:)^) s u o ! ~ j U ! A 3 l ) 01[,[, '3AJ11d 31%1l!s V 110 IIVf ,.)0U 01' 'J,Y).~UIV!~J ;)!~11%.11~~1~
311)
(CP] 3I[)V.lflY!N J q J V '110!7;)3I-66013 ~ ~ 1 1 1 8 ~ q ~ x a ~
111 .z <I,\.IIIJ
'fj!21 .
I),).)IIIYJJ M
I):I ' W ) V ~ ) II:~~)II~uI!.I~~x~ 311,) ' J ; ) A ~ A \ o ~ [ 'LIO!~JJ [:II!IJ:I
J"
'l1ll:'Ih.l~"~~ "%"\."I;) I t %"1!11 11 .2)!;)019.\ ) l l l l l S l l O . ~JO sJ.\.Ul:) 'Cl.()g
's;)d!d JVlll2J!:) JOf Ail![ 01fl A"I ~ 3 ' & 1 1 3 ~ d J ( l i ) JI l 3 M 3 J V V)(IIS.)J 311') A\O[J ')ll.)1l1~~.lt'.) Jo,I1
. s a t l u ~ l slI3110!~)3aS-SSO.I3 JO sagos y JOJ ~SII!,U~V Y JO s)o111 SII!U'+IIOJ [>!zI ;1I .I I0. )~;

:V ~ J.u~au,~)ltp
~ ! I I L V . L ] J3/ 1~ ~~ 40,) [ x ) ~ ~ b!
a ~IJ!IAa\ ~ MOIJ (Y) ~:JIII?)S!S.).I jo ~II.)!.)~,J\IO~) :I,
3,)11~)0J)Il! 0'1 )U3!U3AUO" sdd!d JV1113J!3 J0.J Sl! llJM S1! '110!'):)~~-~80.l.)
S! $ 1 .6.d113')0tl I('J!M
I ~ l ) ! O i % ) l l V q \ ) l l V '.lV~ll~l19!.V) '.ll![ll~UV~+da.l JO ~3d!(IJ ( q IIO!')1L(\!J)S!\) i<,)!.)0ph JI(') 1)IIU
UO!,)3!JJ JO Mu[ 311,) 1 Y J U ! U l J ~ 3 [ ) "A811 O I I M '[++I aS["L!."l>[!N '(' 1)112. 1091 .13[[!lI;)S ''1 A([
1)3)k!kf!,)S3AIl! SBM 110!~)30S-SSOW J2'[~13.l~)-11011 JO 8.Jd!ll t l ~ l l O ~ l [ ' )A\O[J ,)lla[ll(l.lII,l,
 XX. T~lrl)rrlcntflow tl~rorrghpipcs
pcrfornlctl by E. R. G. J3cltcrt ant1 T. E. Irvinc [13]. At a Itcyrloltls nilnil)cr of
R == 1000, t,hc flow remains Inrniriar ovcr 40 per t:ont. of [.he hcight of t,11(: t,rianglc:,
t.lic rcgiorl of lamirlar flow dccrcnsing :is t.11~Itcynoltls ri~trrtl)cris iric:rc::lsc:tl.
13. Meycr 1381 invcst.ignt,ctl t.hc prcssilrc ant1 vclocitjy tlist,ril~irtior~ i r i a Ilow
t.hrough a stmight cliannrl witell :i cross-sc:ct.ion whose sllal)o varictl I)lrt whosc cross-
scc:t.ional nrca rcmainctl const.nnt,. IIc 11sc:tl a cllnrtr~cl in wllic:li ;I (:ir~illi~r (:ross-
scvtion was gmc11l:illy t.rxnsf'ornict1 int,o n roc:t.n.rlglc! wil,li ills sitlos in t.lrc r:it,io 1 : 2.
'I'rn.rtsit,ion was clli:ctctl in I)ot,l~tlirt:c:t.ions over two rlilTc:rcritf I~:rlgt.hs,:rtitl it, w:is
tlisc:ovort:el I,hnl.I,l~cprcssnrc: loss i l l t s l ~ t :~)ort,ioii
wit,l~t,t.:tnsit,ionfrorn c:irc:lc: to rc:c:l.:lriglc:
colisit1cr:lI)ly cxc:cctlctl t.ll:lt in (.he ol)ltosito tlirc:c:t.iori.
Fig. 20.15. Srconclnry flows in piprs of trian-
grtlnr R I I ~T C C ~ I I ~ I Irrons-wctioll
~ R ~ (urllcnratic)

Fig. 20.16. (:lervcu of constant vrlocit,y for n.

* Most, pipcs llsctl i l l ctlgir~coringsl.r~tc:t,irrt:sc:arlllot, I)(: rc:g:lrtlctl :w hoilig I ~ ~ t l r : i r ~ -
lic:n.lly s n ~ o o t ~ ;it,
h , Ic:lstf :lL Itiglle:r Itc:ytloltls rll~nil)crs.'I'll(: rc:sisL;~l~c:c:1.0 Ilow olli:rc:tl
I)y rongh walls is larger than t.lt:~t irny)lictl I)y t.11~prc:c:t:tling oclllnliotls for xn~oot.l~
rcrtnelg~~lor
opcn rliannol, nfkr Niktlratlsc (431 pipes. Conscq~icr~t~ly, the laws of fric:t,iot~in rolrgh pipes ;rrc: of grc:;lt pr:ic:t.ic::rl i t i t -
port,nncc, ant1 cxp(:rimcnlnI worlc on t,hcrn I)c:gar~vory c?;irly. 'l'llc tl(+sirt: Lo c:xl~lorc:
t l ~ laws
c ..- of frictionof rollgh pipcs in a systc:tnatjic way is frr~str;lt~(d
. . ..
-
l&.t.llc: fttrltl;~rnc:nt.~~.l
c l i f f i ~ ~ ~ t , . ~ ~tlic
. t hnumbcr
at .of parn.nict,cr~tlcscribirig roilgllr~cssi s cxtfr:iortliri;lrily
tli;lgrams of sccontln.ry flows in t,riangul:ir and roct.angular pipcs arc shown inXFig. 20.15.
large owing to tllc grcnt tlivcrsit,y of gcornc:t~ic forrns. I f wo c:onsicl(:r, for c:xnrnl)lc,
I t is s w n (,hat, t,he sccondnry flow in t.he rectangular cross-section wlliclr proccetls
from t.ho wall inwnrtls in Clic r~eigllbonrhoodof the cnds of t h e larger sidcs ant1
of t.lic mitltlle of t.hc s h o r b r sitlcs creates zoncs of low velocity. They appcar vcry
clcnrly in t . 1 1 ~pic:t,urc o f curvcs of const,ant velocity in Pig. 20.13. Such secondary
on.. t,hc,
a \1,:1Il with itl~nt~ical
..~.
-. -. - of
. tlc~lsit~y
prot.r~~siorls
tIist.riOnt,iat~
... :-.-. ..
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ n t : i ~ ~ ~ t ~ I l c c o r its ~ ctlr:tg
l r ~clt:l)t:ritls
of siic:li ror~gl!nrsscs, i. c. on t,llcir rlllrnl)t:r IFr tlnil, :Lra:L
a s we n.s on tllclr shapc nntll~nightnr~tl,firl:llly, also on t.l)c way in whtt:l~t.hcy :lrc
siv~~.bI~

tiist,rib~it,&l over i!s surface, I t t,ook, ~I~croforo,

- - -. . .
;a i o r t.irnc ~ ~ to fortnn\at,c: oIn:~rant]
flows romc int,o play also in opcn cl~anncls,a s cviclcnccd by the pottcrn of curves -

sirni)lc 1 : ~ ~ wllich
s tIcscriI)e trhc flow of flnitls t l ~ r o ~ g rolrgh ll 1)il)cs. I,. 1lol)f [25]
of const,ant, vrlooit.y in I'ig. 20.16. Y'hc m a x i m ~ mvelocit,y docs not occur near 1 . h ~
rii:~tlo :i comy)rol~cnsivcrrvicw of 1.110 rllrliic~roilscnrlic:r cxocrirl~otit,:ll rtwrtlt.~:~ntl
free srlrfiicc I,nt, at. al)oiiL one fift,li of the: elcpt.li tlowri, and the flow iri t.hc frcc sr~rfaco
fol~ntlt.n~ol.yl)cs of ro~lgllr~css in rt~l:~t,iori t.o 1,llc: rcsist~in(:(:fi)rlnul:l for rougI1 pipes
is not a t n.ll two-clirnensionnl a.s might have been expected. When t h e cross-section
ant1 opt:n c:ltnnncls. 'l'hc first, l t i l l t l of rongllrloss c::ll~sc:s :,. rcsisl,:irlc:~~ wllic:ll is pro-
of OIic cllannol cont.ains a narrow region, transition docs not occur simulbancously
j)orlSion:ll to t.ljc.~clunrc.of t.llc vclocit.y,; ! , l ~ i s ~ ~ l ~LII;LL c. a r. ~t,ll(!
s c:ocfficiorrt of rc:sist,:~.~ic-c:
ovrr t.licr wholo or t h e Ilow. For cxnin~)lc,in the rrgior~within a n ocutc anglc of a .

tfrinngrllnr cross-scct,ion, t,hc flow remains laminar t o very large Reynolds numk)crs,
w h c r c . ~in tlic I)ulk i l 1i:t.d tnrrlctl turl~lrlcntlong ago. Such a state of affairs is seen
i l l ~ ~ s t , r n twil,li
e ~ l t.hc nit1 of Pig, 20.17 w l ~ i c lrepresents
~ t h c results of mcasuremenLq
Fig. 20.17. Bollndnry betwrrn Innrinar
nl tl t.lcrl~~tlrntflow i l l nlr R ( : I I ( t.rintr-
~,
1 clrnnnel, dat~rniir~rd
gular vinrtnlly by tho
use of smoke injection, aftor E. lt. G.
Eckcrt nnd l'.E. Irvinc [13]
R,, - h,drrulir. rndills = dh/2
Is itlt~n[)t:ntlcrlt~of 1,hc ltcynoltls n11rnhc:r aritl corrosl)orltls t o rcIat,ively coarse n.tltl
tightly sp:icccl rollghncss clcrncrlb st~e:lias for cxninplc c:o:srsc s:lrlel gr:tins gl~lctl011 trll(:
si~rf:lcc,c:erncrll, or ro11g11cast iron. In st~nltcxscs t,llc: nalirrc of Lllc ro~lglltlt:ss~:;III
bc cxprcssccl with tlic nit1 of n sitlglc rorlgllnc~ss~):~r:imc:l.er k/l<,tllc so-c*:lllc:~lrrlrrliim
rnvyh~tess,wl~c,rck is Llrc Iinigllt, of' n protr~lsion:irltl H tlt.r~ot,cvt,llc ~ : L ~ I ~ Ior I s t,l~(:
Iiytlraillio mtlins of trhc cross-scct.ioti. I'rorn c:onsitlor:il,im o f sirnilit.lldc: we rrl:ty
conc.ll~tIc:t.Il:it i t 1 l,llis (::IS(: t.llc rosisl,n.t~c:c:voc~f'fic:ic:rit,tlt~l)c:titlsotl t.lio rc~l:~t.ivc: ro~~gl~ric-ss
only. 'l'hc acllr:ll rcl;itfion c:1,11Iic. clct.crrninctl
- - ...
oxi)nrimcr~l;~lly I)y pc:rforrning inc.:isllro-
nlcnls%h Gii'cs or cI~ani~c:s o l t1ilk:ring tlyclr:lnlic: r:ttlii I)lrt of t.11~samc: nl)sol~rLc
rollgi~r~oss. Sni:l~rncas~rrc:rnc:rlts wore c.arrioti ~ I I LI)y I<. I~'romrn 1171 :~iwl\Y. I'rit,sc:ll
1161, who fo~rnel Ih;tt Tor gc:On~c(.ric:;~Il~ silniI:~r I ~ O I I ~ ~ I I I ~ ~ SA S OisS i)ro~)or~.ion:lI t,o
(klJ(,)O."?
Thc second type of rc~ist~ance forrn1tl:l occ:urs wl1c:ri tllc ~)rot.rlrsionsarc niorc
gentle or when a small ~ ~ r l r r ~ of
b c rtlictn is (listtril)i~lctl
ovcr x relatlivcIy I:lrgc : m a ,
such a7. those in wooden or commercial st*ccl pipcs. 111 sl~clicases t.hc rcsist,ar~cc
coefficient dcpcnds boCh on t h c lteynolds numbcr ant1 on t,lic relalive roi~gliiic:ss.
 Icror~~ ()I(,~ ) l ~ ~ ~ s~)oitlf.
i c ~ :of ~ Ivicw it t n ~ t s tI)c conclr~tlndt.11at t.llc ratio of t,llc height
( I S ~)rot,t.~lsions t,o t,11(, I,ot~~~cl:~ry-lnyc~r t,l~ic~lzt~rss sllo~tltlI)(: t,hc tlct.rrmining factor. In
l ) ; ~ ~ . l i ( . ~i ,~l ~l,:-l)lt(-~~ott~(~ttott
~r, is cxi~(~;l.c(l 1.0 r l r ~ ~ c 011 t~~ l l,l~i(-Irr~(~ss
1,111: or t,l~(:1n.lninar
stll~-l:lyc.rO,, so ~.II:II. k/ii, tn~lst,I)c rrg;~~.cl~%tl :Is an itnport,a~lt tlirno~~sionlcss tit~tnbcr
\,:lliq~l~ is (*l~:~r:~(*l,c~risli(; of i,hr: Irit1(1 of' ~ ~ ~ I I ~ ~I fI, IisI (~h: lsr s121~n~k . roltg~1tl~:ss \trill caltse
110 ill(*rt*:~s(~ it1 ~ I ' S ~ S I : iIl lI (::ISVS
I ( ~ \vl~(-r(: I.II(\ ~ ) ~ . o f , r ~ ~ s:trc i o tSO
l s s111:~ll(or 1,111~1)011rl(l:~ry
I:~yc*ris so lI~ic:l<) t.ltnl, l,l~c-y: ~ r (:% I I ~ c-or~t;ritlc.~l u . i l , l ~ i t 1.l1c
~ I:~tr~ic~:rrscrl~l;~j.er, i. (:. if
k < (St, ant1 t . l ~ rwnll may I)c c~onsidcrrtlI~ytlr;irtlic:~lly srnoot,lt. 'l'his is simi1a.r t o t,l~e
:~,l)set~(,e or t,l~,: ~ I I ~ ~ I I ( ~ I I of
( * ( %roc~gItt~(~ss o t ~r(-sisi:t~~(;(: in Iln~g(~ri-l'oisc~till(: flow. I<,(:-
c.:lllir~go ~ t rc~ottsitl(~l:l.t~iol,s i l l S(:c:. S I X (,, wc- l i ~ l t l l,l~:ii, (,IN: l,l~ic:lzt~rss of f , l ~ c : In.tnit1nr
s~tl,-l:~yc.r is gi\~c,11 l)y (1, = cotlst, . I I / V , :l.tltl I.lr:~t. t,he tli~nc~r~xionlcss ro~tgl~tlc~ss f;~c:t,oris

Fig. 20.18. Rosiatance formuln for rough pipes

The size of t,hc roughllcss is so sm:~llthat, all proitrlrsio~~s

:ire conf.nitlc:tl \ v i t , l ~ i ttlic
~
laminar snl)-layer.
lta-sis~n~tct. rortt1111:n: 1l'ig111,(- 20. IS ~ ~ r ~ ~ )I.IIv ~ ~I:I\v~ ~ol.i't,i(!l
svt~ io11
t sfor l)i11rsr o ~ t g l ~ ( ~ r i ( ~ l
wit11 s : ~ ~ ~111 . r.c.giorl <)I' I : ~ r ~ l i r r : Ilow
c l 11tc- ~l :III ror1gl1 pil)(-s I~nvc:t,hr s;itnc rc-sisl.nt~c~r as
:I s ~ t ~ o o ~l) ill ~ ) ( x . 'I'lrc- c,rilic,:ll I<.c.yt~ol(ls t~rct~ll)cr is c.clttn.lly intlrl)c.tltlot~l of ro~lglitlrss,
:III,I i l l ~ I I I *~ , I I I . I ) I Ir(-giot~ I ( - ~ I ~l.lt(!tx;
, is %: r:trtg(*of It,ry~toI(ls t i ~ t ~ n lovrr
~ ( ~\vliicl~
s pipvs of
:I, zi\.c.t~t.c~l:~l.iv~ ro1tgl11lc.s~ I)c-l~:~.\~o it1 I , l ~ t rs:r.tric: \ray .as stnooi,11l)il)('s. rl'l~croltgll pipe
I I II I I I I 1 / I I I I I / ~ svt~r,o//~. / / i t 1 (.Itis rntlgc : l r t t l 1 tl(>l)c.cttls or1 R
Prot.r~~sions
extcntl pnrl.ly otit.sitln I.l~cI:rminnr s~tb-l:~ycr
;111(1 1 . 1 1 ~atltlit,io~l:~l
t.c~sisI:lt~c.c~,
:I~OIIC. I h % ~ i ~ ~ \ \ z~i l .tl ~i :I.
~ (lI g( * ( i ~ ~ i Ib(!yt~oI(Is
lo I I I I I I I ~ ) ( , t.11r
~ ~ ~ i : l g t ~ i tof. ~\vl~i(.li
~ ~ l ( : it1rl.cns1.s as corn11:irc:d with a srnooi.l~pipe, is t~~iiitrl~y
cl11o 00 1.11~
li)rln tlr:ig c:sl)r.ric.t~c.c-tlI p y (.II(:
:IS I,.,/ I i ~ I ( ~ c ~ ~ ~1c. ~1 1:~.rsisl,:~tic.c~~l s t ~ s . c;11rvcli,t.:~ro~tgllp i ~ ) (I(~vint,c~s c fi.o~nt.hnt for :I smool.l~ pl'oLrusions in the bol~rltlarylayer.
~ ) i l ) ( :111tl
. t~c.:r,~l~c.s (.II(> rvgio~lof 1,110 c l t t : ~ ~ l l - : l t . i c :rrsist.:~ttc:r-l:~wat. solne higl~orvnlr~cof
l<c~y~tolils I ~ I I I I I I ) ( ~ I . \vl~(.r(%
. I tl(~l)c~t~tls on k , / R o t ~ l y .Il(:t~ccii, is tirccssa~~y to cot~sitirr
1h1.1.trc!/;t~tf,.~:

All l ~ r o i , r ~ ~ s rc:i(>l~
i o t ~ s o~cI.si(lo s ~ ~ l ) - l : ~ :i11(1
i,l~i:I;itni~~:~,r y ( : r l,y I':l,r I,II(- f:~t.g(,st,11:1t.l~ (I[. I I I ( -
r~sist~nrlcc t,o flow is tlltc t o the form drag wl~ic:li: ~ c t sor1 thctii. I'or 1,llis rc:~son t,ltc:
Inw of resistance I~cconresquatlratic.
Vclocity dis~ributiolt: '['he vc.Ioci(.y gr:uliot~t1to:cr :I. r o ~ ~ g\v:1.11
l t is 1c.s~sl(*cal> I.l~:rt~
f.Ila1.nrar a snloot.l~onc, ns can I)c scc.rl rron~(pig. 20.1!), in \ v l ~ i t : l ~I.II(? v(~1oc~il.y
~-:~l.io
71/11 llns Gccn plollctl against tllc tlistancc ratio y / l l for a s ~ n o o l ~alltl l ~ fix scvc,r;11
618 XX. Turb111cntflow through pipen

rough pipes, all Ilaving heen measurotl wit,hin the range of valiciity of the square where the constant 2.5 = l / x = 1/04, whereas I3 assrlmcs different valurs for tltc
resistancc law. Expressing thc velocitly distribution function again by a power for- t l ~ r r rrauges of roughness discussed prcvior~sly.I n t l ~ crango of the contplcl.cly r o ~ r g l ~
mula of t11c type of cqn. (20.6) wc obtain cxponcnts of # to &.The variation of mixing regime, we have I3 = 8.5, so that in t,l~isregion
length over the cross-section calculat,ctl from these curves has already been plotted
= 5.75 log $ + 8-5
u
in Fig. 20.6 from which i t is seen t h a t i t is exactly the same for rougl~artd for smooth -
v*
(completely rough) . (20.32a)
pipes. It can be represented by l l ~ crmpiric:d cquation (20.18). In parliclllar, in the F
neighhorlrhood of t,hc wall we have 1 = x ?/ = 0.4 y.
The corrcspontling s l m i g l ~ tlitto is scon 1.0 agree well with bhc r c s n l t ~of measure-
mc~iL,Fig. 20.20. Gcncrt~lly spcalring M is a function of t-11e rongl~ncssltc:yr~oltls
nrlmt)c:r v , ks/v. T l ~ cvalrlo which corrr,apor~tlsLo I~ytlra~~licnlly s1nool11 flow liJ-
lows t ~ ol~cc
t from dtlrts. (20.32) :~rltl(20.14), ant1 is

Rg. 20.19. Velocity diatri-

bution in rough pipen, afbr
Nikrlradse [40]
r

It. follows, t,l~ercfore,t l ~ a t the

, logarithmic law for velocity distribution, eqn.
(10.2!)), rcmair~svalitl for r o r ~ g lpipe-s, ~ cxcept that t,l~cc o n ~ t ~ a of
n l i~~tcgmt.iotl,
yo,
I I I I I S ~ , 11c given R clilTcrct~tr~u~ncricnl vnl~ic.Fnrthormorc, i t is natural to malto i t
proport,ional t o the rortgtlncss height k,, i. e. to put y, = y k,, so tliat cqn. (19.29)
now becomes
'l'llc vnlrirs of h' in tho t.r:lnsit.iotl rrgion fro111I ~ ~ t l r a ~ ~ l i csn~ootli
~ r i l l y flow t,o t:t)n~l)lt~t~t~ly
~ :Ire SIIOIVII ~)lol,trtlagainst, I - , kS/v i t 1 Fig. 20.21 ; 1.11(: poit~l,s:IIT S ~ Y - I I to
r o ~ l g lflow
I
arrange 1.hc1nselvcs exc.crtlingly wc:ll on on(: rrlrvt,.
t t ~ oc.onst,nnt,y still clrprtltlirtg on t,l~nrlat,~lrcof t h r pnrt.icrllar roughness. Comparing
this cclrii~tior~ wiLl~J . Nikr~mtlsc'smeast~rcmenk,we fil~(lthat they can, in fact, be Writing cqn. (20.32) for t.hc :&xisof I.hr pipr !/ I I , 16 -- I l
-1 ; ~ r ~ tSor~i~ilrg
l 11117

rrprrsctttstl by a n cclaation of the form : tliffcrcncc ~j -- u , we obtnitl the vr,loc:it,y-t\rfi,ct cq~int.ion(20.23):

U- u R R
- -- - = 2-5 Ill -- = 5.75 log -- , (20 23)
v* Y Y
 620 XX. Tnrbnlcnt flow tlvough pipes f. Rough pipes and cquivalcnt sand rough~icsa 02 1
5
9-
-70
Fig. 20.22. Universal velocity - 3W
profile for turbulent flows -1m
- 3 m '@
tl~rongli pipcs wliich is valid n7m
for sinooth as wcll as for rongli Jam
walls, after N. Scholz [65] mu011
(1) amoolh, l n n ~ i n n rrublnyer,
(2) amonlh. t!lrbulcnt. cqn. (20.14)
+ - q

(3) roltgll, t ~ ~ r b a l c n leqn.

, (20.33a)
with D , from eqn. (20.33b)

in See. X X d for the case of smooth pipes. The relation is simplest for tile complelely
Fig. 20.21. Ilonglincss futlction Jl i r ~h r n ~ sof k s / v , for Nilturarlsc's sand ronghncna rough regime. We begin by calculating t h e mean velocity from cqn. (20.23) in the
t'llrvc (1): I ~ y d r r ~ t l l r f i l lstnoolk,
y e q n . (20.3:l):r u r v e (2):
?I,
II - 8.5; completely rongl, same way a s in eqn. (20.26):
13. L- I1 - 3.75 v* . (20.34)

Substituting U = v, (2.5 In R/ks 1- 8.5) from eqti. (20.32a), we have

onr:c morc. It 1i:ls hccri for~ntlto :~pply to srnootli pipcs in conncxion wit,h Fig.
20.7. 111ortlcr t.o soc morc c:lcarly the conncxion bctwccti the velocit*y tlistributions C/v, =. 2.5 1n (R/ks) 4-4.75 or 118 = ( ~ , / 6 )=~ [2.5 In (R/ks) -1- 4,761-2 ,
for smootli and roiigh pil)cs, it is oscful t.o re-plol tlic results for rough pipcs in the
form of a rrlatioti l~ct,wccnt,hc tlirncl~sionlcssvcloc:ity IL/V* = 4 ant1 t>lioRcynolds i. e.
1iuni1)cr !/ v*/v = 91, as was tloric in ccln. (20.13) ant1 Fig. 20.4 in rolatiori t o smooth 1= [2 log (Rlk,) + 1.G8]-2 ,
pipes. \Irriting cqn. (20.32%)lor L11c ror~ghpipe in thc form
which is the quadratic resistance formula for complclcly rough flow. I t was first
derived by Th. von KLLrmiLn (Chap. X I X [17J)from thc simi1arit.y law. A con~parison
v*
= 5.75 log :v + Dl (cotnplctcly rough) ,
(20.33a) with J. Nikuradse's experimental results (Fig. 20.23) shows t h a t closer agrrcrncrit,
can be obtained, if the constant 1.68 is replaced by 1.74. ITence the resislnnce formula
ant1 comparing it with cclns. (20.33a) ar~cl(20.32a), we olltain for the completely rough regime becomes
ks "*
D, = 8.5 - 5.75 log - rough) .
(~oniplct~oly (20.33b)

,.
l liis vclocily tlisl,ribtition is sect1 plot,tctl in Fig. 20.22, .alter N. Scholz [W]; it
rc:prcs(:rit,s tlic voloci(.y rlislribuLion for srnoot,l~pipcs as wcll as t h a t for rough pipes, The experimental results lie very closc to a straight line in a l,lot, of 1/1/1 ; t p i n s t
in acaortlnncc witth cqn. (20.33a). 'L'lic clingram corisists of a family of parallel straight log (Rlk,) and it is worth noting t.lrnt rqn. (20.35) rnay bc ;q)plictl to 1)ilx:s wiI.11 nori-
litit:s u,ilih V+ kS/v playing the part of 8. parameter. 'rho value of v, ks/v = 5 corres- --
pon(ls 1.0 I~ytlrartlic::~.lly
srnooth walls, tlic range bctwcen o, ks/v = 5 t o 70 corresponds t An equation which corrclatos tho wl~ole1r:tnsiLion rcgion from liytlrnnlirally stnootli to
t,o I.r:~nsit.ionfrorti t.lic Ilytlr:rt~lically smooth t o tfhc cotnplcLcly rough regime, and completely rougli flow was cstabliulicd by Colchrook aticl Whik [GI:
for a, k,/v > 70 1.11t: flow is c:omplcl.ely ro~~g-11, as mdntionccl previously. Tn particular,
t.ltc: tli:~gr:rmshows cl~::~.rlyl,ltat tlic Ianiitiar sn1)-laycr which reaches a s far a s ?/v*/v = 5
stnoot11 pipes, 11as no itiil)t~rt.a~i(:c
in 11y~I1.:111li(::~lly for c:omplctciy ronglt wnlls.
For ks - + 0 t.his equation trartsiorms into cqn. (20.30),valid for Iiyclranlit::~llynn1oot.11pipes.
Ilt.lntic)t~1tc.lwc.c.11 rc.sistnncr: fort~l~rla
and velocity distribntin~~:
'I'liis type of rcla- For R + m, it transforms i n t o cqn. (20.35) for Lllc con~plctclyrough rcgimc. I n t,lic: tr:%nsi-
tion region eqn. (20.35a) plok 1 against R in a way wliiclt rrscniblns the curvc labelled
I ion (.xist.; for rottgli pipcs nlso :r11t1ran l w tlrd~lc:cdin the same mnnnrr as was clone "commercially rough" in Figs. 20.18 and 20.25.
622 X X . TttrhttlrrtL Ilotv tltln~ttgl1pipns g. Other types of ~ O I I ~ I I I I C S R 623

circt~ln.rcross-sectional nrcas if R is rrplnccd by the hydraulic ratlius R, = 2 A/C ant1 plol,t.ed in Fig. 20.4. The limit of t,hn I ~ ~ c l m t ~ l i c astnoolth
lly rcgin~e1 1 , k,s/~l- : 5
( A -- area; C -= wettcd pcrimetcr). givcs t,hc t,hicltness of the laminar sub-layer nntl coir~citl(:swit.11 1.l1climit ol' Lhc r:iny,c:
If, is also c:tsy t o tlcrivc t,he relat,ion between thc resistance law ant1 the veloc:ity
tlis(ril)ut.ior~i t 1 1.110 Irnn..~ilionrrgion,. From cqn. (20.32) we have valitlity. 'l'l~c! litnit, of v, ks/v
point whrrc 1 . 1 1 ~m c n s ~ ~ r cvclority
d
-
in which the Ilngen-Poisc~tillc,purcly Intnin:r.r, vrloc:ity-tlisI,ril~~~f.iot~

tlistril)t~t,iot~
I:lw rc.l.:titrs il,s
70 for 1 . h ~trxnsit.ion:rl rogiritc: ;~.lsoc:oit~c~itlt~s
goes over t;~.ltgrt~l,i:~.IIy
\r il.11 1.11~:
i111.o1 . 1 1 ~
1og:lrit-hinic l'ormi~la (20.14) in fi~llgturbulent frict,ion.
S. Goldstein [19J sncreccletl in dctl~lcingt,hc litnit. of v, ks/v ==5 for l,lto I ~ y t l ~ i r t -
lically smool,l~regime from the cribcrion t,l~nta t 1.hnd point a von I<:irn~:itivort,cx
On 1.hc other h:tntl, from cqn. (20.34) we olrt,ain st.rct:t is n l r ~ t t t10'
~ 1)cgin In for171on :tn it~divitl~~:l,I l~rt)l,i.~tsiot~.
At:(:ortling 1,o I I I ~ ~ : I S I I ~ V -
n~entcr on circularcylintlcrs pcrforn~ctl by I?. Ilornnnn 1.l1is oc:ctlrs nl, :I. Itryttoltlx
rlr~nrbcrof 80 t o 100, whvre tho Itcynolcls numhcr is formet1 with 1.11~tliatnt:l.c~~ and
tllre free-st.renm velocity (Fig. 1.6). I n a more recent invcnt,ignl.ion J . (1. Ito1t.a 1581
nntl the precctling eqnation gives l'our~tlt,ltat I,l~ot.l~ickncssof the laminar sr~b-layeris s~nn.llt:rfor a ror~gh\v:rll 1 II:LII for
a stiioot.lt one 1.0 which eqn. (20.15n) was founcl to a.11ply.

The roughness ohtrsincd by Nilturadso \vit,l~snr~tl(!;In Irc saitl to 111: ol' I I I : L S ~ I I I ~ I I I I

tlcnsity, t~ccar~sc the grains of sand were gluctl t o the wall as closc:ly tfot!:tt:It o(,11(!t.:I.*
possil,lc. In many practrical applicat.ions l , l ~ crougl~t~css tlt~ttsi1.yof tS1tt! \v:tlls is c.ot~-
Fig. 20.23. Reaiatance formul:~of snntl- sitlcrnbly smaller, and such rougl~ncssescan no longer hc tlcscribctl I)y t l ~ ci~~tlic:il ion
roughened pipea in completrly rotlglr of 1 . 1 1 ~I~riglitof a prot.r~tsion,k, or by t,l~c rclat,ivc mrnsrlre k / l l only. I t is c:onvc~nicr~l, 1.0
rcgitnc :I,rrnngc s11c.11rortgl~~~csscs on n S(:ILIO of ~1t1.1trlr0.d
~OII!IJJIJ(>S.Y t i 1 1 t 1 1.0 11001)l.N i I ~ t t r t ~ ~ l s t ~ ' ~
Cllrvc: ( I ) from cqn. (20.35) santl ronghness for correlation because i t has bcen ir~vcsl.ig;ttrtlin a very I:~rgc~ : L I I ~ C
of valr~csof R and ks/l<. The correlat,ion is sitn[rlcst in tho ootnplct.cly r o t ~ g lt~t!gin~o ~
w l ~ r n ,acrortling to what was said prcviot~sly,t l ~ crcsist.:~.r~c:e conl'ficicnt is g i v r t ~by
ecl11. (20.35). J t is convcnicnt to oorrrln.t,e any given ro~tgl~ncss wit,lr i1,s cq~citrrlai~l sroatl
r o ~ c q h ~ant1
~ f i ~to, ~tlefir~eit, ns t h a t valt~cwltirh givcs the :icl.t~:~l cocffi~it:t~l. of rt;sist.:~~~ce
'I'ltr last c~clnat,iondt:t,rrminrs tlrr. valr~cof t,hc resist.atrcc cocl'licie~rt1 if t.11~cunst,ant when inscr1,ctl int.0 eclrl. (20.35).
I3 is Irnown l'rom t.he vt~loci1.ytlisLribnt.ion. 011t , l ~ cot.l~crhn11t1, cqn. (20.36) c:nn be
11. Scltlichl.ing [63] tlct,crminctl exl)orinictti.ally Iht-st: v:rlucs o f t\tl~~iv:lltvtl sirnd
~tsrtl10 tltbtcrtninc t , l ~ ror~st:i,t~t
r I{ ns :t f~lnrtionof a, k,/l~ either from t,hc velocit,y r s s a large number of ro~igl~nesscs
r o ~ ~ g l ~ nfor :trmt~gctl in n, rrg111:ir fnsltior~. 'I'hc
tlist.ril)t~f.ionor froin 1,ho rcsist,nncc~formrlln. 'l'l~c plot in Fig. 20.21 agrees well with
slwc:in.l cxpcritnenbl cl~annclnsed for l.his prlrposr ltntl n rt.c.t:~ng~~lnr cross-srcl ion
t . I t ( ~ rrsttlLs from eii,l~rrof t,l~rso~r~ct~ltotls ant1 provcq (.hat t.hc calcnlat,ion of t,hc
wit.11 1,11rccstnooth sitle-walls antl 0110 I ~ n gilii.er(:l~nt~gt::tI)I~~
, sitlc-w:~ll whoso rottglrt~t~ss
v c ~ l o ~ i ftlisI,ril)~~l.ion
~y front I,III! rt:sisfs:~nceI'orrnr~lnis prrt11issil)lc for rorlgh pipcs too.
was varictl 1.0 snit t.11t: cxpcrittl~nt. I5y rnc:~s~~r.ing I.lrc: vc:loc.il.y tlisl,ril)t~t.iot~ ir~
'l'hr 1itnit.sbcl>wc:rnt J ~ cthrcr rogitncs, tiamrly t.11oso of l~)~tlrn~~licn.lly
smooth flow, t,hc cent,ral rross-sr.c:t,ion it is possil)lo to tlctcrtnit~t:t,hc sl~carirtgstress on 1 . 1 1 ~r o t ~ g l ~
t,hc t.rattsiI.ionn1 rrgitnr, :tntl t.hc con~~)lt~t,cly ronph regime, whiclt 11n.ve I ~ r r rgiven
~ wall wi1.h t.11~ nit1 of thc lognrit.hmic: fortnrrl;t ant1 I ~ n t ~ r:t.lso, c, t.110 ct~t~iva.lrtti,s:~tttl
t::~rlicr,c:tn t ~ o wI)o t.nltcn tlircclly from Fig. 20.21. Wc Iinve roughness. In ortlcr to d o t.llat, iL is only noc:cssnry t,o tlt:t,nrtnir~ct,l~cronst.;i.trl. I{ in
the universal e q ~ ~ a t i o~n/ v *= 5.75 log (l//k) -1- I{ for a givon v:~ltteol' k . 0 1 1 cotn-
paring wit11 cqn. ( 2 0 . 3 2 ~we ) obt.xin tho cqrtivnlcnt snntl roughness from t,he c:q~~:rl,ior~
5.75 log k,/k = 8.5 - I3 .

Sornc resulls of s11c:11 m c a s ~ ~ r c r n c r ~arc

t s sccn st~~ntnarizotl i t t Pig. 20.2.4. Si~nil:tr
wcrc carrictl out, by V. 1,. Strcctcr [73] arrtl 11. M o c l ) i ~ ~[39]
nlen.s~~remctrts s on 1)il)t:s
which hnd I~ccnmntle nr1,ificiallyro11g11by cr~tt,ii~g threads ol'tlilPcrcnt l'ortns int,o 1.ltcm.
Grnerxlly sptaking, pipes wl~ichare rrgnrtlrtl a s smooth i t t vtigitirt~ringJ I I ( ( C ~ ~ C Q
cannot be taken to Irc Ir~/rltn~ilicnlly smooth. An cxarnplc of this t l i s ~ ~ t c ~ l ~ is agivct~
t~c~~
624 XX. Torhltlrnt, flow Lhror~ghpipea
regrtlar rougliness
pattcrnr after H.
Sclilichting [G3]
k - nctllsl llcigl~t 01
I!rotrnsinn; k, - cqui-
\ r i r n l sand rouglanesrs
Fig. 20.26. 1tcsist.anccof commercially rortgh p i p after I,. P. Moody [40]
k, - eqilivnlcnt rnnd r n i t g h n e r ~ ,to he dctrrminnl i n psrtim~lnrcwcs frnnl tlic suxillnry grnpll in Fin. 20.26. T l ~ c
hrokrn llnc I n c l i r n l n tho hollndnry of tltc complctcly rongk rcpimr w l ~ r r cI.lte qaadrslie law or friction npplfcs
g. Otlicr Lypcn of ror~glinms 626
in Fig. 20.18, \vlierc rcsr~lt,sof t.hc mc~s~lrc!rnc:t~f,s
c~r~ic:tlollt, I)y 1%.I$:~IIvI.
:1,1111
P.Cnlavics [3] on a "eomrncrcially smoot.ll" stccl lip(: wil.11 n flow of 1101, w:tt,r~-;Ire
seen plotted together with Niler~mtlsc'svnlrics for pipes rollglionotl wit,lr sn,ntl.
T l ~ etliflicl~ltyin applying tho nbovc cnlcr~lnt,iorisLo ~)r:~ct.it:n.l c:lst.s 1it.s i ~ (i . I I ~ .
fact t,hnt, the value of rouglincss to 1)c ,zscril)c?d t,o a givct~[ ~ i p cis 1101, I<nowl~.Vcry
exter~sivecxpcrimcr~t~al rcslllts on tlic rc:sisLnncc of cornrrit:rc:i:~Ily rollg11 ~ ) i l , r v i ;IIY:
rotitfninctl i t r n pnpor 11y 1,. P. Mootly [do]. Fig. 20.25 s I i ~ \ v sl.I1:1.(~ l.11t- gt.:1.111101. 2
will1 , I . Nilc~l~.:~tIs(~'s
&gains&R for tlilrcrotil vr~ltrc:sof k,/tl is i l l cssr:t~c:citlo~~lit::ll ~li:~.
gram in Fig. 20.18. 'rhc intlivitlllal vall~csof ccluivnlcnl, rcl:rl.ivc s:l~ltl ~ . o ~ l g l i ~ ~ t ~ s s
ks/d can be obtn.inccl frotn t8hcn~~xilin.ry grn1)li in rig. 20.20 ~vl~ort: 11il)t.s :I,.(: s ~ t - 1.0~ r
llavc bccn nrrangctl in t,Ilc ortlcr of v:1111csO I I Nil<~~r:ufsc's c:tl~~iv:tlcnt s:~.~~tl-rol~glrr~t~s
scnlc. This follows fro111 t3hc fact, t.tint the vnlt~csof 1 ill l,c!r~nsor ks/tb ngrt:t- \ v i ( . l ~
Nikuratlse's vnlrlrs from Pig. 20.18 in !.lie co~nplct~cl y rougl~reginlo. 'l'lio (,l.:l~isil,io~l
from hydmrllicnlly srnoot.li contlitions a t small ltcynoltls rir~ml~ors t.o colnplrlc
rouglincss a t large Itcynoltls nurnl)crs occurs mllcli rnorc gr:ul~~nlly ill srlcl~t:o~ii~norci:l.l
pipes than in Nilcnrnclsc's nrl.ificinlly ror~gliorlntlont:s.
J'ig. 20.26. Auxiliary diagram for Llle
evaluation of cqr~ivalent relative sand
rortghncsa for cotnniercial pipes, afkr
1,. P.Moody [40]
a) rivclcd steel
b) rrinrorcrd concrctr
c) wwc1
cl) cnal iron
a ) ~ a l v a n i z c dntccl
I) bltl~mcn-ronto~l slcel
g) olrllctllrnl nnrl fc>rgeil slrvl
11) clrnwn plpcs
I t is somctimos irnpossil~lct o fit cornrncrc.ially rollgli s ~ ~ r f n c snbisfacLorily
cs into
t J ~ cscale of sand ror~ghness.A peculiar type of roltghncss giving very Inrgc valr~es
of tJic rcsist.sncc cocfficicnt was tliscovered in tltc water clr~cti11 t,l~cvnlloy of ~,II(:
15cle(.r 168, 821. Tliis pipe I~ntla tliamctcr of 500 nun and nllcr n long ~ ~ c r i oor t l tts:igt?
it was r~oticctit , l ~ sthc
t mass flow tfecrcasctl by more t,hari 50 per cent. IJpol~c.xntni-
r~nt.ionit was forrnd t;lint trhc walls of the tluct, wcrc covcrccl wit11 a rill-like tlcposit,
only 0.5 mm high, the ribs being a t right anglcs t.o thc flow tlircct.ion. Tlills t,hc
geometrical rougllness had t h e small value of k / R = 1/500, but the effect,ive sand
626 XX. 'rnrb~rlentflow through pip@ h. Flow in cttrvrtl pipes nntl rliffr~scrs 627

roughness showctl vnlrlrs of k s / R = 1/40 to 1/20, a s calclllated from the resistance may be u s d for values of t h e parameter D exceeding about 102-6. TThc rcs~tltsof
coefficient wl~icliwas, in turn, ilctcrmiticd with t h e aid of the mcasnred values of mcnsuremenB rirc approximatcd with a higher dcgrcc of precision by the following
niasn Ilow. It npl)cnrs, therefore, t h a t rib-like corrugations lead t o much higher rcsi- empirical equntion, first given by L. Prnndtl 1531 :
stnr~ccsthnn saritl rorrghness of thc name nbsolrite dimension. Extcnsivc experiments
on tho incrt:asc in the rcsistnnce found in commercial ducts, for example in mine
shafts, can be fortnd t1cscril)ed in a paper by E. IIuebner [26].
Purt.licr tlct.nils rot~ccrnirtgt,l~crrsisl.:~trccoffcrc?ti t o flow by rough wnlls, perti- 'J'lris cqnnI,ion givcs gootl n.gmcmcnt wit,lr cxporirnc~iLnlrcsr~ltain t.hc? r:l,tlfio
cularly t.hosc tlr~ct o single protrrlsions, will be givcn in Chnp. XXt in conncxion
with t,hc ( I ~ ~ C I I S S ~ Ontl
I I t.hc r~sistnnccof flat plnt,rs.
C).M. WhiI,c [ R I ] has Pol~rlclt , l ~ a lt.11~:rrsisl,nnc:r c o c f l k i r ~ ~for
t lr~rhulctrl lloro ill a.
rrlrvrd pipc can hc rc~)resentctlby t,hc ccluation
h. Flow in curved pipes nttd d i u u ~ c r ~
Carved pipca: 'l'lir prcc.rtling considcrnt,ions conrcrnirtg pipe flow n.rc vnlitl only
for sl.r:ligittspipes. J I Iclrrvccl pipes there r x i s b a, scrontl:try flow h c r n ~ ~ st,hc n pnrticlcs
ncnr t.hc flow axis wllicll 11:tvca 11igl1ervclocil,y arc act.ccl rlpon ljy n lnrgcr ccnt.rifugal whosc form indicates rlcnrly t i ~ n tttlc ])ran nr~rnbrrcan no lollgcr srrve a s n ~ l l i t n l ~ l r
force t.hnn t.llc slower pnrticlcs near the walls. This Icntls t o 611e ctncrgcnce of a independent variable. In more recent times, JI. G' Cuming [R] carried out an irivcsti-
scc:ontlnry flow which is tlirectctl or~twxrdsin t.hc rcntrr a n d inwards (i. e. towards g,ztion into the phcnomrnon of scrondarg flow in rurvctl piprs.
t.11~ccr~t~re of rr~rvat~nrc) nrnr tl\c wall, Fig. 20.27.
r I n the laminar cnsc 1 t ~[26a]) cxt,crldctl t.hc vslidit,y of eqn. (20.40) 1.0 lower I)can
J l ~ irtflr~t?nrc
3
e of c t ~ r v n t ~ l is r n t , C. AT.
r r strongnr in 1nlni11:~rthan i n t , r ~ r l ) ~ ~ lflow.
Annor(linu 1,o I I ~ R c t ~ l n ~ ~ l n t~ i, ItI ~o rcsist,:~n(*t!
n111n11t-rs, ~~x t ! i ~ t ~ f I i t : i t * t r ~1
, is givt-tt l ~ , y
\Vllitc [RO] :~ntl]\.I. Atllnr (21 rnrrictl ant. cxprri~nonl~n otl In.lnirr:~rIlow. '1'110 I , ~ ~ r l ~ t ~ l c r ~ l ~
case was invcsLigntc-cl c!xi)rdrnont.nlly by 11. Nippcrt [47] anti 11. lticl~t~or [5G].
Theoretical cnlculations for the laminar case were carried out, by W.R. Dean [lo]
nntl RI. Atllrr 121. '1'11e c~l~n.rac:t.rcistic tlitnrnsionlcss vnrinl)lc, whir11 tlct.crmincs t.ltc in wlricl~JZ -T= 2 D. I f trllc 11t1mcri~1~1
eocffiricl~t,o ~ ~ l . ~ itllte
t I c I ) ~ ~ c ? I I I ~ I I c s ~is~ s rrltl:t~~t1
inllr~c~rlcc t ~ /he
of r ~ ~ r v : ~ it1 ~ r cl n ~ n i ~ l ncose,
r is the Ijecot itumber by 0.101, the equation gives good agreement with experirnentnl r e s ~ ~ lin t ~ the
s range
of K > 30.
I n t h e t i ~ r b u l c n case
t I t o 1271 11nssllown thcoret,ic:nlly t h a t the ~,nt,io
of I.II(: ~.osin-
tance coefficients, I/Ao, may bc exprcs3ed in tcrrrls of t.hc ditncnsiotilcs-q vnriahle
N ie t311rrntlirts of t,lrr rross-src.tioti nntl r is l,ho rndir~sof c~trvnt,crrc.
wl~c~rc R ( R / r ) z .The experiment.al reslllts of J t o [28Jcan hc represent,ecl wit11sr~fncirnt~ICCII-
racy by the equations mentioned in tltc footnote.
'l'lt(: I I I < - : I S I I ~ ~ I I I ~ - Ir:t~,ritltl
I~S orti, 11sRl. Arllcr for the vnluns: r1.R = 50, 100, txntl
200, tlrn~onstr:~l.c~tl t.l~c, c~xisl.crrc.nof n Inr~t:i~lcrcascin the rrsisl,xnrc t.o flow rn~tsetl I11 flow through a bend or elbow t.herc is not only some loss of enorgy within t,he

\by lhc* c.rr~\.nt.rlrrfor R 1' A'/, > 10'12. Ac.rortling t o his c:rlt~~~I:tl~ions
1 liw I;rt~~innr
rot~l'firit:~tt. Ilow in
t.hr rrsisbnncc bend itaelf, bnt n part of the Ions p r o t l ~ ~ c cbyd tile bent1 t,nkcs place in the st.might.
:I. r ~ ~ r v 1);pr
c ~ l is give11 I)y pipe following it. 15xt.ensive measnremcnts of 1.11~loss cocfficicnts for srnootlr pipe
bends and n correlation of result8 wore given by 11. Ito 1291. Thcorctica.l rrs~tlt.snrc
reported by W. M. Collins e t ai. [Sb].
In flow through a radially rotating st,raight pipe, n. secondary flow sirnilnr t,o
t h a t found in a curvctl pipc is sct, n p l)y t,lic action of n (hriolis f o r r r ; it. fiirt,s risv 1.0
n Inrgc incrcctsc in resisl,r~ncc.I3xt,c11sivc:~ncnsurrrncnta:r.rtcl t.11corct.ic:~l c:t~l~:l~l;~t.ions
oil this subject were carried out by 11. Tt,o and l i . Nanbu 1301.

t H. I t o [27] givcs:

and
1 ( ~ ) r ' 2 = 0 0 2 8 1 0301 ; ROO >- R ( R/r)* - 0 0:) 1

Fig. 20.27. Flow in n c.nrvrtl ~~il'c,

aflrr
Prnntltl [52] These differ somewhat from, hut are in gonernl nprecmcnt wit,l~,C. M. IVl~itc'~
rqnnt,iot~RI)OVC.
628 XX. T ~ t r b n l oflow
~ t through pipes
15xttcnsivc mcasurcrncrlt~s ant1 ljlicorcLical calc~lat~ions on frictional losses in
turbulcr~tflow have also bcen carried out. hy R. W. Dctra [ll] who inclridcd curved
pipos of nonrircrtler cross-sectlion in his inve~t~igations. I t is found t,haS the resistranee
offcrctl by a n nllipt,ic pipe is greater when the major axis of the ellipse lies in the
plane of C I I ~ V ~ ~ than I I ~ Cwhen it is pcrpcr~diculnrt o it.
- -
11:. l<cclrcr 141 stutlicd secontlnry flows in a rcctatigtllar cltal~nol of constant
c ~ ~ r v a t , ~in
r r cwItic:l~ tllo rndial cxt-cnt of t,lte cross-scct,ion is mnch larger t.ltan its
I~eight.'l'hc formation of dcad-wal,cr arcns and scparat,ion in a 90° rcctnngular bcritl
proviclctl with a sltarp ent,rxncc was invcst,ig;lt,cd by 1). IIaasc [21].
Dinu~ers: .J. Ackcrot [I], IT. Sprcngcr [69, 701 a s wcll as S. J . Iclinc and his
colla1)orators 116, 34, 411 performed n Iargc number of experimental irivest,ignt,ions
in0o t.11~ci~ar:l.c:t~cristics
of sl,rnigl~tant1 c~trvctltlilT~lscrs.Onc of tllc most iinport~n.nt8
resr~lI,sol' l.hrsc rcscnrchcs is the ~st~ablisllnlcnt of t,llc fact tllat the tllickncss of Lllc
l1nrb~~lcnt bonntlnry laycr aL inlct c x c r b a very large infll~cnccor1 tho cficiency of
pmssilrc rccovcry. This is tlefined as
llcrc 71 tlcrlot,rs tllc st,at.ic pressure and ii 1 . 1 1 ~Incan velocity ovcr tlic cross-soctiorr,
w11orr:r.ss~tbsorip(.s1 and 2 rcfcr t,o contlit,ions a t inlct and cxit, rcspcctivcly. 'l'lic
Pig. 20.28. DiKuftcr emriency in straight and corved diff~lserswith rirc~~lar cross-sections.
Efficiency definctl in cqn. (20.43). Diagram reprcqcnts dependence on rntio of boundary-layer
t/ticknr~sto rndi~~fiof rro~s-sccLi~t~
a t ont,ry; after J. Ackcrct [ I , la] and IT. Sprengcr [70]
i. Noa-shady flow throngh a p i p 029
diagram in Fig. 20.28 rcpresenk tlie variation of cffioiency with the mtio 2 r ~ , l / l l l
for dilfuscrs with circular cross-sections. The symbol dl, denotes tllc tlisplaccrnon~
tl~ickncssa t inlet, and D l is the corrcsponding d i f f ~ ~ s ctliamct,cr.
r For s0might tlif-
fusers q, = 0.9 when the displacement t~hicknessa t inlct, rYll, cnnst,itut.cs O.ljfl/,
of the radius 4 D l and falls t o r], = 0.7 wllcn dl, increases t,o 6 % of I),. It, is
fnr1,hcr rccognizcd t h a t f.hc cfficicr~cytlccrcnscs sttrongly as t.hc angle: ol' tlollcxion
incrcascs. It, 11au been also cst.ablishctl tltat, t J ~ csltnpc of bl~ccross-scc:l,iot~:it. i~tlct~
plays a n importnnt part whon t l ~ ctliff~lscris crtrvc:tl. For cxntnplc, wllntl I,l~oclross-
sccl.ion is circi~larat, inlct and clliptic a t cxil, thc cfficicrlc:y q, is corlsic1cr:~l)lylow!:r
if tlic major axis of t,ltc cllipsc is placctl in thc planc of c~lrval~urc. i f (,he m:~jorn.xis
is turned t o be a t right angles to t l ~ cplnnc of cnrvaturc, tllc cflirirnry I ] , , in(*rc:~srs.
. ...
Tn t,hc former cxsc there ariscs a much more vigorous sccontlary flow wllicl~lo;~tis
t o incrcasccl losses. r J . Ackcrct suct:ootlctl in tllcort:l,icnlly ni~lcc~lr~l~itlg ~,III: c:f'fic:ic,t~cy
of a straight tliffuscr whose cross-scotions arc circrllar. 'l'his was dono wil,ll 1.11~
aid of the equations for tnrbulcnt, bonndary lnycrs cont:~inctlin Chap. XXI I. It, is
sccn from Fig. 20.28 t h a t t,llis cnlcrllntion agrccs wcll wiI.11 mcasurcmc:nt,s. S,yst,crn:~t.ic
calcr~lationson bountlary lnycrs in strnigllt cliffusers wcrc also pcrrormcd I)y If. Schlirh-
ting and K. Gersten [64]. 'rhcse Iced t o the conclusion tallat thcrc exists a n opti~nrtrrl
included angle of divergence, 2 a , for cliffusers of equal nrca mtio (inlet to cxit,) nnd
cqnal Rcynoltls nrlml)cr at, cntxy. 'rho c!fficic:ncy, 9 l n , l111:n :~t~l.airls a tnaxiln~~rn. 'l'llt:
opt.imum :ttlglc tics I)ctwccn 2 a .-.r :1 rintl 8O :tnt1 tI(~~:rc:is(!s
:is III1t: I t t : ~ t ~ o IItIl I~I I ~ I isM:~.
increased.
I n this conncxion attcntion is tlrawrl Co tlic cxpcri~ncrltals(,uclirs on di11'usrrs
performed by 1'. A. 1,. Winternitz ant1 W. J. Ramsay 1831 and by J . S. S o l ~ r y[GSb].
A summary review of the mechanics of flow in diff~tscrswas prcparrtl by I). J.
Cockerel1 and E. Markladd 171.
i. Non-steady flow thror~gha pipe
The problem of pulsating flow, i. e. of a steady mean flow on which there is super-
imposed a periodic pulsation, was investigated by F . Schultz-Grunow [GF]. 'I'he
experimental arrangement consisted of a pipc wl~icliwas fed with watcr a t a cot~st.nrlt
liearl and wl~oseendscction was rhythmically incrcnscd arid dccrcasctl in arca. 7'11~ vclo-
city profilesfor theperiodsofacceleration and clecelcration, rcspectivcly, differ marltcdly
from one nnotthcr. They are very similar t o st~eacly-flowprofiles t.hroug11 a gradually
convcrgonl pipc or cllnnncl (Illring l,llc 1)eriotls of ncccrlorrtl,ion, tint1 t l ~ t r i ~ tIg) ( ' I . ~ ~of
IIH
decelerition they rcsemt)le st,eatiy-state profilcs in a tlivergcnt cllnnncl (tlill'nscr),
a s explained i n Chap. X X I I , where such profilcs will bc found plottctl in tlet,nii.
I n certain circumstances both reversal of flow and separation near t.11~wall mny
occur during periods of deceleration. The time-averaged vsluc of the coefficient, of
resistance does not differ considera1)ly from its steady-state value whcn the pulsations
are gradual and slow. I n a further paper, F. Scln~lt~z-Grunow [67] ilescribetl a practical
method for the meas~lrcmentof the rate of discharge in pulsating flow.
630 X X . ' I ' I I ~ ~ I Iflow
I ~ It*. l~~ r~o.~ ~11ipc:s
ah

j. Drag reduction by the ndclition of polymers (3) 'rile zonr tlcsrril)rrl a s "rlastic~" 'I'l~is zone plnrc,s itsrlf I ) c t n r r n 1h r In n~innt.
sublayer a n d t h e fully tlr\-cloprd t u r l ) r ~ l c n trrgion 1771. l l o r c f l ~ cvrlocity is
Tn t , u r b ~ ~ l e flow,
nt t.11~
prrssnre d r o p in n pipe can be considerably reduced rela-
rrpresrntrtl b y t l ~ clog:~rithtnicInw
tive t o erln. (20.00) by t , l ~ntltlition
r of snrnll qunntitics of polymer part,icles. I n laminar
flow, similnr nrltlilivcs leave t h e pressure d r o p 1)rncticnlly rrncl~angrd.T h e e x t e n t of
io~~ 011 t h e tnolccrllnr weight of t,he polymcr a n d on its c o r ~ c c n t r a -
d r a g r ~ d r t e l ~ tIc~)cnds
tion. '131~grnplr of I i i g 20.29 dcucribcs 1.11~rcsist,ancc cocflicicnt,, 1, a s a function of
..
Illis law is vnlid For nll int,ent,s ~LII(Ipttrposrs ILN fn,t. :LS 1,111: c : c ~ t i t . ~ ~of~ * the* l)il1<!Sot,
tho licynoltls n ~ ~ t n b cRr = S ' d / v p - where v p is t h e kinematic viscosit,y of t h e solu- sul'ficirnl.ly high cotlcc.r~trntions. In itnalogy wit.l~ccln. (20.:%0),we c:nn in tcg~.;~t.c it,
t,ion - for dill'crcnt vnlucs of t h e conccntrn1,ioll c of t01e solntiot~.'rhe measr~rerncnts to drrive t.11~rcsistn.rrce formula
were perfortnrtl by R.M1. I1nt,ct~sorta n d P. 11. ~ \ b c r n n t , l ~[50nJ.
y As t h e c o n c e n t , r a t i o ~ ~
incrcnscs, t,he rrtlrlcrtl rrsisl,n.nce cocfficirnt tcncls t,o a curve of m a x i m u m redr~ctiotr, -I -- on log (_)
ii d
-- 19.3 (high l w l y n ~ e r o t ~ ( ~ r t > l r n t i o t ~ s ) . (20 i.5)
c u r v c (3), intlicatetl b y 1'. S . Virlc 1771. 'The diagram of Fig. 20.29 tlisplnys poitits
IX
obtnincd a t two measuring stations along t h e pipe. T h e diflkrence in t , l ~ evalues T h e prcrrtlitig rqnnt,ion r a n be rcgartlcd a s nn nsyrnpt,otir Inw for t l ~ cIn~,gc,sttl~.:rg
of t.hc resistn~rcncoefficient n t hhosc t w o sections is cxplsinetl by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e rctlr~c:t.ionnt,bninnble. 1Sspcri1nents by I'.S. Virlc 1781 hrivc sllown, f~tt.l.l~c~t., l.l1:11 (IIC
polymer tnolecriles ?re t m n npnrt in t h e t u r h u l c n t st,rcarn resulting in a n effec- cn'cct ofstrrfncc ror~ghncssis su~~prcssc*tl t.o n Inrge i ~ s t . c t ~
~ tI .flows
I of ~ ~ c ~ l y t nsol~tl.ions.
c-t
r .
tive t l e c r e ~ s ein concentration in t h e rlownstrenn~direct,ion. I n spite of intensive I his ~,t.ol)lrtnnrcn hns recently I)crr~t.rpot.t,ctl (:sl.c*~tsivc~ly nl un lnt.cr~~:~lionrrl SYIII-
rcsearch i n t o this phenomenon (c/. t h e pnpcr I)y M.T. IAnndahl[36]), no satisfactory rrvicw Ijy N. S. l3ckrrnn.n 14.21.
posiilni [ l f , n ] ; compnrc also t.11~
cxplarlntion for its occurrence h a s y c t been advanced. Nevert-heless, experiment,^
de1n0nst.r~t.er~nmiutnlral)lyt h a t t h c r e t l ~ ~ c t i oin
n tlrng is linked t o changes in t h c
stxncture of tthc 1,nrl)ulrncc. T h e proccss is bcst illustratetl wit,li t h e aid of t . l ~ eexperi-
mcnt,n.lly rlct,erminctl ve1ocit.y-tlisttributsionInws.
( I] ;rkeret., J . : (:rcnzscl~ichtrn in gcrnclrn r~nrlgekrii~n~nI.cti
I)ill'~tsorrn.111'1'~1bl-Sy1nposi11111
t(reiburg/Br. 1!)57 (H. Gvrtler, etl.). Ilcrlin, 1958, 22-37,
[In] AcLc.rrt, . I . : Asl)coLq of inlarnnl Ilow. lfll~~iii I I I ~ C ~ I I ~ I I ~of
( . Hinf.c.rnnl flo\v ((:. Sovrirn. c.rl.).
lCI8cvit*rI'11blin11ingConri~nny,A I I I ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ I I I'ork, I I I / ~l!)l;7,
, ~ I I I- -~24.
~~II/N~~~
[2] Atller, hl.: Stroninng in gckriim~ntrtrJlohrcn. ZAMM I d , 257--275 (1!)34).
131 Bauer, B., and (;alnvics. F.: I':xperin~cntallc IIII~J tlioorrtiscl~oUntrrs~trl~r~ngon iiljrr din
Rol~rreibungvon H e i z a ~ n s s e r l e i t u r ~hlitt.
~ ~ ~d.. J"rrnl~rizk,afL~wrkc:~l tl. IC'I'II Ziiriel~I!):l(i;
see nlso: F. Galnvics: Scl~\r.cizerArcl~iv5, 12, :!:I7 (1!)3!)).
[4] Becker, E.: Beitrag zur Rcrechnrlng von Srk~~~~tl:irnIrii~~~r~r~ge~~. ZAhlM Jfi. spccinl issur,
- k i l t r n ~ n t i rvisr~oeltyof t,hr rr~lt~tlon 3--8 (1956); soc nlso: Mitt,. Max-l'lanck- Inst,. riir SI.rii~r~r~ng~forsrl~~~~~g 13 (1!)5li).
nn
0
A
-- ~lnrnsrlril~~
alntlcrs at
st.nl.Ioeat
n~rnsrlrin~
214 cl frrrnl lolet
1641 d from irllrt
[4nj L<er~nnn,N . S . : Drag rrcluctir)~~
10, 47-04 (1978k , ,
1 ) polytners.
~ AIIII. Ikv. Iilnirl hlc*r,il.(b!. \,:LIl I)~I;,..e;rl.)
(1) lnn~irrnrflow wit11 1 = 64/R
(2) t l ~ r t ~ e l c nnow.
t elin. (20.6)
Nnwtonlan nllla,
[5] Rlasir~s,H . : Ilns hnl~cl~kc~tsgcsetz bci lZcil)~rngsvorgKt~go~~ in Plii~igkeiten.l l o r s r l ~ i\rb.~.
(3) nryn~ptotsfor rnaxin~nnlrlrn~rcclrlrlionnlter 1ng.-Weu. No. 184, J3crlin (1013).
1'. S. Virk [77),rqn.(20.46) [5a] Clauser, F.H. : The turbulent honndnry layer. Adv. Appl. Mcclr. 4, 1-61 (I!l!ifi). /\c.ntlrrnic
Press, New York.
[fil)l Collins, 1V.M.. nnd Dcnniu. S.C. 11,.: 'l'l~rnlrndy ~notiol~ of n visroun I l ~ ~ i it1 i l :I cr~rvrrlI I I ~ , ~ .
Qunrb. J. hiech. AppI Mnbli. 28, !:I (1075).
[GI Colebrook, C.F.: Turbulent flow in pipes uritlr pnrt.ic~~lnr rcferc~~co to t,he t.rnnsitio~~ rc!gio~~
Fig. 20 2!). I l r o i s t n ~ ~ c r e o r f f i c i 1,of
r ~ ~ t ~111ootl1
, pipes in t~~rbr~letrt
flow of polyn~ersolutio~~a
ns nfunc- between the an~oothand rough pipe laws. J. Institution Civil 1511gincers,193!3; arc illso:
tion of II.P~IIoI(Is I I I I I I I as
~ ~~~ n r n s ~ ~by r r dR . W. Pntcrson nntl F. H. Ahernathy r60]. Solntionn of Engineering hydrn~rlics(H. R,ouse, ed.). Cl~np.V1, At.mtly flow in p i ~ r snntl condnits, by
1)olye*lI~ylrrlroxirle of givrn roncentrntions r ; 1 1)1)111dcsignatcq I g of polyn~rrper 106 g of watt-r V.1,. Strceter. New Irork, 1950.
[7] Cockroll, I).J., and Mnrkladd, l':.: A revicw of inc.o~nprrssillle;t1iE11scrflo\v. Aircr:~fl ICII~.
35, 286-292 (1963).
[8] Coming. H. G.: The secondnry flow in curvccl piprs. A J t C Jl.hl 2880 (1955).
f\r.c:orrling l,o I'.S. Virlc [78, 793, it is necessary t o distinguish t h r e e velocity- [9] Darcy, 11.: Reclrercl~esexp6riment.alcn rclnI.ivca nnx rnonvc~~~cnta rlc I'r?nr~el:111sI.II,V:LIIS.
r Mem. PrPs. h. l'Acnd6111ietlcs Sciences (lo I'Jnst.it~~f. (10 P r n ~ ~ c15, e 141 (1858).
dist.ril)r~Lionzones: $ [I01 Dean, W.R.:Tlre strea~nlinemotion of n f111itlin 11cr~rveclpipe. I'l~il. Mn.g. (7) '1, 208 (1927)
(1) 'I'hc Intninnr s n l ~ l n y e r(0 < 17 < 10); t h i s corresponds t.o curve ( I ) in Fig. 20.4. and 5, 673 (1928).
[I]] I>etra, R.W.: The secondary flow in cnrvnd pipes. Inst.. Acrotlyn. 1I'rII Ziirieh Ilry). No. 20
(2) 'IYic frilly tlovrloprtl t.nrl)r~lentzone. TTcrc t h e distribr~t~ion follows t h e law nccortl- (1953).
ing t.o rcln. (20.1:1) wit,l~A 1 = 2.5 rrgnrdlnss of t,Ii(- physicnl propert,ics of t>hn [I21 Van l)rie-qt,, E . R . : 011t,urhnlcnt flow nrar n mnll. .]AS 23. 1007-~-I011(1956).
[Is] ISckcrt, 13. It. G . , nntl Irvine, 'J'. IT. : Iflo\v it1 corners ~vitltnon-circnlxr (:rosn-sc:~~lions. 'rrnnn.
sol~tt,ion.'I'll(, c:onsl~:~.nl.14 vnrics st,rongly wi1,h t l ~ rc:onccntrr~tion. ASM IC 70!) --718 (I!IT,(i); uoo n l ~ oJr\S 22. 65---(Xi (1!)55).
 632 XX. T~~rliulcnt
flow throogh pipcs

1141 Eckcrt., 15.12. G., nnd Irvine, T.F.: Incon~prcssiblefriction factor, transition nnd hydro- [39] Mobius, If.: IEx ~eri~nentcllc Untrrs~~cl~ungcn des \Vitlrrs(n~idmI I I I ~(lrr (Irurl~\r.i~~fligIzri(~-
dynamic cntrnncc-length studies of drlcts wit11 trinngular n ~ rectnngr~lnr ~ d cross sections. rerteilutlg in ~ o k r e nmil, rcgeltniiwig nngcort111ctc.nI t n ~ ~ l ~ i ~ l t r11ei i t .t.l~rl~lllclltrr
r~i Sll.iilllllll~.
Pnpcr prcsenbd n t Fifth Midwcstcrn Conf. on Flnirl Mecl~.1957. I'liys. Z. 41, 202---225 (1!)40).
[IS] Pox, H.. W., and Itline, S.J.: I'low rcgitnes in c ~ ~ r v csubsor~icdiff~~scrs.
tl J . Basic Rng., Trans. [40] Moody. L.F.: Friction fnctors for pipe florr. Trnns. t\Shll5 66, 671 684 (1!),14).
BSMIC $4, Scries I), 303--312 (1962). [41] Moore, C. A., Jr., nndlCline, S. ,J. : Some effectsof vnnrs nntl of turl~r~lenre ill t . ~ r . o - t l i ~ i ~ r ~ ~ s i o ~ ~ n
[15n] I'renkicl, F.N.. I,nndalrl, M.'P.. and I,nmlcy, -1.L. (rd.): St,ructrlrc of tr~rl)~~lcnce nnd drag \\,~de-anglcsubsonic diffusers. NXCA 'SN 4080 (1958).
roci~rctio~~. IU'I'AM S y ~ n p o s i ~ ~
Washington
m, 1). C., 7 -- 12 J I I ~ I1!)7fi,
C 'l'he Physics of I~l~ricts, [42] Nar~n~nnn, A.: Drr~cltverlust in Itohrctr r ~ i r l ~ t l t r c i s f i i r ~Qi ,~ri~~r~r~s ~ l ~ ~ I~i riil t11ol11:11
. ( ~ s (:('-
20, No. 10, I'nrt 11, S 1 - S 209 (II177); scc nlso 13.11. ton^ in I'roc. 111tcrr1.Congr. Rheology,
schnintliglzcitm. ZAMhI 36, spcciiil issue, 25 (198fi); scc also Allg. \ I ' i i r t ~ ~ c t r ( . l 7. ~ ~32 ~ i k 41
North-llollnnd, A~nstcrtlarn,1949, Scc. 11, IB5. (1956).
[I61 I."ribch, W.: IGinflr~sstler Wandra~~higltcit nuf die t n r h u l c ~ ~ tGcscl~wir~tligkcibvcrtcil~~ng
e [43] Nik~~rntlae, J.: Ut~It:rsr~c~lrn~~gcniibrr tlio (:c?~~l~\~i~itli~lt~!itu~rrl,~~il~~~~;~ in I I I ~ ~ I I I ~ I ~ ISir;).
I~(~II
in Rinncn. ZAMM 6, 109-216 (1928). mungcrl. 1)iu.q. (:vtli~~en 11120; VI)l-I~orsc:l~~l~ignl~clt 281 (I!I!!(i).
[I71 Fromm. I<.: Strii~nu~lgs\r.idcr~tnnd in rnr1li8n Rohren. ZAMM 3. :339-358 (1923). [44] Nikuradse, J . : Turhufcnte Striinn~ngin ~~icl~t,lzrrisfiir~t~ige~l Itohren. 111g.-~\rrl1. 1 , :106~-
[I81 Friiascl, W.: Strii~nr~rig in glntten, gcrndc~il t o h r e ~nit ~ Uber- untl Untcrscl~nllgescl~windig- 332 11
~ > - 9301. ,
keit,. FOrs~llg.111g.-Wes. 7, 75-84 (19:iG). [45] Nikurndse, J . : Gcsetz~niissipkeittler I r ~ r l ~ n l c ~ St.riili~rlng
~tcn in glntte~iI<olirrn. I'c~rnr.I~g.
[In] (:oldstein, S.: A note or1 roughness. ARC RM 1763 (IW3). Arb. 1ng.-\Vcs. No. 356 (1032).
1201 <:oldstein, S.: T l ~ esimilarit~ytheory of turbulence, nntf flow Imt\'cen planes and through [4G] Nfkurndse, ,I.: Strii1111111gsgerurt,7.~ in rauhen Itolrrr~i.I'orschg. Arb. Ing.-\\'ca. No. :llil (I!):1:1).
pipcs. I'roc. Itoy. Sor. A 159, 473-496 (1937). 1471 N~ypcrt,,TI.: Ubcr den St~rii~n~lngs~vidcratnt~rl i l l grkriimn~trriI<nniiloi. l'ors(.hg. Arb. IIIR..

[?I] IInnsc, 1). : Striimung in rincln 90"-I<nie. 1ng.-Arch. 22, 282-292 (1954). Wes. No. 320 (1029).
[22] For atiditional references see: H. W. Ilahnemnnn: Der StrG~nungswider~tirnd in h h r - 1481 Nussclt,, \Y.:\Yiirmciil)erga~igin Rol~rIcit,ur~gen. I'orsrhg. Arb. 11ig.-\\'cs. No. H!), Ilrrlin
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..
lcit.ungcn uncl I~it~lngnelcmenten. Forschg. 1ng.- Wea. 16, 113- 119 (1950).
[23] Jlnwt,horne, W.lt.: Secolidary circulat~ionin fluid flow. Proc. Roy. Soc. London A 206, 374 [49] blnb&k. 11.: nr~~ckverlunt strii~ncnder 1,uft. in grrnrlcn z y l i ~ ~ c l r i s ~ lI~l r. no l ~ r l ~ : i t ~ ~ t ~ ~ r ~
11951\. Forschg. Arb. 1ng.-Wcs. No. 158/159, R c r l i ~(1914). ~
1241 ilcrn~'nnn,R.: Expcrimentellc U n t e r s ~ ~ c h n n gzurn ~ n Widerstnndsgesetz des ICreisrohrcs bei [50] Os\vnt.itecli, I<.: (:rundl:~ge~~ dcr Gnstlynn~nik.\Vicn. 1076; irlso: Cnnrlynir~nics.ICIIRI.Ir:~nsI.
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I~ohenIteynold~srl~en
schnft, I,cipzig, 1930.
Zahlen und gromen- - Dim. h i p z i a-; Akad. Verlagsnesell-
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[25] Hopf, I*.: I)io Masung dcr Iiydrnulischc~lRauhigkoit.. ZAMM 3. 329--:)3n (1023). dilr~tepoly~nornolutions. J F M 43. (it%!)-710 (11170).
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1 l!)53\. 1st. Scries. 136 (1921); see also Coll. Worlcn I I , 620-- 026
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( J . . B ~ 9 i cEng.), 12:)-134 (1950); in more detail: Mom. Inst. High Speed Mech., Tohoku Essentdnls of fluid dynamics. Engl. t,rnnsl. by W.M. Ddnns. 13liickie. 1952.
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I ~ t e t ~20,
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1291 Ito, 11.: I'rcssl~rc losses in sn1oot.h pipe I)cnds. Trans. ASMI&,Series D, 82 (J. Basic ICng.), 328 (1940).
131-143 (19601. [55] Reichnrdt, H.: Vollstjindige Dnrstellu~~g cler turbulcnten C.c~chwindigkeitsvcl.tril~~~~g in
1301 Ito, I{., nnd Nnnbr~,I<.: Flow in rotating straight, pipes of circular cross section. Trans. elatten 1-eitungcn. ZAMM 31, 208-210 (1951).
ASME, Srrirs I), 93 (J. Ilnsic ICng.), :18:3--394 (1971). .
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>
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(311 Jnkoli, M , and lerk, S.: Der Druckabfall in glnttcn llnhren und die Dorclifl~~ssziffer von
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. . von KArnihn, l'h. : Ubcr laminare und turhulcnte Reihung. ZAMM I, 233 -2R2 (1921):
1.721 . . . see rnRl l7ot.t.n.. . .T.C.:
- Cont,rol of turbulent boundnrv " Inycru
" bv- unifor~ninjection and suct,iou of fluid.
[3:l] I<irststi, $1.: Expc:rimentelle U n t c r s u c h ~ ~ n gdcr c ~ Entwicklung
~ dcr Gescl~wi~~diglteit,~vertei- ~ b DGLR, . 61-104 (1970).
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[BBn] I<Ieinstc.in, G.: Genernlized law of the wall nntl eddy-viacosit,y n~odclfor wall boundnry in pipes. Trans. Amer. Soc. Civ. Eng. 51. !)44 (1903).
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Sr:l~illrr. 1,.
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1341 Klinc. S. J . , Abbot)t, D.E., and I'ox, I<. W.: Optimum tlcsign cif atmight-wnlled tliffusers. 1Znol1igltcitagrntIcR.ZAMM 3 , 2-: 1:s (I!,P:l).
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[35] Koch, R.., rind Frind, 1C.: I)rucltvcrl~~st und Wiirmeiibcrgnng in Ringspnlten. Chernic-1ng.- and related fields, 69, Berlin, 1930.
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634 XX. Turbnlotit flow tl~rooglrp i p

Seifertlt. R.. ant1 Kriiger, W.: Uherrmcl~ondhohr rtoibangaziffer einer Fernwnaserleitung.

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[an] Sprmgcr, 11.: Mr~nungrnnn J>iffuooren.VDT-Bcr. 3, 10-110 (1955); see also ZAMP 7, CHAPTER X X I
372--374 (J950).
[70] Sprengcr, ti.: 1':xprrimetltelle Untomr~chnngennn gernden und gekriimmtcn Diffusoren.
Mitt. J I I R ~ Aerodyn.
. EII'H Ziiricli No. 27 (1!)59).
I711 Stanton, T.R.: l'lio mccllnnic.nl viacoaity of flnida. Proc, Roy. Soc. London A 85, 360 (1911). '
1721 Stnntnn, 'r. I<., nl~tlI'nnncl, J . R . : Similnrity of rnotion in rolntion of tlrc surfnrc frirt.iot1 Turbulent boundary layers at zero pressure gradient;
of flttitls. I'l~il.'l'rnnn. Itoy. Soc. A 214, 1!)9 (1914); see ~ 1 8 0Proc. Roy. Sor. Lontlon A 91,
40
- ll!)lh\.
~, flat plate; rotating disk; roughness
[73] Strectcr, V. I,.: Frirt,iorlnl reniat,nnce in nrtificinlly roughened pipes. Proc. Amer. Sac. Civil
Eng. GI, 103-186 (I!)%).
[74] Sznhle\vski, \V.: I3erechnnng rlcr t.urbalel~tenSt8r6mrlngitn R.oltr auf der Grundlage der
Miscl~~~ngswrgltypotl~csc. ZAMM 31, 131- 142 (1951). It might be surrniscd t h a t i t would be possiblc t o pcrfortn calcult~tiot~s on tlrc
[751 Sznble~vski,LV.: Der Einlnnf einor t,rlrbulrnten RoIrrst,rotnung. 1ng.-Arch. 21, 323-330 turbulent boundary layer along a flat plate, or along a n y shape for t h a t mattcr,
[, I- -R' R- . R. I I.
from eqns. (19.3a) and (19.3b) and by t,he same general mcttrods a s those applied
[70] Taylor, G. I.: Flow in pipes and bet~veenparallel planes. Proc. H,oy. Soc. London A 159,
496--506 (1!)37). t o laminar boundary layers, having first established a n expression for thc magnitucle
[70a] Tonin, R . A . : Sonlc observations on t,hc flo\v of linear polylncr ~ol~tt.iona t,llrough st.rnigllt of t h e viscous forces with the aid of one of thc hypothcscs wllicl~llnvc been tliscrlsscti
tr~bcriat. large Itoynoltla n~rtnhers.I'roc. lot Int. Congr. Itheol. 2, 135--141 (1048), Anistor. in Cllsp. XIX. S o far, however, this scllcmc has met wit11 no suoccss owing to
dam. North Holland. insurmountable difficr~ltics,nothing bcing lcr~ownn l ~ o u tltct zono of trrrnnit,ion frorn
1771 Virk, P.S.: An elastic euhlayer inorlel for drng reduction by dilutesolutionsoflinear macro-
molecnlr~.JFM 45. 417-140 (19711. the turbulent bountlary layer to tho laminar sub-layer wliiclr exists in tho immediate
1781 Virk, 13.S.:Drnq redr~ctiotiin ;ougii pipw. J F M 45, 225-240 (1071). neighbourllood of the wall, and the laws of friction in the srl1)laycr arc also unlrnown.
[79] Virlz. I'.S., Mickley, N.S., and Smith, 1C.A.: The ultimnte asymptote nnd mean flow From t h i ~ point of vicw contlitions arc more fnvournblc ns far IW prol)lctns of so-c::~llctl
strrtct,~lrei n Torns'a plirr~oniellott.J. AppI Mecll., Trnns. AS MI^, Seriw IS, 37, 488-403 free ti~rbi1.1etzffloiu.9 are concerned (Chnp. XXIV). Tllose incluctc turbi~lcnt,motions
(1970).
[RO] i ~ ~ ~ C.i th!.:
i , Stretttnlinr f l o ~ vt,liro~tgllrrlrvctl pipes. Proc. Roy. Sac. Lorldon A 12.3, F45- i n which no solid boundaries cxist, such a s when a jet of flr~iciis mixcd witfll t9he
(io:j ( 1!t2!)). surrounding atmosphere at rest, or when tho waltc 1)cllintl a body diff~tscsinto
[81] ~ h i i r ,c.M.:
, Fhiicl friction and ik relnt,ion to hrat transfer. Trana. Inat. Cliem. Eng. 10, t h e stream. Such cases can be solvccl with tho aid or thc tliffcrcrrfinl ct~uat,ions
0G (1!)32). together with the empirical laws of trlrI)111entfriction. As far ns tfhr!other proltlcms of
I821 l~idderhhd,W.: ITbcr den Ritlflrl~nvon Rohrablngerungen auf den Iiydrauliorllcn Druck-
- M tut~crfncll$9, 034 (1949).
nbfall. ( I ~ R a. turbrllcnt flow arc concernctl no succcssfi~lschcmc for t,l~cintt:gration of the cclrc:tlfior~s
182111 Wieghnrdt. I(.: T~lrbrtlentc(:rcnzscl~icl~tcn.Gottinger Monoprnphie, Part B 5 (1940). of motion haa yet bcen advanced. Thc only mctllotls avail:rl)le a t tlrc 11rcsc:nt t,irnc
11131 Wiritrrnitz, l~.zl.l,.,nntl Ilai~~any. \V J: 15lforta of inlet boundary layer on preauure re- for t h e mathematical trcatmcnt of t u r t ~ u l r n tI,orlnclary Iayc:rs :w: :~l~l)roxirr~:tl.c:
covery rnetgy conversion and lows in conical diFfuscrs. J . l b y . Aero. Soc. 61, 110- 124 methods of the typc 11ser1in lamin:lr t~ortntlnry-layt:rtheory. 'l'l~osr:arc I~:~scvl, 11rir1c:i-
(1957).
pally, on the rnornt?rltum integral cclu:ltion whicl~has been rlsctl s~rcccssfullyin thc
stiltly of laminar boandsry laycrs too.
'rhc simplest case of a turbr~lcntI)o~tntl:~r.y 1::byor oc:c:urs on a 11:1t. 1)l:~t.t: n.1, zoro
incidcncc; i t is, f ~ ~ r t l ~ e r m oofr cgroat
, pmctic:1.1 irnporl,:~r~cc. It, occurs, for c:x:~rnl~lc, in
t,I~ccnlcr~lntionof tho sltin-friction c1m.g o n ships, on lil't,ing ssrtrf:cc:c~s :r~ltl: ~ c ~ r o l ~ l n t ~ o
1)otlies in aoronar~t,ic:alcngirlccring, ant1 o n I,IIc \ ~ I : ~ of ~ ~(,r~~l)int:s
cs i ~ 1 1 1 1rot.:~ry ~.~IIII)~CS-
sors. Tho flat pl:ll,c a t zero incidcncc is simpler Lo consitlcr, I)rc:ausc t J ~ cprcssnrc grn-
dicnt a l o t ~ gthe wall is zcro so t,l,;:bt t.11~vcloritfy orlt.sitlo t,hc botlr~tl:~ry In.ycr is cor~st~:~.nt.
I n sonic of the ahove c?xnmplcs the prcssurc gr:~<li(:n(, may tliffcr from zcSroI~trl.,just
as was t,hc case wit,)^ laminar flow, t,llc sltin fricl.ion in snah ir~st.:~r~ccs is not ~n:cl,ori:~lly
different from t,l~ator1 a Hat platc, provitlcd t h a t t11t:rc is no sc~l):rrtat~iotr. 'I'ltc st,~rtlyof
the flat plate is f,lrus t.hc basis for t l ~ c a I ~ ~ i l : ~oft ~~ iI ~I Cskit~-I'ri(:t.iot~
n 11r:lg (in all I)otly
shapes which d o not suffcr appreciably from scl~araf.ior~. 'I'l~cnaxt ohnpt,cr will ronI,ain
a n extension of this stlctly to the c:lsc of a t,urbulcr~l,I)o~rntlnryI:cycr \viI.lr :L tl(*finil,c
pressure gradient. I n many practical cases (ships, acroplancs) Lllc Rcynoltls 11111111)(:rs
636 XXI. Tl~rbnlcnthoundnry layers at zoro promure gredicnt
R = I / , 1/v (Urn - frcc-strca~nvelocity; 1 - length of plate) are so large tIlrat they
cannot bc strbjcctcd to mcasurcment in a laboratory. Moreover, even a t motlerate
Itcynoltls nn~nhcrsi t is murh morc tlifficr~lt to carry out mcasuremcnts in tlie
bounclnry Iaycr on a platc than in that inside a pipe. I t is, therefore, very atlvaritageons
that it is possiblc to calcrllatc the skin friction on a plate from the extensive (late
availnblc for piprs hy Uic nse of a methocl dne to 1,. Prandtl [40] and TIi. von
Icilrmi~n[30J. 'I'his ralcnlation of t,hc skin-friction drag on a plate can he rarrictl ollt.
both for smooth nnd for rough walls. A good summary of this work was given by
P. R. IEama [23].
a. The smootl~flnt plate
The approximate method to bc applied to this problcm is based on the ~nomentum
integral cql~atioriof I)onntlary-laycr tthcory as givcn in eqn. (8.32) of Chap. VIIf,
t,lic vclocily prolile ovcr ttic boundary-laycr tl~ickncss bcing approximatccl by a
suitable empirical equation. Thc morncntum equation than provitlcs a relation
hrtwccn t,hc chr~mderislicprc~melersof thc boundary laycr, i. e. bct,wcen displacement
tdlicltness, morncntum thickness and sllcaring stress a t the wall.
Tn thc following argllmcnt we shall assume a t first that the bountlary layer is
t u r b ~ ~ l ealrcacly
~it a t thc leading edge ( x = 0 ) antl we shall choose a system of co-
ortlinatcs as slrown in Fig. 21.1, h tlcrloting the width of the plate. The boundary-
layer tliick~icssO(x) incrca.scs with x antl on translating the tlatn for n pipc into
t.hose for a j)lat.e we riot ic:c t.llat the maximum velocity, U, of the former corrrspontls
to thr free-stream vt:lr,oity, U,, of tlrc lnttcr, the rntlius, R, of thc pipc corresponding
to the boundary-laycr thickness, b.
At this stage wc introduce with I,. I'ranrltl the fundamental assumption t h a t the
vr-locit.y cdislribntiori in tlic bonriclary lnycr on a plate is idcnticnl with t,liat inside
a c.ircrilar pipc. This assrlmption cannot, ccrtainly, be exact, because the velocity
rlist,ribnt.ior~in a pipc is formed untlcr the influence of a pressure gradient, wlrcrcas
on a platr t,hc prcssurc gradient is zero. However, small differences in thc velocity
clistribnt-ion arc unimportant, b c c a ~ ~ sthe c drag is calculated from the intrcgral of
morncntum. I~~~rtlierrnorc, thc cxperimcntal results obtained by M. IIansen [23a]
ant1 .J. hf nnrgrrs [6] prove that tliis nssr~rnptionis well satisfied a t least in the
Y distribution in the boundary layer on a flat plate
Fig. 21.1. Tnrb~~lent,
boundary lnycr
on n flnt plab nt zero iricidcnce
mrrgc of rnotlrratcly large Rrynoltls ~rurnbcrs ( I J , l / v < 10" They botlr found
tJrat t h r velority profilc in tlrc bor~ntlarylaycr on a plate can be described fairly
well hy a powrr formnla of thc form of eqn. (20.6), as found for a pipe We shall
'
a. The smooth flat platc 637
revert once more to this problem (p. 643), when we 'shall discclss some systematic
deviations between the velocity profiles in pipes and on plates a t larger Rcynolds
numbers.
The skin-friction drag D(x) of a flat plato of lenglrt x on onesidcsatisfics the follo-
wing relation as seen from eqns. (10.1) and (10.2) in Chap. X :
IEerc to(%)dcnotes Lhe shcaring stress a t a distnricc x frorn t l ~ cIcading rtlgo, itrid
the secor~dintegral is evaluated a t x over the boundary-layer thickness. Intro-
d
ducing the momentum thickness d2, dcfincd Ijy A, 1Jm2 = / 7l(r!, - TI) dy ill
eqn. (8.31), we can rewrite eqn. (21. l ) as follows:
From eqns. (21.1) and (21.2) we obtain the local shcaring strcss :
Equation (21.3) is identical with thc monlent,lrn~-int,cgralequation of h o ~ ~ l ~ d n r y -
layer theory, eqn. (8.32), in thc case of 1111iformpotential flow U(x) .= IJ, -- c o ~ ~ s t , .
We shall now perform tlrc calculation of the drag on a flat plate on the assump-
tion of a f-th-power law for tho velocity profile which is trrrc for modcrntc Royriolds
numbers, and we shall then confinc or~rselvesto quoting thc rcstllts for tlrc k,garith-
mic law which is valid for arbitrarily largc Itcynolds numbers, Fig. 20.4, bccarrsc
the complete calculation for this case is fairly tedious.
1. Resistance formula deduced from the 4 -th-power velocity distrib~rtinl~
Inw. 111
accordance with t h e preceding argument and with eqn. (20.6) i t is seen tlint the
+-th-power law of velocity distribution in a pipc leads to the following velocity
whcrc d = B(x) tlcnotcs tlro I)or~ntlnry-layert.IiicIc~~t:s~
wl~ioliis a fu~lct.ionof rlist,nnt-r-,
x, and is to bc clclcrmir~ctlin thc corlrse of thc cal~ulat~iori.
'l'hc :msunlption in
cqn. (21.4) implies that the velocity profiles along a Rat pletc arc similar, i. e. that
all velocity profiles plot as one curve of n/U, versus y / d
Tllc equation for shcaring stress a t the wall is also taken ovrr tlirrctly froni
the circular pipe, cqn. (20.12a) :
.From eqns. (8.30) and (8.31), togcthcr wilt1 cqn. (21.4) we o:tn ca1culat.c t,l~ctlispl:t-
cemcnt thickness, dl, and tlrc momcntnm ttliickncss, (1,:
638 XXT. Tnrbnlent, honndnry Inyeru at zero prcmnre gmdirnt.

6 , --g..a; 7
6,=;i,jd.
l'ront rqns. (21.3) oncl (21.0) we have

wllicl~is l.hc- tlill'(.rcnl in1 rrjltation for (Y(x). lritrgrntion from t.ltc initial vnll~c:fi = 0
at 1 = - 0 gives

S (x) = 0.37 z (y)-" (21.8)

l'lic l)o~~nclary-layer
dist,ancc, wllcreas in I:iminar flow wc had S ~ ' 1 ~The -
t.11ickncw is seen to iricreasc with t.lic power 21-f the
. total skin-friction drag on
a flat, plate of Icngtl~1 and width b wett,ctl on one sicle is, by cqn. (21.2), given by
Fig. 21.2. h i s t a n c e formula for amooth flnt platm at zero incidcnccr; cornpnri~onbrt.wrcn
theory and rncnsnremcnt
Tl~eorellcnlcarvcn: curvc (1) rrom epn. ( 7 . 3 0 . I n n l l ~ ~ n rIllnrrlnrr;
. ctlrvc (2) Tm~ttC ~ I I .(21.11).lt~rlta~lt.~$i,I'r~1ldt.1;
curve (3) from eqn. (21.18), lurbnlonl. Prandll-Scl~lirl~llnp; curvo (3n) from r q n . (21.IOn), l a ~ s i ~ ~ n r - l r , - t t ~ r h ~ ~ l r n l
tranaibion; curve (4) rrom efin.('L1.10~).111rb11lm(. S e l ~ ~ ~ l t ~ - C t r t ~ n o w
'l'lle drag on a plate in tt~rl)ttlcntflow is sccn t o hc proportional to iJWR15and l4I5
compnrctl wit11 11,"2 ancl 1'12, rcspcctivcly, for laminar flow, eqn. (7.33). Introducing
tlirnertsionlrss coefficicnta for the local ant1 thc total skin friction by putting laminar, i t is possiblc t o specify tile following mngc of valirlity for cqti. (21.1 1 ):
6 x lo5 < R, < lo7, using round numbers. Int.roducing tllc ~iccessaryc~rrect~ions for
C/' = To or cl = .- D the numerical coefficients we obtain the following expression for the local corfficiant
leu,' ' '
i e urnZb[ of skin friction
we ol~tainfrom eqrls. (21.3) and (21.2) tltat

1ianc.0,fromeqn. (21.9). wecan writccff =0-0876 (U,~/v)-J1~andc,= 0.072 (U,Z/V)-'~~.
Tllc last equation is in very good agreement with experimental resulh for plates
wlloso k)ot~ntlnry layers are turbtllerit from tlic Icading edge onwards, if the
numerical constant 0.072 is changed t o 0.074. Thus
'1'111: rrsist,ar~ccformitla (21.11) is sear1 plott.cd as curve (2) in Fig. 21.2. The range
of vali~lit~y of t.flis formt~lais resttrictod to U, 6/v < 105 in accordance with the
limitation on Blasius's pipe resistance formula. JJy eqn. (21.8) this corresponds to
U , l/v < 6 x IOfi. Since for R, < 5 x 1 0 q l 1 e boundary layer on a plate is fully
. .
t In. tho genornl cwo of a power law u / U = (y/d)lln we have:
Equation (21.11), as already ment,ioned, is valid on the assuml)t.ion t.hat the 1)oitrlciary
layer is t,urbulcnt from tthe lending edge onwards. I11 rcalit.y, t.he borlntlnry layer
will be laminar t.o IIcgin with, and will c l ~ a t ~ gtoo :I t,~~rbulent,
one furtllcr tlowns(,reani.
The position of tlic point of transition will clepentl on tllo intIensit,yof t,~trl)~rlcnce
in the extternal flow and will bc tlcfinecl by t.11~ value of ttlc oritiral ltoyrlol(ls ri11111I)er
which ranges over (TI, x/v),,,, = R,,, = 3 x 10Qo 3 x 10" (sro Sco. XV1 a).
Tllc existcnce of t,llc I : ~ n ~ i ~ iscc:t.ion
nr cntlscs tho tlrttg t,n tlcc!rcnsc> I I . I I ( ~ . l'ollo\vit~g
I,. Prantlt,l, the dccrcasc can be cstimatcd if it is asstttned tallat I)c:hi~~tl l,llc poitlt,
of ttransittion tthc turhitlont boundary layer hellavcs as if it* wcrc t.nrb~rlc~tt, from
the leading edge. Thus, from t l ~ edrag of a wl~ollyt r ~ r l ~ u l c nboundary
t l;~pc?rit is
necessary t o subtract tlic tr~rbulentc1ra.g of the lengt,h 111) to t11c I>oihtof t,ransiI,iott
a t xcr,, and to add ttlc laminar drag for tho same Icngt,h. 'Sltus, the dccrcnsc I)c~c:olnes
AD = - ( ~ 1 2 Urn2
) 6 xcrl, (eft -el,), whcre ,!c ant1 cf, donote tllc cocfficicnt of
turbulent and laminar skin friction, rcspect~vely,for the total drag a t tllc: scct.ion
where transitmionoccurs, i. e. a t R,,,,. JTence the corrert.ion for cf is
610 XXI. Ttrrbrrlent bor~ndnrylayers s t zero premure gradient
I'ntft,ing Acj = - AIR,, we fintl t h a t the value of the constant A is determined by
t,he position of the point of transition R,,,,, namely
Conscqaent,ly, the coefficient of tot,al skin fricLion incli~dingthe eflcct of tlic laminar
initial Iengt,h becomes
Taking cjt from cqn. (21. I 1) and cj, = 1.328 R,-'I2 from the Blasius formula,
eqn. (7.34), we obtain the following values for A :
, 1 3 x los 1 a x lo6 1 lo8 / 3 x loa
-
A
---
/ 1050 1700 1 3300 / --
8700
2. nesistance formula deduced from the logarithmic velocity-distribution law.
The Itcynolds numbers which occur in practical applications in connexion with
flat plate problems consiclerably exccetl the range of validity of eqn. (21.13)t,
and it, is, thereforc, necessary t o find a resistance formula which would be valid
for m~icliIiiglier Reynolds numbers. I n principle such a formula can be derived
in the same way as before, except t h a t the universal logarithmic velocity-profile
eq~tat~ionslio~lltl be usetl instead of the f-th-power formula, in analogy with
eqtis. (20.13) ant1 (20.14) for pipe flow. Since the universal logarithmic formula,
as sliown earlicr, may be cxtrepolatecl t o arbitrarily large Reynolds numbers in the
case of pipe flow, wc may expect t o obtain a resistance formula for the plate which
worlld also lcr~tlitaself t o cxt,rapolation t o arbitrarily large Reynolds numbers. I n
any case, it is again implietl t h a t pipe flow and boundary-layer flow on a flat plate
cxlril)it itlentical velocity profiles (see also p. 643).
The derivation is not so simplc for the logarithmic law a s i t was for the f - t h -
power forml~ln.This is mainly tloe t o thc fact t h a t the application of t h e logarithmic
law t,o tJic flnt platc does not lcad t o similar profilcs any longer. We shall, thereforc,
refrain from reproducing here the details of the calculation, referring the reader t o
T,. Prandt,l's original peper [40].
l'hc lognrit.limic: formula for pipc flow was derived in eqn. (20.14) in tho form
4 =Allogr]+Dl
wlierc
t t The reaulta for the coefficic~~t
-
In largo and fnst aeroplanes the Reynolds numbers of the wing are of the order of RI =
8 x lo7; a large, modern fnst ~tmmerreaches about Rl = 5 x JW; see also Tablc 21.3,
p. GFI.
a. The stnooth flnt plntc
with
I/* = 1-a
tlenoting the characteristic vclocity formctl with the wall shcaring strcss t o .111blic
case of pipc flow considcretl in Chap. X X , the const:tnt.a wort intlicat,ctl t,o II:LVC t,ho
numcrical valrlcs A , ---- 5.75 ant1 - 5.5. Ilowcvcr, cxt.ctisivc ox~~c:ritric?ti(.nl iri-
vestigations (sec Fig. 21 .3) have clcmoristratcd t h a t ttlc vclocity profilcs in the two
cases urrder consideration, in a pipc ant1 or1 e flat platc, arc sorncwll:~t tliffcrcnt
and it becomes necessary t o rnoclify tthc numcrical valucs t o
'rhc calculat,ion leads t o a fairly cl~mhrrsomcsct of cqnat,ions for tho local :tritl t-ot,al
cocfficicnts of sitin friction in tcrms of tltc Icngtli 1k:ynoltls til~riil)crR, - : I/, l l ~ .
I n tlie process, a formula for the dimensionless boundary-l:~ycrtliickriess 11, d / v = r],,
is also obtained. The numcrical rcsults arc aliown in ' h l ) l e 21.1 ant1 tlrc grnptt of
c, versua R, has bccn plott,ctl in Fig. 21.2 as curvc (3).
Since the exact formulae from which the resistance law rcprcscrlt,ctl by 'C'able
21.1 has bccn evaluated is exceedingly inconvcnicnt, IT. ScIilic11t.ing fittcd t h c
relation between c, and R, from Tablc 21.1 into a n empirical cqnation of t.11~fnr11~
0.455
c, = --
(log ~,)z.58'
In ortlcr t o makc an allowance for tlic laniinnr initial Icngt.h, it is mquirctl 1.0 makc
the same dcdnction a s before, cqn. (21.13). Thus
where the value of the constant A dcpcntls on tllc position of thc point of transition
a s specified in tlie Table on p. 601. This is the Prnndtl-Schlichting skin-/ridion /ormula
for a smooth flat plate nl zero incidence. It is valid in the whole range of Reynolds
numbers u p t o R, = 1 0 h n d i t agrecs with cqn. (21.13) up t o R, = lo7. It is seen
plotted ,as curve ( 3 a ) in Fig. 21.2 wltere A = 1700 was choscn, corrcsporlding t o
transition a t R, = 6 x 1 0 5 13lasius's curvc for lami~lar flow corrcsporrcling 1.0
cj = 1,328 R,-'I2 is also shown for comparison, curve (I).
A very similar theoretical calculation for the skin friction of a flat p1at.c was
tlcvised by 1'11. von lcbrmi~n[20]. I<. 15. Sc:llocrrllorr [50] ~nntlo so of' von IZrir-
mbn'a schcmc and derived from i t the cxpressior~
1
- - - = 4.13 log (Rl c,) .
1/CI
ltesults of numerous experimental mcas~lremcntsarc sccrr plott*ecitogcthcr wit.11
these theoretical curves in Fig. 21.2. The measurements performed by (1. Wiescls-
--
of local akiri friclio~~,
c ; . in 'Cable 21.1 can nlso be fitted into
an empirical equation ns follows
cf ' = (2 log R, -0.65)-~"
642 XXI. Ttirbulent bonndnry lnycn nt zero prcwtirn gradient

Tnble 21.1. Itrniutnnce forrntiln for flat plnte computcd front the lognritlitnic velocity profile
in e q n s (21.14) and (21.15); sec curve (3) in Fig. 21.2
Fig. 21.3. Velocity dintribution in
the boundary layer on n flnt plate
a t zero incidence, after Schultz-
Grunow (531
(:Irrvc (1) lognrllhmlc I s w or plpr flow. I n
tltc ottbr portion Clre vclocity distribrrCion
on a pla1.c is seen lo deviate ~narkrclly
from lhnl innirln n cireulnr 111ha.Curvc (2)
wan ~lsoclby .Scl~~~llz.~r~~now nu n bnrla
lor I I m cnlr~rlnlionor l11ebotrntlnry layer
of n pfale nncl lrcl lo c(lns.(21.1Oa)and
(21.10b)

3. F u r ~ l ~ rcfincmcnb.
cr As n1rc:ncl.y ~t~nlctl, l.lio prccrtli~ig~iic:t.l~otl
or t!irIt~~~l:rt,iot~ is IIIWC~J
on the o~snmptionthnt thc vc1ocil.y prolilcs in tho bor~ncl:rryI:rycr on n platx: crr~cli~lsicle:11pipn
nre idcnticnl, if thc maxilnum vc1ocit.y I1 nnd Olic rntlius Jl of lhc circular t.11I)n nro rr~~lnoccl Iry
the frce-strcnm vclocity Urn ant1 lhc boirndnry-layer thickness d of the pl:rtc. 'I'l~isnnsnn~ption
wnn clicckerl by F. S c l i ~ ~ l t z - ( ~ r t ~ [53]
n o \ von tho bmis of vcry cnrcfril mrmttrcti~rt~ts on tlic
boundary lnyor on a plnh. Thc in~crrt~igntior~ rrl~ownellhnt lhc vclocily prolilc in t.110ollbr ~iortiot~
of t l ~ cborrrldnry lnycr of n plnlm clcviatcn nyntr~nrrticnlly~~pwnrcln froin t.hc Ingnrit.lin~ic:vc:lc,q:it.y
tlist.rihl~tionInw o f n circillnr pipe. '1'110 rcrrnltn or Itin nlensirr~~t~rc!i~In
OII n ~rlrrlr!
ewer givean i t r I i i ~2. I .:I.
They m n Iio wcll rcprcocnterl by a velocity-tlefcct Inw

as nlrcnrly loutid in tho c ~ ~ of s cn p i p , c q t ~ .(20.23). I t is sccti that t.hc 108s of 1no11icnt.11111

on n
lotc is ~orncwhatsmnller than that given by tho lognrithniic ~ripcfortnula nt~cl,e~onsc~q~~cr~l.ly.
l ~ e r g c [67]
r o n cloth-covcrctl glazctl p l a t c s lio s o m e w h a t al)ove t,he t ~ ~ r l ) i ~ lceutr~vte. (2), t h e drag teust; be smaller thnu that obtnincd by the dircct npplicntion of lriptr formttlirc. 'i'lie
which woultl i n d i c a t e that, t h e r e w a s n o su1)stantial l a m i n a r l e n g t h i n h i s e x p c r i m e n b depnrti~reof the velocity distribution from the universal lognritli~nicvclocity di~trilit~t,io~i (law
nil t*hat t h e rougliness w a s small. T h e m e a s u r c m e ~ i t ~d su c t o P. G e b e r s [10], w h i c h of the wall), eqn. (21.14), rcprosonkd by cqn. (21.18) and Fig. 21.0, wnn dctcrtnitird cm~riric::rlly
rnrigc fro111 R, = 1 0 V t o :1 x lo7, fall o n tlic t r a ~ l s i t ~ i ocnu r v e ( 3 a ) , c q n . (21.1Ga), at by F. Rchitltz-Grunowt; it rcprcaentm the rro-cnllcd Inw of t,he wnkc inlrorlucetl by 1). Colcs [8j]
According to F. Sclinlt,z-G'r~inow,tho law of the wnkc irr ir~depci~tlcnt of tlic Ilnynoltls tiut11l)cr
t h e lower cnrl of t h e m n g c . A t t h c higher R e y n o l d s n u m b e r s his results lie o n c u r v e (3) and p o c s s e s , tlicrcforc, in some measure the properties of n r~~tivcrsnl Inw. For 111orcdet:~ils
from ecln. (21.16). 'l'he m e n s u r e m e n t s r e p o r t e d by K. E. S c h o e n h e r r [50] also ~ I I O W concerning the Inw of the wake the rentlcr should cotisnlt I). Coles's original Irnpcr 18111.
g o o d a g r c e r n o r ~ twit.11 t,licory. 'l'lic highest Rey110It1s n u m b e r s h a v e been achieved 1.".Scl~tilt.~,-Gronow rcpPntccl thn dcrivnt.ion of t l ~ crcnist,ancc forninln fro111t.hr ~ ) r c * r r t l i r ~ ~
y I<c:ml)f [31]t w h o al,t.ninntl valncs of u p to R, = 5 x loR.T h e y s h o w cxccllctlt rryrrhtn of ntltint,iori.enntl rvill~t,hc nit1 of llic f1111ction (!//I!) tvl~iclihe fo1111e111sI ~ I ~ - : I s I I ~ ( ~ I I I ~
l ~ (2. ..
l l ~ cr t m ~ l tenti Ire m~rrtacnk:tl Iry l.l~cfollow in^ i~~lrrpeilnlitrtifor~nr~lr~n
a g r c e n i c n t wilJi t,ho tl~c~orcl,ical ciirvc froin cclr~.(21. IGa). Extcrisivc measurcnicr~t.s
h a v e hccrl clcscril)c?tl by 1). W. SrniLh ant1 J. II. W a l k e r 1661; t h e y cover I h e r a n g e e,' = 0 370 (log R%)-'
106 < R, < 4.6 x lo7 a.nd ngrce wcll w i t h t h o s e d u e t o G. Pempf [31] a n d F. Schult~z-
G r o n o w 1531, b u t plncc 1.lionsclvcs s o m c w h a t below t h e g r a p h of e q n . (21.17). It is
c, = 0.427 (log R, - 0.407)-'"
n o t e w o r t h y t,hat I). W.Stnit,h a n t i ,T. II. W a l k e r m e a s i ~ r e ds k i n - f r i c t i o t ~cocfficicnts n bmn plotlctl in Fig. 21.2 11q. ccl~rvc(4), n.r~clit, will I)c, iiot.ire.tl 1.11:it tlic: tlr-
The laql. c q ~ ~ n l i oha-q
wit11 t ~ i caitl of :r Pit.ot, t < ~ l bpIacct1
c at t h e surface, a n d that t h i s ~ n e t l i o dh a s reccnt.ly vintion from t.hc I'rnndLI-Schlicliting curve (3) is sn~nll.
1,cnn i ~ s e dl1.v Inn,tly invcst,ignt,ors wit,Il g r c a t s i ~ c c c s s .I n t,his nonnexion t h e w o r k Tho clifimnt tncl~liotlrrfor the cnlci~l:~t.ioti of t.nrlinlot~t~ l t i l ifrirtion 11:ivc I ) C ~ I I (.t.itir:~lly
of .l. 11. I'rc~stcon[43],R.A. 1)utton [ll], G . E . G a d d [18], P. B r a d s h a w a n d N. G r e - exnn~iticxiby L. Ifindwcbcr 1331.
gory In] :i.s wrll n.s , I . .'F Nnlritl :iritl [If. J . 'l'hofnl,son [37] m a g lie consulted. O n
sirinr~lingu p , i t is possible to statre t h n t t h e precctling results h a v e been confirmed t On npplying the pipc formuln wc hnvc
hy n ~ r a s i ~ r c ~ m co nv ot r I.hc whole r a n g e of Itcynoltls n u r n l ~ e r s . I1(y/6) = A In (8/y) - 2.5 111 (,)/,I/) .
which leads to a straight linc in Pig. 21.3. '1'11~ ])oink nm1.r t.ltr rtirll ;rrc nrcw to f:111 011 t,l~in
rrtrnigltt linc; (.he portion of t l ~ ccnrvc w l ~ i r lt~orrrn1ic~1~ls
~ 1.0 1110 oictrr lrorf.io~~
of t.hr Iro~~ntl:iry
t Ilo tiir:m~~rrclonly lorn1 hict,ionnl roaflicicrita. 1,. Pratidbl ~ V B I I I R t,he
~ P ~corresponrling
I total lnycr dcvintcs ~t.rongIydo\v~i~nrtIrr froill 1 Iic utrniglit. line.
vr1111rnby iti((.grat.inn, scc Ilrporb AVA (:ocllitigrn, ~rrrrlI V.
644 XXI. Turhr~lentbor~ndnrylaycrs a t zero pressure gradient a. The smooth flat plate 645
K. Wiegl~artlt[n5] atlvanccd an cxplanntion for the difference between tlic velocity pro- The second term in this equation accounta for the rapidly deoaying e r e c t of the lending edge
file in a pipo a r ~ tlrat
l on a plate, pointing or11 tllat 1,he influence of t1tr1)ulrnce a t the outer edge (on this detail the reader nlay also refer to A. A. Townsond [04j).
of t,lio borlntlary l~iycrtliNcm in t.11~two enma. In t,ho cane of a platc n low dogrce of turbr~lcnce A similar effect a r i m when two platea ali ned with the flow are made to form a concave
in the cxt,crt~nl~1~reti111gives risc to vclorily fl~~ct~rlntions wl~icharc practically 7,cro a t tlie o u b r corner. The interaction bet,ween the two bounfary layers for the caae of a rectan lar corner
odgo of Ll~ohonnclsry Iiycr, wllcrcas in tlrc crntro of tlte pipo they wo~rldhave an apprcciablc waa studicd by K. Ceraten [20] who indicates the existence of an additional drag oKnsgnitude
rnngnit.r~dobccarrsc of t,lle ir~ll~tcr~cc of 1110 o t l ~ e rside. 'ro the srnallcr intensity of turbulence
on a plnlo there corrcsl)orirls a s1ec~~c.r incrcnsc in velocity and l~rriroa thinner total boundary
Iaytx. lle was itlso nl>lf:t.o ~ l i o wt,hat t h r vclocil.y 1wofilc on a plate bccon~cavcry clone Lo t,lrat
in pipe flow if tlrr cxtnrtial flow in niatlc Iiiglily t.tlrbtrlcnt. where, according t o K. Geratcn, the interaction contribrrbion is
J . Nilz~~ra~lsc [38] alxo condnctcd a vcry co~nprcl~ennivc
Ire fo~tnclthat in thr, range of li~rgcRnynolcls t~i~tnbcrs of R, -
scrica of cxpcrimonLq on flat plnlns.
1.7 x 10' to 18 x 106 tho vo-
locity profilcs arc siniilar, if ? i / U ia plot,lcd against y/dl, whcrc 6, tlcnotes the displaccmcnt thick-
Ac =
I
-
8.76
--
Rl
in l a m i ~ ~ aflow,
r
ness. 'J'lic ~~r~ivcrxal
tho nicna~~red
vclor:ity-clis1.ribrltio11law w / l l = /(y/~!~)turns out to be indepcndcnt of
r . loca! nncl total cocfficicnls of skin friction have hecn calcr~latedfrom
lhc Iteynolcls n t ~ n ~ h e'l'l~r
~ r l o o i t ~protiles
y wit11 thc aid of t l ~ c~nolnent,un~ tl~corem.
and
Acf = - --@;: . in turbulent Row (21.21 a)

Tlro following intcrl~olnlion forn~rtlnowcrc ol)t,ninctl for tlro velocity distribution, d i s

plarcrncnl t,lricknoss, I I I O I ~ ~ ~ I I ~t ~l ~
I ~i IcI ~
I k nand
c ~ , roefficicnt~of nkin friction, rcspcct,ively: The supplementary drag hna turned out to be negative, which means that the drag of two plates
which are wettcd only on the inner side of the corner and which arc joined a t riglrb ntlglcs, is

urn
~ .-
~ = 0737 ( ) 0.1315
,
smaller than the drag of a flat plate of equal total area.
E. Eichelhrenner [12] examined the caae of a corner of arbitrary angle.
L!?
..' = 0.01738 ~ z o ' 8 6 L, 5. Boundary layers with suction and blowil~g.Mensurenrent: In this section wc nhnll intaro-
v
duce brief remarks concerning turbulent boundary layers on a flat plate with suction ant1 blowing
6, which may serve as an cxtcnoion of tho conaidcrationa of Chap. XIV on laminar horlnclnry lnyora
If,, .= : - 1.30 . with suction. Thc first t,llcorc~ticclla t ~ ~ dofythis Inpic wan ~nntlonfl erirly IUI 11142 11y I I . Si.I~lir.l~l.i~~g
01
146, 471. In modern t.imcs experimental as well as theoretical studics have heerr perfortncd by
J.C. Rotta [44].
Some of Itotta'a expcrimentol results are shown grapliically in Fig. 21.4. T l ~ i sis a dingr~i~n
showing the variation of the momentum thickness dl(%)along a porous flat plate with I~onrogc-
In conncxion with t,lie calc~tlationof skin frict,ion on a platc, the papor by V. M. Falkner [15] ncoua suction and blowing a t various values of the auction velocity, v,,,, a t the wall. The external
may also be conar~lted.In a paper hy D. Colerr [Ea] tlie velocity profiles are reprcselntrd by a velocity was Urn = 20 to 30 m/sec and the normal wall velocity ranged from o,, -= -0.10 n~lsec
linear con~hir~at,ior~
of two universal functions, one of mliich is c:allcd the law of the wake, the
other being tlie law of the wall ns already mentioned. I
(auction) to 0.13 m aec (blowing). The volt~mecoefficient varied from ca = v,,,/fJ, = --0.005 to
+0.005 and was, t IIIR,vcry smallt. Thcse mcmurements confirmod thc well-krio\vn ft~ot.t.11nt tlio
rate of hoentlary-layer thickness growth in the downstream direction increases MI the blo~ring
Mc,muretnent,s pcrforrnrtl 1)y 11. hlotzfcld [3GI concerncd the~nnclveswith the turb~rlent
boundary lrbyer on a wavy wall. II. Schlicl~ting[46] gave sotno eutimatcs concerning trrrbulctit
bor~ndiiry layers with srlction and blowing. When homogeneous (that is, continr~ouslyand
r~nifornilydist.ribnted) suct.ior~is applied, thc asytnptotio boundary-layer thicltncss remains
constant in lho same manner an for a laminar boundary laycr. However, in the trlrI)r~lcntcase
thc borrntl:~ry laycr is ~nr~clr inorc scnsitivr, to ciranges in the snction HOW-ratetliaii in the
laminar. Vcry cxknaivc t ~ ~ e a s ~ ~ r c m pcrforlr~ccl
c~rb in tr~rbtllcntboundary layers on porous flat
walls by A. l'avre, R. D I I I ~ W and E. Vorollet [lo] show that the application of sucbion exerts
a st.rong inll~~cnccon t.11~t . ~ ~ r b ~ ~motion.
lcnt

Fig. 21.4. Turbulent boundary

4. Errect 01 finite dimensions; bolrndary Inycrs in corners. WIICIIa flat platc of finite span layor on a flat plate with m i -
is pllrcc:d in a olrrn~nwhich l l o w ~in t.ho tlircct,ion of i k Icngt,l~,i l is I;)ontI t.l~nt,nonr t,lre ~ i d e -
cdgc 1110 honnclnry layer is no longcr two-din~rnsional,ns i t is along tho centre-linc of t,he platc. form suction or injection: nio-
Kxperitncr~tri pcrfi~rtnctl by .I. W. 1Tlder [13] dcnionslrated that near tlie edges there arise mentum thickness 62, according
sccolldary flows wl~icliarc siniilar to'lliosc ol)scrvcd in pipcs of iron-circular cross-xcct.ioti (cf. to eqn. (7.38), along the plate;
See. XXc). 'l'l~ix causes a large incrc;mr, in llie loct~lskin-friction cocfficicnt along the edges.
I\ccording tn 1':ltlr.r'~ ~ncasuron~cnL~, ant1 rcn~nrltnbly cnongh, thin wlditionnl dmg, always measurements by J. C. Rotta
avcra.gcd over t,lic sj,an, Ll~rltsorrt Lo ho intlcpcndcnt o[ tlrc lcngt,l~Ilcynolds number, Rl, or [441
the witltl~of the plate. Irowcvcr, 1.11~ region sit,untxcl vcry close to tlic lcscling edge of thc plate
forms an cxcrpt,ion, tlic local skin-friction coefficient varying irregularly in tlre flow direction
and gt right a ~ ~ g l ctos it. Still according to ISltlcr's mcasurcrnnr~ts,the incrcasc in drag is given
hv
t S\~ctionand blowing start.ed a t a short dist.anrc from the lending edge rathcr th-11 a t t,hc leadi~lg
edge itself.
646 XXI.Turbulent houndary layers a t xcro presRuro gradient,
ratc incrcwcn. For CQ = - 0.005 the boundary-lnyer thickneu~reaches a constant val1le down-
utrcrrni allti c.o~~ntit.~~tca
art twyinptc?tic honncl~rrylayer in the sense of Sec. XIVh.
The stndy of tnrhnlent boundary layers with suction hns marly applications. Among them
we may ~ncnt,innt,lint the int,roduction of a foreign gaa i n b the honndnry lnyer t,hrough a porous
wall or ttllroug11 nloLa ronsLit.i~Lrsa very effcct,ive Incano of film or tranalliration coolin Thin
rcduccs the rate of I ~ m trnnnrer
t from the hot, sbrramirlg gas t,o the solid hody, as is dolie k r gaa-
Lnrhine blarleu. Si~nil:rrl,y,thin is n Incans of rcrtncing the rate of heat flow from t.he boundary
laycr rendcrccl very hot by kitlct,ic heating on a body flying a t a hypersonic velocity to it8swall.
Hlowing can also produce a considerable reduction in drag. A very good review of such applies-
t,iot~nwan pnhlinhcd hy l,.O.P. .Jcromin [28].
Thcory: In order to cnlrnlntc the nsynlptot,ir: tnrln~lentbonntlnry layer on a flat, plate with
Iiomogcncor~s~nct~ion, we ohservo fro111cqn. (18.13) t.hat the normal vclocit,y v = fa, iu constant
over t,he whole tl1ic:kness of the Inyer. Hcnce, we can integrate the equation of motion in the z-
dircrtion \vit.li rcnpcct. to t.hc nortnal !I-diroct.ion, and thns ohfnin
Int~rodncingt.he frict.ion velocity 17, = (r,,/e)I12 and taking into account, t.he fact that a t large
tlistatirca from t,hc wall ( i . ~ ontrritle
. -i t is po~sibleto ncglcct the viscons
the laminar sr~blayer)
~ h e a rlr(?w/a!/) with reapcct t~ the tnrhulellt stress -?L'v', we derive from eqn. (21.22) t.hat
With l'randtl's mixing-length aaaumpt.ion
from eqn. (19.6~).and putting 1 = x y, we deduce from cqn. (21.23) tliat
Hem x -0.4 dcnoteu von Kkrrnbn's connt,nnt. The preceding equation immediately proves that
the velocity tlislribt~tioncan be given the following dimensionk!ea form:
Pig. 21.5. Tnrhulent honndnry
layer on a flat plate with uni-
form suction or injection: theo-
retical velocity distribution
according to cqn. (21.26) after
J. C. Rotta [44]
Pig. 21.6. Tnrhrllcnt boundnry laynr on a flat
platc with nnifor~nsnction or injet-tion: VCIO-
city diutribntion in the honnclary lnyer accord-
ing to eqn. (21.26) for different v~rlnesof the
snclion pnrnnicler v,,,/o, nncr ,J. C. Rotla
1441
0 rxporl~~~r~lt
- rnlc~~~lnllon
Here q = y v,/v is the dimensionleas distance from thc wall from oqn. (18.32). Tho intcgrat.ion
of eqn. (21.23) given
.
law
.
Equation (21.26) can be regarcled aa a goncrnlisnt,ion of tho universal velocity tlistribntion
for imperllleable turhr~lentboundary layers, eqn. (10.33), to the cmc of pervious walls with
e ~ t h e rsurtion or blowing. I n order to inclnde in our considerations the existence of a laminar
sublayer, i t is pertinent to int,roduce E. R. van Driest's [ 101 dn~npirigterm, eqn. (18.1 I ) . 'rlie
result of such a calct~lat~ion
constant C.
is shown in 1Pig. 21.5. A co~npnrisotiwith the experinicnts of .J.C. Ilottn
is given in Fig. 21.6. The agreement is satisfactory if a suitable vali~ois cl~osenlor 1110ndjnst,:rl)lc
Experimental invcstignlions on turbnlent l~oundnrylayers wit4h injection of t.ho snnlc or
another gun through porous wella into a compressible stroan1 at Mach nr~mhcrsup to M = 3.0
have been perfor~uedby L.C. Squire [58]. Calculatior~ashow that the nsaurnption of Pranclt,l1s
mixing length here too leads to satisfactory resulb.
b. The rotatir~gdink
1. The "free" disk. The flow in the ncigl~bourhootlof a rot.ating disk is of grnat,
practical importance, p.articularly in connexion with rotnry machines. It, l~ccorrrcs
turbulent a t larger Reynolds numhcrs, R = U R / v > 3 x lo5,in tho sarnc way as tlrc
flow about a plabe. Here R denotes the radius anti U = n) R is ttI1c t,ip vclociLy of
the disk. The character of this kind of flow was described in Scc. V I I , w11ic:li
contained the complete solution for the laminar cnse when the disk rotat,es in an
infinitely extended body of fluid ("free" disk). Owing t o friction, t h o flnid in the
immediate neighbourhood of the disk is carried by it and then forced outwards by
the centrifugal accelcrat~ion.Thus the velocity in tho boundary laycr has radial
anti a tangential component, and the mass of fluid which i,s cirivcn o~it~wnrds
hy c:c~~t,ri-
fugal forces is replaccd by an axial flow. Making n simple estimation of t11c balarrcc
of viscous and centrifugal forces in laminar flow it was possible to show that tlrc
048 XXI. Turbulent boundary layers at zero preaeure gradient
boundary-layer thiclrness 6 is proporl.ional to 1/72;,
and hence, independent of and ttllc torquc coefficient tlcfined in cqn. (21.27) bccomcs

-
the radius, and t h a t the torque, M , which is proportional to p R3 U/S, must be
given by a n expression of the form M Q U2 n 3 ( U R/v)-11" The exact solution for
the laminar casc showecl, further, that t,he dikensionless torque coefficient, defined This equation has been plotted in Pig. 6.14 as curvc (2). I t shows very good agrcc-
as mcnt wit,li the experimental rcsults tluc to W. Schmitlt ant1 (Z. ICctnpft for
R > 0 x 10" Tho nr~mcricalfactor in Ulc cquntiori for ((he1)our~I:~ry-Iayrrt.l~i~:lcti~~s
which was left ~~nclctcrrninctl
bccomcs

for a disk wetted on both sidcs, is giver1 by cqn. (5.56), and is equal to
C, = 3.87 R-"' (laminar) , (21.28) and the volume of flow in the axial direction is given by

where R = R2m)/i) is tlic Roynolds numhcr, Fig. 5.14.

It is now proposcd to make the same estimation for the turbulent casc basing i t as comparcd with cqn. (5.57) for larnirlnr flow.
on the same resistance formula for turbulent flow as was used in the case of the flat
plate, i. e., in the simplest case, on the +-th-power law for the velocity distribution. An approximate calculation based on the logarithmic velocity-dist~ribr~l,iotr Inw
u/v* = A, In(?/v,/v) -1- Dl was performed by S. Coldsteirl [21], who fo~lntli . 1 1 ~fol-
A fluid particle which rot.ates in tho boundary layer a t a distance r from the axis is
lowing formula for the torque :
acted on by a centrif~igalforco per unit volume of magnitude e r w2. The centrifugal
force on a volume of area d r x ds and height S becomes e r w2 d r x ds. The shearing
stress t oforms a n anglc 0 with the tangential direction and ita radial component
1

7"M
= 1.97 log (R 1/c)
+ 0.03 (turl)ulcnt)
must balance the centrifitgal force. IIcnce we have t osin 0 d r x d s = e r w V ~ J rx d s or
It is n ~ t e w o r t ~ hthnt
y this equation has tho same form as t.hc ~~niversnlpipe-rraist~ancc
forrnlrln, cqn. (20.00). Tlic nlimcricnl fact,or~have bccn 'atljlrst,ctl I,o obL1~i11I,Ii(- IwsI~

On the other hand, the tangential component of shearing stress ran be expressed possible agreement with experimental rcsnlts. This equation is sccn plotted as cnrvc
with the aid of eqn. (21.5) which was used in the case of a flat plate, replacing U, (3) in Pig. 5.14. On this topic see also P. S. Granville [22].

-e
by the Lcngential velocity r o.Thus 2. The disk in a hoosing. The disk in turbines or 1.0tl~1.ycotnprcssors 111ostIy
revolve in very tight housings in which the width of thc gap, a, is small con~pnrod
t ocos 0 (or)"' (v/S)ll' . with the radius, R, oC the disk, Pig. 21.7. Consequently, i t was fount1 necessary to
investigate the case of a disk rotating in a housing.

-
Equating T, in thcsc two expressions, we find that
Laminar flow. The relations become particularly simple when thc flow is laminar,
8 ral' (V/W)~''. R < lo5, and when t h e gap is very small. If the gap, s, is sirialler than the bonndary-
layer thickness the variation of the tnngcntial velocity across tlic gap becomes
It is sccn that in the turhnlcrit case tlic bonntlary-lnyer tliickness increases outwards linear in thc ma.nncr of Co~lctto-flow.lFcncc, tho shcaring strcss a t a dist,:~nccr from

the torque becomes M -

in proportion to r3/5anr~dtfocs not rcmairi cor~stantas in the laminar case. Further,
t oR3 N e R W ~ ( V / C O RRI6
) ~ B3
/ ~ so t h a t
the axis is equal to T = r(up/s and thc torque of the viscous Corccs on onc sitlc of
a disk is given by
n

Th. von ICiirrnhn [30] investigated the tnrbulcnt boundary layer on a rotating disk Consequently for both sides we have
with the aid of a n approximate method based on the momentum equation and 2M = n w R4p/s ,
similar to the one applietl in the preceding section ijb the study of the flat plate. The
variation of the tangential velocity component through the boundary layer was as- and tlic torque coefficient from eqn. (21.27) becomes
surnctl t40obcy (.he 4-tli-power law. The viscous torque for a disk wetted on both
sidcs'wa.. shown t o be equal t o

t Soc refe. [10] and [31] in Chap. V.

650 XXI. T~lrhulet~t
borlndary lnyers at zero preaaure ~rndicnt b. The rotating disk fi6 I

Bwnday layers flow both for thc laminar ant( for the t~rrbulcntcaso. Tltc oxpression for t,l~otforqtrc is
w of the same form as for thc free disk in eqn. (5.56). only tllc numerical factor has
a tliffcrcnt vall~c.'Che frictional moment of a disk in larninnr flow and wrttctl on both
sitlcs I~cromes2 M = 1.334 ,A I<",, 1/(,qv, ant1 henre tllc cocfficicnt
C,, = 2.67 R-'" (laminar) . (2 1 .R6)

R - RL,
Fig. 21.7. Rxplnnatior~of sym- Fig. 21.8. Viaco~tndrag of dink rotating in o houning
bola for problem of a clink curve (I), rronl cqn. (21.341, ~ r n l t n n r : rurvo (21, rrorn cqn. (21.35).
rotnt,irig in R l~ortaing Iaminnr; crlrvc (8). rrom eqn. (21.36), tarbulcnt. Theory with no hous-
i n g (Tree disk) sce Pig. 5.14
C,, = 2n - (laminar) .
9 R
J 11is equation is secn plotrtrcdas clrrve (1) in Fig. 21.8 for a value of .v/R = 0.02. It
t 3
shows very good agreement with tllc experimental values due t o 0. Zumbusrh
(sw rrf. [54j).
C!. Scllmirtlcr~[49] invrst,ignt.rtl I,lto inflncncc of t . 1 1 ~wiclt,ll n of t,lte lateral spacing
of n clislc in a oylindrical housing, Pig. 21.7, on the assumption of vcr.y small Reynolcls
numl~ers(creeping niotion). Thc Navicr-Stoltcs equations can bc simplified because
of t,lic vcry low ltcynoltls nurnbcrs (scc Soc. IVtl) and the solut~iorifor the momerlt
cocffirionC appcars in tho form C,, = Ii/R, in analogy with cqn. (21.34). Tlle const.ar~t
I\' tlc~l)c~(ls on t , l ~ etwo tlitnensionlcss ratios n/R ant1 a/R.' I n t.11~case of very sma,ll
vnl~~c:s of o / R ( < 0.1) tJtc valurs of C,,arc! mnrltctlly 1:trgcr I.1la.n tl~osoin cqn. (21.34),
\vllc%rrnsli)r Inrgc valrlc~sof cr/II' cqn. (21.34) rct.ains ib valirlit,y ( K = 2 n Ills).
'I'llc flow pnl,tnrn in t.11~case of lnrgcr gaps differs considerably from the above
sin~plcscltrn~c.'l'llis latr(.crcase was invrst.iptctl t.llroretically and experimentally by
1'. Srll~llt~z-(:r~~llo~v [54]. I f 1.11~
gap is a ninlt,ipl# of t,he boundary-lnyer tl~ickncss,
thcn an ntlditional boundary layer will bc formed on t l ~ cI~ousing,Fig. 21.7. The
flt~idin tllr bollnt1:ary Ia.ycr on the rot.nl.ing tlislc is centrifngerl outwards, and this is
coln[~rrlsnt,ctlby a llow inwartls in t.l~t?I)onr~tlnrylayer o n the honsing a t rrat. Thcre
is 1 1 0 nl)prrc:inl~lnrntlial c~omponor~t. in t,l~c?int,c:rrnctlint.clayer of fl~lidwhich rotrates
wil.ll : L ~ I O I I~nlf
I~ t,llr! ang~llnrvt?locitayof 1 . 1 1 ~clislc. P. Sc1111lt.z-Gr~~now
invcstigatcrl this
This eq~iationis sren plotted as crlrvc (2) in Fig. 21.8. I t agrccs wit11 mrnsnrrtl
valrrcs np t,o nl)orrt R = 2 x 10%ntl conr~cct,~
fairly well \\,it11 cqn. (21.34).
R > 3 x 10' t l t c . flow a r o ~ ~ nnt(lislc
T~trhirlortflow. Icor Rcynoltls r111rr11)crs l rot :tl,illg
in a 11011singbecomcs turbrllcnt as us~lal.7'11is crasc was also solvctl by 1" Sr1111ltz-
Gronow who usrtl nn approxitnate mcthod basctl on t.hc sc~llcmcof Fig. 21.7. 7 ' 1 1 ~
tangential vclociLy was assnmctl to obey the 4-th-power law arid i t was sllow~lthat
the corc rcvolvrs will1 a11o11tIlalf t,llc angnlnr vcloc:it.y in t,ilis rasc t,oo. 'rllc momrnt
coeficicnt wcts slrown to be aclual to
C, = 0.0622 (R)-"' (turbulent) . (21.36)
7- This equation has been plott~cclin Fig. 21.8 ns curve (3). Cornj)nrotl wilflt Int.:1wro-
ment i t lcacls to vnluea whicl~arc too small hy ~ h o r r t17 per cont., ant1 t#l~is ~ I I I)o
H ~
ntLribt~t,rtlto t,l~ccrntlc n.qstltnl)t.ionu rnntlo in tltc cr~lcu1nLio11.
It is particularly noteworthy that, apart from the cwc of vcry small gaps,
eqn. (21.34), the momcnt of viscous forces is complctrly intlepotcto~tof I,llc witlt.lr of
the gap, as seen from cqns. (21.35) ant1 (21.36). Cotnparirlg t l ~ cfriclionsl rnorl~c~ll on
a "free" disk and on one rotating in a housing, eqns. (21.35) and (21.36) as against
e q n s (21.28) and (21.30), i t is secn that thc n ~ o m o l on t a frco disk is grcatcr than
t h a t on a disk in a housing, Fig. 21.8. This fact can bc explained by the existence of
the core wliicll moves a t half the angular velocit.y. This decrrascs t.he t,ransvcrsc
gradient of the tangential velocity to approximately onc hc~lfof what it worlltl t ~ on r
a free disk and, consequently, the drag is also smaller than on a "free" disk.
The flow process depict(ct1 in Fig. 21.7 in which tllc boundary layer on the rotat-
ing disk flows outwards and that on the casing flows inwards was lat.er investigated
e~periment~ally by J. Dailey and R. Nece [Bb]; their rneasurcrncnts covered the wiclc
range of gap widths s / R = 0.01 to 0.20, and a range of lteynolds nnrnbcrs R =
R2w/v = 103 to 107 and included bot.11 laminar and turbrrlent, flows. The rcsults
shown in Fig. 21.8 concerning the torque have bceri largcly cor~firnicd.
Ilenl ~ r n n ~ f cl'ltc
r : rnt,c of hcnt I,I~JLII~~OI.I.IYI
from n Ilc~irlc(l~~ol.ctt.ing
tlisli to 1111%
. . coolcr casing at, rest. is irnport,ant.in t l ~ edesign of gas t,urbincs. Thc tempcrat,rlrc ficld
which develops in t,l~egat) between t.he disk ant1 the casing is strongly infinrnrcd by
the complex flow pat.t,nrn wllich prcvails in it,; in t,urn, this has a lnrgc il~llucnccon
the flux of heat from tlislz to ho~lsing.The sirnplrr cnsc of n rot.nt,ing "frcc" tlislc isns
I invest,ignted some t.imc ago by K. Millsaps anti I<. I'ohllrnnscn [34a], scc also Src.
X I I d ant1 Pig. 5.11. Tllcorct.ical anrl expt:rirncntal inforn~alioticoncerning t h r tlisli
in a housing in laminar as well as in turbulent flow can bc ftrnnd in a t,l~esis\)y It.
Caly [en] prcsent.ct1 1.0 Aacllen Ul~iversit~y. Caly matle measnrc~rnrntsof I,ofl~t.ltc
velocity as well a.3 t l ~ t;cml~crat,ure
r borrntlnry lrtycr and inrl~ltlrtlt,lle cast: of n ~ i : ~ r ~ . o w
 652 XXI. T~lrt)~~lcnt
houndnry layers at zero prcssr~regrndicnt c. The rough plate 653

gap with a single bountlary lnyer and that of a wide gap with two scparate boundary
layers, one on tho inner and one on t l ~ couter wall. I n most cases good agrecmcnt
between theory and measorcment of heat flow was obtained.

c. The rough plate

1. The resistnnce formuln for n ur~iformlyrough plntc. I n most pracLicxl appli-
cations conncctcd with t h c flat platc (c. g. ships, lifting srrrfaccs of an aircr;tft;,
turbinc blades) tho wall cannot bc considcrctl l~ytlraulicallysmooth. Conscql~cnt~ly,
the flow p m t a rough platc is of as much pracl.ical interest as that t h r o l ~ g al ~rough
pipc.
The rclative roughness k / R of the pipc is now rcplnccd by the qrtantity k / 6 ,
where (9 denotcs tho boundary-layer tl~ickncss. Tho csscnt,ial difference bet,ween
tdrc flow through a rough pipc and that ovcr a rough plate consists in the fact that
the rclat9ivc roughness k / 6 dccrcascs along the platc when k remains constant be-
cause 0 increases downstrcam, wl~crcasin a pipc k / R remains constant. This circum-
stance causes the front of thc plate t o behave differently from its rearward portion
as far as t$lreinflucncc of roughncss on drag is conccr~lcd.Assuming, for the sake
of simplicity, that, thc Ijoundary laycr is turbulcrlt from the leading ctlgc onwards,
wc find co~nplcLclyror~ghflow ovcr the forward portion, followctl by the trransition
rcgimc and, cvcnt~ually,thc platc may become hydraulically smooth if it is sr~ffi-
cient,ly long. The lirnit,s bctwcen these three regions arc tletcrniincd by the climcnsion-
less roughncss paramctcr v, k,/v aa givcn in cqn. (20.37) for sand roc~gl~ncss.
171c result of t<hccalc~~lat~ionfor pipcs can bc Lransposctl to t11c casc of rough ]pig. 21.9. Ilcsist,anccfor~nulaof sand-roughcnrdplnto; cocfficict~tof lokd skin frict,ion
platcs in cxaci,ly the samc way as for smooth platcs in complcte analogy with the
dctailcd clcsoription givcn in Scc. XXTa. Such calculations were carried. out by
L. Prandtl and 11. Schlichting [41] wit,h the usc gf Nikuredsc's results on pipes
roughcncd with sand (Scc. XXf). Thc calculatio~~ was bascd on the logaritl~mic
velocity-distribution law for rough pipcs in tho form of ccln. (20.32), whcncc u/v, =
+
1.= 2.5 In (ylk,) B. The dcpendcnce of the roughrlcss function R on the roughness
paraincbcr v, k s / v is given by the plot in R g . 20.21. The calculation, which is
essentially tShcsamc in Scc. X X I a , n ~ u sbe
t carricd out separately for the txansition
ant1 complctcly rough rcgimcs rcspcctivcly. For the dcteils of this method reference
sho~lldbc matlc to the original paper.
The rcsult can bo rcprescntcd in two graphs, Figs. 21.9. and 21.10, in which
the coefficient of total skin-friction drag, c,, and the local coefficient, c,', have
been plotted against the Reynolds number R = U, l / v with the rclative roughness
Ilk, as a, paramctcr. I n the case of the local coefficient, U, x / v and xlk, are used.
I n addition thc tliagrams contain curvcs of U, k,/v = const, which can be com-
prltcd a t once from the previous oncs. The two families of curves have the following
significance: if the ve1ocit.y on a given plate is changed, Ilk, remains const,aut, arlti
the cocfficicnt of skin friction varies along a cur,vc ilk, = const. If, on the, other
A
hand, the lcngtll of the plate is changcd, ( I , ks/b remains constitnt, and the &,ocf-
ficicr~t,of slrir~friction varics along a curve lJ, k,/;= const. 13ot11 grapl~sfliave
becri computctl on thc nss~lrnptionthat the turbulent b o u ~ l d s rlayer~ t~cgiri; rigl~t !!&.z
a t the leading ctlge. 'l'11o broken curve shown in the tli:~gr,ims corresponds to t,he
limit, of complete rotrghness arid it may be rlotctl t h a t a given rclnt,ivc rorigl~rlcss
Fig.21.10. Resistance formula of sand-rougllcned plate; cocificicnt of local skin friction
 654 XXT. l'r~rl~r~lmt
I~or~rttlnry
lnyrr~at zero pressrlrc gratlient c.. 'l'lrr ro~~gli
p1nl.c 665

causes the coefficient of skin friction t o increase only if t h e Reynolds number ex- the vegetation is used a3 the rongl~ncss parnmctrr k. In accortlal~ccwit11 ctlti.
ceerls a certain value, in complete similnrit,y with pipe flow (see See. X X I d ) . (20.38), this is the samc as talting the ecluivalcrit santl rorlghnrss t o I)c k , =- 4 k.
I n the romplct,cly rough rcginic it is possible to make use of the following 2. Mrn.surements on ~inglerotrglloess e l e l ~ ~ c ~ ~ I<.t s Wicglrirrtlt
. [BC,] cnrrirtl or~tn I : q c
interpolation formulae for t,ho oorffirirr~tsof skin friction in terms of relative rough- ~~rrrnbcr of n~c~srtrcrr~c.t~la or1 rougl~~a:ns in t,hr qrccial tnnrrol irr (:octl,i~rgo~~. 'I'hc: tntrrml, ol~oriihcl
ness : on nir, hntl s~noot,Ir \vaIIs anrl 1: r r ~ t a n ~ r t lcrtr~q.scct,io~r
i~r ~r~casr~ring 140 x 40 C I ~ I(il11011t 4.5 X I .:<nl)
-" :tnd vr:ts C, 111 (;iOo~rI,20 ft) 1o1:~. 'l'lrc 11r:tg w:ts ~nt:asnrt:tI 1vil11 I11r : r i d of :b Ir:rl:trr~!f: w h i t , I ~w:is
2.87 1- 1.58 lng (21.37) :tl.l.:~t.l~c.,l (1) :I r~:~:t.n~rgt~I:rr
IesL 11litk: (50 x :)O t:rrr, or I.li.5 x 1.00 fl, 1tli~rroxi1ir:rlr\1?/). 'IIIr(* ~ H L
ks 1,lat.c s.ns acco~n~~rotlntccl i n a rcrcss i t r l . l ~ nlonrr wnll (1.4 x G I:) or 4.5 x 20 ft npproxi~irnkly)
of t,l~ctu~lrlrlant1 it was free to IIIOVC over a sl~orttlisf.nnrc. 'rl~t.tlifircnce I>cL\vrcn1.110 drag
on 1,110 lcsl 111;tF\ v i l , l ~I ~ I willto111
I ~ t,110~ ~ ~ I I ~ I I Iclr~~~rcrtl~
IO~S ~ , {IIIO
gnvo l,Irt> incrr,:~sci n { I ~ I L .,I/),
to rouphncus. Gencrnlly speaking this incrcwc consists of two lcrtrrs. Thc lirnt trrrn is tho forin
drag cl"e to rouglrrrcss it.sclf nncl tlrc second is c111cto tlre facl Llrnt Lhe prcscrlcc of ror~gl~rrcss
which are vnlid for 102 < I l k , c~ lofi. clc~ncnLqchanges the vt?locily profile in iLq ~rci~hhorrrhood and IICIII:~ the S ~ I C B ~ ~ Isl,rrss
IF, 011 tl10

I n order t o use t,hcse clingrams for ror~ghr~esa other than the sand roughness wall as, for cxe~nplc,i n t,lrc rcgion of back Ilow bcliirrd a fillet. or Ictlgc. 'l'lrc rntio of 1 . 1 1 ~Ilr-ifilrl, of
the ronghness elc~rrcntIn t.he bortnclnry-lnycr thickness, kld, is an i~r~portn~lt para11rt:l.c.r for t,lic
assr~mctlhero, it. is necessary to tlct,crmine t hr equivalrnt sand roughness a s explainatl a]rplicnt,ion of RIICII rrs~~lLq Lo nctrriil conditi~ns011 a slti11'~111111 or nn acroplii~~c. 118 vitlr~e\r?as
in Src. X X g . v:rrirtl hy setting ,111 t,he snnrc roirgl~ncssclc~no~ils nL dilTorc~rtpl~tcosnlong the wall of tlro l.11111rrl.
Yron~the p o i ~ of ~ t view of prncbin;bl applic;tt,ions it is also i~nporbntt,o tlofi~~c n s1riL:rlrlc t l i n ~ r * r r -
I n t11c cslrulat.ion of t.ltc tlrag on ships it, is important t o consider plates with sionlcrrs cocflicient, wit11 the nit1 of tlrc atltlitional dritg. I(. Wicgh:rrtlt r~sctlone tlcfinccl I I ~
vcry small roughness (painted met31 plntcs) a s well a s smooth plates coverctl with
single protnheranccs, srrch a s rivct, heads, wrltlctl seams, joints, etc. F. Schultz-
Grurtow [62] carrictl out a large 1111rnl)crof rncns~lrementso n such sr~rfacesill t l ~ c
open cl~annc?lof the Tt~stitut~e in Gont,t.ingcn mcntiotlcd in See. X X g Atlditional
comprchcnsivc d a t a on rongl~rtcsscso c c ~ ~ r i nin g shipi)uilding can also IIC fo~tntlin \vIr(;rc! ,I/) tlc~iolestlre ~n~:~sr~rctI
n.~ldiI,it~~ral
(lr~ig,11 I,IIc 1:irfivsL rro~~I,nl
I L ~ I > I Lo f I l r t - ~ I I I I ~ I I I I ( . ~ S
rlcmcnt prpcndicrrlnr to thc tlirection of Ilow, :in<l ? is 1.lie sI,:ig~rnt~ion
{rr(>?i411rc irv(:t.ii~(.tI over
several papers hy G. I<ernpf 1321. Acr:ortling t o these measuremenk it is possible t.hc Irrigl~tof the rorrgl~nosselcrrrcnt,, or
t o IISO an avrmgn v a l ~ l cof ccluivalt:rlt s:antl rorcgl~ncssor k, = 0.3 mm (= 0.012 in t t
:111prox.) for trc?wly l i ~ ~ ~ n c hs11il)x.
otl A1, l.l~cIrigh KC~IIOIIIS I ~ I I I I I ~ C C \vl~ieIr
R O C C I I ~in
sllij~sthis callsG? a n i~~crt:aso in rcsisl,nrlt:c of 34 to 45 per cent. due t o r o u g l l ~ ~ e ~ q ,
a s con~l~arotl \vit,h l~yclrarllicallysnrnot.11 walls. Itougl~nessdue t o weeds atlhering
t o ships' hulls 11.w a pn.rt.ic:rtlarly tlct.rinicnt,al e r e c t on resistance. Tllcreascs ill rcsi-
stanrc? of 50 per cent,., a s corni):~rc,tl\vil.ll rtorlnal c~ntlit~ions, may well occur untlcr
suc:h circnmst,anr.rs. 'I'hc rn~rghnrssof s ~ ~ r f ; ~is r e also
s important in tturbincs, tnr-
i ~ o - c o r n ~ ~ r s sr~iitl 'I'IIc str~ootl~iless
o r s sitnil:~rt-ngil~t~s. of normally manufacturctl blatle
sl~rlaccsix not suflirier~tt o scc~ircI~ydrnrtlirallysmooth conditions [17a, 671; see also
1). (i60.
(lan~oufl:~.gc p;~ir~t.s~tsctlon arrol)l:r.tlc sttrfat:cs call be woll fittrtl illto the ~ m l e
of a c ~ ~ ~ i . v ; ~s;~tttl
l c ~ nro~rgl~r~c:ss
t a s 11rovotl I)y I l ~ oit~vcstignt~io~ls carrictl out Ily A . I).
Y ~ I I Il,(i!)],
I ~ cluring wllic:lr ccluivn.l(:r~(,s:dt1(1 r o ~ ~ g l ~ r ~ eofs s ckss = 0.003 t,o 0.2 mm Fig. 2 1.11 ltesistanco cocficicrrt
(0.001 t o 0.01 in approx.) have been measured. They are equal t o about 1.6 times for rectnngular ribs, as n~cnsured
t,he size of !.he Incart gconielrical protrusions, i. e., k8 = l..B k. 111 this connoxion it hy I!'irglrard t [MI
is notcwort~l~y t,hnt the incre;r.sc in rcsist,:rr~ceclue t o roughness in the sabsonic range
of llow is it~tlcpcrldcntof tho Mach number.
W. I'aescl~k~!(393 clcmonst,mt.ctl t.lint t,ho laws of friction, in flows along rougll
wn.lls, w l ~ i t ~Iravc:
l ~ c~ncrgcdfrom tllcsc exprrimcr~t;alinvestigations can be applied Here u ( y ) denotes t,lte vrlocit,y distribution 011 t l ~ csrnoot.l~\vnll, t l ~ a tis, e. 3.. u/[J =- (!//8)117.
f,o t , l ~ mot.ion
c of nn.ttrr:~lwinds over t,hc snrracc of !,he earth. The effective roughness A large variety of roughness elements was srrbjected to Lest, inclrrdi~rgrect.nngr~lnrribs nrrangcd
of srlrfahcs covorrtl with tlifferent Itintls of vegctat.ion corlld be determined by a t right, angles or a t an acute angle lo the strca~n,shaped filleta of triarlgular and oirc~rlarcross-
rnen~srtrrlncnt~ of t,hc vclocity t l i ~ t ~ r i h ~ ~of t ~ itile
o n wind in t h e layer just above the sections, sheet n~etaljoitrt.s,sirrgle rivet heads and rows of rivets, cnvities in the wall a11d others.
sl~rf':tc:oof t,l~cearth. ICq11at.iot1(20.32) [ ? ~ , / ? t , -- 2.5 In (ylk) 4- B ] ,which has been deduced
Some of (,heresiilts for rectangular ribs at right.angles to tho st,rcan~are seen plotted in Fig. 21.11.
The value of t.110 cocfficient. CD tlccreases with increasing t / h ( t -width, h - h~ight).llolefl
rrotn pil)t:-flow rrsrilt,s ant1 whiell r r p r t a e t ~ tt,. ~ I ~ t ?velorit,y profile over a rough surface, and cavities in t.11~sorface Icnd t.o incrensrd vnlrles of tho rr,sistnnco coc?flicicnt.I ~ r r a ~t.lig
~w
w:ls confirnlotl, nl~tl 1.11~vnl~tcor N -- 5 was fol~nclwhen t,he pliysic,zl I~cightof cxtrrnnl llow carlsos 1.110 l l r ~ i t lin tilo cavity to tnkc part in tho motion.
 656 XXI. Tnrbr~lcntboundnry layers a t zero prcssure gradient
Fig. 21.12. llcnistance coefficient of
circnlor cavitics of varying depth in a
fiat wtrll, ns tncns~~rcrlhy \Yicgl~trrdt [66]
Figrlrc 21.12 presents the increase in drag caused by c i r c ~ ~ l acavities
r shown in the sketch
(diameter d and dcpl.11h). Since the definition of q adopted previously loses ita sense in this case,
the drag wns ~ n n d edimensionless with refercnco to the stagnation pressure outside the boundary
layer, Aco = ADlf q n d'. Tho increaso in drag is smaller for smaller values of the ratio of the
depth of t.hc cavity, A, t o the hondary-layer thickncm, 6. I t is noteworthy that all curvcq l ~ a v c
a common rnnxinn~ma t hid r~ - 0.5. l'nrlher, small locnl n~aximaoccur a t -hid 0.1 and
1.0. The rninin~abctwccn them occur a t - h/d = 0.2, 0.8, and 1.35. Depending on the depth
of the cavity it. may nometi~neshoppcn Lhat rcgular vortex patterns arc formed in it, l c a d i ~ ~ g
to t l ~ cdiRcrent, val~rcsof drag. As swn from tho syn~metryof tho curves about h/d = 0. nl~allow
cavitiw of up to - d/h = 0.1 givc the same incrcaso in drag as m r m p n d i n g small protubcrancoa.
l t o r ~ g h ~ ~in s f o r n ~of rifling or ridges on a plate cut normal to the flow direction have
c sthe
been the subject of modern studies by A. E. Perry e t n1. [39a].
1 applications is that maxirnum hcighl of individual roughness clcments whicl~causes
Fig. 21.13. Curves of conatnt~tvelocity in tho flow field1bcllind s row of spheres (full lines), as
n~easrlrcdby 11. Scl~lichting1451, and accompanying i t the secondary flow (broken lines) in
the boonr1:iry Inyrr bchilld sphere (I), ,zs calr~tlntedby F. Schrtltz-Grunow [65a]. 111the ncigh-
bourhood of the wall, tho vcloeity behind the nphorcs is larger than that in the gaps. The spheres
-
produce a "ncgntivc wake cff6ct" which irr rxplnincd by the existence of secondary flow
1)ismrtrr of n1rlirrt.q d 4 mm
Tlie flow pattern which exisb behind an obstnclc loccd in the boundary lnycr n m r n wall
diRcm msrkc~llyfrom that behind an obstacle placccf in tho irco nt.rcnm. 'Shin cirnntnst,ancc
clncrgca clcarly from nn oxpc!rilnc~~tpcrfor~t~cclby 11. Schliol~ting [45] n11c1 ill~~nl.r:ilnxlin
Iqig. 21.13. Thc cx[~crin~cnt consiuLCd it1 tho t ~ ~ c n s ~ ~ r c : ~
ofn c1.11~
n t vclocity liclcl I)cl~in(la row of
s p h c r c ~plnccd on a smootl~Ilnt s ~ ~ r i n c'l'hc
e . pnl.tr!rn of cllrvcs of conntrrnt veloc-ity clorwly nl~own
a kind of negative wake e//ect. Thc s~nallcstvclocitira Itavo bcon I I I C ~ L R I I ~inC ~1110 frcc g r r ~ ~ins
u1hic.h no spherrs are prcscnl ovcr Lhe whole 1cngt.h of t l ~ cplate; on t l ~ colhcr I~rrr~tl, I.l~clnrgcst
vcloc:il,ine havo been n~cnsrrrocibehind tho rown of upltorcs whcrc prcciscly 1.110 nmnllc:r vc:loc:il.ion
w o ~ ~ lbc d cxpectcct to exist. W. Jacobs 1201 c:orriccl 0111rr tuorc t1c:t;iilccl i~~vc~nf.ig:iLio~~ or 1.11i~
i>ccrrliar cllect. According to $1 rcn~nrkrnadc by P.Scl~nltz.Ur~~now [RR], 1 . 1 1 ~ rcrlson for n ~ ~ c l ~
behrrviour seems to be conncctr,d wit.1~the cxintmw of wcondary (low of a kind which is sitnilar
to thnt on a lift..gcnerating body. 'rhc strcamlinc~of this secondary l l o ~havc 1)nc.n shown
skct,nhcd in Fig. 2];13. 'l'ho cxistcnce o i Lhia cllect was oonlirlnccl by I). tl. Willi:in~n nnc1
A. 1". Brown [68] who pcrformcd mcnar~rcmcnbon an ncroloil proviclctl with rows of ri\rcln.
Thcre i~ in existenno a very cxtennivc literature cot~ccrningtho ror~gl~ncsa of ncrofoiln
[9, 24, 251.
3. Trnn~ilionfrom n smooll~lo a rourgll ~~rrlnee.W..Jscol)s [27) i~~vc.nLigslotl 1.110 Ilo\r, II:LL-
learn Iwar a wall which co~eistedof o s~nooLliwction fr)llowd by a ro~tghone, or vice versa.
The problem is of some interest in meteorology and oeeurs WIICII a wind 1)asncsfrom ncn Lo 11111c1.
or from land to sea, flowing past nurf1Loc8 whose roughnesscs tlimcr connitlorably fronl cncll
oL11er. I t is noticccl that the vclocity profilo whicl~corrwl~ontlslo t.hc clownst.rc:rn~nrc.l.ion of 1.11~
wall forms only a t a cerhin distance I)chir~elLl~cI)onndary b c t w c c ~1110 ~ two sccliol~u.'I'II(, a vnri:il.ion
of nhcxring st,rcsn ~alcnlntcdfrorn tho 111enn11rc:c1velocity prtxfilc ~ i l . 1 11.11~:lie1 of I'rrr11cIl.1'~11y11o-
L~lcnin,i. c., r - p l z (ei~l/t~?y)~,
is ~ ~ ; I \ I ~
I ~ ~ o l ,i ll l~ lg'
! cij?,n.
~ 21.14 11111~21.1fi. 't'hl? ~ ~ ~ # L ~ ~ H~~ IL< I) WI <11143
I H
remarknl)lc? le;rttrrc, nan~clythat the n1w:iring ~ t r c u si ~ 111c:/~v:iII t ~ L R R I I I I I C S ~LH
new VBIII~: \vl~ic:h
corrrsponds to fully dcvclopcd flow im~ncdintelybcl~incltho bo~lnd:rry bct.wc:cn 1.11~ 1.\vo nrot.ionn.
,.
I his rwult is imporhnt, c. g., when it is clcnircd Lo cnlculntu Lhu clrrig r111 rr 11ln1,o\vl~i~:l~ co~~sista
of a smootl~and a rough section. In t11c zone of tran~itionthc vnrintion of nl~cnringstrcsa at, right
angles to tho wall, r(y), hna -9 form which is inLcrlncclinLc bctwccn the linear f~~ncI,ions ~~lii~il~kri~t
of fully dcvclopecl flow ovrr n rot~ghand a smoolh wall rcspcclivcly. T11c sl~c:irit~g n t r w ~f~lnc:l,io~~
r(y) obtaincd from rneasuretncnt can bc inlcr~tolatcrl with Lhc :riel of tho c~~~piric:rl rclalion
which is sl~owndotted in Figs. 21.14 and 21.15. llorc T, ant1 r, clcr~olcLhc s h c a r i ~ ~strcsscs
g on
the rough hnd srnoot11 wall, rcupcctively, both for fully clcvelopccl How, z is Lhc disbncc along
the u.all rneasurcd from the border line bctwccn Ll~ctwo portions of thc plate, y is tho distance
irom the wall, and h denotca the height of the cl~anncl.Ebr tho rcversc order of transition (roogh
smooth) the same formula may bc uscd, exccpt that 7, and rr ~ n u n tbc inhrchi~nged.
-.
The influence of a pressure gradicnt on the transittion fro111a nn~oothto o r o ~ ~ gsnrfacc
h ha8
been investigated by W. 11. Schoficld [Fill and It. A. Antonin [Is]. Scvcre local prcssnrc fluct,ua-
tions havc been observed by P. J . Mnlhenrn 136~1downstrcntn from RIICII nn a h r ~ ~ p(:l~:~tlgc.
t,
The arnount of ro~rgl~ncss which is considcrctl "atlmissiblc" in cngir~coring
no increase in drag compared with a smooth wall. Tho practical importance of
determining the amount of admissible roughness for a givcn set of circr~nistanccs
is very great, because i t determines the amount of labour which it is work11 spcntling
in manufacturing a givcn surface. Thc answer to tl~isql~cstior~ is esse~~t,inlly
dif-
ferent depending on whethcr tiic flow under consitlcralion is laminar or tl~rt)lllonL.
658 XXI. Torhulcnt boundary layera at zero preuaure gr~liorit

InJ!le case of lur.bw-Z?nt.~bo~~n+ryh y ~ r sroughness lias no effect., ant1 the wall

is hy&aulic$llfjmooth if all_ ~rotuberancGsiife cofitai~lcd-within the larniriar sub-
G e T A s mcnt~iortctlbefor;, the thicltnrss of the lnttcr in only a small fr,zc>tiol~ of
tlie boundary-laycr thickness. I n cor~ncxioriwith pipr flow i t waq forlticl that, trhc
contlition for a wall t o be l~ydraulicallysmooth is given I)g cqn (20 37) w l ~ i c sl ~t a t r d
t h a t the dimensionless roughness lteynolds n l l ~ n b e r t

-
wl~crcv , = \ / t o /denotes
P tlic frict.ion vclocit.y. This result can be cor~sitlt:rcclvnlitl
also for the flat plntc n t zero incidence. 1Iowcvcr, from tlto prnctical ~ ) o i ~of~ tviow
.
i t sccrns more convenient to spccify a valr~cof rclativc ror~glincsskll. Itcfcrring t o t.lie
diagram in Fig. 21.9, which represents thc rcsistancc formula for a plate, we citn
obtain tlie admissible valoc of k / l from the point n t which a givcn ctlrvc Ilk =-. (:onst.
deviates from the curve for a smooth wall. I t is sccn t h a t the ntlnlissiblc vnluc of k/l
decre,wes as the Reynolds number U, l / v is increased. Ronncletl-on' vnl~rcsfrom
Fig. 21.9 are Listed in l'al)lc 21.2. They can be sitmmarizccl hy tlic following s i ~ n p l e
forrni~la:
in tho bo~lndarylayor on pnaaing from a anzoolh to a
Fig. 21.14. Varint.ion of slicnrit~gat*r~ls
rough portion of wall, na ttl~a~ured
by W. Jacobs 1271 .---
. =lw, (21.42)
Y

wl~oseapproxi1nat.e validity can also be deduced dircct,ly from l'ig. 21.0.

Table 21.2. Admiwihle height of protr~bcrancesin tcrlns of the Rcynoltln nu11111c.r

This fornir~lagivcs only onc v:~lucof k,,,, for t,lir: wholt? Icngt.1) of t.hn pl:tt,o.
Sincc, howcvcr, tho bouncl:wy-layer t~l~iclz~tcns in smnllc:r ricstlr (,IIc: It*:ltli~igrtlgc:,
the atlmissibb va.lue of k is srnaller ~ ~ l ) s t , r c at,l~an
which talzes this circn~nst,:~r~nc
tlownst.rcnm. A fi)rn~rlln
~ r i ft~rl~llcr
into acaonr~tis obti~inctlwllrr~o,2/(1,2 = t , , /11,,2
= 4 cf' is introtluced, cf' clonot.ing the local cocfliciont of sltin frict,ion, a s giver1 in
~) -
'rahlc 21.1. Thus wc obtain
Umrknam 7
( 2 l :IR)
<d.;.
-
Fig. 21 I5 Vnrinlir~tior ~limring~trr911i n ~ I I P I~ontidnrylnyer on pauning frorn a rough to a t The estimates performed in this section make no tlisliricLion hx-twrr~itllr rqi~ivnl~*nt
S:LII(~
r,tioolh porlio~iof \$:ill, tilrnsi~rrtl11y \I1.Jnrol~n(271 height, k& and thle actual l~cight,k, of a prott~brrt~i~cr.
 660 X X I. T~~rl)l~lent
bo~~ndary
layers a t zero pressure gradient

For mall Reynolds numbers R, < loReqns. (21.42) and (21.43) give practically
the snmc results, whereas a t larger Reynolds numbers eqn. (21.43) gives somewhat
greater valr~es. We are, thus, jrlstified in retaining the simpler equation (21.42)
because t l ~ c r eis noclanger of fincling valnes of k,,,, which are too high. Equation (21.42)
st,ntJest h a t the admissible height of roughnes.9 elemeltts i s independeltt of the length of
the phde; i t is tlc~l~c.rminctl sololy by t t ~ rvelocity and by tho ItincmaLic viscosity in
:~ccortlancc:with t,hc contlitior~

(21.44)

I t follows t h a t t,he absolutc vnhles of admissible roughness for a moclcl and its
original arc c q r ~ a lif tile velocity and kir~cmat,icviscosity arc the samc in both cmes.
l'or long botlios this may Icatl t o extremely small admissible roughnesses as compared,
with t,hcir linear tlimensions, see Table 21.3.

Fig. 21.10. Atln~issibleroug11ne.w

k,dm for rough platcs at zero inci-
dence, and aircrnft wings from
crln. (21.44)

For ~xnc:t,icnlapl)licnt,ions it, is still more convenierlt t o relate the admissible

val~loof ronghricss clircct,ly to t,hc Icngth o f the ~ ~ l n t1,c ,or more generally, t o the
length, I , of the I)otly 11ndr.r co~lsiclcrnt~ion,(c. g. length of ship's hull, wing chord,
1)lntlo chortl in t~~rrl)inrs
or rol.nry cornprcssors), I)ccnrlse this lcatls to a more graphic:
662 XXT. Tiirltnlcnt bo~tntlnrylnyrrrr nt zero prcssl~rc~rndicnt tl. Atl111issi1)lc
rougl~nrss ' ti(;:!

mrnsurc for tllr rcqttirrtl snrfarc smoot~llncns.To acllieve this, eqtlation (21.44) may
be rewrilttcn ns

wl~rrc:R, - Il.,, I/v. 'l'hn tli:~grntni ~ l'ig. t 21 . I 0 rnny Itc: uscd t o fn~ilit~ntacalc\~lnt,ions
wit11 the nit1 of' ccln. (21.46). 'L'l~c: tlingrnm cont.;rins a plot of admissible sizes of
prot,~ll)cm.t~ces ngnirlst Rcynoltls I I I I I I I ~ )wit.11
( ? ~ , t.he cl~nractcristiclength a s a para-
rnct.cr. 'l'llc mngcbs of Itcpr~oltlsn11rnI)crscnc.ot~nt,crctlin variolts engineering applica-
tions (ship, airsllip, nirc:r:l.ft,, conll)rcssor I)ln(lcs, .sI,cam t,~crbiticblndcs) I ~ n v c\wen
shown at, t,llc bot,t,orn or tllc clingrnrn for convcnie~~cc of rcfcrcnce. In addition, Table
21.3 gives n sutnrnnry of scvcm.l examples which hnvc been computed with the aid
of Fig. 21.16. r r i tllc cnsc of . F I L ~ h ~ sd' l ~atlmissible roughnesscs are of t h e order of
scvcrnl Iirrr~tlrcclthsof one ntillimrbrc (scvcrnl t,cr~t~lls of orle t.hor~santlt.l~
t o scvcrnl
t,ho~tsnndt.l~s of a n inch); s r l r l ~vnltrcs c ~ t i t i o t1)c at.taincd in practice nnd it is always Fig.21.17. 1,ons oorfficio111.sfor t,nr-
necessary to allow for a consitlrra1)lc increase in d m g due t o ro~lghtlcss.The same bine b l a h provided wit11 snnd
is txuc of nirsI~ips.As far ns rcircvn,/t surlncea are conccrnctl, it is secn tllat atlmissiblc rougl~nean,as measured hy I,. Spci-
rortgllncss tlimcnsioris lie bcl.wcen 0.01 ant1 0.1 mm (0.0004 ant1 0.004 in). With clcl [88]
CL = A g / l p to,';
vcry carcfi~l~)mpnmt,ioriof t,Ilc surface i t is possible t o meet these demands. I n ttie
r:rsc of nrodel nivcrnlt and compressor blnrlcs wliicl~rcqnirc thc same ortler of smoot,h-
IIPSR, i. 0. 0.01 t o 0.1 mm (0.0004 t o 0.004 in), hydraulicnlly smooth surfaces m n bc
Ag-Ins. f ~ lolnl
t
lunrntn I~lmIennglo /Itn -
kmd. Solidily 111
72";
Rrysoldr r t t r t ~ ~ b cRr P I U , I / V -
= 0.07;

6 x 10';
ol)t.nined wit.llot~t nntltlc cliffictall,y. 1'11c Itcynoltls numbers encountered in steam CP - (P-P,)/~ e UJ,'
t~ci.bi7rc.sarc coml)arntivcl.~large ~ C C R I I S O t11c prcssr~rcsarc eompnrntivcly lligllt
in spit.c of Lllc stnn.11 linmr tlirncr~sions,nntl nclmissiblc rougllncss values are, con- 'ksam
~~u.ov,val~nl sand n~uqhnhnrssKI '7
scclt~cnt~ly, vcry srnn.ll. 'I.'hc rcqrlimtl vnlucs of 1)ctwccn 0.0002 t o 0.002 mm (10-"0
10 in) c.n.1, I~artllyIre al.tfninctl on newly ~ n a ~ ~ u f a c t u rblnrlcs. ctl They are certainly
c!xccctlc(l :rfl.er n prriotl of opcrntion due t.o corrosion and scaling. I t may now be
rc~mnrltctl tllnt, f.ltc prcretlirlg consitlcrntions apply to tligl~tjlyspacctl protul)eranccs
\vllic:l~corrrsporid l,o snntl rotlgl~ncsn.In t.lle rnsc of widely speccd obst.aclcs and in roilghness valrtcs t h mcnsured poi11t.s fall consi(lerab1y I)clow t,hose ~t.rnigl~I, lines.
1 . 1 1 ~msc of w:lll \vnvincss the atlmissil)lc vnlr~csarc sorncwl~atlarger. I t has hccn ascert,nincd during thc invostignLiotl tllnt this bcl~avior~r rrst~llsI'ro111
the cxistcr~ceof long st,retches of laminar bori~ldaryInycrs; a s trltc rotrgl~ncssis
r
3
1I1c i n ( l ~ i ( ~ nof s t,llc Iossrs in :r st,cnm t,tlrbinc stage? tlepcntls t o a
~ : rco ~ ~ g l l n r s011 increasetl thc lengtll of tlic laminar l,ortio!i of tltc bortntlnry Inyor tlcc:rn:rsc:s. '1'11~:
estirnn.t,e of t,llo amount, of permissible rortghncss from cqn. (21.46) 1cat1s I1rrc t o :L
.
gwnt, rxtant, on t,l\c?prrssrrrc tlrop :wross it.. i . e. on t.l~ctlcpree of reaction of tile ~ t ~ a g c .
,
I his point crnolpcs clcnrly from Fig. 21.17 wl~iclircprcscnts the rcsnlts of measnre- valile of k,/l = 0.2 x 10-Q:lt R = lo2 [/I, = 5 x 10" 'Tl~islimit has bccn ~ n i ~ r l cin r~l
, .
nlcnts pcrfol.n~rtlby I,.Spriclrl\68l on t.uri)inc cnscntlcs with varying sand rotlgllness.
<,
1 II(: tlin.grnm corlt.nit~sn plol of t,llc loss cocf'ficicnt = Ag/.j e,zo," where Ag denotcs
Fig. 21.17 and it, is sccn tallati t agrees well wit11 t l ~ ccxpcrin~clltnlrrsu1t.s. Ibc~li:rc>tlc:c
is also made t o papers by K. Bammert and I<. Fiedlcr 12, 31.
I.l~cnlrnn vi~lltc01' (.l~r,loss in t,ot.nl llcntl avcragccl over one plt,ch ; tlie loss 11a.sbren 'I'hc heiglit of a prot,ubcmncn wllicll causes t,mnsit,ion in n Inlnin:~r I)o~tntl:~.ry
tnntlc tlinicnsionlcss wiI,ll rcfcrcncc t o tilo tot,:~ll~cnda t exit (iuz t1cnot.e~ttlw leaving I:tycr will b c cnlletl critical ]height or oi/iml rougl~,ress(cf. Scc. S V l l g). L~OUC~III(\SS
vc*locit,y).'Ill~cinc.rr:iso in t,llr. vnlrtc of t h e loss cocffcicnt 5, as PI is ittcrcascd is cnlisetl
a.frectts the resisl.arlce offerecl by t11e wa.11 by moving tltc point of trnnsif~ionin :rn
I)y nn incrmsc in lol wit.11 as nlny be vcrilirtl with rcfcrcncc t.o t l ~ evrlocity triangle. upst,rcam clircction, and, tlcpcnding o n tllc s l ~ a p cof tile hotly, t,ltc tlrag nl:ty Ito rit1l~cr
'I'II(- 1)roltcn st,r:ligl~l,lines in Ii'ig. 21.17 rrprrscnt t11c a t w11ich 5, irlcrcasci or1 itlcrenscd or rlccreascd. Tltc drag is increnacd by sucll a shift ill Lllo 1)oinLof Cm.tlsif,ion
I.hr a s s n ~ ~ ~ p t1.l1:t.t~
~ i o tf ~110 I~o~intlnry Inyrr is t 1 n r b ~ ~ l cn.ll
n t n.lotig t.hc blatlc. For lower
I when the dra.g of t,llc body is prcdo~ninnnt.lyduo t40 slcitl friction (for cxn~rlltlc:trl
- ..
aerofoil). It may be decrenaed under cert,a..in cirot~mstnncrsif t,llc tIt.;lg of' 1.11~l)o(ly
t Iior vnlnrs of lllr kic~c.t~tetir viscosil:~of snf)rrI~cnte,(l
~ I P R I I ) C O I I S ~ I I':s(:J~er
~~ W ~ M Itcports, is mainly due to form drag (c. g. circular cylintlcr). I n accortlnr~cewit81ks o l ~ Jnp:ttlcso
~c
vol. S, No. I , 11. :1 (1!)37), or NI~S-NI\(:A'J'111~lrso f 'I'l~ort~~otly~~ntr~io I'rolwrticn of (Znses, mensurcmctits [62], t.llis crit,ical v a l l ~ eol' ttllc rollgl~nessis give11 hy
W,zsl~ingt.on, 1954. Scc ~ I R O.I. l(eqt,in nnd J . Wl~itcln~v,
Trnns. A S M E (A), J . Basic Engincer-
in^. 8.9 (\!)fin) Hz-- 104. Most recent vnlnra can he taken from Meohnnionl R~t~inc?crir~~, sty, '* := 1 5 . (21.46)
7!) (IV76). v
 664 XXI. Turbulent boundary layers a t zero pressure gradient
W e shall now c a l c i ~ l a t et h e valuc of k,,,, for a wing of length 1 = 2 m ( a b o u t 6.5 f t ) in
a i r ( v = 14 x m2/scc) a t a velocity U, =83m/sec =3OOkm/hr ( a b o u t 185 m p h ) .
W e h a v e R, = U, l/v w 10'. Consider a point o n t h e wing a t x = 0.1 1, i. e. at
R, = U, x/v m lo6. T h e boundary layer c a n remain laminar as f a r a s this poirit
owing t o t h e existence of a negative pressure gradient. T h e shearing stress a t t h c wall
--
for a laminar boundary layer is given b y eqn. (7.32) a n d is t o /=0.332 ~ UW21 / 1 ' / ~ ~ = X smool,l~cylintlrrs; scc I ~ n r cIC,OJ.
= 0.332 x 6000 x lo-? m2/scc2 = 2.20 m2/sec2. IIcnce v, = itole
= 1.52 mlsec.
Inserting i n t o cqn. (21.40) w e h a v c
v 15
3 0.14 x lo-' m = 0.14 m m ( a b o u t 0.0056 i n )
kc,,, = 1 5 - = ~ 6 X
u8
. [I] Ackerct, J.: Schweiz. Bnuzeitung 108, 25 (1936).
This shows t h a t t h e critical size of a protuhcrancc wliich causes transition is a b o u t
t e n times largcr t,linrl t h c valuc of a b o u t 0.02 rnm (0.0008 i n ) in t h e t u r b u l e n t boun-
d a r y layer, a s c a l c ~ ~ l a t c tin
l T a b l c 21.3, f o r t h e case i n h a n d (small aeroplane).
T h c laminar b o ~ ~ r ~ d alaycr r y "can stand" m u c h largcr roughness t h a n t h e t u r -
bulent boundary layer. I(. Sclicrbarth [481 carrictl o u t experiments o n t h e bchnviour
of laminar bountlnry layers o n walls provided with single obstacles (rivet heads).
It w a s mccrtained that, behind t h e obstaclc t,herc forms a wedge-lilte t u r b u l e n t
distjnrbcd rcgion whose angle of sprcad is a b o u t 14O t o 18'.
r
1
I 11c very r ~ l ~ e n s i vnc~ m s u r e m c n l ~cnrric3tl
s o u t bv E. G. F e i n d t 1171 1i:~vnIecl t-..
o [O] Burgers, J.M.: The rnotion of a fluid in t l ~ cbountlnry 1nyc.r along a plnt~c:~niooI.l~RIITIIWC.
k J - Proc. First Intern. Congrese Appl. Mecli. 121, Delft (1824).
a refiricriicnt~of tllc crit.crion for t , l ~ ccritlical height given in e q n . (21.46) a s mentioned
in See. X V I I g .
l'ig. 21.18. 1)mg on circular cylinders
a t varying ronghness, aftar Fage and
Warsap [I41
T h c inflnrrict of r o u g l ~ n c s son form d r a g can be surnrnarized a$ follows: bodirs
wit11 s h a r p rtlgrs, sac11 a s c. g. a flat plate a t r i g h t angles t o t h e st,rearn,'are q u i t e
insensitive t o surface roughrtcss, because t h e poitjt of transition is determined b y
tlic etlgcs. 011t h e o t h c r hanct, t h c d r a g of b111ff bodies, such a s circular cylinders, is
very sensitive t o roughness. T h c valne of t h e critical Rcyrloltls n u m b e r for which
t h c tirag shows a sudtlcn d r o p (Pig. 1.4) tlrpcnds t o a rnarltetl degree o n t h c roughness
of I h c surface. According t o mcasurrrncnts, [ I , 141 a s shown i n Fig. 21.18, t h e critical
Reynolds nurnher decreases with increasiug relative roughness k / R (d = 2 R = dia-
m e t e r of cylinder). Tllc boundary laycr appcars t o I)c tlisturbctl b y r o ~ ~ g l ~ n l,o css
such a tlcgrec t h a t transition occurs a t corisidcrably lower Iteynoltls r~rlrnl)erst.lr:~n
is t h e case with smooth cylinclers. Ronghncss has, Ollrrcforc, tlic samo clTc:ct a s
Prancltl's tripping wire (Fig. 2.25), namely, i t does reclncc d r a g in a ccrl.nin rnrlgc
of Reynolds numbers. Jn a n y case t h e tirag in t h c supcrcritical r:tnge of Itcynoltls
t l u ~ n b c r sis always Iargcr for t h e r o r ~ g ht h a n for t.11~
[la] Alltonin, It.A., nntl Wood, D. H.: Cnlculnt,inn of a t l ~ r l ~ r ~ lI~onntl~~ry
ent Inycr clo\vnslrt~:~n~
of a an1a11 step cliange in surface roughncss. Asro. Quart,. 26, 202--210 (1!)75).
[Z] Rammert, K., sad Fiedler, K.: Dcr Rcibunga\~erlnatvon rn,~heriT ~ I ~ ~ ~ I I C13rcnn- IIS~~I~
atoff-Wiirmo-ICraft 18, 430-436 (1966).
[2n] Banner, M. L., and Melvillc, W. K. : On the separation of air flow over water nnvcs. ,I TM
77, 825-842 (1976).
131 B~innlert,K., and Ficdler, K.: Hinterkantcn- i ~ n dlteiban~~vcrluut in T~rrbincti~c.l~:r~~fcI-
g11,lern. Forscl~g.1ng.-Wca. 32, 133- 141 (1066).
[4] Blenk, H., and Trienes, H.: Stromr~ngstechr~isclre 13eitriige ziini Wintlschrrtz. (;r~~ncllagcn
der Landtachnik. VDI-Verlag, No. 8, 1956.
[5] Brndrrhaw, P., nncl Grrgory, N.: The dotor~ninnbionof locnl trirl~nlcnl,~ltinfric.1.io111ro111
observations in the viscous sub-laycr. AltC JtM 3202 (l!Nil).
[en] Caly, R.: Der Wiirmeiibergang an ciner in1 geschlosaencn Gehause rotierenden Sclleibc.
Thcrris Anchon 1966.
[7] Chap~naiu~, D.It., and ICester, It. H.: Mcast~renicr~l~
of tr~rbnlcnlskin friction in cylintl~rs
in axial flow a t subsonic and supersonic velocities. JAS 20, 441-448 (1083).
[8] Colea, D.: The problem of the turbulent boundary laycr. ZAMY 5, 181-202 (1054).
[Ba] Coles, D.: The law of the wake in the turbulent bonndary layer. .lFM 1, 191-226 (1986).
[8b] Daily, J., and Nece, R.: Chamber dimension effecta on irldl~ccclflow n!id friction resintnnce
of enclosed rotating disks. J . Raaic Eng., Trans. ASMIP. Series D, 82, 217--242 (1960).
[9] Doetsch, H.: Einige Versuche iiber den JCinfluss von Obcrl~ric~lcn8tarrlngcn auf die Profil-
eigensclraften, insbesondere auf den Profilwidcrstand irn Schncllflug. J b . dt. Luftfnlirt-
forschung 1, 88-97 (1939).
[lo] Van Driest, E.R.: On turbulent flow near a wall. JAS 23, 1007-1011 (198(i).
1111 Dutton, R.A.: The accuracy of tneasuretnent of turbulent akin friction by tncans of surface
P ~ t o ttubcs and the distribntion of skin friction on a flat plate. AltC IZM 3058 (1957).
-1121- Eichclbrcnner, E.: La touche-limite tnrbulente B I'itithrici~rd'un dihdrc. Itecl~.A6ro. I'aria
NO. 83. 3-8 (1961).
1131 Elder, J.W.: The flow paat a flat plate of linitc width. J1"M 9, 133-183 (1!)00).
[I41 Fage, A,, and Waraap, J.H.: The eKects of turbulcncc and surface rougl~neason the drag
of circular cylinders. ARC RM 1283 (3930).
[IR) Fnlkner, V.M.: The resi~tanceof a smootll flat p h t c \\it11 turbulent bonnrlary I~~ycr. Air-
craft Engineering 15 (1843).
[I61 Favre, A., Dumaa, R., and Verollot, E.: Couche li~nitesur paroi plane porc~racavcr a ~ p i r a -
tion. Publications Scientifiques e t Techniques du Ministdre de ]'Air, No. 377 (llf61).
[I71 Feindt, E. G.: Untersuchungen iibor die Abhangigkcit dcs Urnschlages laminar-turbrrlent
von der Oberflachenrauhigkeit und der Drnckvertcilung. Disa. Brannschu~eig 1956. Jb.
Schiffbautechn. Ges. 50, 180-203 (1957).
[17a] Fomter, V.T.: Perfor~nanceloss of modern stream-turbine plant due to surfaro r0ug1111rus.
The Illst. of Mech. Eng., Preprint, London, 1967.
[18] Gadd, G.E.: A note on the theory of the Stanton tube. ARC RM 3147 (1960).
[I91 Gebers. F. : Ein Beitrag zur experimentallen Errnittlung des Wauscrwiderstandru gegrn be-
wogte Kiirper. Sclliffbau 9, 436-452 and 475-485 (1008); also: Daa Blinlicl~keitclgesetzfur
den Flaclimwider~tandin Wauaer gcradlinig fortbcwegter polierter I'lntten. Srhiffbal~22,
687 -030 (1920/21), continuations.
 666 XXI. Turbulent boundary layers a t zero prensure gradiont References (if17

[20] Gersten, I<.: Die Grrnzsrhirhtrrtronl~ngin eincr rcchtwinkeligen Erke. ZAMM 39, 428-429
(1959); sec nlso: Corner ir~terfcrcncccffcctsr. AGARD Rep. 299 (1959).
[211 Goltlatcin, S.: On thc rcsistnnce to the rotntion of a disk itnlnersrd in a fluid. Proc. Cambr.
Phil. Noc. 31, I'nrL 2, 232 (l93fi).
[22] C2ranvillc, 13.S.: The torque and turbr~lcntboundary lnyer of rotating disks with smooth
and rough surfnces, nnd in drag-rednction polyrllcr solrttions. J. Ship Research 17, 181-
105 (1973).
. ,
[23] Hnn~n.F.I<.: 13onnrlnry lnycr cl~nrncterisl.icsfor smooth ant1 rongh ~ ~ ~ r f n c'rrnnsnetion
of thc Socirty of Nsvnl 11;cllikcta n11d Mnrine 1':11gincers62, 333--358 (1954).
ro.
. 1421* Pmndtl. L.: The niechanics of viscous fluids, in: W.F. Durand: Aerodynamic theory, 111
34-208 (1935).
[43] Preat.on, J.H.: The detertninntion of tnrbulent akin friction I)y means of Pitot t.ubcq. J.
Roy. Acro. Soc. 58, 109-121 (1954).
[44] Rotta, J.C.: Control of turbulent houndary layers by uniform injection or suction of fluid.
J b . 1970 Dt. Gesellschaft fur Luft- und Raun~fahrt,ed. by H. Blenk and W. Schnlz, 13ra1ln-
scllweig, 1971, pp. 91-104; see also ZAMM 40, T 213-T 215 (1900).
. r413l Schiichtinn. 11.: Exncrimo~telleUntcrsuchungon zntn Ita~~higkoitrrprohlcnl.
>

1-34 (19%). N A C ~ TM 823 (1937).

Ing.-Arch. 7,
[23a] Ilnnscn, M.: Dir (:cscI~~vindigkcibvert.eil~t~~g
PIatb. ZAMM 8, 185-l9!t (I!)28); NACA 'r'M 585 (1930).
in der Grcnznchicht an ciner einget,ar~cl~kn
.r461. Schlichting, k.: Die Grerlzsch~chtan der ebenen Plntte mit Ahsaugung und Auuhlwen.
~ r n f t f a l ~ r t & r n c l19,
~ ~293-301
~n~ (1942).
[24] Hood, M..].: Tho r f i c t a of sorllc comtnon snrfncc irrcgr~lnrit,irson wing drng. NACii T N
095 ( I !)JOl.
r471
L- 2
Schlichting. H.: J)ic Gren7achicht tnit Absnngon nntl A~ishlnscn.J,rlftfill~rt,ft~rurl~~~~~g 1.9, .
179- 181 11942).
[26] J ~ ~ A ~g R . ~, .Airfoil
: section chnracteristirs ns affcrted by protuberances. NACA R P ~446 . 1481 Scherbnrth, IC.: Grenzschichtnlessl~ngrnhinter einer pullktformigcn Sttirung in Inminnrcr
. -
(19321. ~ .
[20] Jacobs. \V.: St,rii~nunghinter eincin einac.lnen R.nuhiglcrit.srlc~~~cnt. Dins. Giit,tingen 1038,
Strdmung. Jb. dt. Jn~ftfahrtforschungI , 51-53 (1042).
[49] Schtnieden, C.: v b e r don Widentand einer in ciner Flunsigkeit roticrcndon Schrihc. ZAhlAI
Part I, log.-Arch. 9, 343-365 (1938). 8, 400-470 (1028).
[27] Jacobs, W.: U~nfortnnngeines t c t r b r ~ l ~ l l t~cnchwil~tligltrib~)roftl..
e~~ ])inn. Giitt.i~lgrl~ 19.78, [50] Schoenherr, K. I:.: Resistance of flat aurfacecl moving tl~rouglla fluicl. Trans. Soc. N:rv. Arrh.
P a r t 11. ZAMM I?: 87-100 (1939). and Mar. Eng. 40, 279 (1932).
1281 Jeroniin, L.O. F.: l l w st,attls of research in trlrbulrt~tbormdary layom with fluid illjrct,ion. [51] Schofield, W. H: Mcaarlrements in arlvernr p r w u r e gradient turhnlcnt honndnry lnycrs wilh
Progress in Aero. Sciences 10, 05-190 (1970). a ntep rhange in surface roughness. JL'M 10, 573-693 (10713).
[29] VOII Kdrtnhn, Th.: Mechani~cheAhnlirl~keitrmd Turbnlenz. Proc. I I l r d Intern. Cotlgr. of [52] Schultz-Grunow, F.: Der hydraulischo Itcibungawiderstantl von Platton tnit tniinsig rn~lllrr
Appl. hfcrh. 85, Stockhol~n1931, and Hydromerhanisrhe Problelne des Schiffsantriebe8, Oberfliiche. insbeaondere von Schiffaobcrfldcl~en.Jb. Schiff bnutcchn. C h . 39, 171; -198
H a ~ n h ~ ~1!)32;r g , see also: JAS 1, 1 (1932); NACA TM 01 1 (1931); see alho Coll. Works 11, (1938).
322 -340. rr;nl Sc1111ltz-Grunow.P.: Ncucs Widorstnndngcsctz fiir glnt.t,c l'laltnn. I,uftfnl~rLforst:l~~~r,a 17,
[30] von I<QrtnBn, Th.: Ubcr Inminnre ntld t,nrbnlc?nte Reihong. ZAMM 1, 233--252 (1921); L J -

239 (1940); also NACA TM 980 (1941).

NACA 'I'M 1002 (1940); see also Coll. Works 11, 70-97. [64] Schultz-Grunow, F.: Der lteibnngswitlrrnt~r~~d rotiercncler Srllrihcn in (:ol~~inst.t~ ZAMM
[31] ICetnpf, (:.: Nene Ergehninae dcr Widerstnndsforscll~~ng. Werft, Reedcrei, Hafen 10, 234
- , -191-204 11935): sce also: H. Fultinger: ZAMM 17, 356-358 (19:57) ant1 I<. 1'1111tull:
1.5.
-
utwl 247 (1929). Porachg. 1ng.-'\Vea.'l0, 97- 108 (1950). -
[32] I<etnpf, H.: Uber drn Rinflnns dor Rnnlligkcit. nrtf tlen Widerstand von Srl~iffell.,Ih. SchiF- [BR] Schultz-Crunoxr., F.: Ilcr Mcchnnis~nusclrs Wirlorstn~~dm volr ICit~zolrn~~l~igkritc~~. Z11Rlhl
h a u b c l ~ n .Gcs. 38, 150 and 233 (1!)37); and: The effect of rougllrtess on tile resistance of 30, 300 (1950).
ships. SEngincering, I ~ n r l o nI'IJ, 417 (1937); see also: Trnns. Inst,. Nar. Architect* 79, 109
and 137 (l!):37). -1558.1- Schultz-Grunow, F.: Die Entstehung von Liingswirbeln in Grcn7,srlticl1tcn. ZAhlhI 38,
85-95 (1958).
[BB] l,n11d1vcbcr, I,.: l l r r Rrihr~t~gs\viderstn~ttl clrr liingsnngent~riit~~ter~ebenen Plntte. J h . Srhiff-
bal~techn.GCR.46, 137-- I50 (1!)52). - - Smith, D. W., and Walker, J . H . : Skin frirtion n~rns~~rclnenta
1501 in incompressil)lr flo1v. NASA
[341 1,icpmann. H. W.. and Filn, G. If.: In\,estignIions of effect8 of crurfarc tet~~pernturr anel single
Tlt R-20 (1959).
r o ~ l ~ h n c nrlrmenta
s on borrntlnry layer tmnsition. Nr\CA Ibcp. $00 (1947). >
1571 - Siirensen, E.: Wandmuhigkoit.sei~~flunshci StrGtll~~ngnt~~nscI~i~lrn. Forsrl~g.111g.-Wm.8, 25
(1937).
[34a] hfillrnj)~,K., nnd I'ohlhnnncn, K.: Hent transfer by Inminnr flo1v f r o n ~n rotating plate. [5$] Sj~eiclcl,L. :Einfloss der Ol)erfliicllc~~ra~~l~igltcit.n~~fdic Striilnnngsvrrl1t4b in el)rnrn S r h n ~ ~ f r l -
J A S 19, 120- 12G (1952). glttern. Forschg. Ing.-Wes. 20, 129- 140 (1954).
[35] Mottnrtl, 1':. J., nnd Loposer, .T. D.: Avernge skin friction drag coefficient froln ta.11ktests of [59] Squire, L C . : Eddy viscosit,~distributions it1 cot~~pressiblc tnrbulent boundnry Inycrs with
parabolic: bocly of revolution (NACA IXM-10). Nt\CA Rrp. 1101 (1954). ~iijection.Aero. Quart. 22, 109-182 (1971).
[301 hlotzfcltl, 11.: 1)ie t ~ ~ r h n f e nStriininnp
to n11 ivrlliger~U'iit~clen. I)iss. G i i t t i ~ l g1935,
~ ~ ~ Z;\nlnf [GO] Szeckenyi, E.: Snpercrit.ical Reynolds ~ ~ r t ~ n b~itnrtlnt~ion cr Tor two-clirne~~sio~~nl f l o ~over
17, J!):j--212 (1937). circnlnr cylinders. J F M 70, 529- 542 (1975).
tlo\vllntrcalll rrO1llnll
[Xn] l\lnll~c:irn.1'. J . : 'I'url~nlcntborrndnry 1nyc.r 1vnll prcosllrc flttctnntio~~u
abrupt chn~lgein st~rfilcerougllncss. I'I~~.sirs of Flrriels ID, 790-801 (1070).
IGIl
t '->
Sznhlewski.
- ~
W.:
309-324 ( i s s i ) .
Bcrcchnung -
dcr t ~ ~ r h r ~ l c nStriit~~rlng
t r n liingn tlcr cl~oncn l'ln1,tc. ZAhlM 31.
[37] Nalcid, .l.F., nnd Tho~npson,M.J.: Prcssurc-grndirnt erects on the Presto11 trthe in Roper. [02] Tsni, I . . H a ~ n a J., , and Mituisi, S.: On thc per~nissiblcrouglulcss in the Inn~insr11011ndnry
sonic flow. .JASS 24, 940--944 (1901). layer. Acro. Rcs. Inst. Tokyo, Rep. I99 (1940).
[RRJ Nik~~rndsc, .J.: 'rnrhr~lcnte1LiOni1gssc.l1irl1trnnil der Plntte. Pnblinl~cdby Z\.\'R, 11. Oitle~~. [RD] ' ~ l l l ~ n n n nW.:
, Neue Widerstandsmwsu~~gen an Ohcrfliicl~ct~stiir~~~~gen in clcr t , ~ ~ r l ~ c ~ l o n l r n
bourg, Miinclicn nntl I9crlin. 1942. (:ron~achiclit. I~orsclit~t~gsl~cftc fiir Schiffst~chllikNo. 2 (1!)5:3).
[3!)] I'acst~l~kc,\V.: J':spcril~~rt~telle Untsrutlrh~~ngen z1111iRnnhigkcits- uncl Stnbilitiitsprohle~n [64] Townscnd, A. A. : The tnrbulent houndnry Iayer. Boundary-lnycr ltrmqenrc-h,I U'SAhl S ~ I I I -
in tler h o d e n ~ ~ n h I.ufkrhicht,.
f:~~ Iliss. l:iitt.it~gc~l1937. S n ~ ~ ~ m in:n r yBeitriigc zltr Physik posium Frciburg/Br. 1957 (H. Giirtler, ed.), 1-- 15 (1958).
/-"'dcr freien At.~nosphiire24, 103 (1!)37); scc also: Z. Geophysik 13, 14 (1937).
[39n] )'erry, 1\.1':.. nnd Srhofirld, W.H.: Rongh wall t,urbnlent boundary layers. JFM 37, 383- . -
l051 Wieehardt. K.: u b c r die tnrbulente Striin~rtngim Rohr unrl liings dcr P1nt.t~.ZAMM 2.1
294:-296 (1944).
. . 41:l (191~9). 1 [60] \Vieghardt, K. : Erhtil~ungdes tnrbulcnku lteit)nngs\r~iderstn~ltles durch 0bcrflAchc11stiirut1-
[40] I'rnnrltl, I,.: t h r tirn Ilribongs~vidrrutnrltlstr6innr:der 1,rlft.. Ergebnisse .4\'~i GGttingen, gen. Techn. Rerichte 10, Heft 9 (1943); nee also: Forschnngshcftc: fiir S e l ~ i l F ~ t r c l ~1.~05 ~ i k-
1llrd Scrics (1927) antl: Z~rrt~lrbillentcnStriin~r~ng in Rohren und liinga Plnt.ten. Ergebnisse 81 (1953).
AVA (:ijtt.ir~~cli,i\'Ih Scrim (I!)E); Pirut mention irl let, Scrios 130 (1921); nce also Coll. [07] Wiesclshorgcr, C . : Untfrs~rclir~ngeniibrr dcn Rrib~r~~gs~viderstnt~d \,on R ~ . ~ I I T J I ~ * R I I : ~ I I I I I ~ I I
'\\'nrks 11, 1\21) 1P21; nntl (;:!2 --1;48. Pliicl~cii.Ergcbnisse AVA Giittingen, Isl Scries. 120--121; (1921).
[ J l l I'rnr~cltl. I,., tint1 Srl~lic.l~lirig. f l . : I)ns \Vi~lcrst,nnrlsge~rtz
Ilnfcv~ 1 4 (I9:l.l); 8c.c nlso (:oil. \.Vorks 11, ti48 ---0172.
rn1111c.rPInt.ton. IVrrft. Ilrrrlcrri,
.1081 \Yilliatns. S1.H.. nrltl Brown, A.F.: ICxperin~entaon a rivekt1 wing in tho rntnl~rrssrtlnir
a

tunnel. ARC I ~ M 1855 (1938).

[fin] Yont~g,A.D.: Tho drng ofl'ccta of roughness a t high nnl)rrit,icnl sl~occln.J . IL),y. Ac%ro.Sor.
 a. Some experimontnl rusulta

CHAPTER XXII

The incompreesible tl~rhulentboundary layer with

preseure gradient J-

I n tho present chaptcr we sliall discnss the bchaviour of a t~~rbrxlcnt boundary

layer in the prwrnce of a positive or nrgativc prcssr~rcgradient along t l ~ cwall,
l.hi~sproviding a11extension of thc s111)jcrtmatter of the preceding chapter in which
the boundary layer on a flat plate with no pressure grhdicnt was considered. The Y
present case is pzrticnlarly important for tlic calculation of the drag of a n aero- P
plane wing or a tutbinc blade as well as for t11c ilntlcrstanding of the processes Fig. 22.1. Vclocit,yc1iutrib11Li011 i n coni~ergcnl
which take plarc in a tliffrlscr. Apart from skin friction we arc int~rcst~ctl
in knowing and. divergent cl~nnnclswith flat wall^, as
whctllcr the boundary layer will scpara1.c under givrri rircumstanccs and if SO, titcmrirocl by J. Nikurncluo [71]
wc shall wish to detcrmine t l ~ cpoint of separation. The exist~nccof a nogstive - 11x11 l~teluded nnglr; It - wicllll of ctlnnrlcl
and, in particular, of a positive prcssnro gratlicnt exerts a strong influcnco on the
formation of the laycr just as was t,hc case with laminar layers. A t the present time
these very complicated plicnomcna arc far from being understood complctcly but
there are in cxistcncc several scmi-empirical mctbods of calculation which lead to
comparatively satisfactory results.
I n the year 1962, J.C. Rotta [86] prepared a comprehensive and careful review
of this vast ficld of knowledge. I n order t o develop methods of calculating incom-
pressible, turbulent boundary layers with pressure gradients it is necessary to derive
from experiment relations which go beyond thosc employed for pipes and flat plates
at zero incidence. For this reason we shall begin by giving a short account of some
experimental results.

a. Some cxl~crirncntalresults

ILrly systc~naticcxpcrimcnts on two-di~nensionalflow^ with pressure drop and

prcssuro rise in convcrgcnt, ant1 divcrgcnt clianncls with flat walls have been carried
out by F. Doench [28], J. Nikuradse [71], II. Hochschild [45], R . Kroener 1571 and
J. Polzin [76]. Measurements on circular diffusers, and particularly on the efficiency
of the process of energy transformation, are described in papers by F. A. L. Winternitz
and W. J.Ramsay [123]. These experiments demonstrate that the shape of the velo-
L6 Fig. 22.3. Volodity distribution in n diaer-
Fig. 22.2. Velocity distribul.ion in a divergo~t gent cl\nt\ncl of hnll inclrtdect n ~ ~ a nl c=: X",
city profile dcpcnds very strongly on the pressure gradient. Figure 22.1 shows the chnnnel of l~nlfincludotl angle n = 6" nnd mc.lsrlred by .I. Nikr~rntlnc[71]. Itcvctsr: flow
velocity profiles which were mcasurcd by J. Nikuradse during his g~~erirnent.3 with is cot~~plobly dcvclopcd. Tllc flow oscillntcs
a = Go, as measured by .J. Nilruradse [TI].
The lnck of Qmmetry in the velocity dis. nt longer il~krvalsbet.wm1 pnthrll~(a) at~d
t Tho new version of tliiu chnplcr wo.8 propnrcd by Profemor E. Trr~ckenbrodtwhose nssistanre
I I~erel~y
grnbfnlly nc:knowletIgo. tribtition signifies incipient separation (b)
670 XXII. Tho incomprcaniblo t~urbulontboltnd~rylaycr
slightly convergent or divergent channels. Tllc half included angle of the channels
ranged over the valrles a = -ao, -4", -2", 0°, lo, 2", 3", 4". The bo~lndary-layer
thickness in a convergent channel is much smaller than that a t zero pressure gradient,
whercas in a divergent channel it becomes very thiclr and extends as far as the cent2re-
line of the cl1n.ntle1. For semi-angles up to 4' in a divergent channel the velocity
profile is fully symmetrical over the witlth of the channel and shows no features
associated with sepamtion. On increasing the semi-angle beyond 4" the shape of the
velocity profile ~rntlcrgoesa fnndament.al change. The veioait,y profiles for cllannels
wit11 . 5 O , Go and 8" of divcrgence, respectively, shown in Figs. 22.2 and 22.3,cease t,o
bc symmctricnl. With a 5" nnglc o f divcrgcncc, Wig. 22.2, no barlr-flow can yet bc
disccrncd, but separation is about to brpin on one of t,he channel walls. In addition
the flow bcnomcs unstable so t,l~at,depending on fort-uitorls disturbances, the stream
arllleres alternately to the one or the other wall of t,lle channel. Such a n instability
is characteristic of incipient, separation. J. Nikuradse observed the first occurrence
of separation a t an nnglo bet.ween a = 4.8" and 6-1". At a n angle of a = Go, Fig. 22.2,
the lack of symmetry in the ve1ocit.y profile is even more pronounced, and the reversal
of t.he flow intlicnt~csthe start, of separat,ion. At n = 8" the witlt,h of the region of
Pressure distribulion
Try-
Fig. 22.4. llol~~lrlnry lnyrrotl wing nrrofnil. nn rncrmltrcd by Stitrprr [IOR]; mensuremmtrr in flight;
lift rooffic:iottt r,, =- 0.4; IZoynolrln tt111111)crR - 4 x loo; chord 1 = 1800 nlln. 't'lre boundary 1a.s-er
in turhulrnt all nlot~pt.110prrn.wrc sirfr owing l o xtlvotnr, prmnrtro grnrlintlt; or1 tlle a e r t i o ~ sridr it. iu
lnllritlnr r~prtrcntnof prc8strro t n i t ~ i ~ ~nnd
i ~ ~trlrl~rtlc~~t
tn do\r.nut,rcnlrlfrotn it
reversed flow is considerably larger than for n = 6",and frequent oscillation of the
stream from one side to the other is observcd, the phenomenon being absent a t a =
6" and Go. However, the duration of one particular flow configuration is sufficiently
long for a full sct of readings to be obt.nincd. As tho nnglc of divcrgence is incrcnscd,
the region of reverse flow becomes wider, and the beats are more frequent.
The diagram in Fig. 22.4 shows an example of a turbulent bounrlary laycr formed
on an ~erofoiland measured by J. Stueper [lo61 in free flight. I n the case represented
here, t l ~ cboundary layer on the pressure side is turbulent from the leading edge
onwartls, because here the pressure rises over the whole witith of the wing. On t,he
suction side, t,hc point of t,ransition plnccs itsclf a short distancc behind t h r pressure
minimum in agreement with the clescription given in Scc. XVII b. The fact that the
boundary layer has become turbulent is inferred from the sudden iorrrasc in its
thickness.
Very t,horough expcri~ncntalin~est~igat~ions into t,llo bchnvionr of l.~~rl)~llcnt,
boundary layers with pressure gradients have been later perfnrmctl by G . 1%.
Schubauer and P.S. Klebanoff [97], by J. Laufer [68], and by F.11. Clauser [21].
The first two of the abovc papers contain, in particular, rraults of mcnsarcments on
t,urbnlent, fluctuat,ions nnd on thc correlation cocfficicntw wlricll wcrc ciolincd in
Chap. XVTII. I'hc last paper contains cxt,cnsive rcsu1t.s of mcasl~rcmrnt~s on shnaring
sLrcssns. 'l'hc c:nlc~~l:~l,ions
closcril~otlin I,llo following sonl.io~t~
c::rt~c:vitlorll.ly n l ~ l ~o11l.y
lg
t,o [flows which adhere comptctcly t o the walls, tirnt is, to cnscs wllicll arc sitnililr to
the one shown in Figs. 22.1 and 22.4.
b. The cnlculntior~ of two-dimcr~siorlnl trtrbulertt lto~~nclnry
lnyers
1. Gcr~eralrernarks. T o this day, all methods for the calculation of turbulent
boundary layers rely on semi-empirical procedures, because the apparent r ~ o r n ~ n l
and tangential st,rcss componcnta creat.cd by t J ~ cturbulent fluc1,nations as well as
the thus released energy losses cannot be ~alculat~cd by purely t,heorct.ical means.
Furthcrmorc, it. is st.ill necessary to int,rotlucc hcrc empirical relations of t.hc t,ypc of
Prandtl's famous mixing-length formula invented in 1925, because the st.at~istical
t,hrory of t,urbulcnce has yet t.o produce a replacement. for it. [ t is nst,onislting thatf
1'rnndt,l1s hypot,hesis, half a cent,ury after it8 discovery, still plays a vcry itnportant
role in thc lit,erat,urc on the calc~~lat~ion of tu~.bulcntboontlary Iaycrs. Mosl contcm-
porary met,hods are approximate; they make use of t,lte ~nomerltumand energy
ec]uat.ions of t,he velocit,y layer (as dist.inct from t.he t,hertnal layer which will not be
discussrcl in t,lris scction) and of certain relat,ions t.hat follow from them. Thc corrc-
slmr~lingrclitl,ions for Inlni11n.r I)ountln.ry In.ycrs wrro tl~-t~ivctl in Clr:~ps.S :t.ntl XI.
The procedures for the c a l c ~ i l a t i oof~ ~turbulent boundary laycrs available totlay
can bc tlividcd into two clnsscs: methods based on in,legral fornts of t,hc principal
equations and met,hods based on diffarcnlid erjuations. The former can be traced t,o
work t.l~atwas done by Th. von I<&rm.in in 1!)21 1.: + ! : i s procetlure, thc partial tliffe-
rer~t,ialeqrxations are reduced to a system of ortlinary tlillercnbia1 cqnat,ions in t.11:~t. an
ana1yt.i~int,cgrat,ion in the t,ransversc dircot,ion is first perforxncd, cf. C11n.p~.V l l I
and XITI. 111the ot,Irer class of cnscs, tthr pnrt.inl tliFrrent,ial ~clnat~ions arc int.egratctl
dircct.ly I)y the n.l)plicnt,ion of nnmoriral rnrt,hotls, sr~c:hns the mrI,ltod of fini1.c t l i f i -
rcnces out,linctl in Scc. IXi, or by finitc clcmcnt.s. It, is c:vitlrnl, t>l~n,t
t.hc ntnol~nt,of worlr
672 X X l l . 'l'llc incon~prcssiblctilrb~~lont
bol~ndarylnycr
involved when differential equation methods are used is substantially larger than in
tho case of integral methods. The former require the use of a very large digital
computer equipped with a large memory, whereas the latter can be done on a small
calcrllator or, even, with the aid of a slide rule.
I n tlie following paragraphs we shall confine ourselves to the des~ript~ion of
methods which rcsult merely in the calculation of time-averaged values of such
variables of the turbulent flow as t,he velocity, the local shearing stress and the region
of separation, because we subscribe to the view that only such mean values are of real
interost to the engineer. Thus we rcfrain from calcr~lat,ingall those quantities that
result from fluctuations, for example the correlation coefficients, the intensity of
turbulence and i t s scale. Readers interested in these aspects are referred t o more
specialized publications, e. g. [lo, 813.
Rcsearch into turbulent boundary layers was considerably advanced by the
Stanford Univcrsity Conference organizcd by S. J . Kline in 1968. The results achieved
a t the time have been published in two large volumes edited by S. J . Kline, M.V.
Morkovin, G. Sovran, D. J. Cockrell, D. E. Coles and E.A. Hirst [64]. I n the append-
ed [79] "morphology" prepared by W. C. Reynolds, the reader will find a de~cription
of 20 integral and 8 differential methods and characterized according to their respect-
ive physical basis (status = of 1967). They differ, principally, in the empirical closure
functions which are introduced in ordcr to malre the system of equations solvable. I n
addition, the conference had a t its disposal 33 sets of experimental data which served
as testing material for the computational algorithms. About ten years later, W.C.
Reynolds [81] provided once again a summary review of the very large number of
computational schemes; this appeared in his contribution to the Annual Reviews of
Fluid Mechanics of 1976 (cf. the same author's 1974 contribution in Chemical Engin-
eering [80]). I n 1974 there appeared the book b y F.M.White [I191 which describes
20 integral and 11 differential procedures. It is difficult, and we shall not attempt, to
select a "best method" from among the very large number proposed so far.
A summary of many of these methods, principally integral ones, was prepared
earlier by A. Walz [116] and J.C. Rotta [86, 871. A review of differedial methods is
conl-aincd in P. Bmdshaw's contributions [9, 12, 13, 141. Further, the book by T .
Cebrci and A . M . O . Srnit,l~[20] and two earlier papers by the same authors [18, 191,
contain good reviews of many calculational procedures. The two earlier reviews by
L. S. C. I<ovasznay [50] and P . 9 . Clauser [21al may also be consnlted.
We shall also refrain from describing in detail several of these numerous
methods. Instead, we shall concentrate on a single one of the many and bring i t to
a point where the reader can work with it dircctly. For this purpose we have selected
the integral method developed by E. Truckenbrodt [ i l l ] . The first version of this
method was published in 1952; i t has now been brought u p to date in the light of
the present physical understanding of the subject. [114]. The procedure is convenient
to handle and constitutes one of the best integral methods from the point of view of
accuracy. I E. Gruschwitz [40] and A. Buri [15]. The fact t h a t the shape factors defined in eqns.
i.
>&>Y .
2. Truckenbrodt's integral method. Before we proceed with the description of the
details of E. Truckenbrodt's [I141 method, we find i t helpful for its understanding to
preface i t with a few historical remarks. As already mentioned earlier, all computa-
tional algorithms for turbulent boundnry layers rcly on ecrtnin empirical relations.
1). 7'110 cnlci~lnLionof two-tlimcnsional lrtrbulnr~tboundary lnynrs 673
As time progressed, and, in particular, since tehc middlc of t,hc tl~irtics,tho empirical
basis, and hencc also the semi-empirical and tlleoretical computatior~alprocccl~lrcs,
underwent a process of continuor~simprovement..
The first method for tho calculnt.ion of t,urbulcnt boundnry Inycrs wit.11 prcssnre
gratlicnts was formulated by E. Gruschwitz [40] in 1931. The ~xpcrimcnt~nl tlnta on
which this mrt.hotl wns basod wcro Intnr irnprovcd by A. 1<(:111IX1J. At. al)o~tl.t , l ~ t :s:tlne
time A. Buri [15] pciblishcd a similar proccdorc. 1I.C. Garner [:$A] tlcvclopcd a mcthod
based on the work of A. E. von Docnhoff ant1 N. Tctcrvin [27] t,lrnt tr~rnctlo l ~ to t be
superior to the first one mentioned above from t,he point of view of riunicrical con-
vcnicncc. In 1952, E. TrucLcnbrodt [ l l l ] form~~lat~cd a simple cluatlraturc hascd on
the experimcnt.al results of K. Wicgllarctt [120], f l . 1,udwicg and W. l'illmnn~r 1601,
as well as J.C. Rotta [82, 831. The ~net,l~otl was s ~ ~ i t , a lfor
~ l ct,\vo-tli~ncnsio~~nl
ns \vrll
as for rot,ntionnlly sym~nct.ricflow. This rnc?l,hotl wns i1n1)rovctl in 1!)74 on t.hc 11:~sis
of Inter insighb [I 141. It is this version that wc now propose to tlisc~tssin sotnr tlol,ail.
Characteristic nurnbere: I n ordcr to provide a tlcscription of thc esqcntisl be-
haviour of a velocity Iaycr it is ncoessnry to know its t.hic:l~nc:ssand to Ilnvc an intli-
cation of the velocity distribution in thc boundary Inyer. Since the boirr~dary-layer
thickness, O(x), across which the dissipntivc In.ycr mcrges with the fric:tionlcss cxt,c~l~nal
flow U(z), so that u(z, = (3) = U(x), oannot IIC tit-lir~c:tl with any arctlr:rc!y, it, is
convcniont to opcrntLcwith the ( J I I R I I ~ . ~ ~ ~~lvfinc~l
~(:s enrlicr i n cclns. (H.:10), ( H . : \ l ) , I L I I ~ I
(8.34). Thcse include the following
n
d3(x) = J [ l - (u/U)2] (u/U) (1 y (energy thickncss). (22.l c)
0
These q~tant~itiescan be made dimensionless by introducing approprint,c I ~ c ~ ? I . o ~ ~ . F
nuntbers formctl with the cxtcrnal velocity. Thus, we may usc,
The velocity profile depends strongly on the external pressure graclic~lt,cxprcsscd
through the derivative dU/dx, and IS charactcrized by a number of shnpr factors.
Thcse arc also rnedr dimensionlcss for prrfrrrnec nntl cntl 1)r dcfinctl in t11(- form of
ratios of tl~ickncsscsfrom cqns. (22.1 ) I t is cuslo~nnrylo use t l ~ ccont.rnrlions
For the rnorncnt we refrain from rcprotlucing hcrc thc shape factors usctl I)y
(22.3) constitute useful quantities for t,l~cdescription of vclocity profilcs has bccn
known for a long time; this has been corroborat.cd by t.hc sum~naricsprcscnted a t
the Stanforcl Confcrcncc [54]. l3cyond this, mcasurcmcnts intlicat,~that t,urbulcnt
velocity profiles can bc described approxirnatcly by a om-p,ram.eler fum,ily of ~ 2 ~ r v r s .
This mcnns t h a t thc shapo factors IIlz anti \Iaz = I / l l z n nro rclntctl 1.0 c,rrc:ll ot11c.r
 XXIJ. Tho incomprc~~ihlo
t,t~rbnlcntboslndnry lnycr b. Thc cnlculntion of two-dimcnsionnl tr~rbrllcnthonndnry Injrrra 675
074

uniqocxly, as evidcnced by the graph of Fig 22.5 This fact is expressed by a relatiort
Iflz = /(If32), if a light, residr~alrlcpendence on the Reynolds ~iuniberis neglected.
Guided hy the prenrding ohservaf ion, IS.'rruckenbrodt [I 141 iritrodr~cetltthe nrodt/i~d
shape factor

The reference valuc (IIz3)m = (l/Naz)mlins been cliosrn as t.he loner litnit, of iiltegrn-
tion bccnilse it. reprcsent.~an avcrage valr~cfor flows wit'hoi~ta pressure grnrlicnt,. 111
tlie casc of t ~ r ~ r b ~ i l boundary
cnt layers wn choose = 1.3. Tlie n~~niel~ical
evalu-
ation of the relation in eqn. (22.4) can tie undert,alren on the basis of n relation
int1icnt.cd 1)y 11. Fernholz [33]. The result is seen plot-tetl in Fig. 22.6.
Fig.22.5. Tlir ratio of houndnry
I n the case of flow witli zero pressure gratlient we find that I/ = If, = 1 by lnyrr thirknrclncn Ifaz = d3/r5z plottcd
definition (mean value in t.hc casc of tnrbrllent flow). I'lows \\.it11 atlversr pressure against If12 = dl/bz, aftcr J.C. ltottrr
gradicnta (pressure rising in the downstream direction) are characterized by If < 1831 and I<. Wicghardt 11201. See alao
H < 1, wlierc.ns for accelerated flows (pressure decreasing) we find that 1 < H < H. Femholz [33]
Hopwhere Ifs denotes tlie shape factor for the velocity profile wit11 incipient separ-
ation, and Ifo denotes the shape factor of a two-dimen~ionalstagnation-flow profile.
According to I<. Wicghardt, the shape factors If lz and 1132 are related to each other
by tho equation

on the assumption of so-rallrd powrr-law plofilrs. S111)stitrttingthis expression into

eqn. (22 4a) and intrgrating with respect to we can derive the follo\\ring ex-
li - modilleel sbaw hctor from rqn. (22.4)
H m = rcferrnre alate; approxlnlately flow at
pression for thc modified shape factor in a turbtllcnt boundary layer: constslit pressllrc

-
lis = aepnrntcd bou~iclnrylayer
H s s TI s N; b o ~ ~ s c l n r lnyer
y prone to

(I) - srl~nn~tlon
a,.In terms of H
(1n)deterlnln~clnulnerirally from eqn. (22.4n)
The numerical values i~~clicatcd in the l i t ~ r a ~ t ufor
r e t.urb~rlcntboundary layers for
+
-
-rter 133. 1101. If,,
m.
104 (2 - II.,)'.~
1+ 1.48 (2 - 81,)
which aeparalion can occur vary considera1)ly. J . C . Rotta [86] recommends 4.05 > (lb) cnlcnlnted with llle nld ofrqa. (22.6)
(Hlz)s > 4.0 or 11s w 0.723, w~l~creas A. \\'nlz [I 161 proposcs the values 1.50 < (1132)s < (21 = If,, 111 lerma o f l l

--
1.57, or 0.736 < If,. < 0.761. Accortling 1.0 A . I\. 'I'ownscritl ( I Ion] (cf. St.vatfort1 (1041)
a vanishing xhcar st.rcss occurs for (I/12)s 2.274 or IIs = 0.784 in the case of
profiles crcat,ed I)y an ext,crnal flow with U ( x ) sP witli p = -0.234. Tlie various
(Zn) nncl ('Lb) are nnnlogous to (In) nnd ( l b )

Vig. 22.6. Shape factor of a turbulent

shape fact,ors for incipient separation havc been indicat,ed.in Fig. 22.6. The values boundary lnyer
of the modified factor Ils fluctuate much less than those of (IIlz)s and (H23)S.
Refrrence 11141 indicates t.l~atacparalion can occur for

The rangc Ifs - 0.723 < II < 0.761 = If; I 3. Basic equations. In ordcr t,o c a l c ~ ~ l a tile
t o boundary-layer t,liialtnrss ant1 tlia
describes velority prolilcs thnt nre pronr to separiatc. shape factor, the latter characterizing the velocity profile, it is ncccssnry to have
two equations. These are: the rnomcntum integral cqrlnt,ion (8.32) n.11~1t,lle rncrgy
equat,ion (8.35).In t.he scnond equnt,ion it is nec?ssnry to introdi~cc.on t,llc right-hnnd
side a still unspecified expression for the dissipation work associat,ctl wit.11t,llc shearing
: l'hr ri~rnirric*nlroncltnntn i n rqn. (22.51,) hnve heen ndjusted to represent the experiments stresses of the turbulent stream.
l c llir 111ire.
n \ ~ : ~ i l : ~ bnL
070 XXII. Tlic inco~npreaaibtolnrl)~rlontbounclary layer b. The calculation of two-dimenaionnl turb~llontboundary lnyera 077
As ttlie hnsic rqiia~f,ionsfor nromen,tum. thickness &(x) and for e?asrg?/ thickn,esa I n order t o complete the evaluation it is still necessary t o know the ahape-laclor
03(2:), w t nbt.nint : /un,dion H(x). It is shown on p. 487 of [I 131 t h a t eqns. (22.7n, b) lead t o tho working
forms

and

rmprct.ivcly. Ilere CT is the slrin-frict,iorr cocfficicnt and c~ is thedissipntion cocfficicnt.

r
l l r r prrrrtling two coeifiricrib rela.t,ctl to tlic shearing stress depcnd st,rtingly on the-
7
for the cnlculation of H32(x) and of HZ3(x).The shape factors can now be cnlculated
ltcynolrls nurnbcr, R, arcortling to eqn. (22.2), and on the shape factor 11 in conform- either by the use of a coupled pair of cquations, namely (22.7a) ant1 (22.98) or (22.7 b)
ity aritl~cqn. (22.4). 'l'hrr following power-laws for their description lrnve withst.oot1 and (22 9 b ) To distinguish bctwcen these two possibilities we speak of the morne~tl~~rn
t,hc fcst of time: method in the first casc and of thc energy method in the second case. In most. proccdr~res
I f I use is made of the momentum method, whereas E. Truckcnbrodt [I 11, 1141 favours
the energy method. Thc lnttcr choice has bccn madc for two rcnsons: (a) The Icft-lland
side of eqn. (22.7b), unlike t h a t of cqn. (22.7a), does not dcpcrld explicitly on tho
shape factor. Thus instead of eqn. (22.7 b) we can also write
'l?lic cx~)rcssinnscontain the factors a([{) and P ( N ) which are k q u e functions of t h e
shape factor and a specified power of the local Reynolds nrlmbcr~Rz or R3. T11c din-
grams in Figs. 22.7%and b represrnt the cluantities n. and h a s well a s a' = n / n m and
p' = fi/j?rn together with am and /?, (denoting values for zero-gradient, flow) a s (b) TIlc dissipntion fnc(,ol.c~ on the riglit siclc or c(,n. (22.70) must bc (::llc\~l:~(rcl
[twin
f~lnrtionsof II. The rrsprctive formlrlac are quotcd in the captions. J t is seen t h a t eqn. (22.8b) by performing a quadrature extended ovcr the boundary-layer tlricltness
/?' varirs slowly with 11, whcrcas n' assumes the vnlue a f ( l l = Ils) = 0 a t scpnr- 0 ( y < 6(x), whercas the skin-friction coefficient c~ on the right-hand sitlr of cqn.
ation anti t,l~cilinrrcascs fast with increasing If. ( 2 2 . 7 ~ )tlcpcnds only o n t h e local shcaring strcss a t thc wnll, cqn. (22.411). 'l'llis
signifies t h a t the dissipation work depends much less on the shape factor than t h c
Equations (22.8a, b) are now snbstituted int,o eqns. (22.7n, b) and this lends 11s shearing stress a t the wall. This is confirmed by the graphs of n'(I1) and P'(I1) in
to the modifietl forrns of thc momcntum and energy equations for &(x) and 63(x), Fig. 22.7b. Thus, in t h e energy method, the coupling between the equations de-
respe~t~ively. termining the boundary-layer tllickncss (energy equation) a i d the equntion which
determines tllc shape fnctor t,urns out to bc much wcnlccr than in thc n~omcntum
method.
Reference [114] s l ~ o w s l ~ othe
w basiccquntions for t,lre bountlary-laycr t.llicltncsses,
eqns. (22.7a, b), can be transformed into equations t h a t dctermine the local l t c y ~ ~ o l d s
numbers defined in eqn. (22.2). Similarly, this reference shows how the basic equa-
tions for the shape factors, eqns. (22.9a, b), can be transformed into equations for
t h e modified ~ h a p efactor defined in eqn. (22.4). I n this mnnner, we obtain
a = 0-268
b = 0.2317 IT,, - 0.2044 - 0.87 x 106
, (2 - ll,,)=o
a' = alum with
a m = 0.0157
A' = p/Pm W1f.h Bm = 0.0055
a = 0.0245 (1 - 2.007 log H,,)'''"
+
8 = [0.00481 0.0822(II,,- 1-5)'"J
HP,
Table 22.1 summarizes t l ~ cexpression for the contractions m, di and y. The quan-
tities R, m, @ and p are provided with subscript 2 for the momentum mcbhod, and
Pig. 22.7. Shearing stresses in turbulent boiindary layer/correspondingto eqn. (22.8) after [33], wit,h subscript 3 for the energy method.
[I 161; a) exponent8n and b in terms of If; b) fnctors a and P in terms of If
4. Quadrature for the calculation of turbnlet~tboundary layers. Under crrtain
t The above eqnntiona ncglect t.llc effcct of tlie normal components 3 and simplifying assumptions it is possible still flnrtller t o siroplify the system of equations
of the tonsor
of lteynolds stressrs from oqn. (18.10). Among othcrs, references [85, 87) contain indications (22 l l a , b) I n this manner it is possi1)le to derive explicit cxprcssions for R(n) and
011 how to modify bliooe cqunt.iona if t,liia uimplificat,ion is not acceptable. N ( r ) by quadrature for an arbitrary velocity variatio~r,TJ(x), in the o u t t r flow, t h a t
678 X X 11. The inconiprcnnihle t ~ ~ r l ~ a lbo~tndnry
ont lnyer h. 'rile cnlrr~lntionof two-di~ncn~iotrnl
t . ~ ~ r h r ~l~n~~r~clnry
lrt~t lnycra 679

Table 22.1. Sr~tnn~ary of t,lw qnanlitir~whirl1 occur in the eqnstions for the cnlrulation of the Using his own and J. Nikrlrndse's [71] measurements, A. Buri cst,ablisllcd t h a t F ( r )
din~ensionless~non~entu~rl tlrirkness, Rz, of the tlin~rnsionlessenergy tl~ickness,R 3 , and of tllr shape can be represented by the linear relation
factor; RCC eqns. (22.1In, b)
BIo~ncnt~~rn
method Energy method
(811bscript2) (subscript 3) wit11 a good dfsgree of approximation. For accclrratcd ant1 rctartlctl s t r m n ~ st ~ forlntl
c
the numerical values 0.01475 rm 2 0.0175 and 3.94 5 n 1 4 . 1 5 for a = 0.25. If
we now introtlurc cqn. (22.15) into eqn. (22.14), wc can obtain the int,rgrnl with
respect t o z in closed form. Thc resr~lt~,
expressed in terms of the Reynolds nnmbcr
formed will1 the momentum tl~icltncss,is

where v' = v / r m and

The numerical values for the exponents a , e and n a s well as for t.he modified lrinem-
atic viscosity, v ' , are listed in Table 22.2. Tlie constant of irltcgrntion is

is for zcro, atlvrrsc, or favourat)lc prcssnrt. grat1icnt.s. The int,rgrat.ion is here cxt~entlccl
Annlogy with trrrbi~lentb o u r ~ c l a rlayer
~ on a flnt plate: Wllerea.3 along a flat. plate
only over crrt,nin powers of TJ(z). We now proceed t o derive such approximate, cx-
plirit. formrilae ant1 to sllow how a, suit.al)le choice of approximate procedures can a t zero incidence (constant-pressure flow) the velocit,y of the external flow rcniains
constant, U(x) = Urn = const,, t11c gcncral case is cl~aract.crizctlby a varic~l)loouLrr
lead to a step-by-stcp improvcrnent.
velocity U(.r)#=const, t h a t is tlU/d:r +0. MTc shall srrppose t,liat for U(.c) $ const
Analogy witli l a n ~ i i ~ nborrndary
r layer (momentum method): I n a manner anal- the value assumed by t.he shape fact.or is tllc same as t h a t for a hypot,hct.icnl Urn =
ogor~swi1.h I<. I'ol~ll~ansen'sapproximate mct,hod for the laminar boundary layer U(X) which implies t h a t I I ( z ) = H , = I t . I t follows t h a t lIlz = (IIlz)m = 1.3 and,
out~li~ictl in Chap. X, A. 1)rll.i [IR] assumes t h a t i n the csse of a turbulent boundary according to Table 22.1, we must I~avc?m = const for thc momcnt,um as wcll a s for
layer t.hr ratio I t l z = cTl/rY2 as wcll a s thc slrin-friction coefficient, c~ = to/eU2, the energy mctl~otl.Correspo~ldinglya = a ,. = P,, a = a, and b = ha, scc Fig.
c-onI,itrric to I,(, I'~~nctions
o f a single s11n.p~factort 22.7. As far as t,l~ccxt,crnnl flow is concernctl, wc always s n b s t , i t ~ ~tt lc~ cnot,nal clis-

1 R62 ddsU a2 ; ( a = 1/41. (22.12) Tnhle 22.2. S ~ ~ n ~ n tof

n rnnn~erirnl
y constnnta tllnt occllr i n tllo rxplirit c q ~ ~ n l ifor
o ~thr
i ~ cnlru-
lntion of rnnn~entu~n nticl energy thirltness: ~ c eqns.
c (22.l(i), (22.17), nnrl (22.1!)); for 11ucc. Fig.
1Ie i n t r o d ~ ~ c the
e s following functions, c/. eqn. ( 2 2 . 8 ~ ~ ) : 22.7n; tnkc fl from Fig. 22.7b
5
rilz = --I=/ (r), cT , 2% , &(ill (22.13a, b) I Mon~entunin~etl~orl I Rtirrgy 111~*111o~l
dz QUZ Rt '
Annlogy J,nnlirinr bor~nrlnryInyer Tr~rhr~lont
borlntlnry lnycr Sclr-ui111il:tr
These relations are now a~lbstit~r~tctl
irlt,o the momentum equation (22.7a) to obtain on flat plnto nolrcti(~n
~-

d --
(22.14) Ill2 .I I = 2.30 2
1,(& 2;) = F ( 0 ,
wllerc . F ( r ) is a universal function given by
Ill

i n -.
0.25 n - 0,268
- b - 0.152
0 2.94 < e < 3.15 111 (1 4- n ) 2.92 2 ( 1 I h) - 2.:10
F ( r ) = (1 -ta.1 i z ( r ) - ~2 + a + (11+ a ) 11( r ) i r. n 3.!14 < 11. < 4.15 1 t 711 (1 + a ) = 3.92 3 -1- 2 h - 3.30

K =d l - d U
= - 152R d U
IJ dz U tlr
t 'I'll~fnrt that, strictly ~pmking,i f ( ~ )w 1.0 for n flnt 11lnt.cin Ilrrc igriorr~l.
 FRO XXII. Tho incornprcs~ibloturbulent bollndary layer
tribution U(x). Since the valrlc of the shape factor, N(x) = 1, has already been
assigned, the only quantity t h a t we need t o calculate is the local Reynolds number
determined by eqn. (22.11a). Since m = const, we can contract t h e two terms on
t h e Icft-hand side and solve the problcm by performing two integrations, one each
for Rz(x) and R3(x). I n ~ o n t ~ r a c t eform
d these are
The relations and nt~mericalvalues t o be used for t h e exponents i, e and n, as
well M for the modified lrinematie viscosity v' are listed in Table 22.2, separately
for the m o m e n t ~ ~ rand
n for tile energy method. Tire constant of integration is
DifTercritiat.ing eqn. (22.17) wit11 rc~pcctrto x and taking into account thc contractions
dcfincd in Tablrs 22.1 antl 22.2 wc can tlcmonst~ral~ eonsist~encywit11 eqn. (22.11a).
I n the case of the moment,um m ~ t l i o deqn.
, (22.17) becomes identical with eqn. (22.16)
if wc pilt i = n, R = Rz ant1 IZ = Ez.
Comparing the nurnerical d a t a of Table 22.2, we find far-reaching agreement.
I n spite of considerable difl'erences in the assumptions for the shape fact,or and for
the shearing stress a t the wall we discover t h a t thc two explicit cqr~nt.ionsfor the
calculation of the momcntnm thickness are equivalent. The following specific numeri-
cal values can be recommcndctl:
The cnergy method is discussed below.
Analogy with self-sitnilnr eolutions ( e n e r ~ ymethod): Self-similar solutions in
bounclary-layer thcory are generally described as equilibrium /lou)s when they occur
in tnrbalcnt motion. They are characterized by the fact t h a t the velocity profiles
u / U nt varying positions x become similar for certain velocity distributions U(x) of
the ontcr flow. 'J'llis means that, the shape factor H ( x ) remains constant witli z,t h a t
is t h a t d l f l d x = 0. Figure 22.7 implics t h a t all quantities which depend on x in
gcnrml nlust bcrome constant for such equilibrinm boundary layers.
We now sul)st,it,ut~c in cqn. (22.10) t,hc cxpression for cn from cqn. (22.813) and
note that, the integration witli respect to x can be performed in closeti form with b =
const and p' = const. The Reynolds nnmbcr formcd witli t h e energy thickness is
thus given by
.I.
hc numerical vn.lr~csfor 6 , r, n, and v' are t o Ip sclcctctl in accordance with the
relations in Table 22.2 and l'ig. 22.7s. I
111 the spceial rase of separation-prone flows for which H s < <
I1 Ilk, we find,
for example, that. 1 4-b$ = 1.004 ant1 I +b, = 1.152. Tliesc two values differ by
about. 5%. S11c1i a disrrcpancy can t)c tlisregardcd in view of the i~ncert~ainties in-
Iirrent in s~rc-happroxirnat,~mctzhods.In othcr words, this signifies t h a t it is possiblc
11. Tho calcirlaLion of two-climcnsionnl tnrbtrlcnt boirntlnry lnycrs (iX I
to perform calcnlat,ions using numerical values based on t,hc flat-plat,c ani~logy.Tllc
quantity P' = PIPQ)t,hat appears in eqn. (22.19) also dcpentls only wcaltly or1 t,hc sllnpc
factor; by way of approximation, we let it be P' = I. 'rhns, tile calculabion of ~ ( I I c
cncrgy t,hickness with the aid of eqn. (22.10) can be bascci on tdlc followitig numerical
valucs :
R +=R3: h = 0.152; e ==2.3 ; n = 3.3; r' = 78 v; P' =- 1 . (22.20)
\Bit11 thrse assumption, eqn. (22.19) transforms into cqn. (22.17) bearing in mint1 tlint
i = b, R = R3, and /C = "3, a s cxpcctcd.
Reference [114] ~ h o w st,hat eqn. (22.1l a ) suffices by it,sclf t o solvc tlic prnbleln
a.hen the energy mct,llocl is used. 13y contxast, when t.hc nionlent.urn ~nctliotlis r~sctl,
t.he coupling between cqns. (22.1 l a ) and (22.11b) cannot hc disregardcdt. 'I'lie Iatl.er
Icads us t,o tPhetrivial result t h a t Rz = IIz3R3 in view of the dcfnit.ion Ifzn -- 02/fi3.
At. t.hr i c ~ ~ of --
c l approximation considcrcd so far, thc ~uorncntummctliotl t.r~rnsout
t,o be itlcntical wiLlr t.11~cncrgy 111cl.liotl. Ncvcrtl~clcsrr,ttllc two proc:rtl~~~.c,s tlilli,~,
csscntially from one another in t h a t tlic momenturn mcthod ernploys tho t,wo I~asic
cclunt,ions ( 2 2 . 1 1 ~and
~ ) (22.1 lb), whcrras t,hc cncrgy mct,hotl gct,s by wit11 cqn. (22.1l a )
nlonc. As far as tlic devclop~nentof f~irtlicrapproxilnat.ions in the for111 of simple
int,egrals is concerned, we have cxl~aust,ctlt.hc pot,ent.inl inlierent in the rnomrnt.u~n
mct~horl.In the energy mcthod, cqn. (22.1 1b) is used t o tlcrivc n forninla for t,hc shape
fnclor by closctl-form int.rgrnl.ion, as wc arc nl)oiit, t.o ~ l i o w .
Integration method due to E. Truckenbrodt: 13. Trr~cltcnbrodt[I 11, 1141 worlrcd
orit an nl~proxinrnt,~ of t,llc cqi~n.Iio~is
nlc:l,hotl for 1.11ccxl~licili~it~cyrnl.iol~ of t.i11.11111v1it,
boundary layers which serves t o obtain the boundary-layer t,lliclrness (energy tliick-
ness) a s well as the (modified) shape factor. The first vcrsion of tire method [ I l l ] has
proved t o be practicable for calculat,ions in engineering applications. I t was, there-
fore, tliougl~tuseful t o modify it in the light of more rccent discoveries. Employing
the classification introduced above, we tlescribc this a s an energy nz,ethod.Tlrc rnctJhod
can be used for two-dimensional a s wellasforaxiallysymmct~ricflows,c/. Sco. X X l X c l .
Tlic method is based on cqn. (22.11a) which is used to c a l c i ~ l n ttlrc
, ~ Iteynolds
number formed with the energy thickness. EIcncc we p u t R = R3, m = 2 and (IS =
@a = ( 2 1 ~/?) R a b in accordance wit11 Table 22.1. If we assume 1,hat 6 = const and
p(r) is known, we can integrate eqn. (22.11a) with respect to x and obtain
1:
1 B3(x)
{R3(x))lfb = -;;[C1(2)1C where E3(x) = E3(x1) + JP'
2%
Un d x . (22.21)
The numerical values in cqn. (22.20) are valid up to P'(.T) = P(:c)/POoIlowcvcr, a n
inspection of Fig. 22.7b shows t h a t /I'
docs not clcviatc niuch from t,he valtlc 1.0,
and we may calculate with /I' = 1.0 by way of approximation. I n this case, eqn.
(22.21) transforms into cqn. (22.19). Thus, if no great dernands of accuracy are made
on the values of the Reynolds number, we obtain
1 z \ lllltbl
--
t By way of amplificst,ion, we rncnt,ion that the result, dcrivctl in Tal~le6 of [I141 in also valid
when a -= const nnd b = ronut,.
082 XXII. Thc inco~nprm~il~lr
Lllrbtrlolt bn~rndnrylnyrr b. The cnlc~~lntion
of two-~lir~~or~uio~~d
t t ~ r l ~ ~I ~~olIrI ~I I~~ Irty~rn
tI ~ ~ ) ~ (iR:l
wherc t,hr following numerical vnlncs (cf. 'l'able 22.2 - energy method) have been with
employed :
b = 0.152; v' .= 80 v; with f l q ( r I )= v' {[U(r1)J2R3(xl))lCb. (22.22 b)
and Z
This explicit form~llacont,nins only t.hr ext,crnal free-st.rcam vclocity U(x) which G1(x) = G(x1) +j y' un-' d x ,
mny IIC known fronl pot,cnt,inl t.hcory or from mcasarement. The positmion.2: = xl 2,

constit.utes t,he st.nrt,ing point for t,he calculation.
Apart from the velocity U(xl), the constant of integration E3(rl) rontains also
the encrgy tliickness 63(.cl). If the station xl coincides with the point of trat~sit~ioli
the cnergy thickness sho~lldbe ralc~llatcdover t,he laminar boundary layer in t.hc
rangc 0 2 x xl IIrrc x = 0 rlenotcx tlic start of t,he boundary layer; for example,
the leading edge of a plate or the stagnation point of a blunt body. It waa shown in
11141 that eqn. (22.22a) is also valid for laminar boundary layers whenb = 1 , v i =
~/4@m = 0.91 7v and lC3(xl = 0) = 0 shor~ldbe specificd. I n this case, with a laminar
starting length, the constant of integration becomes
112
where n is listed in Tablc 22.2 (energy method). The correction firnction y'(x) =
yf(R3,H ) can be calculated with the aid of a ( l l ) , b(H), u(H), /l(II), If12(x), 1fS2(H),
as well as R3(2) and N(x).
The correction y' differs by a larger or smaller amount from tShcvnli~e1.0 in the
case of a turbulent boundary layer, nnd cannot bc determined with an adrqnnte
degree of relinbi1it.y. 13y way of approximation, we assume y'(x) = const = 1.0 and
introducc a new quantity c = const = 4.0 in order further to simplify the annlyt,ic
solution. The qunntily c has been. so dct~ermi~icd as to nchicve optimum ngrcemc111
between available measurements [64] and theoretical results; see also [114]. The
modified shape factor is obtained from the equation

(point of transition). (22.23)

which is the result of somc algchraic t~raitsformationsnot reproduced Itcrc. llerc thc
If the boundary lnyer n.lrcntly is t,nrbnlent a t z = XI, it is necessary to substitute influence /unctions of the external velocity distribution are defined os
into eqn. (22.22) for E3(z1) t,he local vnlue R3(x1) = n3(x1) U(xl)/v.
1
I n many practtirnl npplicnt.ions it. is not cnolrgli to know tlie \)rllaviour of t,hc
boundary-layer thicltncss, l ~ c r et,lic encrgy t.hicltness 6 3 ( ~ ) This . is the case wit,h
Q(x) = Q(x1) ,+ 2,
UZ(l+b)d x ;

ueparation-prone or separat,ctl boundary la.yers. If, for example, it is necessary t,o

makc n statcmcnt about t.he possibilit,y of separation, i t is necessary to know the
velocity parameters along the ~0.11.All mct,hods discussed in Sec. X X I I b l provide
procedures for t,he caloulet,ion of sonir xhnpe fnctor in addition to t.hnt of a bor~ndary-
layer t~liiclrncsx,s~lcllas the niomcnt,i~rntliiclrness &(x) discussed t.here. The s l ~ a p c
factors nre defined differently in diff'rrent methods and different differential eqrlat,iorls
are specified for thcir ralrniat~ion.A revic\r and intercomparison was given by J . C .
R o t h [85].
l'11c diPFrrc~nt,inl(~(l~~r2t~iori (22.!)n., I)) for t.11~shnpr. factors 1132(x)ant1 H z 3 ( ~were
)
obtained by tlic co~lj)lingof t,hc ~~ior~~rnturn-integral and energy-integrnl equnt.ions
(22.78, b). Thc pereding dilTrrent,inl equnt.ions det,ermine the shape factor in a unique
way proviclrcl that onc-para~net~cr velocity profiles Hlz.= f(H32) or Hlz = f(Hz3)
nrc post,ulnt,ctl and npproxiniaLc cxprrsxions for t,he shear-stress coefficients CT and
co are s~hst.itilt.c11 f r o ~ n~(111.(22.Rn, b). Thc dct,crmining ecluntion (22.11b) for thc
shapr factor cn.11 br writ.t.c.n in t,crms of thc naodijied shape lactor If = f(llzs)proposed
11y 15. l'r~~rlzcnl~rotlt.. l'ogcl.licr wit11 rqn. (22.11a), this relnt,ion forms a system of
s i m i ~ l t n . r otliffrrrn(.ial
~s cqr~ationsfor t,l~eReyncllds number formed wit,h t,lte energy
t,hickncss, Ra(:l.). antl for t.hc shapt factor 11(a)! According t o Table 22.1 we must
put TN -.- 2 =- const 1t)1 Ihr rnrlgy ntcthotl clisri~ssedherc 7'hc forms of the fr~nrtions
cl,3(RR,11) nnd lli3(R3. If) arr lo Irr taltrll Irom t l ~ csame tal)lc Rcference[ll4]summar-
izci crlns (22 1 I n) nntl (22 1 1 0) as follows :
The initial valuw, i.0. the constants of intogration are
We take the numerical constants as
The integral expression (22.25) for the calculation of the shape factor contains
only the external velocily distribution U(x), as was the case with the corresponding
integral expression (22.22) for the calculation of the Rcynolds number. Tlic det.cr-
mination of the inllucncc function N ( r ) rcqr~ircst11c pcrformnnco of n doublc inLc-
gration with respect to x. The position x = xl once again represents the starting
point of the calculation.
The constants of integration G(s1) and N(xl) coritnin the shape factor lI(xl)
in addition to the'velocity U(xl) and thc Iteynolds number R3(xl). If the position
xl coincides with the point. of transition, it, is necessary to require that the encrgy
thickness of tlie laminar boundnry layer must be equal to t h a t of the t,r~rbulcnt.
boundary lnyer in accordance with eqn. (22.23). On the other hand, the sliapc factor
may change it.s value a t the point of trnnsition. The n~~mcricnl values of bllc shape
fnctor lic in t,lic mngc 1.0 2 11 2 Ils = 0.723.
684 XXII. 'Yl~cincon~~~rcssible
Lnrb~rlot~t
boundary layer 1). 'I'll(: calc:ulntion ol two-climrnsionnl l~lrbr~lcrit
bounclnry lnyrrs

The t,l~coryof tJic origin of turbulence presented in Chap. X V I l leads to t h e

conelusion, which agrccs with mcasurcmmt,s, t h a t transition from laminar t o tur-
bulent~flow in 1,lie bountlnry Inycr occurs a t n place which tics n small distance down-
stxeam from the vclocity rnaxi~nuri~ of t,lic external stcream.For t,his rcnson, and by
way of approximntion, it is permissi1)lc t,o base thc calculz~tiona t the point of transi-
tion on t h e value t,hatt corresponds t , a~n cxtcrnal flow with a zero pressure gradient.
Accorcling t o the definition of II in win. (22.4) the latter is equal for laminar a ~ i d
turt)ulcnt boundary Iaycrs, namely

If t,hc bo~~tndnrylaycr is already tdrbulcllt a t x = q , i t is necessary to employ tho

corrosporiding local valr~csG(zl) and N(xl).
5. Applicntion of the mcthod. The approximate mcthod described in the preceding
paragraphs can bc applicd wit,h ease bccausc only simple integrations are required. Fig. 22.8. Turbulent boundary layer on a wing aorofoil in adverso premuro grndicnt [R4]; cnsc Idcut
Such dct.ailcd caloulat.ions have been performed for all experirncntal d a t a (33 sets) 2100: a = (z- xl)/(x - sN) wliere zl = initial lneasuring station (start of measorement), X N =
collected in 1543; in particular, using cqn. (22.22), tlic calculations yielded tlie vari- final measuring station (end of measurement). Meaaured points by G. B. Schubaucr and 1'. 8.
at.ion R3(x) of tfhcReynolds number formed with t h e energy thickness a s well as t h e Klebnnoff. Theory - full line - after eqns. (22.22) and (22.26). a) Reynolds n~rn~bcr; I)) uhnpe
corresponding variation I l ( z ) of the modified shape factor aftcr eqn. (22.2B)t. I n t,11is fnctor~Ill*nnd I I
manner, t l ~ cpract,ical calculations inclutled vcry diverse extcrnal flow rcgimcs and
so covercd a wide range of applications. Figure 22.8 illustrat~esthe comparison bc-
tween tlieory and mcasurement for a n aerofoil in an adverse pressure gradient. Similar
comparisons for ot,hcr meas~iremcnt.~ are shown in Figs. 22.9a, b:. The latter diagram
contains a comparison of calculated and measured valucs of the Iteynolds number
and of t,l~eshape factor for the measuring stlation located furthest downstream.
Deviations from the straight linc const.itr~t.ea measure of the quality of the approxi-
mate method. The comparison for logR3 contained in Fig. 22.9a is satisfactory,
part.icularly if account is taken of the fact t h a t excessive demands on the accuracy
of calculat.cd valucs of the Reynolds number arc of no great practical significance.
According t o t.licory, the six sets of rneasurc~nentsillustrated in Fig. 22.9b for
which I2 < I l s cxl~ibitincipient scpamtion. Measurements have confirmed this, arid
Ref. [ J 141 cont,ains a more dctailcd discussion of t,I~iscircumstance. The sets of mea-
surements designated ldent 1500 ant1 Idcnt 2600 show particularly large dis-
crepancics I)ct.wccn Ll~coryant1 rneas~~remcnt. Thc casc Itlent 1500 rcprcscnts a re-
attached boundary laycr bnhind a ledge. I t is understandable t h a t t8hc preceding Fig. 22.9. Turbulent bouudary layer data taken from 33 sets of mensurer~lentswith diKercnt velo-
method is not quit,e sat,isfactory in this casc a s far as the calculation of the Reynolds city distributions in the free stream; plotted points refer to end station at ZN. Measurements (sub-
script Illpas) nftcr [R4]. 'rheory (n~lbucriptI'h) aa in eqns. (22.22) nntl (22.25).n) ~bynoltlsru~mber
number ant1 of t,hc shnpc factor is conccrncd. Case Idcnt. 2600 rcfcrs t o n so-callcd
equilibrium boundary le.yer formed uncicr a n external stream with U ( z ) x-0.255.
Townscnd [IIOa] investigated a similar boundary layer, ne.mely one with T J ( x )
- - RB; b) shnpe factor 11

x-0.234. IIc obtained t.he value B = 0.748 for the shape factor which differs consider-
ably from t#hc~ncasnretlvalue Ei = 0.823. Thc appyoximate method yields If = 0.731.
At Lhc prcscnt time it is not possible t o explain the reason for these discrepancies.
To conclutlc, we wish t,o draw the reader's at$ention to the fact t h a t the simple
t \1'e have introdrlccd corrcct.iot18for t.lirec-tli~~~er~niotlal
bot~vcr~ci~cc
eflccts ill order t,o account for a possible
or divnrgenco of nt.rcntlllincn. Tile correction wns based on t,l~e~nethotlof J.C.
Ihttn 1861. C f . mn~nrkon p. 676
: 'rl~cdingrnnis inc.lrltlc t01c crlnrs of axially nyt11~11ct,ric
flowd discus8ed in See. XXII d 1.
assumption regarding the coefficient CD from cqn. (22.8b) for dissipated work is only
conditionally valid because it describes merely it,s variation wit21 t,he local Rcynolds
number and shape factor. A more accurate calculation would have t o include tlie
effect of the upstream portion of the boundary layer on CD (cf. here tlie irlvcstigation
in [86]).
power of x, say U(x) -
I n cases when the extternal velocity can be assumcd to be proport*ional t o a
xp with p = const, the application of our method becomes
very simple. Let, us assume t h a t the turbulent boundary layer starts a t x = 0 with-
out a laminar inlet portion so t h a t the constants of intcgmtion in cqns. (22.22a) alltl
 I). 'I'l~rrnlc111:rfion of t.\vo-di~nrnniondI.nrbr~lrnt.ho~n~tlnry
Inyrrs 687
(22.26) vi111ir~11.
'S11r r e q l ~ i r c rint,cgrnls
l c a n b c writkrn in closed form, a n d w e obt,ain
rcspcctively. For eqvilibriuni bo?cnrlnry layers for which Ille(z) = e o n ~ tnnd Ilzo(r) r o ~ ~ s t . -
we obt,nin
as seen from eqn. (22.281~).
- - -
hl(z) &(x) &(x) z(I-~D)~"+~),

Total drag: 'The form drng of n hody in a ~ t r c a nC ~ O I I S ~ S ~of

R skill f r i r t i o ~ant1
~ I ~ ~ C S S I I ItCl r : ~ ~ .
Tho skin frict.ion is the integral of shearing stresses taken over the srrrface of thc body. 1Svon in
cnnna \viI,l~t~nt ~ r l ) n ~ . : ~ .itl ~ini nnc(:cunary
~~ to a011 1.110 11re.s.viircflr(~qt,t~skin frif.tion. 'I'II(- ~ r i ~ofi l ~
- t.he 1)rcssrlrc tlrng lies in the f;ic:t t11aL thc! boundtrry Isycr cxcrh a ~Iis~)lncctncnL artit~nO I I 1110
w i t h 1) = 0.162, + -+-
-- 2 ( 1 4 1)) /?, = 0.0127, c = 4.0, r = 1 (3 2 8 ) p a n d n = external stream. 'l'l~cstren~nlineof the potential flow are displaced from the contonr of the body

-
I -12 ( 1 -1- b ) p. I'or n givcn v n l r ~ cof p t,lln s h n p c f a c t o r is I l ( z )==const,. 'l'hia Inenns
t.hnt, for 11(:1.) .7:p IVD nro tlcnling will1 n self-sirnilnr solrgtion ( c q u i l i l ~ r i r ~ rI,ountlnry
Inyrr). 'I'l~o c:nsc p 5 0 rol)re~c*nI..s
~r
n I l : ~ t1)lnt.o at z r r o incitlcnce wit,11 lJ(:r) = U, =
hy nn a~notrnt,eqnnl to t,l~ctlisplnce~nentthickncrrs. This motlifirs sorncwhnt thn prmsrlrr rlis-
tri1111tionon tlte holly unrfnoc. In contrnst wit.11~n)Lc:~~tial
of this 1)rc:nnnrc ~lisI.~~ibnLion
llow (cl'Alc1111)~:rt's
~notlilirtl11y friclion 110 1011gt~r v~inisl~ru
~ ~ T I L I I O X )Iht:
~ I I I L~)rv(I~~r(vi
. rcs~~It.i~(~t
n I)rrsattr(: (Irilg
wI1ic.11 I I I I I ~ ~be
. added t,o skin friction. The two togeLhcr give lorttr drog. l'hr c-nlrnli~tion ol- fort11
co11st.. drag which is determinet1 by t,lre ~ n o m c n t n ~tl~irkncss n a1 t.hc t,rnili~~g edge will I)o tlisc~~sscd in
det.ail in Chal). XXV.
Non-sepnrntina boundary layers: Thc ~~rcnuurc drag rc~nainssmnll only if scpamtion m n be
avoitled. 'Shis ccrn be ncl~icvctlby l l ~ cI)ropc!r clcuign of t.l~enhnpc of tho 1)otl.y. 'l'hc srlf-~imilnr
Innlir~nrflows dinc11~8ctfin (;thnpn. Vl 1 1 ant1 IX tillbrcl cxnl~~p~cfl of flo~vswhic:ll (10 nol. Irllcl to
power Iau. U(z) -
separation in the prtxence of an adverse prcssnrc gradient. When t.hc external flow follows the
zp, separation occun in lnminar flow for values of p s < --0.09. T h r corrcspond-
ir~gvalrrc in tr~rt~nlcnt flow is obtnined fro111cqn. (22.28b) by suhstit>nt.ingin it. N = Ns < 0.723.
Thi~ qivw p~ < - 0.27, wherem A.A. Townsend [IlOa] indicntm the valrre p s < - 0.234. This
nignifien that a tnrb~~lcnt, honndnry lnyer cnn sl~stnina considerably lnrgcr adverso prcsaurc
urpartrling ~ , I I ~ tlocn
gri~tlicnt.~\,il,hot~t, I I n I I ~ I I I ~ I I I1)01111tlnry
L~ l~iycr.Self-nirnilnr uol111~io11 givf*11 l1i111,
on how 1.0 srrcrngc?1.110 prr-?.nure dinlribation i l l c~rtlt?rIn) n~~skrin 1,hc 1t1r4(.nt. onni nil do IIIIVI'~H(! JlrI~HHIIIo
gradient without separation. A pressure dislribution that s t a r k wiLh a large and continues with
O' O.? dL 0:6 i8 1.;
Fig. 22.10. Tnrhnlrnt bonr~tlnry n deoren.~ing adverse pressure gradient generates a thinner boundary laycr and ~nakcsi t possible
- laver
. on a bodv to u~~stnin n Inrgo t,otnl I)ressnro incren~ct.llnn n, i~nifor~n gratliont, wonltl. This fact wnn rt~nfir~nrd
of rrvolution wit11 initially strong prcssnrc tine cxperirnontnlly I)y (:. U. Scl~ul)auurand W.C. Sl~nngor~borg [!I&!] rrnd I I B. ~ S. Ft.reLl;)rtl (10.iJ. I\

lheory
Sdrnt 4000: ii -
entl t,ransition to constant prrssnre [R4]; cnac
( x - XI)/(%- XN), where xl
= initial measuring station (start of meaaure-
critical review of different methods of cnlculatir~gthe position o t the point ol' s c p a r a t i o ~is~ con-
tnined in [17].
Re-attaching boundary layers: More recent contril~ntionsconcerning t.lm partic.~~lnrly intcr-
08
rnrnt). Z N = finill ~ncasllring station (end of esting m e wlren a separated shear layer re-attaches itnclf to the wall and clcvelops furt,l~eras a
boundary laycr in the downstream direction arc rontainctl in the papor I I 1'~. Rr~rtlnl~:iw 1rnc1 1'. Y.
07 n ~ c n s u r r ~ ~).~Measured
cnt pointi by Mosrs (case 5) F. Wong 1141 na well na P. Wauschkuhn and V. Vmantn llin~n11171. The tliscussion rclatrs to a
Theory (fnll line). boundary layer which has separated a t a backward-facing stcl~.The esscntinl dill'crcncc bct\vecn
a ) ILynolcls nnrnher R1; b) shape factor I l l 2 such a houndary layer and a "normal" bol~ndarylayer, for c x a n ~ j ~on l c n flnt p1a.k or nn aerofoil,
0 02 OL 06 08 10
X consist8 in the fact that its turb~ilcncestructrrre h~ hcro~ncst.rong-ly disturbed by the prior
~ r e i t very climcr~ltto for~nulatca proccrJurc for
separation. Such a pcrt.nrhat,ion in s t . r ~ l c t ~n~altcs
calcnlation. P. Wanscl~ltul~n nnd \'. Vnssnta Ram [I 171 report ~neasurcmentsof wall nhcar stress,
6. Rc~narkson tile bel~nviorirof turL111ent boundnry layers in the presence of n pressure mean-velocity di~t,rihntionand Iteynolds ~t,ress in the rc-attached laycr and describe ro~nparisons
grndirnt. 'Sl~c!apl~licntinnof the method described in Chap. X X I l b 4 to turbulent boundnry layers wit11 several eval~rnt,ionprocedures.
lrndn 11s to the c~tlc~~lation of t,hc vnri:rt.ion along the llow of the Keynoltls number Ra(z) fornlcti
wit11 t l ~ energy
r t,l~ivkneru,fin(%),and of that of t,lrc n~odificdshape factor H(z). Adrlitional quanti- 7. Turbulent boundary layem with suction and injection. The possibility of ir~flncncingthe
tics pcrtnining to the bonndnry In.yer cnn be ol>tnincd hy adding .the re la ti or^^ depicted in Figs. Bow in a boundary lnyer by blowing or snctiot~in of s o ~ n cpract,icnl iniportnnco. ~~arlicnlnrly with
22.6 and 22.7. a view to increasing the maxin~urnlift of aerofoils. The p r o m d ~ ~ for
r o cnlculntit~glaminar hortndnry
.
,I hr Ilr,yt~oltlastressos (lo not change rr111r11~rlongstrnalnli~~rs in rclnl.ivnly short t ~ ~ r b ~ ~ l e ~ t layers with suction was given in Soc. XIV h; t.ho corrcspondir~g111cthot1for n b~rhr~lrnt. ho1111t1ary
I ~ o ~ ~ n t l nlirycrn
ry in 1 . 1 1 ~~1rcsc1Iccof atFOllg pW38111.C gradic~rLq.It. O . Doissler 1261 dc~nonstmte~l laycr wns discusbed in Scc. X X I a .
that, t,hc n~snn~pt.ion o f a constant shearing stress can lead to good agreement betarell ealrr~lat.ion A procedure for the calculation of a trtrh~~lcnt houndary laycr with I~omogenroussuct,ion
and ~ncnsnrc~nr~rf ; It(: also s~~ccccded it1 calculating heat-t.rn118fcrcoeflicients for tr~rbulo~lt
bollnd. and blowing on a flat plate a t zero incidence wna first fortnulat~dby H. Schlicht,ing [!)0]. Expcri-
nry 1:ryrr.s 1261 by t.110 nsc of the same n~et.l~od. mental invcstigatione and a comparison between them and theory were discvbed in See. XXIa.
I
I
Boendnry layer tl~ickness: When t,ho vnlucs of II(k) n.rc kno\v11, t,he diagram in Fig. 22.0 The preceding procedures were extended by W. Pechau [75] and lt. Eppler [32] to inclnde the
yields the roln.tion 111z(a.) = 1ftz[1f(z)l and Ilzn[ll(~)].111 turn, employing the deAnit.ions given ewe of an arbitrary velocity distribution -vo(z) of suction velocity. The rtxulk obtained by
in eqna. (22.:31), c), we ran cnlcnlate the disj~laoen~ent tl~icknessand the motnentr1111thicklless these methods are discossed in [92, 941. They contain further calculatio~~s performed with the aid
of this procedure; they illustrate the effect 01' the magnitude and position of the suction zone on
the minimum suction flow required to eliminate sepnrstion on ncrofoils. I t turns out that tlle
optimum arrangement is to concenLrate the auction zone in a narrow region on tho suction side
of the mrofoil and to place i t a t n short distance behind the noso. This is undcrstnndahlc, b e c a ~ ~ s o
 b. Tho calcnlntion of two-dimensional t~~rbrllont
bonndary ltrycrs 689
688 X X J I . The incon~prcssiblct,c~rb~rlent
bountlary lnycr

the largest. local advcrse prcssurc gradicnta occur in that region when the angles of i~icidet~ce
large. The required nlir~imunisuctiotl m b ~ns , described by the suction cocfficicnb co.,,{,
arc
are
of tJie ordor of 0.002 to 0.004. A. k w p t [78] performed flight mensure~nontson wings provitlcd
with su(:tion a t the nosc.
-
1) without Injection

-.-I -
dl wilh injection
slil ,

AnoI.hcr clli?ct.ivc?11icLl1ot1lo incrrrr.qe ~ ~ t r r r i n t l oli/ltr

dcflcc!t.ion :~nglc,co~~sista ! )arl,icnlarly
in Ll~cinjccliou of :t I . l ~ i t ijet of * atr
in wings with a large flap-
of largc vclority closc to the nosc of
the flnp, I'ig. 22.11. 'J'his drt'icc inll)arI~a consi~lcmhlcarnon~itof enrrgy to the tr~rbnlcntbounrl.
nry lrtycr antl C ~ I I S C S i t to atlherc lo 1.1ic wing. 'rhc p i 1 1 in lift acliicvcd by this tuethod call be
esbi~natctlby co~nparingt,l~cpressnrc dist~ril)ut,iormof t,lm flnp wing with and w i t l ~ o t ~eparixtion, ~t
rwpect,ivcly. According to ,I. Willinrns [122], t~l~reffcotivencssof (.hejet can be judged wit11 reference
to t.l~rtli~nrnsionlr~a I ~ I ~ I I I C I I ~ I I cocfficicnt
III

wl~cre11, c1c11otcs t.hc vclociby of tshc jet anti n rcprcnolta i b witlt11. F. 'l'l~o~itns [log, 1101 gain in /I//
]~wfortnodrxlcnsivc nlc:rni~rr~i~cnt.~ o n t,hc rlli:ct.ivc~l~w
of injcctiol~Tor tlrc il~crcnnoin the lift h
of Ilnl, wings. 110 W.ZS RIRO able to for~nul:rtc?a procedure whicl~allows us to calc~rlntet,hc value -
of thc ~notncntn~ii c~ocflicict~t
rcquircd to avoid separation h injection through a slit into a
turbulent boundary Iaycr. In addition, I?. Thomas [I001 perLrmed detailed measuremente in separated /low zm
Lhc turl~nlcnt1)orrnd:rry lirycr I~chindan injcct,ior~slit. Sirriilarly, iuvratigations were perforn~ed
by P. Cnrri6ro and 15. A. Eichclbrenner[lC,J on t.hc q~tcsl.ionof the rct,urn of a ~ e p a r a k dboundary
Iaycr in a large ildvcrsc presstire gradient throngh t,hc application of a tangent.ial jet.
H. Srhlirht.ing rgl] gave n ~ l i o r st n n ~ n ~ a of
r y irivc~t.igat~ions into tho prol)lcni of increasing Fig. 22.1 1. Flnt wing \vit,h i~ijectionthrortgl~n ulit a t thc nose of Lhc 11111)for t.ho I ) I I ~ ~ ) O H Vol' ~ I I I . I . < : I ~ -
the n ~ a x i ~ n ilift
~ ~ofn wings by snit,nl~lycontrolling t,hc boundary layer. sing maximum lift; a) separated flow, rvithout injection; b) adhering flow with injecl,ion; c) pros-
If a dilfcrctit g w is injccLcd into :r t ~ i r b ~ ~ l Ic) nO tI I I I ~ I I ~ ~I~rycr,
,V wc nrc agail~faced witell a sttrc tIist,ribntion: d ) vclocit,y dist,ribt~tionin t.110 bormdary layer(
Oinnr!y lnyer, .w was the cwc wit11 Iarninar flow (Scc. XIVc), in which t l ~ cconcc~~tratioti varies
thro~tghouttlw flow field. Various physical hypotheses 11avc bcen proyoscd in order to bc in s
position t o analyssc the procrss of injection into a t ~ ~ r b ~ r boundary lct~t layer. 11. L. Turcotte [115]
amllrrlcs that the proccss of tliixing is c~sc~~li:rlly conlplcte in the larninar sublayer and derives
in this manner an approxin~ateformrrla for t,l~eshcnring atreas a t the wall for the case of an in-
c:o~nprenaiblcIl~~irl. 'l'hc for~nnlawm extended to i ~ ~ c h compressible
~dc boundary Iaycn; i h form in:

111 this cqontion, the sobacril~ttu rcfcrs to the wall, thc subscript 0 relaks Lo the ewe without
injection and t l ~ csrlbscript 1 dracribcs tlic frce ~ t r c n n ~T.l ~ cvalidity of the preceding equation
haa bee11 c o n f i r m ~ ~
byl rl~enn~~rclncnta
lwrforlncd by several authors on plaks and cones a t Mach
nunibers ranging from 0 to 4.3.
Extensive m~wurementaon tile c(fect of the injection of an otlier gas on Llie shearing strew
a t the wall in boundarv layera formed on cotlea in wmpresaible flow have been reported upon q = hont flax
by C. C. I'appna and A: I?. Okuno [731. T,,= rrrovary lanilrcmt.rlrr
T,,,
=- WIIIItn~~~lwrntllrr
M. W. Jtnbesin aud C.C. Pappna [UU] propo~cda mixing-length theory for tho calculation 5, = 3bnntoll nr~llll)crIn tllo
of the effecta of the injection of a foreign gas into a turbulent boundary layer. This waa applied sbaenco of Injection
to the calculation of thc rate of Itwit transferred from the wall, and the corresponding results
for the injcction of hcliu~nand hydrogen are shown in Fig. 22.12; they have been plotted along
with experimental results for comparisoti. The latter show an even larger decrease in heat transfer
mka than predicted by the theory. By contrast, the dcovery factor seems t o be affected but
IitLle by the injection of a lighter gtw, in a t>ttrbulcntas w&IIaa in a laminar boundary layer.
Expcrin~enbin w11icl1 a heavy gnn (froon) was blown into a Larb~~ictit boundary layer of Fig. 22.12. Heat-transfer rates for a binary bouiidary layer on a flat plat,c a t zero incidence with
air yiclcled approximnlcly idrnt(icn.1velocity profiles ns those in which air was discharged, even the injection of hydrogen or lielium int,o air in a turbulent bonndnry Iaycr, after M. W. ltlrbcsin
thong11 t.lie cleosit,.y ratio of the gascs between t,he wall and outer edge of the boundary layer wna a n d C. C. Pappna [UU]. Comparison between theory ant1 mcanl~ren~cnt for t,ho St.anlon nrlrnher
ns 1iigI1 as 4. &x(:ept for t,l~ccnec of an adverse prcwure gmdicnt or of very vigorous blowitig, S = q/el ti1 cpl (T,- T w )
the pl~ct~omena ran I)e tleorribed quite well with the aid of Prandtl's mixing-lengt,ll theory.
690 XXII. Thc iticompre~niblcti~rbi~lorit
boundnry lnycr c. Turl~~ilcnt
boitndnry l n y n r ~on ncrolniln: mnxiniictn lilt 691

8. Bonnclnry lnyers on cn~nhere~l wnlls. Two-dimensional boundary laycrs on

curved walls have been ir~vestigatedby 1%.Wilcken [121] (see also A. Retz [4]). I f 0
the wall is concave the faster p ~ r t i c l e sare pressed against i t by cent,rifugal forccs and
slower particles are deflected away from it. Th11s the process of turbalet~tmixing
which takes place between faster and slower fluid particles is accent~rat~ecl and the
intensity of t~lrhltlenceis increased. The rcvcrsc is t,rue of r ~ n v e zwalls in t,l~encig11-
borrrhoocl of wliicll t,he faster particles are forcctl riway from t11c wall, the slower
particles being pressed towartls it,, ancl t ~ ~ ~ r b u lmixing
ent is impeded. Conseqner~t,ly
with equal pressure gradients, the thicltnws of a turbulent boundary laycr on a
concave wall is greater than, ant1 t h a t on a convex wall is smaller than, t h e illieklless
on a flat plate. 11. Schmiclbaucr [96] cxtcnded Gruschwitz's method t o inclucle the
case of convex walls. Further rcslllts were provitletl by G.L. Mellor [ l o l a , 101b] and
R. N. Meronry and P. Dradshnw [65a] ant1 13. R. Ramaprian and 13. G. Shivaprasad
[77a]. S - sepnrntlon;
T = trnnsltlon
c. Turbttlent boltndnry layers on nerofoils: maximuna lift
A very comprcl~ensivesurvey of the prol~lcmof high-lift of ae,rofoilshas recently
been given by A . M . 0.Smith [101]. I n tiis following, we proposc to dealwith t,hc theore-
tical t~qpoctsof calc~~lat~ing the maximum lift of nerofoils. Fig. 22.13. Prwure distribution on an
wrofoil in aepnrated flow, after K. Jacob
I t is wall ltno~vnthat t,hc maximum lift of an aerofoil is a.ssot:iat.stl wit11 t.lle [47], nt two different Reynolds numbers
separation of the bortndary layer oti its srlction side. 'J'hus the theoretical preclict,ion R = Vllv
of the nlaximrtrn lift must deal wit.11 t,he prcssurc di~tribut~ion of a n aerofoil scct,io~~
with partly separated Row and with the int.eraction between this pressure disbribut.ion
and t.he bo~~rltlnry laycr. This prohlcm 11n.sbeen at,t.ncltcd by K. Jacob [47]; sce also
the summary articlc by G. K. Korbacher [55]. Figure 22.13 refers t.o a. prof le a t tile
rather large angle of incidence of ac = 10.7", and presents some theoret,ical and experi-
mental results for the pressure distribution. The pressure distributions (a) and (b)
for the two Reynolds numbers, R = 0.4 x 105 and 4.2 x 105, differ considerably:
for t,he low Reynolds nr~mberthe flow on t.t~esuction side of the profile is nearly fully
separated; a t t,l~ehigher Reynolds number, the flow is only part,ly separated, S being NACA 2L12
the point of separation. 130th pressure dist,ributiona are cltaract.erized by a rat,l~er
-
long stretch of nearly constant pressure on the suction side of t,he aerofoil. I n t.he
separated acre in terms of the potential flow theory, these pressure distribut,ions are
calculat.ed by nssrtming that there exists a region of "clead air" on the suct,ion side
wit,h approximat.cly constant pressure a t its boundaries. With a surface singularity
n~et*l~od such a region can be simulated hy an out,flow region produced by a cert,ltin NACA 61-210
distribution of sources on t.he aft part of the suction side of the profile. R~alizingtl~is,
the main prohlcm now is to determine how the Reynolds number influences separ-
ahion. 'l'l~is is achieved wit>h t,hc aid of boundary-layer theory in the following way:
in t,I~epotential-flow cnlcr~lnt~ion t l ~ e1ocnl.ion of the point of separa.tion is treated as a
free paraniet,cr. 3'11s determinat.ion of this parameter is achieved by combining the 0
R
cnlc~ilnt.ionof the pressure disl,ribr~tionof thc potential flow with separation wit.11 the
Fig. 22.14. Lift coefficient e L against angle Fig. 22.15. Maximum lift coefficient of an
calc~~lat~ion
clistribr~t~ion. I
of t.he laminar or tltrbr~lctttboundar layer generated by this pressure
An "atleclnatc flow" demands t,hat t le point of separat,ion of the bound-
ary laycr must coincicle wit,h the point of' separation of the potential flow with a
of incidence a for an nerofoil with a slat.
Thsory by I<. Jncob snd D. Steinboch
ncrofoil c , , ~ , , na n function of ltryt~olds
n~nnbcr,nfter I<. Jncob [47]
tlmfl-n.ir rcgiott; the rccluirctl rcsult is achicvcd by iteration. In this way the point of [48], n~enaurctr~ents by W. Baumert [3]
scpnmt.ion anrt be locatetl. The cnle111n.l.ionbring.9 to hear t.hc influence of the Rey- (a) I,heory, rusltrnlt~glnvlsrld flow rmfh slnt
(b: tlteory. ass11111isgvlscotls flow wifhoul slnt
noltls nr~mljrr,h ~ c a r ~ sthe
e lomlinn of the point of sepnrat,ion of n tnrbulent bound- (r) theory. nsaun~lngviscous flow wilh slat
002 XXI1. Tl~oinro~nprc~sil~lc!
tt~rb~rlent
boundary lnycr

ary layer dcpends on the Reynolcls number. Figure 22.13 shows t h a t for the pressure
distribution of the profile G o 801 thcre cxists rather good agreement between experi-
ment and the trheory ~intlcr~onsidcrat~ion.
The theory was extended t o multi-element aerofoil systems with separation [48].
Additional result,s, especially on t h e lift, are presented in Fig. 22.14. The diagram
dcmonst,rat,csthat, the curve of the lift coefficient versus the angle of incidence Cr,(n),
and especially the maximum lift coefficicnt C[,max, for a n aerofoil NACA 64-210
with a slat is considerably improved by tho slat. The agreement betwecn theory and
experiment is quite satisfacttory here, too. Finally, Fig. 22.15 shows the dependence
of the maximrim lift coefficient, CL,,,,, of the profile NACA 2412 on t.he Reynolds
number, R. The increase in thc maximum lift coefficicnt with increasing Reynolds
number, which is ohcrved in experiments, is well confirmed by the theory.
Calculations of maximilm lift of wings in laminar flow have bcrn performed by
G. 11. Goradia rt, al. [37, 381.
11. Three-dimensional boundary layers
General remarks: The phys~calnature of a three-dimensional boundary layer is
charact,erized by the fact t h a t the direction of the velocity in t h e interior of the bound-
a r y layer dcviat,cs considerably from t h a t in the outer flow. This is brought about
by a pressure gradient t h a t acts a t a n angle t o t h e main flow. As a result, there occur
vigorous scconclary motions, cf. Fig. 11.1 in Chap. X I . A good example of such a
flow pntlc~rr~ is r o ~ ~ t n i r ~in l mmsurrmrnts pcrformcd by 1L.C. Snrlidcva and J. TI.
c cLhc
l'rcston [a!)] in thc bountlary laycr on a ship's hull.
There exists a summary account describing the calculation of three-dimensional,
incompressible bounciary layers prepared by J.C. Cooke and M. G. Hall [23]; it deals
pr~dominant~ly with laminar boundary layers. A comprehensive monograph on tur-
bulent three-dimensional boundary layers was published by J . P . Nash and V.C.
Patel [70]. The analytic calculation of a general case, for example t h a t of the bound-
ary layers on swept or delta wings, is still very difficult, even though numerorls
proposals of such met.11ods exist. Ilcre we may mention, for example,-the work of
N . A . Cumpsty and M. R,. Head [24], J. C. Cooke [22], P. Bradshaw [7], L. F. East
[29], 1t. klicl~clc t nl. [FG], and A. Elscnanr and R . van den Berg 1.311 anrl F.M. White
et, : ~ l .[ L 18:1]. 'l'hc prcsrnt st,al;ns of rcscnrch in this ficld was rcvicwcd by Fannelocp
a t n syn~j)osinn~ hcltl in Trondhcin~in 1076 [30a]. 111 what, follows, we sllnll describe
sevcrnl simplcr examples of t,l~rec-dimensionalturbulent boundary layers. The state
of the t,hcorg is, howcvcr, still unsat,isfact,oryt.
e,
1. Boundary layers on bocliea of revolution. C.B. Millikan [67J'was the first t o
e n l c n l a t ~a t,url)r~lentboundary laycr on a body of revolution, the method having been
based on t.hc momeninurn irltcgral equat,ion. The relevant rnomc~ltr~m equation was
At the aft portion of n body of revoh~tionthe two derivatives, tlN/tl:t: :lntl
dR/dx, become negative. I t followsfrorn the precedingequation t h a t t h r ~norncnt~r~rn
tdliclzncss dz(x) increascs ancl becomcs very Iwgc there. This may orcnt.c circ~rnl-
stances which nullify thc main assurnpt~ionof boundary-layer theory, ~ ~ x r n r lt y, l ~ a t
6, < IE. As a consequence, t,hc calculat,ion near the but,t o l t,he body of rcvolut.ion
may become crronco~lsanrl thc posit,ion of the rrgion of scpnration cannot IJC tlctrr-
mincd reliably. According to F . M . White [II!)], cqr~ation(22.31) romnirls rts:~I~lc
when the local Reynolds nmnber satisfies the contlition t h a t
U(l) R(2:)
v
> 1000.
1'. S. Crranvillc [39] forinulated a mt~ltiparamcter~)roccdnrefor tho cnlc~~lntion
of t.urbulcnt boundary layers on rotat,ionnlly symmetric botlies ~~lacccl in an asin.lly
tlirccttctl st,rcam. 'l'hc nlcthod I~ingcso n trlic c n l ~ u l a t ~ i ool'~ motncnt~um
? t~llirl~ncss
ant1
of a shapc factor and can bc used for the aft portion of the 1)otIy where t.hr I)o~intlnry
layer thickness is of the same order of magniturlc as thc local ratlius of t . 1 1 ~I~otly.
In a manncr similar t o t h a t used for t.wo-dimensional I~onntlnryIayr~.s, 'I'I.II(:~ZCII-
brodt [ I l l , 1141 was able t o show t h a t t,he use of the encrgy intcgral r(l\iat,ioll leads
to a n explicit integral formula for .the calculat,ion of the s?l.crgljthiclinc~s.If a: tlcnot,cs
the current, arc length measured along n mcridiarl, and ]((a) the radius of a, scc.t,ion
norrnal to tho axis of sylnmctry, then t.ho cxt,cnsion o f ccln. (22.22n) Tor 1.11~.Itc.y~~oltls
number formed with the energy thickness can now be written
r -,l/llIbl
The numerical constants b and v' should be taker1 from eqn. (22.22b) ancl the constant
of integration is
I n the more recent form~ilat~ion
[114], the equation for the modificd shape laclor in tllc
axially symmetric case contains the function describing thc variation of the bocly
radius.This is in contrast with the earlier formulation [l 111 according to which the
motlified shape factor was the same for bodics of rcvolut,ion and t,wo-tli~t~c~t~sior~al
bodies. The generalized form of eqn. (22.25) is now
whore t,he influence functions for the radius and cxtrrnal velocity distril)r~t.io~~s
nrc
Z
~ ( 1= I
Z

) ~ ( x +~ ) Ill+b U2(l+b)d z ; N(x) = N ( r l ) 1 c / IIl-'h lJ2("h)I'GC-' tlz.

given in eqn ( I I 39). Using our prcsrrlt notatio?, we can write it as 2, 21

The constants of integration are

IJrre R(T) tlrnolcs thc radil~sof the local cross-section of thc hody of revolution. G(x1) = v' [ l € ( r l ) {IE(x1)}'+"U(x1)}'+26 {R3(rl)}1+b];
N ( x i ) = [U(xi) G(.zi)/I~(xi)lC.
t "It in c l ~ r i 111111 d('l)l.?R~illg
o ~ ~ ~ tllnt. t.11~marc ~opllint.icnl.rd
t,llr t,l~rory,
t l ~ poorrr
r is tllr agrco~ner~t
\ v i l . l ~ rxp(vi111rnI8"(I?. M. \\ll~ilc[I 191 p. 54!1). 'I'hr nr~mcricnlronstants follow from rein (22.2Gb).
 Tho diagrarns in Fig. 22.10 show a comparison bctwccn tllcory nntl mrnsrlrcrnrnt
in flow past nn axially symmetric body; the diagrams plot the Itrynoltls ~ ~ u n i b e r
formed with trhc cncrgy t81~icloicss
ant1 the modificrl shape fnctor.
Tn order to take into acconnt correct,ions due 1.0 thrcc-di~~rc~~sio~ralit~y r:111srt1by
the possible convergence or divergence of streamlines, J . C . I t o t t s [8F] proposcs t o
base the calcr~lntionon a n clTccLive radius R ( z ) . N ~ ~ m c r i c avnlurs
l for R ( n ) nrr snm-
rnnrizctl in [86] for all ~ncnsr~rcrnolts cntnlog~~rcl in 1541; comI)nrc Iir1.t: t,lic I I I ~ ~ : ~ , s I I I . ( ~ -
tnrrils 1)y Mi.\\'. \4rillmnrt,h c t xl. 1122~1nntl A . M . O . Stnit,lr Il0.l-a].

2. Bn~tt~clnry lnycrs OII rntntiltg hndiea. 'J'l~t: calt:rll:~t.io~~

Fig. 22.1 0. filorx~t~~rl IIIII f l)ic.kl~osnra
dz, nrlrl
nxinl s l r ~ : r r nncr
~ ~ , 0. I'nrr [74]
daZ rind d., from cqn. (11.60) rolrtlnn p a r r n ~ r t c r A,
Reynnlcls n l l n ~ b r rR - - I!, n,lr = 3 10,
ol' I:inlin:~t. l)o1111tl:i1.~
layers oti rotat,ing botlies placcd i r ~an axiril s t r c n ~ nwns clisoussotl i l l Scr. S 1 c.
The m c t l ~ o d of cnlcrilntion which maltcs usc of ntomc-nt.11n1 int.cgl;ll t~t~r~;ltions,
formulated for the nieridional ant1 t:irc~~rnfcrent.inltlirrc:t.ions rcsprc~tivc4y, Ii;~s
been cxtc~~clctl by R. Trucltenbrotlt 11121 to inclt~tlrt.hc ~rirbulrnt,c.:~sc.. IT(: wn.s,
moreover, fortunato t o s~lcccctlin giving convcnicnL intcgr:ils l i ~ rt,l~cc~n.lt~111;tt ion ol'
the par:rmetcrs of thc boundary 1:lycr. JCxperimcntnl nntl f11rt11crt~11c~orct.ic::l.l i~~vrs(.i-
gations into the boundary layer on rotnting strcn~nlitrcbotlics wcrc c:nrrirtl o t ~ I)y t
0.Parr 1741. Jn this casc, tho bour~tl:~rylaycr grows rnjjitlly wit.11 t,lro rot.;~l.ion
parnmctcr 2 = (11 R/U,,,; licrc (1) t l c ~ ~ o t ct,I~o voIot:ity, It t , l ~ t : 1:1,1.grst,~.;t(Iius
s n1ig1111~r
of thc body, nntl (I,,, is tho axial rofrrcnc:~vcloc:il,y. 'I'lrc t,~~rln~lt!r~I. I)ot11ir1:11.y 1:iyt:r
on a rotating body of rcvolr~tionplacctl i l l arl :~xinlst.re:ltn cnn I)(: (::~lt:~~l:~.tt:~l \\,it,l~
t h e aid of tllc system of cquat,ions (11.45) t o (11.48), in w l ~ i c lt~l ~ cs11r:tring stress
fizz, 01, n mlnl ir~gbocls of r r v o l ~ ~ l 1)lncctl
i o ~ ~ ill tr11 r n ~ ~ bc
s t nss~lmcdt o vary wit11 t4herot:~t.iorrpnr:lmc?t,t~r.'I'hc tlin.gr:~.tni l l I'ig. 22.16
compares Lhc onlc~rlntctlnntl n~caq~lrt:d vnll~cso l tlto rno~ncnl.r~nr I.l~ic:lit~c:ssc~s 5,, :111tI
-- IV,IU, ,a, as rcportcd by 0. l'nrr [74] for :I cylintlrical botly provitlctl wit.11n. spl~vric.:tIIlosr.
'l'hc ngrccrncnt is good. 'L'lrc rcgion of tmnsition l'ron~ lan~innrt o Lnrl)~tlcntflow
moves forwarcl a s the rotation paramctcr incrcascs; its position coincitlos with t h e
point at, n~lriclr thc momentum tlrickncsscs incrcnsc nl)i-~~j)(.ly. Scc also Scc. X1112.
A ~nctlioclfor thc calc~~lnt~ion o l tll~rrr-tli~~~c~tisionnl
bo11ntl;~ry
.
I:~yc:rs or1 st.:~t.io-
~

rtnry botlics a s ~volla s on rotating orics, silc:lr a s ~>ro[)cllors

or 1)l:rtlcs of rol,:lr.y (:om-
pressors and turbinaq, was inclicntcd by A. Mngcr [Fl]; comparat,ivc mc:tsurc-
m e n b are contained in ref. [621. H. Himn~clskamp[44] carried out mcnsurcmcrlts
i r ~t l ~ cboundary laycr on a rotating airscrcw ant1 tlct.crminctl ioo:~l l i l L cocffiric~rb
of t,l~cblstle frorn mcasurcmcnts of prcssrlrc tlisLribr~Lions.Somc of his rosl~lbsarc?
sccn reproduced in Fig. 22.17; they arc given in the form of plots of l,ltc loon1 lift
cocfficicnt., c,, a t vnrious radial seclions, in t . e r m ~of t,hc nnglc of irlciclcnce, or.
Corrcsporlding mcasurc~nentson n st,nt,ionxry blndc placed in a \vintl t,nrlnnl are
also slrowr~for comparison. Pigurc 22.17 shows tlrnt ~nnrlrr?tlIyi11t:rcasctI lift c o e f l i r i ~ ~ ~ t , ~
nrct obt.aincd near the hub, and the d c c t can LC trnoctl Lo soparation 1)cing clcl:~yccl
t o larger angles of iricidcncc. F o r cxnmplc, ttrc scc:t,ion closcst to the hub h : ~ sI ,
m coefficient of 3.2 compnrcd wit11 1.4 on Utc stat,ionary blatlc. The
m n x i m ~ ~ lift
tlisplacemcnt of s ~ p i r a t ~ i otowards
r~ larger anglcs of incidcr~ccis cxplai~rctlby the
appearance of a n additional acceleration wlrioll acts in t,hc flow tlircction ant1 which
is crcetcd by Coriolis forces; i t has t l ~ samo
c cffcct as n fnvonrablc prnss~~rtr gmtliont.
J'ig. 22.17. I,or,nl lift. c.oeffi(sient*.c,, nt. vnriol~~
111addition, b u t t o a lesser extent, l d ~ cccntrift~gnlforces acting in Cllc bourrd;rry
rntlinl sections on n rot,llt.ingpropeller nccordirlg layer carrictl with the blade exert a beneficial influcncc with rcspcot Lo soparation.
t.o IIII('ARIIRIIIBIIL~
~ w r f o r ~ ~by~ c11.
d lli~nlnclskntl~p
[44]
Ii'luict p,zr~iclesin the hountlarg layer sro actctl upon by s ccntrifugnl forcc whit:h
 fi!)O X S I I. 'rho i~~c:nrnl~rc.ssil~lr
LII~IIIIIWII,l1o1111t1:ir~
I:b.yc.r

is 1)rol)ot't,iot1nlt o 1,110 rntlins. Consccl~lel~tly, loss llr~itlis transportctl t o each blntfc

from t-llc r.ot~t,rrt,llan nw:ry from i t ant1 outwarclu, ant1 t l ~ cbor1ntlnry layer is thinner
t.llnn woltltl be 1,I1ecasc in t~wo-t~itiicnsiotl:rI flow a b o u t tlle s a m c strape. A. Betz 161
gave some t(t~eorct.icnl arglltncnt,~o n 1.llis point. F. G u t s c l ~ e[42J m a d e tile flow o n
a propellor I~lntlcvisil)lc: I)y ~ ~ a i n t i nCllc g fortnor wittll a tlyc. C e ~ ~ t ~ r i f r l forces
gal also a n d tllc momerttrim i t ~ t ~ c g r aclq r ~ a t ~ i omt ~u s t b c srlpplcri~cntatl will1 t,l~o:~tl(lil~ion:rl
term 0 , 1J2/(z -1-a). Conxctlrlcnt.ly, l.l~c: m o m c n l r ~ mi11l,rgr:1.1ecl11a1,ion for (.II(: ~ ) l : ~ . r ~ c ,
r x c r l :r 1 : l . r ~itl~lut:ncc
~ o n t81lcJ)rocc:c~ssof l.mnsi1.ior1. I[. M~lcsnlalln[(j8] sllowctl ill
his t.11c.sis t811:itp,otllcr tdlit~gsb c i r ~ gcqnal, t r a r l ~ i t ~ i ooccurs
n or1 a rotatirlg propeller .of s y m m e t r y which replaces eqn. (22.711) is now
I)la.tlc at. :t. considcrat)ly lowcr Ltcynolcls n ~ l m b c rt , l ~ a no n one wl~icllis stationsr.y.

Fig. 22.18. (YonvorgrnL :tr~tlclivcr- F o r divorgont strcamlincs wa Ilnvc rr. 1- z > 0, anti rc 1- z .-: O c:orrc:xl,on(ls l o n
gent ho~~~lclnrylayers; ~yrrte~n of convergent, s t r c a m , Fig. 22.15'. I t follows ill, onc:c fronl cc111. (22.34) tfill:rtt.l~ci ~ ~ c r c a s o
in t h e moment,nm thic:ktrcss 1)roccctls :lL :I srnallcr rata i t 1 1.11~ case of t l i v c ~ r g c ~:I.II~I~l~,
at a larger r a t e in t h o casc of convc~rgt:nl.sl,m:~~nlitlt:s,I)ol,l~c:otnl):rmtl wit.11 1 . h ~I.wo-
La- ' "n*, tlitncnsiol~:rl case. 'l'l~is rcsrrll, is 1r1so 1.0 IN: t:~l)c:c-lt:~Il't.0111 I I I I ~ s ~ ~t::IoI ~, I~ s i t l ~ ~ ~ ~ : r I i o ~

Boundary lnyer in n corner: 'rl~t:flow in ;L L I I ~ I ) I I I ~ ~ I III~, o ~ ~ n t l :1~:,rr. y ~l'or~ntxl

~
3. (:rct~vcrgc~ttRIICI clivc:rgerli bo~rr~clary layers. 'rhc mctllods for tllc calculat,ion in a rectlangular corner l)cl,wccrl t w o Il:rt w:t.lls was it~vc:sl,igat.crlt.l~t:orol,ic::~~II~~ :I.II~

of t , r ~ r \ ) t ~ l c1)ortntlary
nt l a y r r s wlricl~were tlcscribed in SCC.XXlTb h a v e been ex- exporimentnlly b y I<. Gcrsten 1361 (soc :l.lso Sco. X X I a 4). 'F11c rclnt,ctl ~ ) r o l ) l c ? ~ ~ l
t,cntlntl 11y A. l<nhl [53] t,o i n c l ~ ~ t lcases c W ~ I C I I tJlc st.rcamlincs o i t , ~ ~ c
aotlvcrgc
r or of l h c st,rrtctnre of a t.rlrblllant l ) o ~ ~ r ~ ( lIn.-ycr
: ~ ~ . rrl,
y t,l~ojtrnc:t.io~tof :r c:ylinclrit::~.lI~otly
tlivcrgc sitlcways, Fig. 22.18. J30111itl:~ryIaycrs of t.his tjypc occur in a tlilTuscr o r in ant1 n flnt. pinto wan first consiclcrctl I)y .I. 1'. .jo1111sLon 150, 611 I I . I I ( ~I~il.t~~..
[ti!), 1 1 t 1 ( 1 11101,(-

a nozzle ant1 also n e a r t,he bow o r t h e s t c r n of a body of revoll~tion.I n t h i s connoxion thoroughly, b y 11. G. IIornung ant1 P. N . J o u b c r t 1461; scc also S. G . Itubin [SSa] a n d
t,he m c ? n s r ~ r c ~ r ~tlnc r n b t o G n ~ s c l l w i l zl ~ a v cI)ccn cx1,cntlctl t80 R -- U O,/v = 3 x 10" M. Sliafir a n d S.G. Itubin [90a.].
ant1 his ~ n c l ~ l ~of o t lcalc111aI.iot111:1s ~ C O I gc11t:r:~liz~d
I t o inc111dc this casc a s wcll. As-
suming n sysLrn~of roorclinntas as s l ~ o w nin Fig. 22.18, z a n d z \)cin,n chosor~in Ll~c
plane of t , l ~ cw:LII, ?J bc:irlg tnc:asnrotl r i g l ~ tnnglcs Lo it., we notice t h : ~ talong t h e
st.renmlinc w l ~ i c lcoinciclcs
~ wil.l~tho axis, i. c. along t.l~at,for wl~iclllo -- 0, tlle s a m c [l] Ackeret, J.: Zum Entwurf dicht stehender Schaufelgitter. Schweiz. Bauzeit. 103 (1942).
[2] Baker, R. J., and Launder, B.E.: The turbulent boundary layer with foreign gas injection.
eq~lat,ionof mot-ion is sat,isfietl a s th:~t,fnr t h e t,wo-tliu~cnsio~~:bl r a m , eqn. (8.29). 011 Part I: Meesurements in zero premure gradient. Part 11: Predictions and mc.z.lurerne~~ta in
t.11~o t , l ~ c rI~n.r~cl t , l ~ ccqrlat.ion of rotit.in~rit,yclta.~igcsIn severe streamwiae pressure gradients. Int. J . Hent and Mnss Transfer 17, 276--306 (1974).
[3] Baumert, W., and Enghardt, K.: Dreikoniponentenmes~ut~ge~~ nn cincni Reclltccklliigcl nit
Vorfliigel und abgeaenkter Nase. DFVLR Bericht 71-C-29 (1971).
[4] Betz, A,: uber turbulente Reibungsschichten an gekriimmtcr~Wiirlden. Lcctnresl on nero-
dynamica and related subjects, Aacllen 1929. Verlag Springer, Berlin, 1930, 10-18.
T h e morncntir~nir~tcgralerluntion (22.7a) obt,ains a n additional t e r m which stpernsfrom [5] Betz, A,: Hochataoft.rieb von Fliigel~lan u~nlaufendcnRiidern. ZFW 9, 97-99 (19G1).
[GI Bienert, P.: Strijmungsbild eit~crturbulentet~Ablosnng. ZFW IG, 141- 147 (1968).
ttltc corivcrgcncc o r tlivcrgcr~ccof t.11~st,rcatnlines, a s t,llc case m a y be. ltcLracir~gt h e 171 Bradahaw. P.: Calculntion of three-dimenaiond turbulent boundary Inycrs. JI'M .16, 417-
L 2
s t c p ~ i t,I~c
l ~ clcriv:~t.ioriof l,l~cmomcn111111cclunlion, w l ~ i c lwas
~ g i v c r ~in Scc. V I I I c in 445 (1971j.
conr~cxionwit.11 cqn. (8.20), wc see t.ltat Lhc intcgral of trho sccorld Lcrm ill t h c fimt [8] Braddahaw, P.: The understanding and prediction of turbulent flow. Acro. .J. 7'6, 413-418
cqual,ion of mol,ion bccomcs (1972).
[O] Brndshnw, P.: Turb~rlericeresenroll - progrcw and problcms. Proc. of tho 1976 ITmt 'llr:tnu-
fcr nnd Fluid Mcch. Institute (A.A. I\lcJ~illop,cd.), Stnnforcl Univ. I'rws, 1!)7(i.
[lo] Bradshaw, P. (ed.): Turbulence. Springer Verlng, Rerlin/Hridelberg/New York, 1976.
[ I l l Rradshaw, P., and Ferriss, D.H.: Calculation of boundary layer dcvclopment using the
turbulent energy equntions: Compressible flow on adinbntio walls. JFM 46, 8 3 - I10 (1!)71).
.
,l Ilc 1.wo I:l.stf t,t,rrns on 1 . 1 1 ~rigl~l-llantlsitlc a r c dl\c t o t h e divergcncc of t,hc flow irl
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sllcsr layers. J. Basic Eng., Trnns. AShlE Series l), 94, 345 -354 (1972).
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tjlrn z-tlirecl.ion. 'Faking it1t.o ~ c c o r ~ nt . t1 1 ~clivcrgence of t h e s t r c ~ m l i n c s .we lmvc using the turbulent energy equntion. JFM 28, 893-61G (1W7).
1141
L--I
Rradullaw.
-- P.. and Wone. F.Y.F.: The reattachl~~ent nnd relnxntioll of n t r ~ r l ~ ~ ~shear
lcnt
layer. JFM 52, 113-13; (1972).
1151 Buri, A.: Eine Rerecl~nungsgrundlngefrir die tnrht~lenteGrcnzuchicht bci I)cscI~lctlnigtar
nnd vereiigcrter Striirnnng. Diss. Ziirich 1931.
(308 XXIT. The incomprc~~iblc
trlrhulent b o ~ r n d n rlnycr
~

[16] Carribre, I'., and Eichelbrenner, E.A.: Theory of flow reattachment by a tangential jet
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L.-

Part I. RAE Techn. Rep. 60041 (1969). 1581 Lnufor, J . : Investigation of turhulent flow in n two-clin~ct~siot~nl chnnncl. NI\(:A I<rl>.I053
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incompresnil)le turbr~lcntboundnry layer on nn infinite swept \virtg. t\GARD Collf. Proc. No. 29, 15-16 (1949). Engl. transl. in NACA TM 1285 (1950).
168, Flow S~pnrnt~ion, 34- 1 to 34- 15 (1975). [Gl] Magrr, A.: (:eneralization of boundary-layer momentum-intcgrnl eqrintions to tltrcc-tlitl~en-
[32] Eppler, R.: I'raktisclie Barecl~nungln~nir~srer und turbt~lenterAbsnuge-Orenzschiclitc~~. sional flows including those of rotating systcm. NACA Rep. 1067 (1952).
1ng.-Arch. 32, 221 -245 (1963). [62] Mnger, A., Mnhoney, I. I., and Budinger, R. E.: Discussion of boundnry laycr chnr:rcterist.ics
[33] Pornl~olz,H. N.: Hnlbetnpirischc Gcsotze znr Berechnnng turb~ilet~ter Grenzscl~icht,ennach near thc wall of an axial-flow compressor. NACA Rcp. 1085 (1952).
dcr Mct,l~otlodcr I~~l,rgrnlbcdit~g~~ngcn. 111 Arch. 33, 984-305 (1964). [OJ] Mollor, 0.L.:'rho clTccl~of prcclsnrc grncliont,~on tfnrhnlrnt flow n m r n R I I I ( I O I I ~\\~IIII. ,I IpRf
[34] Prrnholz, 1I.H.: l~xpcrimc~~lcllc 7Jrl(crsttcf;ng cinor inkompreesiblcn Lurb~~lcntcn Grenz- 24, 256 -274 (1nc;o).
schicht n ~ i Wandrcibong
t nnhe NIIII in einem liingsnngecrtromten Kreiszylinder. ZFW 16, turbrllcllt boundary laycrs. J l W 24,225 2F3
401 -406 (l9G8). .1641 Mellor.
(1966).
G.L., and Gibson, D.M.: Eqr~ilibrir~m
[35] Garner, H.C.: 'l'hc clcvclop~ncntof tnrhnlcnt boundary layers. ARC RM 2133 (1944). [65] Mellor, G.L., and Herring, H. J.: A survey of the mean tnrhulcnt firlcl closnrr t~~ctbotla.
[36] Gcrstcn, I(.: Corner interferrncc cn'eots. AGARD~ltep.No. 209 (1959). AIAA J. 11, 590-599 (1!173).
[37] Gorntlia, S.H., and Colwrll, G.T.: Annlysis of Ingh-lift, wing systems. Aero. Quart. 26, [68n] Merotlcy, R.N., nnd Brndshaw, P.: T r ~ r b r ~ l rborlnclnry
nt lnyrr growth ovrr :I longitr~rl~~~nlly
88-108 i1!)75).
~, curved snrfncc. AIAA J . 13. 1448- 1453 (1975).
[3$] Goradin, S. [ I . , nntl J,y~nan,V.: T,nn~i~~nr s t d l prrdiction and cstin~ntlonof CL J. Aircr.
. 11, 528-531; (l!)74). [G6] Michel, R., Quemnrd, C., and Cousteix, J.: M6thodc prntiql~cdc pr6vision tlrs cot~cl~cs
liniitcs turbulentes bi- e t tri-djmenaionrlles. Recherche Abroap. No. 1972.- 1. 1- 14 (1972).
[39l (Irnnvillr. I'.S.: Sin~ilnritylaw rntrninn~ent method for thick nxinymmetrir turbulent
bornirlary lnyrru in I)rcssllrc, ~rntlic,ntn. David 'hylor Naval Ship itesenrch rind 1)cvclop- [67] Millikan, C. 8.:The boundary layer and skin friction for n lignrc of revolrlIion.'rmr~a.AShlR,
IIIPIII ('rnlrr. Ilrllien~ln.MI). I<(*]>. No. 4525 (1975). ,J. AppI. Mech. 64, 2 --29 (1932).
 700 XXI I. '1'110 i ~ ~ ~ : t l ~ ~ t ~ ) r~c, InI ~sIi) II I~I ~l!~I Il)o1111(11try
:I ~ I:by(:r

lf$8] Mucsm:tnn, 11.: Z~~snrntncnhnng dcr Strii11111ngaeige11scI111ft~e11 dcs IA~ulrndeseiues ,\xial-

geblases nit dellen cines 15inzclflugcls. Ijiss. Braunsch\vcig 1958; ZFW 6 , 345-302 (1958). [9I;l Selt~~liJb:u~cr, 11.: Vcrltnll.rn tt~rb~tlcnt.cr Itril~~~~~gsnol~icl~Lc~i : ~ I Icrlt;thc~~ g~:ltrii~n~nlr-r~ \\'iitt-
[on] Nnnl~,J.F.: Tile calc~~lation of three-ditnonsionn.I t.urbrtlcnt botn~darylayers in incornprcs- (lcn. I)iao. hliit~cltcn1934; src slso I,~~Il.f:~l~rl.forsc:l~~~,lg 13, I ( i l (I!):$li); Engl. I.r:tnnl. i l l Ni\(:,\.
sil~leflow. JI'M 37, 625- 2 4 2 (1969). 'Shl 7!)l (l!):ll;).
[70] N:rsh,. ,J. I?., nnd I'alcl, V.C.: 'I'llrec-dirtte~~sio~~al t u r b r ~ l e ~bountlary
~t Inyers. S. 13.C. 'rech- [!I71
- . S I , ~ I I I ~ I ; ~(:.
I IIt.,
C Tti11(1
, l<lt:l~;tnoll',1'. S.: 111vrslig11t,io11 or S C : ~ I : I ~ :ofI ~1111. ~~O I I II~II I I I I I - 1 1 1 I I ( > I I I \ < ~ -
nicnl llooks (Scir~~t.iRo & 1311sinessConstlltnnte, Inc., At,lanta, Georgia), 1!)72. ary layer. N,lC,l I < C ~ lU:$t) I. (1951).
1711 Nikurndse, J . : Untersuchungen iiber die Stron~ungendes Wnsscrs in konvergenten und. [!Is] SCIIIII);LIIC~, (:. 13.. a ~ t dSpnngct~herg.W.O.: Icorcctl t n i x i ~ ~ing I)(>~cn(l;u.y 1i1yc.r~..ll'Rl d,
divorger~t~en Iianalen. Forschungsnrbeilar~ V.DI No. 289 (1929). . :w
.111. .- (tw;nt
\..'" ,.
[72] Orzag, S.A., and I~rneli,M.: Nurnerirnl sin~r~lat,ion of V~A(:OIIR incott~~)ressihle flows. Ann. Scl~\v:trz,I<'., ;tncl \lJ~~exl,, W.: l?I~~gvc*rn~~~:ltc: ;LIII J ! ; L I I I I I I I S ~ I)<)
~ ~ 27 nit, ~ ~ r t - ~ ~ ~ , s v l ~ i ~ ~ l ~ l ~ ~
Itev. Fluid Mecl~.6, 281--318 (1974). grrng zltr Stciger~tngdrs Hiichst.n~~ft,riclrtm. Zl+\V
' 12, 108- - 120 (I!)IiJ).
[73] Pappns, C.C., and O k ~ ~ nA. o ,F.: I\.lenstlrr~r~cnts of skin friction of tlte cott~prrssiblet , t ~ r l ~ ~ ~ l r n L [!)!):1.1 Sl~nfir,hl., a11(1I{,nl~i~i, K G . : ' ~ I I c : ~ , I I ~ I I I I I ( : I I ~ , l)o1111(1:iryl;iyrr nr:tr ~t vornrr. , I . Appl. hit.t41.
bountlnry Inyer on a ronc with forcign g:w iujcction. J A S S 27, 3321 -331 (I!)(iO). ('i'rn~~s, ~\ShllC,Scr. I<). .I<?, Mi7 - 570 (l!)76).
[741 I'nrr, 0. : Untcr~orltt~rtgan dcr drcitlirncnsionalrn G r n ~ ~ z n c l ~an i c lrot,icrcntle~l
~t Drel~kiirperl~ [IOU] Sl~:u~cl)rool~, .I. It.. IIINI SIIIIIIIICT, \V..J.: A s111;tll(.ross llo\v Lllcory for t,ltc ~ ~ I I ~ I : ~ : - ( ~ ~ I I I ( ~ I I s ~ ~ I I : L ~
bri n x i ~ l e rAnst,riitnung. l)iss. 13rannsch\vcig 1902; 1ng.-Arch. 32, J93--413 (1903). co~t~prc~ssihlr L~~rbulrllt b o ~ ~ ~ ~ t litycr
l i t r y 011 :tlli:~b:it~ic\v:tIls. AlAA .I. 11, !I50 !)54 (l!Ji:l).
17.51 I'ecltar~, W.: &:in Niil~crungsverfnl~rcn zrlr 1Zcrechn11ngdcr ellenen t u ~ drotntionssyrn~t~etri- 1 1 O l ] Snlit It, A . hl. 0. : Iiiglt-lift. ncrotlyt~atnirs.37t,11 \4IrigltL I%roLl~rrs I,rcturr 1!)74. , I . of Airrr.
scllcr~t,~rrbrrlcntbnGrenzschicht mit belicl~igcr Absnr~gung oder A ~ ~ s b l n s ~ ~,Jb. n g .\VC:I, 12, 501 - 5:$0 f l!)75).
1968,82- V2 (1959). [ IOln] So, It. h1.C.. nntl Alrll~~r, (:.I,.: lCxl~rri111e111.s on I~III~I)IIICIII, 1)01111(l:try Injrrs 011 ( . ( ~ I I ~ :ni~ll. I\.('
(761 I'olzin, .J.: S t r i i n t ~ ~ n g s ~ ~ n t m nn ~ c cinem
l ~ ~ ~ ebenen
~ ~ g e ~I)iffr~sor.
~ 111g.-Arrll.11, 001 -- 385 Acro. Quart.. 26. 25 40 (1!375).
(l!)40). [lOIl)l So, l<.hl.(!., and Mcllor, (:.I,.: 1Cxprri111ont.son rt)~tvcx~ I I ~ V : I c*ll'(~,l. ~ , I I ~inC I I I ~ I I I I I ( ~ I I I ,
1771 i'reteclt, J . : Zur thcoretischcn 13crenl1r11111g dcs I'rofilwitlnntnt~tles. .Jb. (It.. l,~~ftfnltrt,for- I)orrntl;~rylayers. .I IM ' /ill, 4 3 ~ (Y - 2 (1!)73).
scl111neI. 01-01 (1938). [I021 St>ritlcl,I,., n ~ t dSt:ltolz, N.: UnLers~~ch~~ngon iihcrrlir Strii1111111g8vrrl11nle in ~I>CIII!II S(.l~:t~~ff-1-
[77a] ~ n r n n p r i n r ~B.lt.,
, and Sllivaprasad, 1%. G.: Menn llow t~~oasnrcrnenb in t ~ ~ r h u l c honnd-
nt git,t.c:rn. VDI-I~orsc:I~ur~gsltcft 464 (1057).
nry I:t.yers : ~ l o ~n ~ gi t l cr~rved
l~ s~~rfnccs. A[AA J. 15, 189--1!)0 (1!)77). [lo31
. ~
Srluire, Il.J4., n~ttlYoung. A. I).: 'Sl~e~ R I C I I I R ~ ~ of O I ~profilc clr:~gof :tirllow. AI<.(:I L M IH:(H
[78] Raspct,, A., Cornisli, d.,J., and Grynnt, (?.I).: Ilelny of the stall by s ~ ~ r t ~ t.Itrotrgh ion distri- ( I 938).
buted perforations. Aero. Eng. Rev. 11, 0, 52-00 (1952). [ 1041 Slr:~tfortl,I$.S , : I'rc(iiction of scp:tr:tIion of t IIC ~ I I ~ I ) I I \\~I O : L ~ ~ ,) l'hl 5, I I t i
~ IIII~I I ( \ l:tj(!r.
1791 Roynol(ls, W.C.: A morphology of t l ~ cprediction n~ctltodo(of t ~ r r b ~ ~I)or~nelary l c ~ ~ t layers). (I!)5!1); An c~xl~c:ri~ncnI.al flow \vit.l~zrro skin fricI,iot~t l ~ r n ~ t g l t ri t~n ~r~r gl .i o ~of~ prf-snurr rise-.
Article in [A41 Vol. I, pp. 1 - 15 (1969). .J I ~ M5, 17 --:i5 (1!)5!)).
[80] Ilrynolcls, \V.C.: Rccent a d v n r ~ c ein ~ t,l~ccotnprrtation of t.orI)ulerlt Row. Advances in [104n] Smith, A.hl.0.: St.rat.fortl's t ~ r r l ) ~ ~ l csrp;trntion nt rritcrion for axially ayn~nt(.lri(.IIo\v.
Clic~nirnl1cngint.ering 8, 1!)3--240 (1974), ed. by T.B. Brcw c t al., Acatle~~tic: Press. ZAMI' 28, !I28 - 938 (1977).
Ilo5l Sl.ii[~or,,I.: I J I I I C ~ ~ I I ~V.O~I II IlIlI~I~~i l ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ g s s ~ ~11111 I ~ iIli~.g~-n(l(.n
~ : l t t , c ~ ~I ~ ~ I I ~ Y/ ,. ~I ~ lI' It (~l .~ l ~ r ~ I ; ~ r .
I ] I ~ I I O I I\ H : o 1 1 1 1 1 1 ~ l i of o n1 1 r 0 1 1 l 1ot tv . I .I I l iM I . , I 204 (1!170). st,l~ul~g 11, 20---32(l!):$4); acc also N14(:A 'I'M 751 (1!):!.1).
[82] R.ott,n, J.: Hcitmg zur 13ererhn11ngder tr~rbr~lonbn Grcnzsnhicht~cn.Ing.-Arch. 10, :$I -41
(1!)5I) nnrl Mnx-l'ln~~clz-l~tst.. fiir SI,rii~iti~ngsforst:I~~~ng (:iiLt,ingen Itrp. No. l (1950). [LOG]Sz:~l~lc\rski, \V.: ' T ~ ~ r t ~ ~ ~ lSrtn, rt .i ci n ~ ~ ~inn gko11v~rgellt~l~lt I<it~~iilt*n. Ing..Ar('lt. 20. 37 45
(l!)54).
[83] JEotCa, J.: S c l ~ ~ ~ b s p n n n ~ ~ ~ ~ g s v e und r t e iEncrgiediwipatior~
l~~~~g bei t u r h r ~ l e r t b ~Grenz- [I071 Sznblenski, W.: T ~ ~ r h ~ ~ l Striimungc~~ ente in tliverger~tcn I<:l.l~iil~~i (111i1,I~lrr~r I I I I ~ I nk~rlzrr
sclticltt~cn.111g.-Arclt.20, 196--207 (19.52). l)r~~rk:lnnt,ieg). lng.-Arch. 22, 208 - 28 1 (1954).
[84] Rot,t&, J . : N i l h e r u ~ ~ a s v r r f n l ~ zor
r c ~Uerechnung
~ turb~ilcnterGrenzschiclrten unter Benut-
zung (108 ICnergicsafxc.~.Mr~x-l'litnek-l~~at. fiir St.rij~r~~~~~psforscl~~~ng (:iittingell Itep, No. 8 [I081 Szahlc~vski,W.:Wnndnaltc Gescl~win~li~ltcibverteil~~~~g t u r b ~ ~ l r ~ i( l>e rr r ~ ~ s s ~ ~ l ~ i ~ ~ l ~ l s l . r i
gen mit T)ruckanstieg. 111g.-Arch.23, 2!k--301; (1!)55).
(Ins$).
[05] Itoltn. .J.: 'J'urbr~lcntbountlary laycrs in incotnprrssible fiow. Progress in Aero. Sci. 2, 1-219
[10!)] 'rl~o~tlnrt, F.: Untersucl~u~~gen iihcr dic ISrl~iil~ung flea A~~ltriebcs von 'l'rnglliigoln ~~~it~t.i:Is
C~rcnzscl~icl~tl~cai~~fl~~su~~~te t l ~ ~ r cAr~sl~l:rnc~~.
l~ I)iss. I3rn111mol:i I ! ; I 0 , t i li5
(10(12),eel. 11y A. k'crri, I). Kiichcmann and L.H. G . Stcrno, Pergnn~onl'ress, Oxlortl, l!J02. ( l!)(;2).
I801 ltot,t,a, , I . : Vcrglcicholtlc I3creolinungen von t,urbulent.en Grenzscl~iclttenmit verscltiedenen [I 101 Thomas, F.: Untersuch~~ngcn iiber die C:rcnzsrlticl~tan einer \V:~nrl~l~ro111:~l1\r.iirt.4 VOII r i ~ ~ c l n
Dissil)nt~io~~sgcsetzc~~. 111g.-Arch.38, 212 -222 (IVO!)). Ar~sblnsspnlt. Abl~nntll.k~iss.Gcs. Urn~~nsrh\vrig 15, I - 17 (l!)Iif).
[87] 1tott.a. J . : 'l'~rrbr~lento Striimungcn. Stuttgart, 1972.
[ L l O n ] To\vnsrntl, A. A,: 'rl~oe l e v r l o p ~ ~ t eof~ ~t,url)~~lont t I)ot~ntlnry I:hyers \vit.ll nrgligil~le wnll
[88] l t ~ ~ b e s iM.n , \V., rind Pnppn8, C.C.: Annlysis of Ll~cturbulent boundary-lnyer cltarnctcristics
on a llrlt lalo lo a.it,l~tlinl,rib~~t.ccl ligl~t,-gnsinjcction. NACA TN 4149 (11158). s1,rcs~.,J IPIvl 8, 14:$--.I55 ([!)GO).
[88nj 1t11l)itt. S. I:.: I I I C O I I I ~ ~ ~flotv C S along
S ~ ~ ~n~corner.
C JPM 26, 97---110 (I!)C,Ii). [I I I] Tr~~c~kenl)rotlt, 142.: I+:in Qr~:ttlrntnrvc~rf~tItw~~ zur Il(:rrt:Itn~tngdcr litn~innrcn11nd I . I I ~ ~ I I I ~ ~ : I I ~ C I I
IXeihrtngnscl~irl~t. hri cbcncr nnd rotntionsnym~~tc.Lrisc:I~~~r Sl.riinrung. Ing.-Arrli. 20, 41 1 Z'L8 -
[89] Snc-hdr\~:~, It. C., ant1 I'rrst.on, J . If.: Invest~ignt,ionof tr~rhr~lent bo~lndnrylayers on a ship (1!)52).
tt~oclrl.St:l~ifl'sbrrl~~tik 23, 1--45 (1!176). [I 121 l'r~~c*ltcrthrodt, 15.: Ein Q~~actmtt~rverfnl~rcn zur 1Jrrccl11111ng tlrr I~c:il)~~ngmc~l~irI~l, nn :txi;xl
[!lo] Srhlirl~l.ing,1-1.: Die C.mnzschicl~tan clcr ehcnen Platto init A b s a ~ ~ g t ~uud n g A~rsblxsen. an~cst,rijrnte~~ rotierenclrn I)rehkiir~crn. l l ~ ~ . - A r c22, l ~ .21 - 3 5 (l!)54).
1,11ftfaI1rt,f~)rscl1111g 1.9, 2!)3-301 (1042).
[I131 'I'rr~ckenl)rodt.E.: SI.riir~~r~~~gsl~tc:(.~tiIz. Springer. I%t:rli~~/lltitl~:lI)crg/N~*\~~ York, I!t(iR.
[9l1 S r l ~ l i c l ~ t . iIt.:
~ ~ g15inigr
, netlore 1Crgel~11issc iiber Grc!n7.~cltiol1tbeeinfl11ss1111g. Proc. First Int.
Congr. /\c?ro. Sci. hlndritl; Atlv. in Acro. Sci. I t , 603-58fi, Pcrgntnon Press, I,ondon, 1959. [I 141 Trr~rkcl~brodt, E.:Neurre ICrkcnntnissc iibc!r (lie Bcrcc:ltn~~ng vo11Slrii~~~rr~~gngrc~~~xsc.l~ir:l~l~c
[92l Svl~lirl~ting, 11.. nnrl Pcr11n11,W.: A ~ ~ f t , r i c b s e r I ~ i jvon l ~ r ~'Vragfliigeln
~~g t l ~ ~ r ckontin~~ierlich
li rnittels cinfacl~crQ~~ntlrnt~urformel~~. Part I : Ing.-Arrh. 43, !) 25 (I 973); l':~rl, I I : lng..
v~~r1,riIte I I I ~ .7 , 113.- 1I!) (1!)5!)).
/ \ I ) S I ~ I I ~ IZIPW Arcli. 43, 130 - 144 (1!)74).
[!):$I Srl~lirlit.i~tg, H.: 'I'ltree-tli~ncnxionnlhountlnry lnyrr/flow. Intern. Assot:. Ily(lmr~lirItesc:~rcl~, [I151 Turcottc, 1). I,.: A sr~blayertllcory for fluitl injcction i111.o1.ltr inconll~~rssil)lc t,11rl)t111,11t,
1Xtl1 (k)ngr., I ) ~ ~ l ) r o v ~ tl2(?2---
i k , l2!)0, (l!)(il). I)o~~ntl:try It~yrr..JASS 27, 0 7 5 0 7 8 (I9(;0).
,941 S v l ~ l i ~ l ~ l11.: i ~ ~hcrody11n1l1ist:\1(1
g. ~ ' ~ O ~ I ~ drs
C I I llij~~l~stn.~~ft.rieI~~~x.
I ~ I,ect~~rc :LL 'r~tird Int. (1 161 Wa1.1.~A.: SLriin~~~ngs. I I I I ~' ~ r ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ c r : t t , ~ ~ r g r ~ ~ ~I<~:IIIII, ~ z s r l ~I<:trlsr1111r,
i r I ~ l t ~ ~ ~I!)Ii(i.
.
. Congr. Arro. Sr:i. (ICAS) Stocltliolnt, Sweden, 1902; ZI'W 13. I--14ql9G5). [I171 Wnr~~chkuhn, P., and V ~ s a r i t ,I~t n ~ n ,V.: Die t ~ ~ r l ) ~ ~ l(:rrnsscl~irltt
lijsnngsgel)ict,. ZF\V 23, I --9 (1!)75).
rnlc 11int.c.rr i ~ l r nA~l l -
[!I51 S~:l~lirhling. 11.: ICinige lloucrc ICrgcbnissc nus der Acrodynnmilt rlrs Trngfiiigcls ( T e ~ ~ t l t
I'mn(l1l hlr~t~orinl I,c.rt,~~rc!I!l(i(i). .Jh. W(:l,lt I9fiC,, 11 --32 (1907) [I 183 M1llite, F.M.: A new intcgrnl n~nt,ltod for n~t:tlyzing Lllc t . ~ ~ r l ) ~ ~11o111tcl:try lcnl, Inyrr \vil.lt
arliit,mry prrsstlrc grntlirnt,. ,I. 13:~sicICng., 'rrnns. ASM15. Srr. I). !)I, 371 378 (l!)fi!l).
 a. Grtrrrnl rcrnnrks 703

conclude, tlterefore, that the three compo~icntsof thc additional heat flux (q~iant~ity
of heat per unit arca and time) arc:
q; = e c , , m ; qyl =ec,,v(rllr; q i =ecp?OI[I1). (28.2)

I t has bccn assrimed licrc that tllcrc exist.s a stat.istical corrclntiorl bctwcrn tltc
velocity and tcmpernturc fl~ict~tat~ions. Tlie cxistcrrcc of s11cI1 a correl~itioriin tlic
presence ofagratlicnt dT/tlyof t,he mean tcnipcrat,rtrc can bc den~onst~ratctl in-t.hc satno
houtldary layers in compres~ibleflow t
Tt~rbl~lent way as t h a t usetl earlier to tlctnonslrate the cxi~t~cticc of the corrcl:~t.iot~ IL' v'. 'l'llc
: ~ r g ~ ~ r n atlvaiicctl
rttt in t.11~last paragrnpli of Scc. XVIII 11 rct.airts its forc:o if is
subst,itlrtctl for 12 antl 7" for I*'. In sricl~circi~mst:~nccs 1.licrc will :~risoa t:orr~lnt.io~~
n. Grr~crnlrcmnrks v"l".1 t follows fr~rt.ltcrfrom this : ~ r g ~ ~ t n ct,liat,
n t . t,lie sirnnlt.nncolis esist.cncr of t,lic?
gmdicnts c17;/tIy and dT/tly must impose a strong correlation bet*wcct~TL' :intl 'I".
It has bccn domonstfmt.ccl in Src. XTTTa t41rnttlio preseiico ot'ltigl~velocities in %'tiis concliision has I,ccn confirmed 11y mcasurcments with hot-wire aiicrnomctcrs
tho I~onntlaryIn,ycr gives riso t,o sii(:Ii 1:~rgctcmpcratiire tlifi'crcnccs tltnt i t becomes it1 notiiprcsnil,lo [47] rind inc!orn[)rcssil~lt~ltot~n(laryI a y ~ r sforrnctl on n 11c~:tt.c~tl \c,:~ll
ncccssary to f:tkc into account, thc elT'cct of tempcratrirc on the properties of tlic fluid 141, 421. Accortli~igto rrieasurcmcnts pcrforrnctl by A. I,. IZistlcr 1471. the c:orrolalion
in addition t,o that of the clinrigcs in its volume. Beyoncl this, i t is found t,l~atthe coefficient. --.
transfer of lieat plays an essctit.i:rl part in tlie bcl~avioi~r
of a compressil~lebountlary 7L' T' -..-
la.ycr; its presence Icacls to the appcxm.nce of a strong interaction l)ct,wccn the velocity
ficlrl aritl t.hc t ~ c n i p c m t ~ field:.
~rc
i*
-. .- --- .
f?
I. Ti~rbulrrrtheat transfer. When :I liqrricl or a gas of non-uniform trrnptraturc
is canscd t o move tnrl)ulcntly, it is fotrntl that the t,tirbulent mixing motion creat,cs 2. The frtt~dnnirntnlcqiraliona for comprrnsibic flow. 'I'crnpc?r:~t~iirc flr~c.bttnI.iotrs
in i t temporaturo flr~ctualiorisin :ttltlit,iori t o thc more familiar vclocit,y Ilr~ct~r~at~ions. togclltcr with t.ho prcssrlrc Iltrett~nt.ioi~smct~l,io~ictl
c ~ ~ r l i cinr SCC.I\:V I I I 1) 11rotI11t'(?
I n analogy wit,li rqn. (18.1 ) for v~locityflt~ctriations,we may r ~ p r e s r n tlie
t fliictuating tlcnsity flilctuat,ions. lror this reason it is ass~~tnctl
t.hat the tlcrtsity
tcnipcmture
e=@+e' (23.3)
T=T+T' (23.1)
in tlie form of the slim of a temporal average, 7', antl a pure flitc:t~iat.ioti,I". These is also eqr~:ll to the sum of a tirnc-avcmgc, $. arttl a tlcr~sil~y flt~cti~at,ioii, p'. T l i ~
fluctriations givc rise to a supplementary heat flux which is analogor~sto the flux fluct~tationsin tcmpcmtr~rc,pressure, arid density arc rcl:tt,otl throiigli tlrc cclrrnl,iort
of momentr~mevolved by the velocity fluct~~ations. I n order to show this more clearly, of state of tlic gas, eqit. (12.20). Wltct~the gns is treat-ccl as pcrfcct., niitl \\rlicn t,litb
we assume, as we did earlier in Sec. X V l l I b , that throngh a surface element, dA, fluctuatioris are small, we may put
whose normal points in the x-dircct.ion, there Bows a mass of fluid dA eu dl during
timc dl. The cnthalpy of this mass per unit volume is e cp T,and tho corivective
flux in the x-dircction has a value dQx = dA e u cp T . If we now introduce the ex-
pression for u from eqn. (18.1) and that for T from eqn. (23.1) n r ~ dform the tempornl t o a first approximation. In addition t o thc turbulent transfcr of lieat,, t,lic prcscrlce
average of the heat flux, we shall obtain of density fluct~iationscoristitntes tho secorld importarit rlcw pltcnomeriot~ which
occurs in compressible, t i ~ r b u l e r ~st.rcanis.
t Evitlently their prcscncc tnay not bc
ncglcclctl when cxprcssions for tho laitsor of nppnro~ltstrcsscs (St!(?. X.Vlllc) is
derived. Formally, when eqn. (23.3) is tnkcri into accorltit, cqns. (18.5) n ~ t ~Is Il rc-
~
It is secn that tho presence of vclocity and temperature flr~ct~uationsgenerates the placed by the following additional terms due t o turbrllctlce
-
supplementary heat flr~xrlA e c, u' I" in the x-direction. Corresponding expressions
are obtained for the supplementary fliixes of hdat in the directions y and z. We

-.

t I km itidehted to Dr. J.C. Rottn for the text of this rliapbr which is new.
:A comprehensive aummory of the theory of turbulent boundary layers in compressible flows --
is given in tlie book of S.S. Kutateladze and A. I. Leont'ev [SO]. '
Here e'u', e' v', and e play the part of tho components of a turbulent flux of
70-t X X I1 I. ' r ~ ~ r b ~ ~bonrwlnry
lcnt lnycrs in cotnprcwiblc flow

mass in t>hct,hrcct directions: z,y, z. On averaging, t h e equation of cont*inuity for a

c~omprcssiblcstreitm, cqn. (3.30), leads t o Ilere, (.he t,erm ~ r c p r e s e n t st,l~crncan valr~oof the (lissil):~t
ion, ancl for it,, I Ilc follow-
ing npproximat,iort may bc employed:

, @ = p ( -- -1- rt
)
ail

1bcgn.rcling t.he clensity flltctuaf.iorls, it is possible t o say a t first that, p'/@ is hanlly The set mr~st.t)c nl~gmcnt~ctl
by t.hc a.pproxirnate forni of t.11~rcln:rt,ion of st,al,c for
likely 10 exccctl u'/S. Since, now, u'/d < 1, i t appears possible t o neglect the last mean values : - - -
tcrtn in caoll of cqns. (23.6) with respect t o the first. Further simplificat,ions r r s ~ r l t P"PR?'. (2:%.!))
wllcn aI.l~(:nt,iot~is confined t o bountlary layers in which d & 12. .I. C . Rottn [SO]
clc:rnor~str:~I.ctI
l.l~:rt,in suc:l~cnscs if, is possible altogct,ller t o o l i m i ~ ~ a t,hc
t e tlcrlsit,y l ' l ~ e1)rccccling syst,crn of cq~rntiorrsfor co~n~)rcssil)le, l,rrrl)l~lcntl)o~lntl;tryI:~.yc:r.src-
Illlct~~ations from t , l ~ ccql~nt~io'ns for boundary layers if, a s is customary, tho nornial 1)lnccs cqunt.ions ( 1 2.6Oa) to ( 1 2.50~1)l i ~ rcorrcsl)ontlitlg I : ~ n ~ i n flow. : ~ r 'l'l~cI ) ~ I I I ~ ~ ~ : I I .
contlit,ions rcmn.in 1111c1r:rngctl( c f . Chap. X I I ) .
st,resses tllnmsclves arc r~cglcctccl.First we notice t h a t 6 ~i < in t,hc eql~et,ion
I n order 1.0 explore the tlcl,ails of t.rnl)nlcnt ~not~ion in comprt?ssiblc rnctlia, it, is
for t',, in (23.5), so t-hat only two terms need be retained. P ~ ~ r t h c r r n o r esince ,
<
r ? p / ( 7 r a e 7 / a ! / , t.hc cont,irll~it,ycqr~at,ion(23.G), written for a t)onntlnry layer
necessary t o untlert,akc tncasr~remer~ts
rlcctl t,o ~ l n r o ~ l p t.Irt:
with hot, wires. 'l'his is matle cliffic~rlt.0 ~ 1t,lrc
l c c:fTcct of I,c~nl)c:rat,l~rc ant1 vcloc:it,y Ill~ct,un.I~ions \vit.lritl ;I s i ~ ~ g l c
wl~ic-11is two-tlimcnsior~don t,ha average, acqr~ircsthe form
signal. 'rhc problems wl~ic:!~ :wise in this way form t.l~cs~rbjcc:tof t.ho pl11)lic.n.t.ions
[49, 651 by I,. S. G . I<ovnsi..nny and M. V. Morkovin, rcspc:cl,ivcly. 1,cavirrg n1)art t . 1 1 ~
appearance of tlcnsity :rntl temperature flr~ct,rl:tt,ions,it is forrntl t,hatf1.he flow rrmnir~s,
in ills gct~ar:do l ~ b l i ~I,llc~ c , same :IS in : ~ I I inc:ornl)rc~ssil)leI l ~ ~ i tIlowc~vc:r,
l. :IS I,II(- hl:rc.11
'l'l~c bor~ntlary-layerequation i.9 clerivecl from eqn. (12.50b) in t h a t cqn. (12.50n), nnml)or is incm:~sctl,t l ~ cvolooity Ilt~c:t~~:~t~iorls lose i l l iill,t:tlsit.y, :I.$ ~Ic!~r~o~~sl,r:tl,~:(I I)y
m~llt,iplictlwit,l~u, is adtlcd, with eclns. (18.1) nntl (23.3) s~~l)sLiLt~tecI ; tho r e ~ u l tis Ll~eex~)c:ri~n~~r~(,n.l rrs11ll.stlrtc! 1.0 A . I,. I<isl.lrr 1471 : L I I ~SIIO\CII
~ i l l Icig. 23. I . '1'11t- t*lli.t.ll
t411cnavcragccl in nccortlance with cqn. (18.4). When the above-mcntionecl t,ertns arc of tlcrlsity fluctnat,ions which go bcyoncl t,hose inc:ll~tlrcli r ~cclrls. (Y:!.H:t) to (23.Xc:)
neglect.ctl, t.he following, final form for the boundary-lnycr cquat.ion is ol)t,ninetl: 11nve Iwrn invrst,ig.rt,etl hy ,T. C. Rot,l.:t 1801.

I t is nol.ccl t h a t in t-clns. (23.Ga) and (23.7) the tlensity fl~~ctnat.iorl appears only in
t.hc form of fl adtlctl t80@ 6. I t is, t.hcrefore, convcnicr~tt o r e - i n t ~ r o d ~ ~
- -
tjIle
c c original
ex1)ression fo; t.ho Inass Il11x p v -;
.
17 -1- p' v' in the y-direction, ancl t,o tlcfinc t,Ilc
tfr~rl)l~lnnt,,
apl)nrcr~t.st,rc:ss as

I n any case, t.hc exact value of the mean velocity component a t right angles t o the Fig. 23.1. Distribution of turbrllct~tvc-
wall, 17, remains untlet,crnmincd, being of little interest anyway. The energy equat.ion locity flnct,r~ntiorrnin tire houndnry Inycr
(12.19) can 1)c: treal.ctl in like manner. lrlt,roducing the turbulent heat flux on n flat pink placed st, zero incidcrrce in
a sul~crsonic st.rcnrn.Mcasorc~nc.~rbclnr tx,
A . I,. Itiatlcr [47Jnntl F.S. Itlel~nnoR[48]

we obtain tht: following set, of equations which tlcscribe the processes in compressible,
t~rrbolcnt,bour!tlary laycrs:
In ortler t o render t,hc system of c q n ; ~ t . i o ~(23.8;1.)
~s to (23.8tl) more :tmctl:~l)lc
to practical caIcnlat.ions, it is possible, a s was (lone in C11:rp. X [X, to iritrotluce i1lI.o
i t empirical ass~irnpt,iorlsfor momentturn and heat. t,mnsport. lCcl~~at,iorl (19. I ) for tlrr
a p p ~ r e n shearing
t stress t, = t',, is usually t,alrcn over ~ ~ l ~ c h a n gAs c dfar
. ns the Lnr-
btllent 1ica.t flux is conccrnetl, i t is cust,on~aryt o givc it a f rm r c ~ n i r ~ i s c cof
r ~Fourier's
t
law of thermal conducttion, cqrl. (12.2), according t o wl~ichwe have
706 XXTII. T~~rbulont
bo~~ndary
loyors in comprcaaiblo Row
and t o postulate that
q, = - c, A
aT
-
ay
(turbulent) . (23.10)
It is ~N Ct h a t the exchange mechanisms for momentum and heat, arc similar; never-
thcless, they arc not identical. The cxchange coefficients A, and A, for momentum
and heat, respcctivrly, havc, t,herefore, dillkrent values in general. Taking into account
cqns. (19.1) and (23.10), together wit11 eqn. (23.8d), we can transform the system
of equations (23.8a) t o (23.8d) t o the form:
3. Relation between tbc cxchangc cocfficienta for momentum and heat. We
have stressed in t h e past t h a t the occurrence of a fluctuating motion i n a turbulent
flow causes momentum to be exchanged vigorously between the layers of different
velocities. It also causw a n increase in tho t r a n ~ f c of
r lieat and mnss when tcmperaturo
o r concentration gradients arc present. For this reason, there exists a n intimate
connexion between heat and momentum transfer in general. I n particular, we must
expect t h e existence of a relation between the heat flux and the sl~earingstress a t
the wall itself. The existence of such a n analogy between heat and momentum transfer
was first discovered b y 0.Reynolds [76], and for this reason we now speak of Rey-
nolds's analogy (cf. Sec. X I I e 3). This analogy enables us t o make statements con-
cerning the transfer of heat from the known laws of drag in s turbulent boundary
layer. The exchange coefficients for momentum and heat - A, and A, - both have
t h e dimension of a viscosity, p(kg/m see or lb/m see in absolute systems), so t h a t in
addition t o t h e molecular Prandtl number P = p c,/k, it is convenient to introduce a
comcsponding, dimensionless, turbulent P r a d l number
Thus by definition,
The total rate of heat tratisferrcd assumes the fofm
The turh~llcntPrandt-l number can be dctcrmincd with the sit1 of simultaneous
determinations of velocity and trmporat~nrc profiles; nnfort~~nately,
tohe level of
h. Rnlntion bctweon vclority and tcmfnmt,urc dintxihotion 707
Fig. 23.2. Ratio of the turblllcnt trnnafcr
coefficiente A,/A. over the length of a
radiua in turbulent pipe flow, after B.
Ludwiog [65]
Rcynolda numhcr R - 3.2 x 10' tn 3.7 x 10'
confidence with which the results of such meas~~remcnts can be accepted is low owing
to the difficulties of measuring l o ~ dtemperatures in flows in gencral, and to the
uncertainties in the values of the gradients dzi/dy and dP/tiy. I t turns out that P,
varies with the distance from the wall. I n a n investig.ztion performed by I-I. Ludwicg
[56]i t was fonncl, a s shown in Pig. 23.2, t h a t thc ratio A,/A, = l / P l vi~ricsfrom n b o ~ ~ b
unity a t the wall (r/R = 1) to about 1.5 in tllc ccntrc of a pipc (r/R =0) ancl is indcpon-
dent of the Mach number. Similar rcsulb were rcportcd by 1). S. Johnson [42] who
made measurements in a boundary laycr on a heated wall. According to tllesc, thc
ratio AJA, increases from about unity a t the wall t o approximately 2 a t the edge
of the h o ~ ~ r i d aInyer.
ry A . F'xgc ant1 V. M. I'alltncr ( c f . ref. [R7]) and IT. Rcicl~artlt[72]
mcasrtrctl a vnl~tc:0f2, thc I'ortncr in td~ewi~ltcbchincl a circ~tlr~r c:ylitlclor,rrl~tlt,l~c!Ir~l.l.c:ri l l
a free jet, both in a11 i n c ~ r n ~ r c s s i bst.ream.
le According t o the preceding measurements
the ratio Aq/A, is smaller in a bountlary Iaycr t.11an in a frcc strcern owing to thc
inflncncc of t,lic wrbll on 1.110 ho~~ntlnry I ~ ~ y cIrI,. R ~ O I I ttliornroro,
IR, l,lnr~ail)lo1.0 nssllnto
t h a t t11c mtio Aq/Ar Itas a valuc of unity a t t,hc wall (accortling to 1,ntlwicg t l ~ cvalue
is 1.08 giving P, w 0.9) aticl increases to a valuc of 2 (P, =.. 0.5) away from the wall.
I n practice, frequently, n constzaut value of Aq/A,=l (Pt = 1) or of 1.3 (Rcichnrdt,
kivir~g P, = 0.769) is nssnmcd. It, mnst,, howcver bc poirltcd out that tthc manner
111 whicl~tho t u r b ~ i l c ~1'rantlt.l
rt number varies across a bountlary laycr has not Lcen
dotcrmincrl bcyontl tlo~tl,t,,ant1 that 1,l:crc oxist, cxpcri~ncnt~al r c s ~ ~ l which
t ~ s arc in
conllict wit11 the p r c c c t l i ~ loncs,
~ as rcl)ortntl in the ~ n m m a r i c sby J . I<cst-in antl
P. 1). Richardson [45, 461.
The rclat,ion l)rt,wcrn heat tmnsfcr :rntl sltin frict.ion aras r~tilizctlby .I[. 1,titlwicg
[Ti41 ill ordcr t o mrn-sl~rctho shraring st.rcss at, n wr~llby mc:~qrrrit~gblic :~.tno~tr~t.
of heat, tml~sfcrrcrlfrom a small rcsist.:h~~c:c clcrncnt brtilt int?o the wall ntitl Itcmtctl
to a t,crnporat.urc cxcrctling t.l~atof the sl.rc:lm.
'J'hc analogy I:rt,wrcn I~cat.n,iitl tr~o~nrnt.nm t,r~nsfcrin a frer. jct is tlis~nssedin
Sor. X X l V r .
b. R e l n t i o ~between
~ velocity and tenlpcrnture clistribotiont
1. Tllr trn~tsferof 11eat f r o n ~n flnt plntr. It, was sllowr~in Chap. X I I LII:I~, t,hc
veloc:iLy ant1 t.cmpcmt.urc profiles arc itlent,ical in the c;asc? of lanlirinr flow pnst n flat
plate a t zero intlicence on condition t11:tt frictional heat is ~lcglcctcdwlti t h a t tlac
Prancltl nurnbcr is cq~ialto nnit,y. Tho s:btnc can be nssertctl in rcl:tt,ion to turbulent
flow, on contlit.ion tltat P, =. 1 as well as P = 1. This implies physically that it is
t Rcferrncw In papers on turbulent boundary Inyrro wit11 uuctdon and injection in ronrprrssi0le
Row l~avcheen indicntcd in Scc. XXInB.
 708 XXIII. T~rrb~~lont
bo~lndnryIaycrn in c o ~ n p m i b flow
l~
w u m e d that the same mechanism causea the exchange of momentum a s well a8
of heat. Since the velocit.y and temperature profilm are identical, we can then writo, lent, cxtcrnal boundary layer, in which the molecular coefficients /L orit1 k con be
that neglected. Under these assnmptions, cqns. (19.1) and (2:1.14), wriLtcn for 1,111: ltr~ninar
~ub-layerwill Icad t o the form
k T w - Tm
q (2) = - k dT
TI, (2) .. - - --
(1 --
/a urn -
T 11 du '

The ~ m c c t l i ~ equation
ig can be easily re-arrangcd to the form
whereas in tho turbulcrit layer thcy will lend to
N, = t R, ',c (Reynolds, P = P, = I) (23.16) d 7'
-fl
described earlier as the Reynolds analogy. It is seen t h a t tlle relation of direct
- - - CP a*,,
.
proportionality between the Nussolt number and the coefficient of skin friction
which was derived in Chapter XTI for the case of laminar flow paat a flat plate a t IlcIncnlbcring t,hat a t the wall r = 0 , a s s l ~ m i nt,hat
~ the tcml)cmt,urc :L& the wall
zero iricitlcncc, (el. cquation (12.56 b) remains valid iri tho turbulcnt wso. Equatior~ is r,or~sLnntallti cq~~:rl
1.0 I t , , nnd clcnoting the volocity nnd t,cn~[~crnt,~~rc,
rcspoc~ivaly,
(28.l(i) retains its validity in tJie prescrlce of compressibility, jrrst a s was the case a t tiIc 0111cr cdgc of t.hc Ir~rniriarstlit-lrtycr I)y u, nncl 7',,rrntl in tho free! sl.rt!a~n 1jy
with laminar flow, on condition that tlie Nussclt number is now formed with the [I,, 'I1,, 1'raI1dtl i ~ ~ t r ~ d ~thc ~ c assnmption
ctl t,hat tho rrltio q/t remains consl8:tntj
across the width of t,he I)ound:try 1:lycrt. lntcgration over bhc Inminor sub-
temperature difference Tw - T,.t
laver will t.hen load to
As already mentioned bcfore, the principal difficulty in studying turbulent
1)oundary layew and turbulent heat transfer problems stems from the fact that
the eddy or exchange coefficients A. and A, are not properties of the fluid, unlike the
viscosity [L or the thermal conductivity k, but t h a t they depend on the distance from the
wall inside the boundary layer. A t a sufficiently large distance from the wall they Sirnilarlv, integration over the turl)ulc~itzonc will lcntl to
assume values wliicli are many times larger than the molecular coefficients y and
k, so mlich so, in fact, that in most cases the Iattcr can be neglected with respect
to the former. By contrast, in the immediate ncigtibourhood of tlie wall, i. e. in the
laminar sub-layer, the eddy cocfficients vanish because in i t turbulent fluctuations I4:q11ating the two right-hantl sitlcs we obtain
and hence turbulent mixing arc no longer possible. Nevertheless, the rate of heat
transfer between the stream and the wall depends precisely on the phenomena in
the laminar sub-layer and so on the molecular coefficients p and k. It is fortunate
that eqn. (20.16) remains valid tt1lronghol~t,regardless of the existence of a laminar
sub-layer, because whcn P = 1, as shown in Section X I I g , the velocity and tempc- Ilcncc. the local cocfficicnt of heat txnnsfcr bcconics
ri~turedistribution in the laminar sub-layer remain identical. The assumption t h a t
P, = 1 in tor1)ulent boundary layers leads, as a rule, t o useful results; by contrast,
the Prandtl number in the laminar sub-layer can differ appreciably from unity, as
is the case, for example, with liquids ('rablc 12.1). When this is the case, cqn. (23.16) On introducirig eqn. (23.17) we have
loses its validity. Extensions of the Reynolds analogy to cases whcn P # 1 have been 1 C T

formulated by many authors, among them L. Prandtl 1701, G. I. Taylor [96] and a -?
L i u U (P - 1) (J,
'l'li. von 1CArnitin [44j, and R. G. Dcisslcr [20, 21, 22, 231.
I,. Prandtl nssumctl that P, = l and diviclctl the boundary layer into two
zoncs: tlir laminar sub-layer in whirh the eddy coefficients vanish, and tlie turbu- wC express Lllis rcslllt in terms of tho Nassclt n~lml)cr: L I I ~or(: led in 1.llis tv:~y
t,o tllc extension of tlie Reynolds analogy wliicli was rlorivcd indcpcnclcrltly by
1,. l'randtl and G. I. Taylor:
t Freq~ler~tly,
itrsCmd of tl~eNrrrrselt nornbcr nee is mfde of the so-called Stanton number
N - ic,'R P
z-
I 4 (u1/rrm)(p - 1 )
(Prandtl-Taylor, P, --- 1 ) . (2:L 18)

If this i~ prcfrrmd, tl~oItcynolds analogy fron~eqn. (23.16) becornea ' '?,

s = ;c,'.
Tho rrn~ninir~g
nqlrntionn can bo owily I.rnnnforrnd to rcplnco N by S.
710 X X I I I . T~~rhnlrnt.
I~onntlnrylnycrn in rornprrmihlo flow

In orctcr to apply the preccding equation t o particular cases i t is still necessary arrtl temperature of the external stream, rcspcct.ively, must hc rcplaccd by t.11~mean
to malzc a s ~ ~ i t a b al es s ~ ~ m p t ~ iabout
on the ratio of thc mcan velocity a t tho orrter vclocity and tlic mcan tcmpcraturc of the fluid in the pipc.
edge of the laminar suh-laycr to that in the free stream t. I n the particular casc when I n all prccctling deri~at~ions
we have assr~rnctlt.lint the b ~ ~ r b ~ ~I'rantlt'l
l c n t numhc:r
P = 1, thc I'randtl-Taylor equation (23.18) rc<luces to Reynoltls's cquntion (23.16). P, = 1. I n other words, i t has been a s s ~ ~ m ttxhla t the eddy coeffcicnts for rnorirctit,u~n
111clcriving thc Prarrtlt~l-'raylorequation (23.18) i t was supposed that tlic bor~ntl- antl tlicrmal energy transfer arc equal. I t is, howcver, kriown from mcasr~ronc~rts
ary laycr coulcl bc sliarply divitlcd into a t u r b ~ ~ l c rlaycr
rt and a laminar sob-layer. tlii~tthc valuc of this ratio diffcrs from unity. Thc case when P, =f 1 in lieat t,m~isfcr
I n actual fact orrc merges iritp the other in a corrtiri~~ous way antl i t is possible t o was cxtensivcly irivcstigatcd by 11. Itciclrartlt 1731. Accortling t o this work, tho
discern the cxistcnce of an intcrmcdiat,~,or I~uCferlayer in w l ~ i c lthc ~ mngnit~~rlcs Nossclt number is reprcsentcd by the relation
of ttic molccl~lnrand t.~~rl)ulcnt cxchangc arc comparable. 'S?Ii. vo11 I<~irmii~i [44]
;G,'R P
subdiviclctl the bountlary layer into three zones and derived a similar formula for Nz -
-
=--- =---..---- - - - (Rcichardt) . (23.20)
the relation hctwccn the coefficicr~tsof hcat transfer and skin friction. This is of P, t- y'h c; {(P - PJ n -t A )
the form
$R PC'
N = -5-1 (von ICrirmAn, P, = I) . (23.10)
" 1+~y'~~,'((~-1)-~ln[1t-;!(~-1)1)
Von Kirrmiln's cqllat,ion (23.19) also reduces to Reynolds's cquation (23.16) in t-hc
special case when P = 1. The relation bctwcen the local Nussclt nr~mbcrN, anrl
the Reynolds 1111mbcr R, is sccn plotted in Fig. 23.3 for the casc of a flat plate and
for thrcc valucs of tlic Prandtl numbcr, namely P = 10, 1 and 0.01. T l ~ ccrlrvcs
(b) ant1 (c) rcpreselit, respect~ively, thc plots from cqr~ations(23.19) and (19.42) Fig. 20.3. VnrinLion of Nt~nncltnnn~l~rr \"it11 Rry-
for P, = 1. nolds nntnhcr at di(rcrc~~t Prancltl n ~ ~ n ~ l in
~ cLhc
rn
Thc analogy r ~ l a t ~ i o nhctwcen
s the rate of I ~ c a ttransfrr antl skin frict,ion in cwe of tc~rb~~lcnt 11ent t,rnnufer on a flal plnh
turbulcnt flow arc of groat practical irnportrr-ncc bccar~sctlreir applic.zt.io11is not (Ilcyttoltln nnnlogy)
rcstrictctl to llows past flat plates. 'S'hcy can l ~ cuscd for arhitrary turbulcnt flows (a) I l r y ~ ~ o l d srqn.
. (23.10)
ancl thus enjoy much more general applica1)ility. 'rlie latter statement. has been (b) L. I'ranclll nnd (2. 1. Taylnr, rqn. ( 2 R . I X )
confirmed by nr~mcror~s mcasnremcnts. (e) TI).von K b r ~ n l n ,eqn. (23.lV)

The e q ~ ~ a t i o nunder
s consideration Iiavc t~irnctlout to be valitl when applied I t hnr been assllmecl LllaL Pt - 1,
c,' = 0 0592-.R 0-2, cqn. (21.12).
to tlic calculat~ionof lieat trnnsfcr from slcnrlcr botlics in pnrallcl st,rcams, that is
in cases when the prcssrlrc grntlicnb oukidc thc bodies arc not untlrlly largo. I t
was also possihlc to show tliat tlic analogy carrics over t o compressible flows w11c11
it remains independent of thc Mach numbcr. All of the forms of the Reynolds analogy
quoted earlier remain approximately valid when they arc applied to internal flows
in circular pipcs. It is then ncccssary to rcplacc the c~rrrcntlcngt.11, x, in the expression
'rhe quant,ity n, wliicl~ri~nkcsan nllownncc for tlic trnnsfcr of Iiont. 1~11ro11gl1
1.110 N I I ~ I -
for the Nussclt and Reynolds n~lmbcrsby the tlia~nctcrD of t.hc pipc, ant1 tlic vclocity layer, depends on thc ratio of t,hc two Prnnclt,l numbers, PIP,, slit1 is givclr 11y
m

t In the casc of turbnlent flow in e pip, t11c ratio of thc*vrlocity a1 the onter edgc of the la~ninar
aub-layer to the velority U on the axis ia given by

~8 mliown in Cl~np.XX, eqn. (20.151~).

-- -
ul/U = 5 i r / p U 2 = 5 I/=
M'itlr tliia approximation Prandtl'n eqnntion becomca
Referring c,' lo tho mean pipc vrlocity 6 , we wo~lldliavo
.
1%.Itcichardt cvaluatecl this integral assuming a smooth variat,ion of A,, tlint is of
the vclocit,y, from thc wall u p to the region of fully tlevclopctl turbulcnt flow. The
numerical results arc scen reproduced in Tablc 23.1. 'rhc quantity A wliicli also
appears in eqn. (23.20) is a function of the turbulcnt Prandt.1 number, P,, and is
e l i g l ~ taffected
l~ by changcs in ; howcvcr, cqn. (23.20) is iiot,gcncrnlly spmking,
very sensitive to it. Accortlirrg to calculations pcrforrnccl by d. C. 1t0t~t.a[RI], it is
possiblc to approximate it. by
A w 4 (I - P,) .
 712 XXI 11. 'I'~~rl)~~le:r~t
boltntlnry lnycrs in comprwsiblc flow b. Rclat,ion bctween velocity and tornpcrnt~tredistril>c~Lion 7 13
Tnhlc 23. I . l'llr conntnntn n nrld 11 for bhc cnlrl~lntionor tile coclficior~tnf llent transfer from cqn.
(23.20) nnd of the rcrovrry f:u.tor l'ron~rrlrl. (2:1.27),nfler H. Ibichnrdt [73] nrtd J. C. Rottn [El].

Pig. 2:1.4. Tho roltghnc~nfunct,ion ( p 4- 8.5) P-0.44 ns n f~~nr.t,ion of lJ+ k./v for sand F O I I ~ I I I I C R R
nt vsrioun Prnnclll r~u~~~bcrci,
fron~lllo l r ~ c n ~ r ~ rby
o ~I).~ IT
~ e1I)iltltrc.y
~ ~ l ~ 111rt1 It. II. S1\11t!wI<y 12.51

'rlic t.cn~pcmturctlistribufion in tirrbulerit boundary layers on flat platcs in the

prescncc of an arbitrarily vn.rying, t ~ i r b ~ l l c nT'mndtl
t :lumber, P,, was studied by
R. R. von Ilricst 1283 :rncl ,I.C. Itotta 1811. 111 t h c I;~t,t.crrcfcrcncc it is showti t,ltat
only the vsltrcs whic:li Ll~ctirrhrtlcnt I'r:~t~dtln~tmbcr,P,, assumes clowc t o t*I~e wall
detcrrnine t.11~rate of hcat transfer ant1 the tempcrat~ircdistribution; conscqucntly,
tlic details of the variation of P, away from the wall are less important. The variation
of P, witlt tlist,:incc: from tfl~ow:~llis I~rol~gltLt.o I)c:~ronly t,ltrough tho int.crrnctliary
or t.11~ A wlior~in t.lic rcrnnintlcr the v a l ~ ~
c111:~nt~il~y ofc P, a t the wall is s~ibstit~ited.
A suitable value for this scems to be Pt = 0.9. J.R. Taylor [98] performed such cal-
culations for boundary layers with variable pressure and temperature along the wall.
2. Tlrc transfer of heat from rougtr m~rfaces. t t tins bccn clcmor~stratctlin
Secs. X X f and X X I c that rough surfaces develop considerably larger values of
skin friction irt tur1)ulcnt flow than do smootlt ones. The same is true of the coef-
ficient of Iieat tmnsfcr. Normally, however, tlie percentage increase in the rate of
hcat t~ransfcris srnallcr t,l~arithat in skin friction. This is underst,andable, because
a part of the turhulcnt shcaring stresscs can be transmitted t o the wall through
pressure forcw c x e r t ~ t lon protuberances; but there exists no analogue for this
mcchanism in Iicat, transfer. Expcrimenkzl invcstig,ztions on the transfer of heat t o
a rough ttrbc wcrc carried out, among others, by W. Nunncr [66] and V. F. Dipprey
and R. IT. Sabcrsky 1261. 'I'llc latter autliors made mcas~~rementa a t different values
of trhc I'rancltl ttntnbor. l'ltcoretical conaidcmtions cltrc to 1). F. Ilipprcy and R. TI.
c ~ :13 wwrll 113 to P. It. Owcri anti W. It. Tliomsor~[67] arc based on the
S a l ) c ~ s ) [26]
hypothesis that the elfcct of roughness on the mcchanism of exchange is confined
to the regions locat,ed in t l ~ cproximity of thc wall. Starting with this hypothesis,
i t is possible to clcrivc an equation w l ~ i c lhas ~ the same structure as cqn. (23.20),
ancl differs onlg in that t11c term ( P - P,) must be replaced by a quantity, P, which
is a function of the Prandtl numl~er,P, and of the roughness. 111the particular case
when P, = I, we ot)t,ain
N,= . -
4 c,' Rz P
- -.--
--- -- (I)ipprcv, Sabersky, Owen, 'I?~omsorr; P, = I ) . (23.22)
I -4 C c f i /I(v. k / v ; P)
Dipprcy and Sabcrsky quote that
This eorrelat,ion is l)wcd on their own cxpcrimct~t,:rlrcvnlts with s:rntl rottghricss
aritl is vnlitl ill ttlic ooml)laCcly rotlgl~rogin~owlicn TI, k,/v > 70. '1'110 g r n i ~ lol'
~ ffho
function p t,ogetlicr with tlic expcrimcnt:tl rcst~lt,sovcr Lhc wholc rarlgc of rol~gh~lcss
Reynolds riumbcr v, ks/v is shown in Pig. 23.4. Owcn ant1 'rhomson corrclntcd
experimental results from various sources, including thosc from refs. [25] and [66],
ancl coriclrrdcd that
(23.24)
Proccdurcs for thc calculatio~~ of heat-transfer ratcs in turbulent flows with rtori-
isothermal surfaces have bee11worked out by D. U. S p l d i n g [88], and J . Kcstin ant1
coworkers [36, 46, 461. Extensive mcasuremcnts under such conditions arcre per-
formed by W. C. Itcynolcls, Mr. M. ICays, and S. J. Klinc [77].
3. Temperature distribration in comprceaiblc flow. In ortlur Lo ut~tlc~rat~ancl the
laws which govern the temperature distribution in compressible flows, t,hc rcader
may wish first to refer to tho rolovar~tconsirlorntions for lnminnr I)o~l~~clary lnyors
wliicll werc advanced in See. X l I t b . Wlicn tire pressure rcm~~itts (:oIIHI.:LI~I~
I I I ~ ~
P = P, = 1, the tcmpcraturc distribution satisfies cqns. (13.12), and cqn. (13.13)
in tho general case with hcat transfer, both owing to tlie evolution of frictior~all~cat,.
Whcrl P +
P, $r 1, i t is to evaluate thc recovery t ~ m p c r a t ~ ~on
i r can (atlia-
batic) wall by the use of eqn. (13.19), i . c. by
The recovory factor, r , is somewhat larger in turbulcrlt flow tharl it was in inmir~ar
 c. Infl~~cncc
of Mach n~tttll,cr;laws of fric:bion 715
714 X X I I I . ' ~ ~ ~ r h ~ ~I)oc~nel:~.ry
l c . r ~ t . I:rycrs in con~prcrrsiblcflow
Numerical values have bcen incluticd in Table 23.1. The factor 13 dcpcrrds on P, ant1
flow, r x p c r i r n r ~ ~showing
ts tltnt on the avcragc its value placcs itaclf between 0.875
antl 0 88 (sec. lj'i'ig 17 31). 'I'hc diagram in l'ig. 23.5 rcproduccs 1,. M. Mack's [56] somewhat on dc,'/2 . According t o Rotta, we may take
comparison of valucs of the rrcovcry fartor, r, measurcd on concs a t cliffcrcnt Mach
numhrrs antl a t cliffcrcnt Itrynoltls numbrrs I n order to rstimate the cffcct of When the turbrllrnt I'mndtl number varies over the tllickrrrss of thc bo~trltlary
Pr:~rltlt,l nllrul)rr, many :~~ltllors q ~ t o t cthc formltln layer, i t is necessary to insert into eqn. (23.24) the value assumed by it a t the wall.
Whcn the Pmndtl n~lml)er,P, as well as the turbulent Prantltl number, P,, differ
from nnity, i t is wort11 noting that, riormally, eqn. (13.21) givcn in Chap. XTII for
wIlic:ll yiolels r .-I 0.896 at. P :-: 0.72. I t is r~lsopossi1)lc t.o obtain this cst,inratc thcorcti- laminar bountlary layers constitrltcs a usable npproxilnation for the tfcmpcrntf~lrr
oally, in a tnallncr analogous to t ~ l ~ 11soc1 a t I,r tltc crtlcltlntion of tltc cocfficiont of di~t~ribcltion in a comprcssiblc turbulent boundary layer. 13. S c l ~ u l C z - J n t ~ c1!15]
l~
11eaL t,rttnsfcr. I'or this I)urposc? i t is ncc:cssary to start with the crlcrgy cqllntion dcvelopcd n procedure for the calculation of temperature distribut-ions in turbuicnt
(23.1 1(:) anil 10 irlclr~tleLllc cffoots of Cllc molccrllar and of tho trrrbulc~rttransfer comprcssible boundary layers.
mecllanisms irl arcortlancr! whicll the hypot.hcsis contraincd in eqn. (23.14). Proceeding
in this way, . J . C. Rotta [81] obtaincd tllc equation: c. Infl~~ence
of Mnch nun~ber;lnws of friction

T o date, the calculation of turbulent boundary laycrs in inconl pressiblc flow

Tltc qrrnnt,ity h is a fclnction of the raLio PIP, ancl accounts for, like the quantity a has not developed t o a point where i t could be classccl a s bcing morc than a semi-
in cqn. (2:!.20), t.ho procwscs taking place in the laminat' slrblaycr. It is given by the empirical theory. I t is, therefore, not surprising that the same remark applies to the
int.rgt.al cnlcctlation of comprcssil)lc t11r1)ulont bounclnry layers. I n tllo rnsc of it~comprcssil)lr
Df) turbulent bouncl~ryl a y c ~a. ~starting
~ point is proviclctl by tllc hypothcscs wllicll we-re
tliscusscd in the prccc.tlirrg cllnptcrs, riarnrly by l'rnntltl's mixing-lcrlgt.11Ilyl)otl~c*~is,
by von Kilrmjn's similarity rule or by Prandtl's universal velocity-distribution law.
The authors of numerous contemporary papers have cndcavourcd to create a semi-
empirical theory of comprcssiblc turbcrlcnt boundary layors by transposing thcsc
hypotheses and by adapting them to thc compressible case. Ttlis ncccssitatcd thc
introduction of additional ad hoc hypotheses. I n the absence of detailed investigations
into the mechanics of compressible turbulent flows, thc trarlsposition of thc scmi-
empirical theories of turbulent flows from the incompressible to tho comprcssible
case involves a good deal of arbitrarincss.
Prom the practical point of vicw, thc climcr~lticsincrcnsc bccnrrsc, on tllc one
hand, there arc two additional pamrnetcrs- thc Mac11 numbcr, A&,, of tltc: froc
stream and the temperature, T,, of tllc solid surface- which inflr~errccthe flow, and,
on trhe other hand, tire availablc experimental results are not cntircly frcc of contm-
dictions. Tllrcc mcthotls should bc singlcd out from among t l ~ cnltmcrous propos:~ls
for handling the prol)lcm, bccause tlley havc bcen employcd ~)arlic:~rlarly freq~rently:
(1) Introduction of a reference temperature for the density and viscosity of the gas.
Pig. 23.5. ltecovery fnctors in tcrms of Jt~ynolduI I I I I ~ Irrol11
~ X ~1nciwllrcn1enIa011 COIICB t ~ t Mibell (2) Application of PranclLl's mixing lengtlr hypothesis or of vorc ICiirmbn's similarity
n~tnll)ornM,, - I-i to Mm 0.0 nftcr I,. M. Mnck [BF]
1 hypothesis.
(3) Transformation of t l ~ ccoordinates.
\Vind l u n n c l I /
M, T y p of pone Over and above, the literature of t-llc slibjcct contains expositions of mc~t.llotls
which cannot be classified under any onc of the thrcc procctling hcdding~.111 an
10" I~ollcrw:rlerl k~,ercirca 2.18 10' woo11 impressive comparison, D . R . Cllnpmnn and R.11. ICcstcr [I I ] brought to tlrc forc
10" ltc>Ilf~w;slrel (:AI.CIT 5 x G In. 6.0 20" ccrnrnlc
10" hollow: alerl Aatm I x 3 lt No. 1 2.0 PO' l ~ o l l u w ;slrcl the large diffcrcnces which result when cliffercnt methods arc usctl t o calcr~lat~c
skin
10" l ~ o l l o w ;slsel JI'L I8 x 20 i n . 4.60 5" nl~rcglnss
10' Ilnllow; slrcl I ' 18 x 20 in. I.o:l 13' l ~ ~ c i t , e friction (cf. [30]). An extensive comparison betwcen twcnty cliffcrcnt comput8ationaI
10" l ~ o l l o w ;at~.rl JI I?( x
12 x
20 in.
1%in.
4-50 13" ltrcitc
I.G:l 13" l f ~ c i l c schemos and cxisting, experimental rcsults was carricrt out by D. R. Spnlding ant1
10' lloilllw; s1ccl JI
10' I l n l l ~ ~ wslcel
; I , 12 x 12 in. 2.54 10" lllcitr S. W. Chi [89].
716 XXIII. 'I'urbr~lcntbor~ntlnrylnycra in con~prcmibloflow

1. The flat plate at zero incidence. The guitling idea of the methods of class (1)
is tho hypothesis that the laws of incompressible flow remain valid in tohecompressible
case on contfition thnt tlie values of density, Q, and viscosity, p, are t,aken a t a suit-
ably clioscn reference temperature, T*. TI). von Khrmicn [43] was the first one to
utilize this possibility and selected the tomperaturc a t the wall as his reference
tempcrat,~tre.Starting with the law of friction for a flat plate a t zero inridence in
incomprcssiblc flow embotlicd in eqn. (21.17), von lCdrmAn obtained the following
equation for t.he skin-friction coefficient in the compressible mse:

0.242
- fi 1 ,_2 I-"
_y_5 M&

where M, = tJ,/c, denotes the Mach number of the free stream. The preceding
eql~ationis valid only for an adiabatic wall; in it, the viscosity function was assumed
in the form p/p, = l/T/To.Various attempts have been made to improve the method
of the reference temperature by choosing a value T * which lies between the highest
end the lowest values of temperature, T, e n c o ~ ~ n t c r ewithin
d the boundary layer.
E. It. G. Rrkcrt [29, 301 proposed to place the reference temperature a t
T * = T o -t. 0.5 (TI, - T i ) -10.22 (T, - T I ) , (23.30)
Fig. 23.0. Cocfficicntof loLd akin friction for nli ndinbntie flirt plnlo nt 7.oro inc:iclc.nro for Intnit1:br
anel turb~~lorit
bonnclnry leycr. 'J'hcoroticnl curvca for trlrl111lc:ntflow rrotn cqn. (2:).:11). : ~ f t n . ~ .
whore T I denotes the ten~pcmt~urc a t t,hc cclgc of the boundary layer, T, is tho sor- E. R. van Driest [27];y = 1.4, cu = 0.76, P = 1
face t e ~ n p c r a t ~ i ~
a tr rt.hc wall ant1 'f', represents the recovery (i. e. adiabatic wall)
tcmpcmLrrre. lilcltcrt's f~ormnl:& inc:l~~tlcsI.hc I;:WC wit11 heat transfer. The int~rodnction
of a mfcrcncc Lc~npcmtltrcconst,iltr~tcs the si~nplcstway of accounting for the infl~~cncc
of Mach number ant1 heat Lransfcr on skin friction ant1 leatls to results which arc often
adequate in criginecring applirntions. For this reason, M. 11. Bertram 121 carried out
a I a g o programme of calculat.ions of skin-friction coefficients covering a wide range
of Mach n r ~ mbcrs and trmpornt,llrc r;~t,ios.
The itloa of applying Prat~clt,l'smixing-length hypothesis wa.9 taken u p by E. It.
van Driest [27]. I l c ~Lipnlatcdthat 1 == x y, as given in oqn. (10.22). The cffect of -Tltcory
[I021 k,r
d t l s to Wllson
a n adlnbxlic wnll nnd
- 0
.
m v Lobb, Mnk/ecPershfp.neIlow)
Hill /JXU//?'dym7)
conipressi1)ilit~yis brought to bc:w by allowing the density to vary thus causing the zero pressllre grnrliast: Lllc rntio 06
boundary-layer tlrickrlrss t,o change too. I l c obtainecl explicit formlilae for turbulent
ski11 frict,ion on ;I ll:~l,plale, with ant1 wiLt~out,heat tr:~nsfcr,which accorttit for the
T,JT,
M -- 2 and 21-0 for M -
vxrirn helwaetl 1.8 Tor
I0
Tltvory dtic lo vnlt Drirat
infli~enccof the 1L.ynoltls ant1 Mach numI)crs sim~lll,ancoosly.For the case of an (271, wit.11 ltcat trnnslcr, ncro
adia\)atic wall tlic formula for the coefficient of total skin friction has the form: prosstarc grnclient
a
Menserctnml.s:
(1) xcliahntic wnll, zero prcasllrc
grndinnt
(2) wif.11 Itant tmsnfer, zero prrs- 012
whcrc surr grnclirnt
theory, m/son, w~fhoufheat t r m b _-
1 . (3) wit11 ilcnt lran.sfrr, T,,IT,
1 -12 = L--
= 8 0, favottralrl~ prcssurc gra-
1 + Yz! M&
dient I + I--
2 ?
2 4 6 8 M
and M, = U,/c, denotes thc free-stream Mach nl~mber.The symbol u) denotes the M,
exponent in the viscosity law / ~ / p ,= (ll/T,)"from eqn. (13.4). This equation differs Fig. 23.7. Skin friction coeficient of a Rat plab at zero incidence WI n function of Lhc Mncti
from (23.29) by the factor (sin-' 1)/1on the left-hand side and by the appearance numbcr for a turbulent boundary layer; compariaoti betweon theory and measurement; R, w lo7,
of t,lle exponent cr, of t,hc viscosit,y law. For M,-+ 0 eqn. (23.31) transforms into from 1381
718 XXIII. T~lrl)~~lcnt
boundnry layem in comprcssiblo flow

von 1Z:irrn;in's i~icomprtssiblcresistance formula, eqrl. (21.17). Fig. 23.6 gives a plot
of eqn. (23.31) ant1 a comparison with experimental results. The measure of agreement
b c t w c c ~thcory
~ ant1 experiment is not satisfactory in all cases, but ill this comexion
it, must bc poiut~ed out t h a t mcasurcmcnts a t high Mach numbers are somewhat
uncertain. 1t.E. Wilson 11021 cnrricd o u t similar calculationq, but based them on
von JZ6rm6n's sirnilnrity liypot2hcsis,cqn. (19.39). Limiting himself t o the case of an
:ulial~at,ic:w:bll, IIC tlcrivccl a resr~lt~ which is quite similar t,o cqn. (23.31). I'tirtllcr
c x ~ ~ c r i m o t ~m
t asl~ r l karc contnirlctl in Pig. 23.7 which shows a plot of the ratio of
tltc sltin-friction c:ocflicient,s in compressible and incompressible flow in tcrrns of t.11~
M:tcli ~ i ~ l m l ) cc:ovcrirlg
r, a rangc whicli ir~clutlcsvery high Mac:h numl,crs. 'I'lic grapli
cont.ains two t,heoreticnl curves; the first one due t o R. E. Wilson [102] presupposes
nri adiabatic wall, and the second one, +rived by E. R. van Driest [27], includes
t l ~ ccffcet of Iicat transfer. The mcasurcmenta were performed 11y several workers
[7, 14, 38, 63, 871 and show good agreement with thcory. Atlditionnl information
conccrnir~gtlic inllt~cticcof heat transfer on skin friction is contained in I'ig. 23.8
wllicll was also I~ascdor1 van 1)ricst's calct~lations1271. The diagram shows t h a t the
skin friction on a n adiabatic wall is sornewhnt smaller t h a n is the case when heat
flows from the flr~itlto the wall.
The syml)ols usccl here arc identical wit11 those dcfincd for eqns. (13.24) to (13.41).
Wit.11 the mntlie~nat~icnl possil)ilit,y of t.rarisforrriing trhc crlrlations for coni~~rcssil~lc
flow ir11.o a form it1cntic:~l with t h a t for iricornprcssil~ln flow, riialiy nl~t,liors(r. g.
B. A. Magcr [57j, D. Coles [15], L. Crocco [16], I). A. Spencc [$I, 921) t:ouploti n
pliysical Iiypotlicsis, accortlirig t o which the vclocitry prolilcs in t i ~ ct,r~~rislormc:tl pl:c~ic
rcttlin t.11~sarnc form as tlir~l,valitl for iriconiprcssil~lcIlow. Consccl~~cnt.ly, 1 . 1 1 ~law
of friot.ion a s wcll as othor relations rcrn:~in vrtlitl w l ~ c nt11e l.rntisforn~otlI ) : L ~ : I I I I ( . ~ ~ ( ' ~ s
, c ( l t.hcrn. 'rl~isconcl~tsion,wl~ic:liis certainly valid For 1amirl:w flows,
arc s l ~ b s t i t ~ ~ tinto
tlocs riot ncccss:~rily carry over t o I.rrrl~tlli:nl. Ilows bct::~~lsot,l~cl.rnt~sli)rlti:~t.io~~ <
coortlinatcs cannot I)c a1)plictl to t h e eqnat,ions which tloscribc the Ilrrct~tnLing~iiotion.
This lcatls t o contratlict,iorls with rcspcot t,o all thcorics whiclr arc 1)ascd or~I3o1rssillesq's
assumption cmbotlicd in cqn. (19.1). Thcsc irtclr~tletl~coricswhicl~utfilizc Pr:~litll.l'.s
mixing-length hypothesis or von I<irm:i.n's si~nilarit~y hypotlicsis. If wc accept t , l i ~
physically plausible assumption t h a t the eddy kinematic visco~it~y E , dcfinrtl it1 ctlrl.
(19.2) is irltlcl)cntlcnt of clcnsity, we arc f:~ccdwith blic f a c l t,lial, a t~.nrlsli~r~li:tl,io~i If()
t,hc incon~prcssil~lc: form ceasrs to 110 possil~lc.Ilowcvdr, :L t.mtisforrn:ktion to

can still be cnrric:tl oril.. In t l i i ~case (,lit: ricw rtltly Itinc*tnr~l.ic:

Pig. 23.8. S l t i ~frirl.iot~
~ coc~ffic.ientfor a
llr~tpl:rls a t zcro il~citlcr~cci n turbulcl~t
flow i~lilhlicat transfer as a f~tnctionof
Itcyt~oltisnulnhcr for different valrrcs of
t.lic tetnporakrrc ratio !7',/T,, after 1':. It.
van Driest [27]
vis(:o~iI.~.
I.,, is I I - I I I I ~ . ~ I
to the original quantity, 8 , tfIirough the equation
Now, i t is known t h a t the dcnsity mt.io e/pl varies corisitlcrably with the tlistance,
y, from t h e wall when the Mach number is large. Conscqucntly, one of two concl~~siorls
forccs itself upon us. If wc, assume t h a t the velocity profilcs remain tlncharigctl oom-
1)arcd with tlie incomprcssiblc case, we find ttltnt, the clisl,rii)~~l,ion
of F has cli:~ngctl.
If, I~owcvcr,wc admit, t h a t c remains ~~nalt.crccl,we cntl rip wit.11 riloclifictl velocity
profiles. Tlle stat,cmcnts concerning tlic cffcet of Mach numl~oron t,hc vcloc:itsy pro-
Iiles iri tlic original coordiriates which can be m:ulc on tlic I~asisof the two prcct:tlitig
scl~cmesturn out to be exactly opposite. This observation tl~rowsa gootl tlcnl of
light on tlie whole complex of problcins whicli arisc wl~cntho laws ol~l~nint?tl in i.hc
incompressible case are tmnslatcd to apply t o t.lie comprcssiblc case.

Coordinate trnnsTormntion: 'l'hc coordinatc trxnsformn.t.ion dcscrihcd in See. X I I I t l
and valitl for 1amin:lr flow can also be cnrricd tlirougli formally whcn applictl to the
cliffcrr~ll~ial
cclt~af.ionsfor comprcssil~lc t,rlrl~ulcntbo~lntlaryIn.ycrs. The lteynoltls
stress t',, is trnnsformcd t,o
Further dctailer The effect of Mach number on the velocity profile is hror~ghtt o
bear through the increase in temperature in the direction of the wall. Since it is
possible t o s111)pose t h a t the pressure, p, is indepcncicnt of y, it is fonntl t h a t 1.11~
density distribution in t h e boundary layer is described by

(23.33)
As the Mach nllmber increases ont.sitlc a n atlial~n.t,it:wall, i t is seen t h a t the d ~ n s i t ~ y
and with this s~rbstit.nt~ion,
the m o m c n t ~ ~equation
m (23.8h) acquires the form:
n l ~ i s tdccrease very st,rongly a t small values of y orit1 Chis must c:ause the l~o~lntla.ry-
6
ati
-1. a
"j.-'C.
- ac
= s1 ---' (1 -1- S) 4-
a8a
v, --I- +-1
(23.34)
Iaycr t,l~icknesst o incrcasc considerably. On tlic otlicr hantl, a n increase in thc Mach
~lnrnl)ereffects a n increase in viscosity and a decreasc in the sltin-friction coefficient.
a~ ag a % eo ag . ,I ,his, in hum, causes I,hc lalni~larsub-layer l o incrcnsc strongly. An cxa~nl)lcof the
720 XXIII. Turbulent bountlary layers in con~prcasibleflow c. lnfl~lenceof Mach number; lawe of frictiotl 72 1

t.hc momerit,nm thickness from eqn. (13.75) bccomes smaller comparccl with the
boundary-layer thickness, 8 , a s the Mach nt~ml,cris incrcascrl, bccausc thc clcnsity
tlccreascs in t l ~ cdircct,ion of tho wall.

-
The tliagrarn in Fig. 23.1 1 contains a logarithmic plot of the vclocitty ratio ' I / , / I J ,
against 71 y v * / v W of thc type er~cour~tcrcrl in Fig. 20.4, in wliiclr thc valucs of
clcnsity, Q, ant1 kinematic viscosity, v , havc bccn taken a t thc wall tcmpcratnre. I t is
noted t h a t the characteristic shapc familiar from it~corn~~rcssiblc flow persists at!
Fig. 23.0. Menn~~rcrncnts on lligl~crRlncl~ numbers, but qnar~titativctlepart,urcs makc thcir appoamncc. 'I'ltis
vclociLy tlist,ril~~~l.io~lin follows from I,llc ex~)crimcntalrcsl~ltnplot,l.ctl in l.hc figtlro ant1 due tlo It. I<. I.ol~l),
turi~rllcnt bol~n(lary layer 15. M. \I'inltlcr, ant1 .J. Pcrsli [li3]. 111 tho ~ ~ r c s c n cofc llcat t,rnt~sfcr,tltc:rc rlpl1c:lrs
on flnL plate a t zero inci- t,o cxist a largc ir~flucnccon the sub-layer, wl~orcasthe cnrvcs in 1 . 1 1 ~frilly dcvcloprd
dcncontsupcrsot~icvelocity,
aft.er It. M. O'1)onnell [20]
M, = 2.4; d, - n l o m c n l ~ l n ~
rrorn crllt. (13.76); Fig. 23.1 1. Universal velocity distribution Inw
TW -
lluiek~~rss
"'a i n a tt~rhnlentbotmtlnry lnyer on the wall of n
altannel at supersonic flow with hcat transfer, as
tl~cory:
Inentn~rrer.iil~lr!
lneasured 11y R. JC. Iubb, E.M. Winkler, nrltl J .
-- -
",
'1
r; 0-il,i

t ~ ~ ~ t ~ ~ L
( Y7 ;

~ l ~~ ~r n~r ys : ~ l l ~ l c
Pcrsh [53]

A L J L 1 - J
0 4 8
I
12
I I
r
I I I ,,g -. n c.:! ( ,)'Ii I. - 1/ r./o," 3 rt - Y n./l.,,,

fl t:llrves ( I ) nnrl (2): Theoreticnl l n w s for I n c o n ~ l ~ r r s s i lflow

~lc
L t:llrrr ( I ) : T.ntninnr sub-lnyrr, u/v. = rt
3
,,/,..-
('rlrvr ( 2 ) : Ilni\.rrFxI Iog~rI1l111li~ law
5 . 5 I 5 . 7 5 Ion ?,
vclociljy 1)rofiloin n aom~~rcssiblc I f n r l ~ ~ r lI~oundary
c~~t laycr is given in Fig. 23.9 wllicl~
cont:tins a plot of ILIU, in terms of y/02 for M, = 2.4 a s mcas~irctlI)y It. M. O'llon-
nnll [26]. Ilcrc, d, rcpmscnls tllc momcnt~rmtl~ickncssdcfincd in eqn. (13.75).
111 t4hcatloptctl systcnl of coortlin:ltt.s, tJlc point,s for tliffcrcr~t,Rcynoltls numbcrs
arrange 1.1i~msclvcswell on a single curve. 'l'llc t,I~corct,iatl curvc sllown on t,hc graph
tlcviates from tthc corrrs~~ontling curvos for incompressik)lc flow m ~ i c Icss l ~ than was
tllc cnsc wit11 laminar flow, Fig. 13.10. As cxpcct,ed, thc 1)ountlar.y-layer t~l~ic:ltncss
incrcn.scs wit.11 Rlacl~ nnmbcr ; this is I)rongl~t,into cvidcncc in Fig. 23.10 which
clisplnys vclocit,y profiles u p t o M, = 9.9. I t is wort11 noting in t-his conncxiolt t , l ~ a t

region become nearly parnllcl. Theoretical invcst,ig,ztion into t t ~ cproper gcr~cr:tiization

of tho universal velocit,y-distribution law t o includo compressibility offccts Iiavc I)con
a.
published by R. Dcis.slcr [21, 231 and J.C. Rotta [78]. Accordir~gt,o l.l~rsc~, 1.11~
velocit,y distribution in the proximity of the wall is influcncetl by two pararrrctcrs,
turbulent boundary layer on n. flat plate namely - the Mach number M, and the heat-flux number, pp,each defined by the
- by
in'supcrsonic flow a t various Mnch num- respective equation, a s follows :
bhs, r29 memuretl'hy.!I W. Matting, D. I i

It. Cllapman, J . R. Nyliolm, and A. C..

T1iornn.q 1581 -
Tw = Ta and S - Tw
l'a- (23.37)
9w - -- --
p,= -
722 X X I I I . 'r11~1111lent
I~o~rndnry
Iaycrs in conlprcariiblc llow
wl~ercc , clcnotcs the vclocity of sound a t the wall, S is the St,anton nnmher, and
c,' t,l~elocal skin-frict,iort coefficient. (hlc~rlations performed by J. C. Rotta [78]
under ccrt,ain simplifying assulnptio~ls yielded results which werc qualitativcly correct;
howcvcr, t,he elTcct of p, on the 1amina.r suh-layer turns out to be larger in experin1ertt.s
than t h a t which can be reflected in the calculations. The measurcrnents undertaken
b y 8.IJ. Mcicr L60, 01, 621 give an indication of the corresponding t,clnperat.ure dis-
tributions. The evalllnt,ion of these result* showed that the t(urb111entPrandtl ltrttnbcr
increases across the sublaycr and reaches a value exceeding unity; this means that*
thc factor A , for hcnt tmnsfcr to t,hc wall dccrenacs fmtcr than t,hc corrrspo~~tling
eddy coefficient A, for momentum transfer. Acoording t o H.U. Meier and J.C. ItotLn
[63], it i~ possihlc t o descrihe this state of affairs tl~eoreticallyby txansposing Pmndt,l's
mixing-lengt,h hypothesis (Chap. XIX) to the transport of heat. Thus, eqn. (23.14) is
transformed into
The mixing length 1, for heat transfer diffcrs ~cst o mngnit,ucIe from that for morncn-
tum transfer, 1 in eqn. (19.7). I n analogy with I3.R. van Drinst's equat,ion (20.15b),
i t is assumed t h a t in t.hc neighhourhood of the wall we may put
The dimensionless const.artta xq and A1 have tliffcrcnt, vzlues t,hnn x nncl A in eqn.
(20,1511).The 1.11rhulcnt I'rancltl numhcr, cbs drfinctl in eqn. (23.12), becomes
The variation of Pt acrosu the bou~tdarylayer was computed by I1.U. Meier [64].
Figure 23.12 allows us to conclude t,hat measured total-temperature distributions
are rel)rodncect quite well by calculat~ionsba,sed on J.C. Rott,a's [78] law of the wall
for compressible boundary layers. The diagrnms represent the ratio T o / T m of total
@ 1.019 LR7 -0.91
.oZz rn -o.gr Fig. 23.12. Totnl tompcrnturo To in tho
tnrbulent boundary layer on a flat wall
a L022
and in tho prcsenco of a weak hent flux at
sr~pcraonicvclocit,y, nflcr H. U. Blcier et
temperntmres as functions of the Mach-numbcr ratio M/Mm. llere
When the rate of heat transfer is small (q, m 0), the temperature increases from t.he
wall outwards and reaches a maximum which is followed by a decrease to a mirtirnum
and an ultimate increase.
When the wall is rough thc influence of thc Mac11 number on slrir~friot,iot~is
even greater. According to H.W. Liepmann and F.E. Goddard [37. 621, the ratio
~ , ~ , , , ~ , , , / cfor
~ , , the
~ complotcly rol~ghregime I ~ c c o n ~ ~)roportionnl
rs 1.0 III(, ( I ~ I I R ~ ! . ~
ratio e,/em, and hence
"lcompr = 1
el cnc 1 -I- ?zL Ma
where r denotes the recovery factor.
2 "
2. Variable pressure. I n practical applications, it, is frcqt~cntlyncccss:u-y t,o
perform calculations for turbulcnt boundary layers in cornprcssible flows with vt~rying
pressure. The need is particularly acute in the design of co~lvcrgcnt-divergentnozzlcs
for supersonic wind tunnels, because the displacement cmect of the b o ~ ~ n d n rlayer y
in them must be known fairly accurately. As was the case witohirtcomprcssiblc flow,
the known approximate procedures are based on the integral momentl~mcqrration;
in some cnscs, tho cricrgy integrnl cqnal.iorl has also baa11 ctnployetl. 'rho Lwo i t ~ l , ~ - g r ~ ~ I
equations in question have been already given as eqns. (13.80) and (13.87) for adia-
batic walls. As far as turbulent boundary layers are concerncd, these are writtcn:
- + 2 - d( 2 d+UN
-dd, -Mz)=.Y
dz U dz 12 61 u' '
energy-integral equation (kinetic energy) -
they are valid for P = 1, and are not restricted to adiabatic walls. liere, O3 denotes
the energy thickness, eqn. (13.76), 6 , represents a n cntl~alpythickness, eqn. (13.77),
and H I , = 6,/6,.
A number of authors, including G. W. Englcrt [31], IC. Rcsltotlto and M. Tucker
[76], N.B. Cohen [12] and D.A. Spence [92], applied the Illingworth-Stewartson
transformation with respcct to thc momcntunt-integral cquation (23.39) ant1 thus
reduced i t to its incompressible form. A. Walz [loo] rcduced the two cqnnLior~s
(23.39)nrttl (23.40) to a rclativcly convcnicnt form from tho point of vicw o f ~ ~ ~ r r n c r i c n l
computation and oncornpassed the rcq~lireduniversal f ~ ~ n c t i o nins a s r t of tnblcs
of numerical values.
J.C. Rotta [84] described a similar procedure for two-dimensional and nxi-
symmetric Rows as well as for the calculation of a body of revolution in subsonic
and supersonic flow [105]. The agreement between calculations and mensurrmcnt is
satisfactory u p to a Mach number of M, = 2. The deviations which occur a t M, =
2.4 and 2.8 are cxplnincd, partially, by the fact that the curvature of tlic st.rcnmlincs
i n c o n j ~ r n c t i o nwit,lt t.hc vnrintions of tlenait,y exert^ n n unexpcctctlly large inflrlcnec
o n t h e tlevclol~mcnt.o f t.ltc b o u n d a r y Iayc-r - a n effcct n o t a c c o r ~ n t r dfor ill t,lle
c a l c n l a t ' i o ~ ~T.h e rcnsona for t h i s effect, of s t r e a m l i n e cnrvatrrre were invest.igat,ecl
b y J.C. R o t t a 1821; n cont.rihr~liont,o t,llis p r r ~ l ~ l c rwna s also rnntlc 11g 1'. Rrarlsltnw (4).
Methotls of finite tlilTercnrrs l ~ n v calso becn atlnpt.ct1 t o d e a l wit.11 l , u r l ) u l e ~bountlal.y
~t
layers in corny)rrssil)le st~rc:ltns.7'.C c l ~ c c inntl A . M . O . Smit.11 [I)] dcveloprtl n mtttllotl
I)nsrtl o n ~ n i s i r ~t,l~c,ory g (src. Scc. X I X r ) wllosc v:~litlil.ylins 1rcc.n rxtcntl(,tl t o inc:l~ltl(*
t . h r o e - t l i r ~ ~ c n s i o ~1)ountlnry
~al Inycrs I101. 'l'he ~ n e t . l ~ oddu e t,o 1.' 13rntlsltn~\. (sc.e
Sec. X I X f ) that mnlres u s e of t.he equat.ion for kinetic e n e r g y h a s n.lso been extentled
t o a.pply t,o comprcssiblc flows (61. P. I~mtls11,zw[5]rcnchctl t,hc conclusion t.liat t,hc
volumet,ric tlilxt.nt.ion e x e r t s a d e e p influence o n t h e st,ructure of t h e t,urbr~lencein t,he
b o u n d a r y laycr. A g r e e m e n t between rnensnrement, a n d calculnt.ion could b e consitlcr-
a b l y i m p r o v e d b y t h e introduction of an a d d i t i o n a l t e r m in e q n . (19.42). A met.1tod
of int,egrat.ion for three-dimensional compressible b o u n d a r y layers w a s (leveloped b y
I'.T). S m i t , l ~(941; a ~ ) r o ~ ~ oi sn ntlh i s rnnI.(.cr w a s tniitlc by J . Corlst,cix [ g a l : colnpnrc-
also I). Ar11:il ct, al'. [ I n l n.ntl J. C o n s t ~ i xc,t al. [Db].
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% -,
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,----,-
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\ -
I 1671 Owrn, P.R., and Thomaon, W.R.: Hcnt trnn~fcracross rongli surfnccs. JPM 1.5, 321 --Xi4
- -
[41] Johnson, 1).S.: Vclocsity, t r ~ i i p r m t l ~ r catit1
, h m t transfer mcnsuren~cnts in a t ~ ~ r b u l c n t (1943).
borir~tlnrylnyrr d o n ~ ~ r n t r r of
x tn y tempcrntc~rc.J. Appl. Mcch.
~ ~ntrpwise d ~ s c o ~ ~ t i n uit1i t wall [68] I'nl)pns, C.C.: Mcasnrc~ncntof beat transfcr in the tr~rbrtloritIiorttitlnry layer on n flat. l~lnte
..' - .. ,-..,.,.
24 2 X 1 lOTr7I in supcrsonic (low and co~~iparison wilh skiti friction rcsulta. NACA TN :12'2!! (l!)54).
(421 .Jol~nnorr,D.8. : Vclocit,y and l~niperat~urc fli~ctrtatiorirncnaurctnei~tsit1 a t ~ ~ r h i ~ lhound-
cnt [69] Persc~i,L.N.: A note on the bnnic cquntioiis of tr~rhitlcnt,boundary laycn n~itltho heat
ary laycr downntrcnrn of a step\rrisc cliscotitinuity in wall tetnporat~tre.Trn~is.ASME ,I. transfer throiigh such laycrs. ZFW 15, 31 1-314 (19li7).
Appl. Mecall. 26, :125--33(i (I 95!8). [70] Prandtl, L.: Eine Beziehung zwischerl Wiirtncaitstnusrlt itnd Striin~ungswiclerstnticl (lor
[43] von KB.rm6.n. Tli.: '1'1ic ptolilctn of rcsi~tanccin cotnprc~niblcflt~irls.Volta Congress Rome Fliissigkciten. Phya. Z. 11, 1072- 1078 (1910); see also Coil. Works I I , 585--5!M.
19JR. 222 -277; see also Coll. Works I l l , 17!)-221. [71] Reichnrdt, H.: Dio Wiirtnciihcrtragrlng it1 C ~ ~ r b ~ ~ l Rcil~~tngsscliicl~te~i.
onbn ZAMM 20, 297.-
1441 von I<(rrmhn, '1'11.: 'rho atlalogy bet.rvcc-r~ll~tidfriction and hcnt t,rnnafcr. T ~ I I RASME . 61, 328 (1!)40); NACA TM 1047 (1943).
70R--7 10 (I!):)!)); R C P 111~0(:011. Work8 111, 355-:)(i7. 172)
- - Jloic:lttrrtlt,, 11.: 11111)nla- rit~tlWiir~t~o~ir~nI.nr~st-l~
bci froior ' I ' I I I ~ ~ I I I ~ ~ ZAhlM
~ ~ I z . 2.i. 21% 272
1451 Koatin, .I., and Hicltartlson, P.I).: Hcat txanufer ncrom turbr~lentincotnpressihle bouritlnry (1944).
Inyera. Int.. J . Ilcat anti Mnun 'I'rnnsfor 6, 147-189 (IO(i3). [73] Reichnrdt, 11.: o c r EiliflusR der watldnal~cn St,r"niting nt~ftlcn titrb~tlcritenWiirmciibcr-
1461 Knst.in, .J., nnd l<.icl~nrclsot~, 1'.1).: Wiirmeiibcrbrngung in t~irbulenten (:ren7*lcliichten. nng. Rcp. Max-Plnnck-Inst, fiir St~riit~tungsfor~cli~tng No. 3, I---li:t (1!)60).
Foruchp;. 11ig.-WCR.29, 93.- 104 (1963). [74] fZeiclIardt, H.: l)ic Grendlngen des turbulctrtetl Wiirtrieiibcrgn~rges.Arch. Wiirtnotocl~n.2,
[46a] Kcstin, J . , ant1 Person. L.N.: The 1,ranafer of hcat across a turbulent boundary layer a t 129- 142 (1061).
very high l'riitidtl nnmbera. lnt. .J. I-lmt and Mass Transfer 5, 355-371 (1962). [75] Reahotko, E., and Tucker, M.: Approxirnate calculation of the contpre~~ible tlirbulet~t
1471 KistJer, A.1,.:' FIuct.unt.ioti rneasnrctiictib in a supcrsonic tnrbulcnt boundary layer. Phys. boundary layer with heat transfer and arbitrary promilre grdicnt. NACA TN 4164 (19571.
@ Iilitf~2, 2!)0 - 296 (1969). (761 Reynolds, 0.:011 tho extent and nct,iotl of tho Jicatitig sltrface for rtcaln hnilcrs. I'TOC.
1481 Klobnnoff, Y.S.: Cl1nrackristic8of tr~rhrtlencein n boundary layerwith zeropressrtrcgratlient. Munchester Lit. Phil. Soc. 14, 7-12 (1874).
NACA T N 3178 (1954); TJt 1247, 1135-1163 (1955). [77] Reynolds, W.C., Kays, Mr.M., and Kline, S. J.: Hcat trnnufcrin the turbulcnt inconiprcmible
[49] Kovnuenny, L.S.O.: The hot-wire nncmometer in ~ i ~ p e r s o nflow. i c J A S 17,565-673 (1950). boundary Iayor. I. Constant wall temperature. NASA Mctno. 12-1-58 W (1968); 11. Stop
[50] Kntateladze, S.S.,and Leont'ev, A.I.: Turbulent boirndary layer in compressible gesee. wnll tcmpernt,urc diatribr~tion.NASA Mcmo. 12-2-68 W (1958); 111. Arbitrary wall
I'ransl. by D.U. Spnlditrg. Edward Arnold Publishera Ltd., London, 1904. temperatnrc and lieat I~IIX. NASA Mcii~o.12-3-58 W (1958); IV. Effect or loc:ntio~iof
trnnsition rind prodiction of hont tmnafor in n known tranuibion ragion. NASA Momo.
[6l] Lilley, G.M.: An npproxitnation solr~tionof the turbulent boundary lnycr equation in in-
compressible and colnpressibie flow. Coil. Aero. Cranfield Rep. 134 (1960). .-
1 3 - A - -- 5 R-- W
.. I,-IORRI.
-...-,.
1621 Licpmann, H.W., and Goddard, F.E.: Note on the Mach number effect up011 the skin [78] Itotta, J.C.: Ober deli Einflum der Mnchschen Zahl i ~ n dd m Wiirmeiibergangs auf das
frict~ionof roi~gltsitrfncca. J A S 24, 7R4 (1957). Wandgesctz turbulcnter Stramun en. ZFW 7, 264-274 (1959).
[R3] Lohb, R.K., Wit~klcr,EM., ant1 Porsh, J . : ICxpcrirncntnl invrat,igntionoftr~rbr~lettt bor~nd- 1701
.t .. Rotta, J.C.: Turbrtlcnt boltndary!ayera with heat trnnsfer in comprcssible flow. AGARTI
ary layern in hypcrnoliic flow. NAVOJtl) Rep. 3880 (1955). Rep, 281 (1900).
[54] Ludvvieg, li.: Eiri Gerat zur Measr~ngder Wandschubspannung turbulcnter Reibunga- [80] Itotta, J.C.: llemerkung zum Einflites dcr l)ichtoscl~wanki~ngcnin turbitlcnlotr Urct~s-
schichten. 1ng.-Arch. 17, 207-218 (1949). scliichteli bei kom~remiblerStromung. 1ng.-Arch. 32, 187-190 (1963). - .
..

[65] Ludwicg, 11.: 11cntiminong des Verlinlt.niaaea der A~tstauachkoeffizientenfiir Warme and
Inipula bci tt~rl)ulentenGrcn7achichten. ZFW 4, 73-81 (1966).
[RO] Mack, L.M.: An cxpeririicntal investigation of the temperature recovery-factor. J e t Pro-
p ~ ~ l s i oLaboratnry,
n Calif. IIIRL.TCCIIII.,Ynundcnn, Rep. 20-80 (1054).
1571 Mnger, 8.: Trntlalbrtnntion of tlic compresuible turbulent boundary layer. JAS 25,305-31 1
(1958).
[BR] Matting. P.W., Chapman, D.R., Nyholtn, J.R.,and tho me^, A.G.: Turbulent skin friction
a t high Mach nnmbcrr artd Reynold~numbers in air and helium. NASA TI2 R-82 (1961).
[59] Mchffcrty, O.11.. irntl Hehbor, 1C.E.: 'rho offect of ndverae proasnre gradienb on the charac-
teristic~of t~trhulcnthortndary lnyers in sr~pcrsonicatrcams. JASS 29, 1-10, 18 (1962).
[60] Meier, H.U.: Experirncntellc und thcorctische Unterauchungen von turbulenten Grenz-
schichten bei Uherschnlistrii~n~~ng. Mitt. MPI Stromungsfonchg. u. Aerodyn. Vernuchs-
anat. Nr. 49, 1- 136, (1070); Dim. Brnrtnschweig 1970. . lavera a t s u ~ e n o n i cspeeds from the point of view of Reynolds analogy. NACA TN 3284
[61] Mcier, H.U., Im, R.E., and Voisinet, I2.L.P.: Vergleichsmessungen mit einer Danberg-
Teniperatoraonde und einer kombinierten Druck-Tempcrat~traondein turbulenten Gre~iz-
achichtcn hci Obcrsclinllntro~n~tng. ZPW. 22, 1-10 (1974).
[62] Moicr, H.U., Voiainct, R.L.P.; and Gatea, D.P.: Temperature diatribt~tionausing the law
of the wall for cornprcauible flow with variable terbulent Prandtl numbers. AIAA 7th Fluid
and Plnnma Dynamics Conf.. Palo Alto, Calif. 1974, AIAA Paper No. 74-696 (1974).
16.31 Mcicr, H.11., ntid Jtotta, J.C.: Tcmpcrature di~tfibntionsin supersonic turbulent bound-
ary Inyers. A I A A J. 9, 2149-21R6 (1971).
I641 Meior. H.U.: 1tivcstignt.ion of the hcnt transfcr tnccliatiism in auperuonic t~rrhulentbound-
ary Inycrs. Wiirme- und Sbffiihcrtragttng 8, 169-165 (1975).
[c,:',] Morkovin, M. V.: Effect* of colnprraaibility on turbulent flows. Colloqr~csJrit. CNRS No.
IOR, 3fi7- 3R0, MCcirniquo dc In t ~ ~ r l ~ ~ l Marseille,l c t i ~ ~ , 1962.
[66] N~ttliicr,W.: Wiirtneiibergang und I)ri~ckabfallin rauhen Rohrcn. VDI-Porxcli. 455 (1956).
[81] Rotta, J.C.: ~entpernturvrrteilun~en in dei turbulenteti Grenzschicht an der ebencn l'lntte.
l n t . J. Hcat Maaa Transfer 7, 216-228 (1964).
[82] Rotta, J.C.: Effect of streamwise wnll curvaturc on compr~lsiblct~trbulmt.bonnclary layers.
IUTAM Symp. Kyoto, Japan, 1966. Phys. Fluids 10, S 174-S 180 (l9li7).
[83] Rotta, J.C.: Eine Bcziehung zwischen den ortlichcn Ibibitngsbciwcrten turbulcnkr Grcnz-
achichten hci kotnpressiblcr utid inkomproasiblcr Stromor~g.ZFW 18, 195-201 (1!)70).
[84] I t o t t . ~ ,J.C.: POICI'RAN IV - Heclirt~progrnmmfiir Clrc~izacliichtcnI)oi kotnlirrssil~lon
ebenen untl achsensymmetrischer1 Strbmungcn. DLIt FB 71 -51, 1-82 (1971).
1851 Rubeain. M.W.: A modified Reynold8 analogy for the coniprcssible tr~rbulrtitbou~idary
laycr on a flat plate. NACA TN 2917 (1963).
.
1861 Scl~ubauer.G.U..and Tclien, C.M.: Turb~llentflow. lligh Spcocl Aorodyt~trtnic~
>
Proprilsiori V, 75-196, Princeton (1959).
and J o t
[87] Seiff, A.: Examination of the existing data on the hcat transfer of turh~tlcnthoundnry
Heat trnnsfer to a turbrllent stream from a surface with n ~tep-vr,isetlis-
continuity in wall temperature. International dovcloptr~entsin licat tra~iafcr(L'roc. Conf.
organized by ASME a t Boulder, Coloredo, 1961), Part 11, 439-446.
[89] Spalding, D.B., and Chi, S.W.: The drag of n compressible turbulent boutldary layer on
a smooth flat. plate wit.h and without hcat trnnsfer. J F M 18, 117-143 (1964).
[90] Spence, D.A.: Velocity and enthalpy distributiot~sin the compressible turbnletrt boundary
layer on a flat plato. J F M 8, 368-387 (19GO).
[9l] Spcnce, D.A.: Some applicatione of Crocco'a integral for tho turbulent bout~daryIayor.
Proc. 1960 Heat Transfer Fluid Mech. Inat., Stanford Uaiv. 62-76 (1960).
[92] S p ~ n c e ,D.A.: The growth of comprwible turbulent boundary layers on isothermal and
adtubatic walls. ARC RM 3191 (1961).
[93] Stratford, B.S., and Beavers, G.S.: The calculation of tho con~prmaiblctnrhnlcnt bonndnry
layer in an arbitrary presaure gradient. A correlation of certain previous mclhorls. AltC
RM 3207 (3959).
 [04] Smith, P.D.: An integral prediction met.hod for three-dimensional compressible turbulent
bou~ldnryInyers. ARC IIM 3730, 1-54 (1074).
[BB] 8cl111ltz-~Iantler,R.: Hont t,ransfer cnlculrlt~ionsin tnrhr~lcntboundary layers rtair~gintegral
relations. Acts Mechnnicn 21, 301-312 (1075).
[!lo] Tnylor, G.I.: Conditions s t the sllrfnco of a hot body exposed to the wind. ARC RM 272
IIRlRL
% - ,-
[07] Tnylor, G.1.: Tlw t,ransport of vort.icity a r ~ dllcnt t,l~rotlgl~ fluids in tnrbulent ~notion. CHAPTER XXIV
Appendix hy A. Fagc and V. M. J'alkner. l'roc. Roy. Soc. 135, 685 (1032); eee also Phil.
Trane. A 215, 1 (1015).
[B8] Taylor, .T.R.: Tetnpcrat~~re anrl )lent RIIX tlistribt~tionsin incon~prrssibletr~rbl~lent eql~i-
libriun~honntlary Inyero. Jnt. .I. llcnt MILRR 'llr:insfcr 15, 247:)--2488 (1!)72). Frcc tlirbrilcnt flowe; jete n11r1wnkce
[00] Tnclcer, M.: Approxitni~tct,r~rbulcnthor~ntlarylayer tlcvclopn~entin plnno colnpressible
flow along t~hrrnmnllyinsulntetl srlrfaccu \rsit.h application to supersonic-t,unncI contour
corrcct,ion. NACA TN 2045, 78 (1950).
[I001 Walz, A,: Niiller~~ngstl~eorie fiir kornpressihlc t ~ ~ r b ~ l l e n
Gret~zncl~icllten.
te ZAMM-Sontler- a. General rc~llarks
heft 36, 50-56 (1056).
/101] Wnlz, A,: Uher Fortsc11rit.k in Niihcr~nigsthnorir11nd Pmxis tler Rerccl~nungkornpressibler I n t,hc prccetling c l ~ a p t e r sw c 11avc ronsitlrrctl t z i ~ r b l ~ l c flows
rlt a l o n g solid walls
Inn~ino.rerrind turbulenter Grenzschicht~ennlit Wjirn~eiibergang.ZFW 13, 80-102 (1065).
[I021 Wilson, It. E. : Turbl~lentbollntlnry lnyer chnmobristics nt supersonic npectls - Theory sntl ant1 wo propose t,o ~ o n t ~ i n l il,hoc stllcly of t t c ~ r l ~ r ~ lst,rcnms
cnt wiL11 t l ~ ot l i s c ~ ~ s s i oof~ i
experiment. JAB 17, 585-504 (1!)5O). several e x a m p l e s of so-callctl /ree turbulent floio. 'l'nrbulcnt flows will I)c trrrnccl free
[I031 Winltler, 1E.M.: Invcst,ipntion of flat plate hypersonic t u r b ~ ~ l c boondnry
nt layers with hent if t l ~ e ya r c not confined b y solitl walls. W c sltall tlisccrn tlircc Itintls of t u r l ~ t i l c n ( ~
transfer. J . Appl. Mecli. 83, 323-32!) (1961). frco flows, Fig. 24.1 : free j e t b o r ~ n d n r i c s ,frco jets, ancl wnkc-.
[I041 IVinkler. E.M., and Cha, IM.11.: Investigation of fiat plate hypersonic turbulent boundary
layers ~vitliheat t,ransfrr a t a Rlscll nr~nil)crof 5.2 (U). NAVORL) I k p . 0631 (10.59). A j e t bounclary occurs bct\vccn t w o s t r e a m s w l ~ i c lr~~ l o v oa t tlilTcrcnt s~)c(:ds
[I051 Winter, K . G . , I<otL?. J.C., ant1 Stnith, I<. ( 7 . : 1Int.ersuchungen der tnrbulent.en Grenz- i n t h e s a m e gcncral clircction. Suc:l~a s r ~ r f n c cof tliscontinr~ityin t h e vclocil,y or' flow
schicht nn rineni tnillicrtcn Drehlc6rpcr hei Unter- und Ubrrschnllstron~~~ng. DLR F B
65-52, 1-71 (I!I65); scr also AltC 1tM 3633, 1 --75 (1!)70). i s ~rnst,al)loa n d gives rise t.o a z o n c of t * u r l ~ u l c nmixing
t clowrrstrcam of t l ~ cpoint.,
[IOF] Yor~ng,A.D.: 'I.hc tlrng clfccts of ronghness a t high srlbcritical spcecls. J . Roy. Aero. Soc. wllerc t h e t w o st,rcnms first ~ n c c t .'l'l~c w i t l t l ~of t h i s m i s i l ~ grcgion incronscs i n a
18, 534 (1!)50). tlownst.roam tlircc:t.ion, I'ig. 24.1 n.

Arldilionrtl rc/crencca lo Ckrp. X S I I . lntqc 701

[1181i] Wliitr, I'.hl., nnrl I.rssn~nnn, It.(:.: A thrco-din~rnsionnlint.cgr:rl tnct,l~otlfnr t ~ n l c ~ ~ l : ~ t i t ~ g
i t i r ~ n ~ p t . r s s itl~~~l ~ l c n tfriction. 'l'ratis. ASMlC, Scr. 1, 07, 550-557 (1975).
i - t ) ~ ~skin
(1101 M1l~it,c.1p.M.: \'iscot~u I I ~ t i t lflo\v. McOrn\v-llill, New Yorlc, 1!)74. 725 1'11,
11201 \Vic>ghnrtlL,I<.: 'I't~rhnlt-nt,~ (:rcn~,scl~irhlcll.(iijttingor hlonogrnphic, I'i~rt, I1 5 (l04h/40).
1121 1 b\lilt!ltc:~i, 11.: ' I . I I ~ ~ I I \ C(I~I ~r cA~: ~ z ~ c l ~ iILII c l ~gt~wGlht(:t~
t~cn Wiinilcn. I n g . - A r ~ l ~1,. :J57--370
( l!):lo).
[I221 \Yillin~~~s, . I . : I%rilisl~ rc.sra~rc.l~ on I)o~tnrl:lryI:lyrr nnrl flow cont.rol for 11igl1lift by I)lo\vit~g.
%F\V6 , 14:) IliO (I!)h8).
[ 122111 M1ill~n:rr~,l~. k\l. I V . , \\li~~lccl, II. Is., S~I:I~III:I. 1,. I<., ant1 I%og:~r, 'I..*I.: >\xially S ~ I I I I I I C ~ , ~ ~ ~ ; Fig. 24.1. 15xnrr1plcn of frrc t , ~ ~ r l ~ ~ t lflow^;
cnL
t,~~rl,~~lont. I)onntl:~t.yI:~.yrrs011 cylin(lrrs: III~::III vt:lof.ity ~)rofilrsi111t1 1v1111 I)~(:SSIII.C( l ~ ~ r t , l ~ n t , i o ~ ~ s 0) frct: jet., C ) wnltc
IL)jrl. I)t~~~nfliiry.
J Fhl 7(1', 35 ~ ( i 4(l!)7l\).
[12J] Wint~~rnit.n, 1q. A.lr.. nntl J<.ntnsny, \ V . . J . : ITnbcts of inlot horltid:ary layer on t.ho pressure
recovery in ro~~it'al tlin'l~scrs. MCCII. I ' : t i ~ . I~cR.Lnh., Flr~itlMoch. Div., Enxt ICilbridc,
(:li~ngo\v. Itrp. No. 41 (1!)5(i).
[I241 Yonng, A . I).: The cnlc111:it~ion of the t,ot.:ll and skid frict,ion clrags of bodie. of rcvolut,ion
n t Oo in(:i(l~n(-c. All(! ItRI 1874 (I03!,). A free j e t is f o r m e d w l ~ e na fluid is discharged f r o m n nozzle o r orifice, Fig. 24.1 b.
(1251 \ ' ~ I I I I ~ ,A. I).. nncl M:~jola,0.0.: An rxl)rrin~cnt:~l invrstignt,ion of the t,urhnlont ho11nt1:~ry
1)isregarcling v e r y srnall velocities of flow, i t i s forincl t.llnt t h e j e t t ~ c c o m c scornl)lot.cly
' Inyrr nlong t i ~ t r e : i ~ n t \ -t!ornrr. i ~ c TU~IIIIIOII~, Sl~cilrl7Io\v, A(:AILI) Conf. l'roc. 03, 12-- 1 to
12---9 (1!)71). l , u r b n l c r ~ at
t n s h o r t tlistnnce from Lhc p o i n t of tliscl~nrgo.Owing to turbulcncc, tllo
(1261 I ' o ~ ~ n gA. . I).: Solnr sl)c*c.ial 110111ltlriry-1:ryrr prohlcms. 20tJ1 Pmr~clLIMetnorial I.octure, emerging jet, bccomcs p a r t l y mixctl w i t l ~t . 1 ~srirror~ntlingIlnitl n t rest. Pnrt.ic:lrw of
%IP\V I , 401-414 (1!)77). llnicl from 1.11~ sirrrorrritlings a r c cn.rrioc1 n w n y I)y t . 1 1 ~jot, s o t l ~ n lt,. 1 1 ~mn.ss-flow il~t:rr:~.st:s
 730 XXIV. Prec turhi~lent.flowu; jcta and wnkes
in tjhe tlowrlst.ream direction. Concr~rrentlythe jet spreads out and its vclocity de-
creases, but the total momenturn remains constant*.A comprehensive account of the
problems of free jets was given by S.I. Pai [26]. See also the book by G.N. Abrnmo-
vich [ l l .
A wake is formed behind a solid body which is bcing dragged through fluid
a t rest, Fig. 24.1 c, or hehind a solid body which has hcen placed in a stream of fluid.
The velocities in a wnkc arc smaller than those in thc rnain stream and the losses
in the vclocity in thc wakc amount to a loss of momcnta~mwhich is due to thc drag
on the hody. Thc sprcad of t,hc wakc increases as tllc distance from thc body is
increased and the cliffcrenccs between the velocity in the wake and that outside
I)ecomc smaller.
Qnalit~ativclysuch flows resemble similar flows in the laminar region (Chaps. I X
and XI), but thcrc arc large quantitative differences which are due to the very much
larger turbulent friction. Free turbulent flows are much more amenable to mathc-
matpicelanalysia than turb~llcnt,flows along walls because turbulent frict,iorl is much
larger than lnrninar friction in the whole region under consitlcration. Consequently,
laminar friction may bc wholly neglected in problems involving free turbulent flows,
which is not tho c.wc in flows along solid walls. It, will be rccalled that in thc lattcr
case, by cont.mst,, lamirlar frict.ion must always bc taken i11t.o account in thc imrnc-
diatc ncigl~bor~rttoodof thc wall (i. c. in thc laminar sub-layer),ant1 that causrs great
matl~ematicaltlifficultics.
F ~ ~ r t ~ l i r r ~ niot r will
c , ho noted that p r o l ~ l ~ mins frec turbulent flow arc of n
hovndnry-Zn?ycrrlat.r~rc,nlcaning that tho region of space in which a solntion is being
ao~rglitdocs not cxtcntl far in a transverse tlircction, as compnrctl with the main
dirc~t~ion of flow, and that, tho transverse grndjcnts arc large. Conscqr~cntlyit is
permissible to study such prol)lcms with the nit1 of the hoondary-layer eqllations.
In tlic two-tlimrnsior~dillco~nprrssit)lcflow tlicsc are
Ilcrc T tIt:not,cs t.hc t ~ l t r l ~ ~ ~shmring
lcrit sl.rc.ss. l'hc pressure term 11.mbccn droppcd
in tlhc cqr~ationof motion because in all problems to be considered it is permissible
to assume, a t Icast t o n firsL approximation, that the prcssnrc remains constant. In
the case of w:~kcs this assumption is satisfictl only from a certain tlistance from the
t)otly onwartls.
In o r d ~ rto I)c in a po.sit.ion t,o intrgratc the syst,crn of cq~tat~ions
(2.1.1) and
(24.2), it is necessary to exj)re.q the tnrbrtlcnt shearing stress in terms of the para-
mct.cm of tthc main ~Iow.~t present, srrct~an rIimin&tiort can only 110 actticvcd witti
the aitl of sorni-cr~ipiricd~qsnmptions.'U~cscliavc alrently bcen ciiscuwed in Chap.
X l X . In this c:onncxion it is possible to rnakc use of I'rantltl's mixir~glcngtll tllcory,
eqn. (19.7):
b. Estimation of tho increMc in width ntid or tlio dccre,wo i n vrlocity 731
or of ite extension
where the mixing lcngths 1 and l I are b be rcgartl~rtna purely local fi~nct.ionst.They
must be suitably dcalt with in each part,icular case. l'urthcr, i t is possible to use
Prandtl's hypothesis in eqn. (19.10), namcly
aa-
t , = o & ,ag - e x l b (urn,,- %,in)
~ I L
(24.5)
where h tlenotcs thc width of the mixing zone and x, is an empirical constant. Morc-
over
is the virtual kinematic viscosity, nssumcd constant ovcr thc wholc width and, IICIICC,
independent of y. I n adclition it is possible to use von IChrmhn's Ilypot,hcsis, cqn.
(19.19) and t h a t due to G. I . Taylor, cqn. (19.15~~).
Whcn cit.hcr of thc nssnmpt,ions (24.3), (24.4) or (24.5) is used i t is fonncl t,hat
the rcsolts differ from cacll otlicr only compnmtivcly lilftlo. ?'he 1)csL rncnsllro of
ngrccmcnt with cxpcrimcnt,al rcsnlta is furnished by thc awnml)tion in ccln. (24.5)
and, in atldition, the rcsult,irig cqnations arc morc co~ivenicritto solvt:. I'tir I.l~c:sc:
reasons we shall exprcss a prcfercncc for this hypothcsis. Ncvcrt.l~clcsa,sonlo cxar~lplcs
will be s t ~ ~ d i cwith
c l the aid. of thc l~y~ot,licscsin cqns. (24.3) and (24.4) in ortlcr to
cxhibit tho diffcrcnccs in tltc rcsulta whcn clifhrcnt, llypoblicscs arc IIRCCI.Morcovc~r.
the mixing Icngth formula, cqn. (24.3), has rcndcrctl such vaiuablc service in the
theory of pipe flow (,hat i t is useful to tcst iL3 applicabilit,y to t,hc typo of glow under
consideration. It will be recalled that, among others, the r~niversnl logarit~limic
velocity distxibution law has bcerl dcduccd from it.
b. Estimation of the iricrease in width a~ialof the clecrcnoc in vclneity
Bcrorc proceeding 1.0 irltcgratc cqns. (24.1) ant1 (24.2) k)r scvcrril [)arLic~~l:rr
cascs wc first propose to make est,irnatiotis of onlcra of magr~it~utlc.
In this way wo
shall bc able to form an itlea of the typc of law wl~ichgovcrrls t,hc increase in the
width of thc mixing zone and of the decrease in the 'hcight' of the ~ c l o c i t ~1~roAlo
y
with increasing distancc x. The followitlg accollrlt will bc based on one first g i v r t ~
by I,. Prantltl [27].
When dealing with problems of turbulcrlt j c k ant1 waltcs it is usrl;~,llyassrtrned
t,hat the mixing lcngth 1 is proportional t o the width of jct, 0, because in this way
wr are led to 11scr111rcsults. lIcnce we put
t This extenaio~lwas not diucu~acdin Chnp. XTX bccnuuc i t is usrd only very rnraly.
732 XXIV. Frcc trtrbt~lentflows; jets and wake8 b. Estimation of tlro iticresso in width and of the dccrcnso in volocit.y 733
III addition, the following rule has withstood t h c test of time: The rate of increase In thc case of a two-dimensionaljet we have J' = const x p uZ,,,,,11, wlicrc J'
of t,he wiclth. b, of the mixing zone with time is proportional t o the txansverse ve- denotes momentum per unit length, and hence u,,, = const x h-t/21/.~'/p.In view
locity ')1 : of eqn. (24.9) we have, further,
u mnZ= const x iG114
-- (two-dirnensionaI jet) . (24 10)

Here D/Dtdenotles, as usual, the s ~ b s t a n t ~ i vderivative,

e
+ v a/az/.According t o a prcvior~sestimate, eqn. (19.6), we havc v'
t(h11s
so t h a t
-
DID1 = u a/ax -1-
1 au/ay, and
In the case of a circular jet the momentum is

ant1 hence
J = ronst x p u2,,,,h2

Further, t h e mcan value of au/aytaken over half the width of t h e jet may he nssumetl [n view of eqn. (24.9) we now have
t o bo approximately proportior~alt o u,,,/b. Consequently,
1
Z'= const x
Dl
--
b
u,,,,,= const x B u,,, . (24.7)
Two-dimensional and circular wake: Instend of ccln. (24.8) wc now have

Jet boundary: With t.he use of t,hr preceding relations wc shall now e~t~intatc-
t,hr rntc a t wlticl~t h e witli.11of t.hc mixing zone wllic:l~nccompnnics n frro jcl, l)orlr~tlnry
incrcascs wit.11 t.11~tlist,xncc, z. For t h e jet bountlar.y we have

wlicrc u, = U , - 14. 011equating tho two c x ~ ) r e ~ s i owc

r ~ ~obtain
,
On comparing eclns. (24.8) ant1 (24.7) we ol)tlain

'J'lte cnlcrrlation of momcritum in problems involving wsltcs t l i ~ c r sfrom t h a t

for the case of jets, because now t,here is a direct relationship 1)ctwcc.n momc~itrtm
whic:l~rncnrls thnt the width of the mixing zone associatctl with a free jet. boundary
and the tlrag on the body. As nlrcntly mentionctl, rqn. (9.2(i), the ~nomcntrrrniri-
is proportional t,o t,l~ct l i ~ t ~ a n cfrom
c t,hc point wllcrc tllc two jcts meet. T l ~ ccorist.nnt,
lrgrnl is
of in1,cgraLion whiclr tn~rst~, st.ricLly spcalting, appear in Ll~cnbovc equation can br
D=J=eJu(U,-u)dA,
rnatlc t,o vanish by a snitnblc choice of t.hc origin of the coortlinnte syste$.
provitlctl t , l ~ a 1.11~
t control srxrfacc has 11ccn plac:ctl so f : ~ rbcl~intlthe bocly t.h:~Lt<hc
Two-tlimctinionnl nntl cireulnr jet: 15clrlation (24.8) rc:nr;rins vn.litl in t.11~ cnsc 01' s1.nt.i~prrssrxrc lrns hccornc cclr~:r.It,o t,lrnt in t,he ~~t~tlist~rtrl)rcl st.rcam. At) :I I;lrgc
a two-tlitncr~sio~~d ant1 of n cironlnr jrt,, rc,,,,, clr~~of.itrg
now I.hc vclocii,y :kt, t.lrc cct11.1.c.- tlisl,nnc:c I)rhitr(l t.lrc botly =- / I , , - IL is stn:iII cotnl~:arrtl\ \ r i t , l ~ /I,, so tfhnL wc? rn:tjr
lirir. 'l'lins it1 SII(:II t:nscs wo :LISO Ilnvo
.;I p r ~ t?i,(rlC,-I,,) = (cJm -u1) 1 1 ~m (J,", 1 1 , ~ . '~'IIIIS for t\vo-tIiti1ctisio11n1anti circttlar
 XXlV. Prrc bllrl~rllcntflo\\.s: jot8 wnkcs
734

Insertring eqn. (24.12) for t.lio rate of increase in witlth, we obtain

RIIC~
.
,.Lhus, for a circular wakc we f i ~ dthat, Lllc wirlLIi of Llic w:tltc iticrc.nsos in ~)rol)ort.iorl
t o x'I3 arid t h a t the velocity decreascs in proportion to x - ~ I R .
The powrr-laws for thc width and for tile vo1oi:ity in ttllr crrit.re 1i:tvo 111:ori
summarizctl in 'l'ablc 24.1. Tho corresponding lnrriinar eases wIiic11 wt:rt: partly
or consideroc1 in Chaps. IX and X I have been added for cotri~)lrter~css.
h N ( p x cell (1)1/2 (two-tlimonsional wakr) . (24.15)

Inserting this vri111ririt.o cqn. (24.14) we fintl t,hat the rate a t which the 'depression' c. Examples
in the vclocit,y crllrvc tlccrcascs downstream is rcprcscnt,cd by
Tlic prcec~lir~g c:stiniatcw givc in Ll~crnsclvcs~t vory gootl i(lo:~of t,llo O H S I : I I ~ . ~ : L ~
features cncountcred in problems involving free t r ~ r b n l c i flows.
~t We shall, I~owrver,
now go one stcp f ~ ~ r t l i ant1
c r shall exaniinc scvcral pRrticl~larc:ases in niuc:li grcat,cr
detail tlediicing t h e complete velocity tlistributiori function from the ccl~~:~tions
Tn other wortls, t,lir wint1t.h of a two-dimrnsional wake increases as ii and tlievelocity of motion. I n order t o achieve this rcsr~lti t is necessary to draw on orio of tho hy-
tlccreases a s 1 /fi . potheses in eqns. (24.3) to (24.5). Thc examplcs which hnvc bccn sclcat~ctlIicro for
consiclcr:~t.ion all Iiavc t,tic common fc:~t~ire t h a t tho velocily profiles wliicli oc:c:llr
C i r c l i l a r w a k c : Dcnot.ing tlir front.al arca of t h c body by A we can write in thcm are aim.ilnr t o each ot,hcr. 't'liis mcarls t-hat thc vc1ocit.y profilcs a t tlifi'~:rcrit~
J -
its drag as D = 4 c , A e M,Z
e U , u, h2. IC~li~nting
and the momentum, eqn. (24.13), becomes
11 and J, wc ohtain
distances x can I)c made cotignlcnt 1)y n, suitsblc choicc of a vclocity anntl :r witlth

-
scalc fnctor.
2 c,A 1. The urnoothing out of a velocity discontirleity. As our first cxarnl~lrwc- s1i:~ll
Urn b Z ' consider tlic problem of the smoot.tiing out of a vrlor.ity tliscontinlril.y wltit:h w:rs
Inserting this v:rhlo in1.o rcln. (24.12), wr fi~ltlIllat tlic increase in width is given by first treated by 1,. Prandtl [27]. A t time 1 = 0 thcre are two strcarr~smoving a t

or
d1)
6' ,iz -P CII A
two different velocities, U1 and U2 respectively, their boundary bcing a t y ==0
(Fig. 24.2). As already mentioned, tlic bonndary ncross wliic~lithe vcloc,it.y v:trit-s
discoritinuously is unstal)lc and ttlc prooess of t~irhulcritmixing sinoothcu ant. the
transition so tliot i t becomes continuous. The width of the zone ovcr which this
h N (p c, A x)1ln (circular wake) . (24.18) continuous transition from velocity U 1 t o velocity 1J2 takes place incrcnscs with
incrca9ing time. We are hcre concerned with a problcrn in non-steady parnllcl llow
Tnscrt.ing eqn. (24.18) into (24.17) we fir111for Llir clccreasc in the ilcpression in the for which
veloc.ity prolilr t,hc rxl)rossion u = u(?y,l) ; v = 0 . (24.20)

-( c,#
)d (circular wake) . Thc convectivc terms in eqn. (24.1) vanish idcntically. Making use of I'randtl's
mixing theory, eqn. (24.3), we can transform eqn. (24.1) t o give

,
'I'nblc 24.1. I'owrr Itiws for tho inrrc:nso i n witll.li nntl for tho docrcnse in tho ccntm-lino vclocity
i n tcrlils of distance z for problclns of free turbulent flow

Fro jet bollndnry

1 ---;
width

zll'
laminar

x0
-
cent-rc-linevelocity
or u1

' z
turbulent

a9
-

1
Two-dimenuionel jet Z2/a Z - i~ ~ ~ z Z-l/*

Circriler jot z r1 z Z-I

Fig. 24.2. The amoothing out of n velocity
'I'wo-dintonsionnl wake Zl/' z ~ / ~ ~ I / Z Z-l/l discontinuity, after Prandtl [27]; a) Initial
&IIJ Z - IS
~
pattern (t =O), b) Pattern a t later instant a)
Circulnr wake XI/' z-I
700 XXIV. Prrc tr~rb~tlcnt
flowa; jcla and wakes

The width of the mixing zone, b, increases with time and b = b ( t ) ; the mixing
length is nssutncd to be proportional t,o b in the same way a s before so t h a t 1 = /I b .
Assnming t.hnt the v c l o ~ i t ~profiltts
y are similar, we may put
wit01 11 = y/h anti 1) - l p . 'I'ltc cxponrnt p in t h e oxprcssion for the witll,l~can be
detwnminctl from tho contlit,ion t h a t in eqn. (24.21) t,he ac~rlerat~ion ant1 frictional
The velocity distribution from eqn. (24.23) is sccn plotteti in Fig. 24.2. I t has 1.11~
re~nnrlrablcpropertly t,hat t.hc velocity in 1.11~mixing region docs not go over inlo
the two free-stream vel~cit~ies a~ymptot~ically. Transition occurs a t a finiGc t l i ~ t ~ n n r c
y = 11 witSh a tliscont,ir~~tityin @u/ay2. This is a general propertmyof all solrltions
obt,ained on the basis of Prxndtl's hypotllcsis ( 2 4 . 3 ) for thc shearing st,rcss in Cur-
bulont flow. It, const.itut.es what may be called a n esthetical tlcficiency o l t , l ~ ihypo-
t,llcsis. Thc itnprovctl I~ypothcscs( 2 4 . 4 ) or ( 2 4 . 5 ) are frcc of this blemish.
s

terms n111st br. proport~ionaltlo cqual powers of t,imc, t. 'rhus awlat is proportional Tho quantit,y /I = llh is the only empiriral constant which appcnrs in t,lle so-
to 1 - I , wllercas t,hc right-hnntl sidc is proportionnl t,o 12P-" = 1 - P , so thnt p = 1. I~rt~ion;
it can bc tlctcrminctl solcly from cxpcrirncrlt.nl tl:cta.
In this Innnner we obtp:~irlthe following ass~lmptionsfor the problcm in Ilantl: 2. Free jet bon~idnry. Thc c o ~ ~ d i t ~ i oa nt as frcc jcl bonntlary arc rloscly rt.lnt,rrl
t o thosc in t,he prccetli~~g examplc. i$'it-ll rcfcrencc t o Fig. 24.1 a we shall consitlrr
t h e more gencral case when a t x = 0 tllerc is a meeting of two st,reatns whosc const,:l~~t
velocit,ics are IJl and U , , respectively, it, being assumed t h a t U 1 > IJz T)o\\.n-
The ve1ocit.y u is bcst assumed t o be of t,he form strcam of t.he point of c ~ ~ c o r r ~t.11~
~ t cstreams
r will form :c nlixirlg zonc whoso \ v i t l l . l ~
h increases proportionately t o x, Fig. 24.la. The first solution t o the problcm
under c~nsidcrat~ion was given by W. Tollmicn [B2],who madc use of I'rantltl's mising
length hypothesis for turbulent shear, eqn. ( 2 4 . 3 ) .We shall review hcre the mathc-
matieally simpler solution due t o H. Goertler [I81 who bascd i t on Prantlt,l's hypo-
tllcsi~in cqn. ( 2 4 . 5 ) . Since t,hc virt11a.1Itincn~nt,icvisrosit,y E is i n c l e ~ ~ o ~ ~ of'
tlt~ ?/, nt~
with lJ, = & ( U , -1- U , ) ant1 A = 4 ( I / , - 11,). In ortlcr t.o ~naltcsure t h a t a t the C~IIS (24.1)
. nntl ( 2 4 . 5 )givc
edges of the mixing zone, i. e. a t y = & 6 , the velocity becomes equal t o U , and U , au a~ aZu
(24.25)
1L--+V--=&-.
respect ively, wo must pllt f = jl1 a t 77 = f 1. Tnscrting thc vnlue from rqn. (24.22) az ay 'ay=
into cqn. (24.21) wc o l ~ t a i n(.he followi~~g
tlill'crcr~t,ialrqr~:rt,ionfor / ( I / ) :
Puttring b = c x we obtain thc following expression for tho virtual kinematic vis-
cosity, cqn. ( 2 4 . 5 a ) , wllicl~is applicable t,o our casc:

l'hc equation has one solution /' =- 0 , i . o. / = const, which rcprescnts tho trivial
case of n constrant velocity. Tf, howcvcr, 1' tliffers from zero, we may tlivitle through, I n view of the similarity of the vclocit,y ~ r o f i l c s ant1 v arc funot.ions of y / x . P l ~ t ~ t ~ i ~ l g
w11enc.c we f ntl [ = a y / x we can integrate the equation of cotltir~uityby the a d o p t i o ~of~ n sLrrn~n
=0 . +
function p = x U F ( [ ) where U = h ( U 1 U ? ) . Then u = U a F f ( [ ) and eqn.
q 4- / I r
(24.25) leads to the following differential e q u a t ~ o nfor F ( [ ) :
Upon intrgrat.iot~,wc have F"' -+ 2 a2 F F" =0, (24.27)
f ( 7 )= co q 3 i-
c1 ? 3

+
where a = & ( x , c 1)-112 and A = ( I l l - U , ) / ( U , U , ) . The boundary conditions
wit,h c, = - IX/6 /?2 A . 'I'hc above solt~t~ion snt,isfies the condition f ( 0 ) = 0 so t h a t are = & 00 : F ' ( t ) = 1 f 1. The differential equation (24.27) is identical with
tlm rotlst.ants c,, : ~ n dc , cnn br tlctcrlnincd from t.hc condition f ( q ) = 1 ant1 =0
/ I ( ? ) Blasius' equation for the flat late a t zcro incidence, cqn. (7.28), b u t the presrnt
nt, ?/ == b, i. e nt 11 -- I . Ilrncr, boundary contlitions are tliffcrent. II. Gocrtler solvcd oqrl. (24.27) by n s s l ~ n ~ i ~n l g
powcr-series expansion of the form

Introtlucing t,llcsc v a l ~ ~ cillto

s cqrt. (24.22) we qbtlait~the solution in its final form
with F o = [. Substituting (24.28) into (24.27) and arranging i n ascending powers
of A, we obtain a system of differential equations which is solved by recursion.
The first of the differential equations is of the form
738 XXIV. Frcc ttxrbnlcnt flows; jctn nnd wnkes

with tho boundary conditions F'l(5) = f 1 a t 5 = f oo. The soltltion of (24.29)

is given by the error function

F1' (F) = erf 4 = -

The contrit)nt,ionsof the s~lccccdingterms of the series in eqn. (24.28) are not signi-
ficant. JJence the solution becomes Fig. 24.4. Turbulent mixing zone in the wake
close hchinrl n ~ q ~ iwedgo-liko
nt body RA invwti-
u = IJ, + U, UI - y, gntctl by M. Tuntier [40]. Tho ain~ilnritypnrn-
n ~ e b ar front cqn. (24.308)reprwcnted as a fixnc-
with tion of the wedgo angle 4 - ,LI--LL_I-__L_
ILJ
OD WD ftOO moo
0
Figure 24.3 compares the theorct,irnl solution with 11. Reichardt's [29] m~asuremertts zone behind a flat plate a t right angles to tlie flow is about double of t h a t in n hae
for the case when [Iz = 0 nntf agrcemcnt is seen to be very good. T h e quantity a stream. However, this is true only for the case when a flnt splitter plate is placed
is the only empirical constant loft free to be adjustad from experiment. According in the wnlre t o prevent the forn~ationof n von JC&rmAn vortex street.
to the mensurements performed by H. Reichardt the width h,,l of the mixing zone,
menstlrcd between stations where ( U I U , ) ~= 0.1 (corresponding to 5 = - 0.345)
W. Szablewski [46, 47, 481 extended these calculations, acr well as those given
and ( u / ~ J , )=~ 0.9 (corresponding to 5 = 0.975) haa the value h,,, = 0.098 x, which
,
yicltls a -- 13.5. 'rhr virt,ttnl Itincmntic viscosity 1)ecomes c = 0-014 h, x lJ1.
in Scc. XXIVcI , t.o cascs wllcn therc is n Inrge cIifi!rr~~crin tItc tIcrtuil.itw o f 1.11c:
two strc::~~ns, 1 1 ~:t1 ~s~itallt1iI~crcnt:citx t1tt:ir vclot~itit~s.
11, I - ~ I ~ I Iottl,
S tIt:~t,t , l ~ t *\ v i t l l , l t ~
of the mixing zoncs are afTcctcd only very sligltt.ly by this tlihrenec! in tlrttsit..y.
Ncvt~rtlicless,as tlic cliffcrcnco in t.ltc dr~tsit~ics is incrrnsrtl, t.ltc zone of rrlisin~I~ct.olnt~+
tlispl:t,t;txl in t,he (1ircctzionof t11c loss (lt!tisc jet. 'l'lto p~.~!(;t:(ii~tg rt*s~tI{,st::t,tt :t,lso IN:
apl)liccl whcn t.hc two jets differ in tliair cltomicnl cotiat?l~t.r:lt,iot~s. 1'. 13. GoocI(~t~ni,
G. 1'. Wootl and I[. J. JJrcvoorL [I71 cnrrictl out nn cxpcritncrtt.:tl irlvas(.ifi:t(.io~tinto
the contlitions a t tlie frcc I~otrt~tlnry of n supersonic jot,. l'ltr rcsttlts sItt~\+~c(I tl~nt
the mixirig zortc is soinc\\~ltntnarrower ant1 the 1cvt:l of t,urOt~lrncris so~ttar\~lt:~t,
smnller tiinn in inco~iiprrssil~lr flow.

Fig. 24.3. Velocity tlistribtxtion

in the mixing zonc of a jot;
n = 13.5
Blunt body: The process of turbulent mixing t h ~ occurs
t in the wake behind a
blunt body was explored in detail by M. Tanner [49]. The results are displayed in
Fig. 24.4. At each edge behind a blunt two-dimensional body or around the sharp
circular edge behind cylindrical bodies t.here form mixing zones of the kind sketched
in the figure. Tho velocity distribution across sttch a zone is of the same shape as
t.liat in Pig. 24.3; it can be described by eyn. (24.30). The similarity parameter a from
eqn. (24.30n) strongly depends on the angle 4 of the two-dimensional wedge or axi-
ally symmetric cone. This dependence is represented graphically by Fig. 24.4. The
pa~nmctea r tlecreascs considerably as the wedge angle 4 is increased. For 4 = 180"
(plate a t right angles to tlie flow direction) the value of a is only one half of t h a t for
$ = 0 (frce jet.). 'l'his signifies that in the walte the angle of spread of the mixing
3. Two-dimensional wake behind a eingle body. Two-dimensional walres wrre
first investigated by H. Schljchting [35] in his thesis presented t o Goettirlgen Utd-
versity. The investigation was based on Prandtl's mixing length hypotrlicsis, cqn.
(24.3). A solution for the samc problem which was based on I'mnclLI's l i y ~ ~ o t I ~ ( ~ ~ i . ~
in eqn. (24.5) was later given by H. Reichartlt [29J ant1 II. Goertlcr [18]. Wc slt;~ll
now give a, short account of both solutions in order t o illustrate thc fact that tplta
two results do not differ much one from the other.
In t2hccase of n wake, the volocity profiles bcco~ncsimilar only at! l n r g ~tlistnnc:rs
downstream from the Gody, there bcing no similarity a t smallcr distnnrcs. Wt:
shall restrict o~trselvesto tho consideration of large distances x so that, tltc vrloritty
difference
u1 = Urn-u (24 31)
is small compared with the frce stream vclocity I/,. At large dist,n.,ncnst.11t! stn.l,ic
pressure in the wake is equal to tlie static pressure in tho frce stream. Conseqt~enbly,
the application of the momentum theorem to a control surface which oncloscs the
body, assumed to be a cylinder of hcight h, gives
 XXIV. Prce tllrbulcnt flows; jets nnd.wnkos

integral (24.32); we tlius obtain B = 1/10P t , and tllc final soli~tiotlI~ocomcs

Neglecting u12, we obtain

+m
D = h p U,/u,dy
y- -m
It is not,iced t h a t the resulting witlth has a f trite magnitr~tie,the same fcatt~rcI~avitlg
Substitr~tingD = 4 c, d h e rJ:, whcrc d tlenotcs thc thiclrncss of the cylintlcr, bccn ol)servcd in corrncxion wit11 t l ~ csolnLion for t l ~ cs~nootl~irtg ant, of a vc%locil,y
we obtain cliscontinuity, for wltich the snmc nssl~rnpt~iotl for slict~rit~g strcss Itat1 1)cotl I I S C ( ~ .
+m At tllc ctlgc, y = h, t,llere is again n discontinuit~~r
in tltc cnrvatr~rcof the v c l ~ c i t , ~
/?dy =+cDd u,. (24.32) profile. Moreover, in tllc centrc a t y = 0 the sccond dcrivative a2?~/i)?/2 ever1 bcco~nes
y--m infinitely large and the vclocity profile cxllibits Ilcre a s l ~ a r pkink.
As detluced in,Scc. X X I V b , tllc width and t h e velocity difference vary in a manner The results of t,his theoretical calc~ilat~ion, eqn. (24.37) llavc brrn coml)arctl
t o give 1)
N x1I2 and u, N x-'12. with Sclrlic:l~t,ing'srneas~~rements [36] in Fig. 24.5. 'L'hc mcasr~rcrnonl.~ wcrc 11cr-
formed in the wake bel~intla circular cylintlcr, ant1 tJrc lfhcoret,ical nrlrvc is ~IIOIVII
S l ~ e a r i n gs t r e s s h y p o t l l e s i s from eqn. (24.3): Since the term v8ul8y in eqn. as curve (1). It is seen t h a t there is a n cxccllcnt measure of agrccmcnt. 'I'hc sitlglc
(24.1) is small, we obtain free constant, the const,ant in eqns. (24.36) and (24.37),must, again, bc tlcl.cr~ninctl
au --I.
aau on the basis of measured values. Thc value of /I can be detlrtccd from Pig. 24.6 in
- a14!
ax
= 2 la
ay all1
(24.33) wltirl~1 . 1 1 ~witltlt o r tlro wnlto 11ns11t:cn ~)lotI.rtlI L ~ I L ~ I I RI1l1o
L ~ l i ~ t , n n (Z,
: t ~ft.0111
, t.11t: Ibocl,y.
Tllc rrlcasurctl point,s l ~ a v cI~ccnobtainctl 11y 11. 1tc:icltnrtlt [2!)] ant1 11. rC;t:I~li(.l~(~i~~g
It is assnmcd t h a t tllc mixing length 1 is constant over the width h and proportional [35] in I.llc wakes beltind circular cylinrlcrs of different tli:tmctcrs d. Accortling Lo
t o it, i. c. t,l~at1 = /I b(x). In vicw of tile similarity of the velocity profiles the ratio tltcsc, bl12 = 4 (:c cn d)'l2, whcre hllz tlcrrotcs half t l ~ cwitlth a t half tlcpt,lt. Since
7 = ?//h is i~~lroclurcd a s tho intlcpcntlcnt variable. I n agrccrnct~twith t11o power
laws for tlrc w i d t l ~ant1 for tlic dopth of depression in the vclority profile wc makc
t h e assumptions :
h = B (en d x)'I2 (24.34)

Inserting into eqn. (24.33), wc arc led t o the following different.ia1 equation for
the frtnction / ( v ):
-1- (/ -17 /') = 21J2
- --- /' /"
2 U

wit,l~tllc honntlary conditiolls = 0 and aul/ay

a t 11 -= 1 . Irrt,cgrat~ingoncc, we obt.ain
- 0 at y = h , i. e. f = /' = 0

Fig. 24.5. Vo1ocit.y tlint,ribl~tioni n n lwo-dililcnnionnlwnltc bchi~ltla c:ircl~lnrc).litlrlor. Co~np:~riso~~

I)et,wcc~ltlleory nnrl mcnnurc~nrntnrter Sclllicliting [35]
whrrr t11r constant of int,rgmtion ltas been mn?tle equal to zero in vicw of the boun- T l ~ r o r y :C I I ~ V C( I ) corresponds to rqn. (24.37): rltrvr (2) rorrrspcn~dsI n tw111. (24 39)
dary contli tion. I<.rpmtrtl irrtcgrntiorl yirltls

+1
1.0 tlrtrrntil~rt,Ir(> ronsl,nnl, of intcgral,ion R from I,l~emornctil.~tn~
Nom ift only rc~111ain.s
t I t will be nolad that / (1- qJra)2
dq = .
-1
742 X X I V . Frrc t,url)rllcntflown; jctn atit1 wnkrn

bllz =- 0.441 h , we have 0.4111 4li) P : nntl thus

-5

The precctlir~gsol~~t,ion c o n ~ t ~ i t ~ a11

~ t capproximnf.ion
s for Inrgc tli~t~ances
x;
rncns~lrcmollt~ ~ l l n wt,llxl. it, is vnlicl for z/c, d > GO. 111the casc of srnnllor distnnccs
i t is possible to c:alculntc addiLioni~lfarms for thc velocit,y, t,hc tcrrns bcing pro-
portionnl t.o %--' nncl x - ~ / ~rcsprct,ivcly.
, 'Che valllc of hnlf tJlc witlt.ll a t llalf tho dcpt311is I),/, -.. 1.075 I/F,,//I,, c,, r l ( . r c,, r l ) ' l y .
Comparing witalltllc prccctline; mcnsurctl vnll~eof bIl, i t is Ii)lllltl t.lt:~t, f.I1(1 tblnl)i~.it::tl
qunntit,y 6, I~nnt.11~value
Eo ... = 0.0222 .
ar D

'ralting into :rcro~lnt.I,l~nt.( I , c , d = 2.1 1 x 2 hllv ic,,,,. wc- 11:rvc.

The preceding solution sllows that the vclocit.y distribnt.ion in t,llc wnko c:~n1,c rc-
prcscnt.ctl by Gnusrt's function. The allarnntivc sohrt.ion from cqn. (2.1.:)!)) is scott plol.-
t.ctl in Ipig. 24.5 ns cllrvc (2). 'rhc tlifkrcncc bct,wocn t.l~isrtolnl.iol~i ~ ~ t 1.11:1t
t l i n ~(111.
(24.37) is vory sln:tll.
\V. Tollrnien [53] solvcci tllc snrnc problc~n on Chc b:tsis of voll Ii:irtn;in's
llypothcsis from eqn. (lD.l!)). Tn t,hc nrigllbourl~ootlof t,llc point,s of inflrsion i l l t.110
velocity profile, wl~crci)2ir/ay2= 0, it, Ilns provctl nt:t!t:ss:try t o nl:lkt: :~tl~lil,iol~itl
nssumptions. Ext~cnsivccxpcri~iicnt,~, which wrrc carried olll, by A . A. 'I'o\vnsc~rltl1.541
in tho wnkc of n cylinder ant1 wllicll wcrc concernctl wit11 t11r1)lllcnt f I ~ t ~ t ~ ~ : t t , i o n s
a t lteynoltls numbers near 8000, sltowetl t,hat a t a dist.nncc equal to nl)out 160 1.0 180
tlinmcters t8hc trlrl~cllentmicrostructrlrc is not ynt ftrlly tlevclol,etl. I~urt.I~crn~on?,
osoillngrnms taken in t,hc strcnnl dcmonsLmtc that the flow is flllly t - ~ ~ r l ) ~ ~ o111.y
lnnt~
A ~ O I I I It.hc
~ ~ cent.re, rind ~ I ~ ~ ~ t ~
br.twcen
i ~ n t claminar
s and tliri)ulel~t,in the ~lrig\ri)orlr-
Pig. 24.6. l'wo-ditl1rnnionn1nnltr. Itlcrcast. i l l ~vitlt.llof wnkr hcllintl citculnr cylindrr hood of the outer boundaries of the wake. Mcnsc~remenkon circ~tlarcylinders nt, very
(.II~vC ( I ) bIl2 F f ( r C,) d)112
large Reyrlolds numbers wcrc dcscribcd in Chap. I1 ; c f . 11. I'fcil 126b1.
Circular 11111lkecn have I)ccn invcst.ignf.ed I)y Miss I,. M. Swain [41] who I ) : t . ~ ( t ~ l
t.he cnlrr~lntionon the hypothesis in eqn. (24.3). She ~bt~ninetl tllr satnc rxprrssion
S h e a r i n g s t r e s s h y p o t h e s i n from eqn. (24.5): From eqns. (24.1) and (24.5) we
now obtain
for vclocity as in thc two-din~ensionalcasc, cqn. (24.37), but the powcr laws for tllc
width ant1 for thc ccnt,rc-line vclocity wcrc found to be tlilTercnt, namely b
ant1 TL~,,,,, N X - ~ / ~ as
, already shown in Tablo 24.1.
XI/:' -
i)ll a2UIax ayZ
(24.38) Until recently, i t hns bccn ncccptctl t8l1at t.hc valociby disLrib~~Lionin :I \ \ ~ : I ~ c
becomes indcpentlent of the shape of the body far c n o l ~ g lbchirid
~ it,, nntl is tellrrc-
The virt,rlal lzirlrmxtic visrosity is here E,= k1 ul,,, h and, hcnec, constrant nnct fore of a l~nivcrsalform. This belief was pl~t.t,o 1.11~t.est in a scrirs of ~ ~ p ( ~ r i t n ~ r ~ t , r t
performed by If. Iteichardt ant1 It. J3rmshaus [31] and rei:itctl to wnkcs bchirltl bodics
equal to E,, say. Consequently, the tlifferential~equationfor ul is identical wit,h that,
for a laminar wake, eqn. (9.30), except t h a t thc laminar kinematic viscosity v must of revol~t~ion. T t turned out that in cach intlividusl casc the vclocity profiles remain
be replaced by F,. Thus we can simply copy the solution which was found in Chap. similar a t varying distances behind the body. Ne~crt~hcless, the profiles behind b l u r
bodies (plates, cones with a ratio diamcter/height = 1) tcnd t o be fullcr than t,hot;o
I X . Denoting r] = !/ i-
, wo obt,ain from cqns. (9.31) and (9.34) t.hat behind ~ l e r ~ d ones a
e r (for examplc a cone with ratio tlian~oter/l~cight = 114 t.o 116).
IJiffcrenccs of t.his kind have not bccn observetl i r ~two-dinrcnsionnl wakes.
744 XXIV. l'rrc L~trl)~ilct~t
Ilow.; jot. nntl wnltr~

4. The wake bellintl a row of bars. The wake behind a row, or cascade, of bodies, .4ccording to the measurements performed by R. Gran Olssor~,this eqnat,iorl is valid
such as t,het, behind a row tvltich is composed of a very large ntimber of cylindrical for x / l > 4.
1)ars W I I O S ~ pitc11 is eqnal to 1, Fig. 24.7, is closely rclated t o tho wake behind a
single botly. Thc prcsant, casc was investigated both theoretically and experimentally Behintl a row of circnlnr bars for which 1/d = 8 the magnitr~tlcof t,hc mixing
by R. (:ran Olssorl [19]. At a certain tlistance from the row, the width of the wake lengt,h is given by
cast by a single clcmcnt of the row is eqoal t o the pitch, i. e. b = 1. Tho velocity 71 = 0.103 .
diffcrencc u l -- ITr,, - 16 is hero also small comparctl with IJ,, and cqn. (24.1) can be
sirnl>lifictl to
R. Gran Olsson also studied the case with t from ccln. (24.3) which itnplics 1, = 0 ;
.. [JW ?"I =.= .1- a..r. (24.40)
ax ay ' wit,h this nss~~nll)t~ion
the calcr~lnt~ion bccor~~ssmuch more c ~ ~ ~ n b c r s o 11.
~ ~ t(:oc.l.t.lrl-
c-.
1181 solvstl the same problem with thc aid of assumption (24.5) for t ant1 four~tl
'rhc c:alculat.ion for thc case in llarlcl bccomes very simple whcn the more general t h a t t,he solution was itlcnt,ical wit,h cqn. (24.41)t. A sccontl approsimnt.ior1 for
mixing lot,gth I~yl)ot,l~csis from cqn. (24.4) is rlsccl. 'rho first step consists in t,hc smaller distances from tho cascndc was tlctlnccd by G. Cortlcs [7].

011putt.ing 7 ~ ,-
clet,crniinat,ion of t.l~ccxponent in the power fr~nct,ionfor the decrease of u, with x.

becomrs proport,iona,l to at/LJ?/ (an/$/) . (azu/ayz) x21', because the mixing

N -
XI' / ( ? I ) ,wc have au,/az -- zp-l. 'I'hc right-hand sirle of ecln. (24.40)
length, hcing proportiotlal to thc witlt.h, is const:ant. T h ~ l sp - 1 = 2 p and it
follows t,hnt p = - 1, or, t h a t t,he velocity difference u l decreases in prop or ti or^
t o a-I.
In the casc of fnlly tlcvelopcd Row the vclocit8y tlistribution must he expected
t,o he n ~)ariotlicfr~rlct~ion in ?/,whosc period is equal t,o 1.Tllus we assume
Cascades with a very narrow spacing bctjwccn the bars arc often usctl in wind
tunnels to obt:~in a locally uniform velocity ~lisl~ribut~ion. But, oftcn several jets
close in on each other, and this process prcvents the velocity from becoming uniform.
J. G. von nohl [5] made a more detailed stndy of such phcnorncna nritl pcrfornlctl
experiments on several rows of parallel, polygonal bars varying the solidity m, i. e.
the ratio of t h a t portion of the cross-section which is filled by bars t,o thc t o t d
channel cross-section over the values m = 0.308, 0.462 ant1 0.615. Wllcn tho value
of In is small t,hc singlc jets remain parallel; the closing-in of jets occ:urs 11.t ahont,
m = 0.37 to 0.46.

5. Tile two-Jimci~eio~~nl o ~ ~W~Ii~l SIi~.st.(*:IIVII-

jet. Tllc t j ~ ~ r l ) u l ctnwt o - t l i ~ n c . ~ ~ s i jot,
lated by W. Tollmien [52] who used Pmndtl's mixing length hypothesis, rqn. (24.3).
I n t,he present section we shall, however, give a short account of the simplcr solution
based on Prandtl's second hypothesis, eqn. (24.5), which was given by 11. Rcichardt
[29] and 11. Goertler [18]. Measurements of the velocity distribution wcre pcrformed

I'ig. 24.7. I'low pattern bcl~intia row of

by E. Foerthmann [ I l l and H. Reichardt [29].

in the centre-line velocity, U -

The rate of increase in t h e width of the jet, b - r , antl t h a t of t h r drcrcasc
z-'I< have already been giver1 in 'J'ablc 24.1. Eclrra-
ham. Explanatory ~ k e t c l ~ tions (24.1) and (24.5) lead t o the differential equation
1 - "1
x

The point y = 0 has here been made t o coincide with the centre of one tiepression
and A is a free constant whose value is still t o be determined.
in t.he velocity di~t~ribution, which must be combined with t h e equation of continnity. The virt.rcal kinc~nal~ir
We now form t h e expression for the shearing stress t from eqn. (24.4) wit.h 1 = const viscosity is given by
and assume t h a t l1 = 112 n, which scems permissible. The result is a very simple &, = x l b U ,
expression of the form

-!-= 12
e ay
-2
(+)
uW2 A' cos (2n (?)'
I
. +) where U denotes the centre-line velocity. Denoting t h e centre-line velocity ant1 Llle
width of t h e jet a t a fixed characteristic distance 3 from the orifice by U , antl b,, re-

-- - --- -
Inserting t,llis cxprcssion into eqn. (24.40), we obtain A = (r1/1)2/8n%nd
the final soh~tion
hence
t With t r = K A(u,,
A
--?L,~,,),we have - -- -- - cos (2" i)
or, on mlnpring u.il11
- 8xeK x
eqn. (24.41), K ~ ( 1 / 1=) ~0.103* = 0 0333. TIIIIRthe virtttal kinematic vi~cosit.yherornrs
& I = 0.0333 A(%mnz-?~m(n) .
746 X XIV. I+'rccturhttlrnt flown; jeta and wnkcn c. Examples 747

spectively, we may write 11. Rciclinrdt [29] who founcl that a 7.07. Fig. 24.8 coritairis n compnriso~~
-1 1)ctwccn
the theoretical curve from eqn. (24.46) with the nicasurc~iit:lits due to E. I'ocrtli-
' 8 mann, curve (2). The theoretical curve obtained by W. l'olltnicrl [52] on the I)xsis of
Consequently,
s,= s, )'(: with E, = x1 0, U,
Fnrtflier, we put
7 =a-Y,

where a denotes a free constant. The equation of continuity is integrated by the

use of a stream function tp, which i~ assumed t o be of the form
y) = a-I Us6"' x''' F(q) .
Thus

On substituting into eqn. (24.42) we obtain the following differential equation for
F(v):
1.F' + -1. FF" +
2 2
a2F"' = O ,
us
Fig. 24.8. Vclocity tliatril)~~tion
Foerthmann [ l l ]
in a two-tlilncnnionnl, turbulent jot. hlctw~~rt?~ncttb
(1110 Lo

Theory: rarrv ( I ) BIIC If* T n l l ~ r ~ i[Be]:

rn curvr (2) lrom cqs. (24 45)
with t h e boundary conditions F = 0 and F' = 1 a t TI = 0, and F' --; 0 at v = oo.
Since s, contain^ t,he free constant xl, we may put,
Prandtl's mixing-length hypothesis, curve (I), hna also been sliown for cornparinon
The first theoretical curve shows a slightly superior agreement with nicasrlrcrncnt
as i t is fuller near its maximum.
This substitution simplifies the preceding differential equation which can now be
integrated twice, whence we obtain
FB+F'=l. (24.44)
From the given nnmericnl value of a we obtain s,= 1.125
4- -
n
I
112 J . or
E,= 0.037 bl12 U ,
This is exactly tlic same equation as that for the two-dimensional laminar jet, whcrc hllr ngairi denotes half the width a t half depth.
eqn. (9.42). lksolution is F =t.anh v so that thevelocity is# = Us (z/.~)-ll~(l
-tanli2v).
A generalization of this problem consisting in a study of turbulent mixing under-
'L'lic riiamc~cristirvelocity can be exprcsscd in terms of the constant momentum gone between a two-dimensional jet with a co-directional external stream was ex-
-I m
per unit Icngt,h: .I -- p / ?LZ dy. JIence .I = ) p Us%s / a With J / p = R (kinematic plored by S. Yamaguchi [GO]. See also S. Mohnmmadian [24n] nnd TI. Pfcil c t nl. [26a].
-03

inomrnt,~~m),
we obtain tlic final form of the solution: 6. The circ~tlarjet. Experimental r c s r ~ l bon rircl~larjets wcrc give11Ily W. Zitil~n
[61] and 1'. Ruder1 [33] as well as by I T . Reicliardt 1291 antl W. Wucst IFi!)] S o k c
results of ~neasurcmentson circular jets are also cor~tai~icd in tlir scrirs of rrl~orts
published by the Aerodynamic Institute in Gocttingen [GZ].
The first tlicorctical treatment of a circular jct was givcn I)y W. 'l'ollri~it~r~
[52]
who based his study on Prandtl's mixing-length tlicory. I n t.liis cxsc, as \vcll as
in the preceding one, the assumption for slicaring stress given in eqn. (24.5) lcntls
t,Ilr siligle cmpiricn.1 const.ant o was determined experimentally by to a considernbly simpler calculation. According to Table 24.1 (.lie witl(.li of t . 1 1 ~
,rllr Vn~IIo
748 XXIV. Free turbulent flowa; jete and wakes

jet is proportional t o x and Ehr centre-line velocity IJ

kinematic visrosit,y t~rcomcs
- x-I. Thus t,he virtual

wJ1icJ1m e m ~ st,11nt it ronxins constant over t,he whole of the jet, as it was in t,he
two-dimensional wake. Co~~sequcntly, tllc dirercntial equation for the velocity
distribution bccornes formally identical with t h a t for the laminar jet, it being only
necessary to rcplace the kinematic viscosity, v , of laminar flow by the virtual ltine-
mat,ic viscosity, F ~ of , t~lrbulentflow. I t is, t,hercforc, possible to carry ovcr t,he
solution for tllc Iarnitlar, circular jct, ~~111s.
( 1 1.15) t o (1 1.17). Introclucing, once more,
the constant, kinematic momentum, K, as a measure of the strength of tllc jett,
we obtain
U =- -
3 K 1
Xn cox 1 + 1 ,2 ' '
(
T ) I (i-
Y
Y urn)
Fig. 24.9. Velocity distSribrlt,ionin n circolnr, turbulent jot,. Menuuromentn dnc t,o ltoicl~nrrlt[2D]
'l'hrory: rlrrvc ( I ) ( 1 1 1 ~l o Tullmlcn[6Zl:curve (2) from eqns. (24.48)

The empirical constant is now cclrlal to f l / c o . Accortiing t o the mcasurement

performet1 by IT. Reicl~ardtthe width of t,l~cj c l is given
-- by h , / , =- 0.0848 X. With
7 = 1.286 a t u = ) u, we have hllz -- 5.27 x c , / 1 / ~ ,and hence
fo = 0.0161 .
1/K
011 the ot,her Ilantl wc llavo
,m =- 1.5:) h1/2(1
40 t,h~t
E~ = 0.0256 bllz U Fig. 24.10. Pntttlrn of streernlines
ina circulnr, turbulent free jet
whrrc, as before, I),,, tlcnotcs half t.11~witlt.11 a t half ticptll

'I'hc diagram in Fig. 24.0 contains a comparison ,between measured velocit,y tiirection. The mass of fluid carried a t a dist,ancc x from the orifice can l)c ralculat.ed
tlist,ribut.ion point,s ant1 the t l l e o r c t i ~ dresults from eqns. (24.46) shown a s curve (2). from eqn. (11.18). Inserting the above valnc for F,, we obtain
Cnrvo (1) ~)roviclcsa furt,llcr compzrison wit.11 t1hc theory due t o W. Tollmicn [52].
The mixing 1cngt.h tllcory lends hcrc also t o a vclocity distrihut.ion curve wlticll is
sonicwllat t.oo pointcti near thc mnximum, whereas eqns. (24.46) givc exccllcnt
Calculat,ions on the velocity and tcmpcraturc distributions in two-tli~nc~~sional
agreement ovcr the wf~olcwidt.11. 'I'hc pnttcrn of stream-lines is &own plotter1 in and circular jets havc also becn carried out by 1,. IIowartll [21], both on the basis
Fig. 24.10. IL is seen tllat the jet draws in a t its,haoundary fluid from t h e srlrrounding of I,. Prandtl's and of G. I. Taylor's assumption conrcrning turbnlcnt, mixing. 'l'llr
t mass of fluid carrictl by the jet increases in a downstream
ma.ss at, rest, so t l ~ a thc
mechanism which governs thc mising of a jct issr~ir~g from a circr~lartlozzlc wit,lr
the fluitl in a large pipe was studied cxpcrirnentally I)y K . Irikt,orin [IjB]. 'l'hc
m
experiments covered a range of values of tile velocity ratio in the pipe to t h a t in
t Wr h n v r K - 2n / rt2y tly. the jet of from 0 t o 4. Compared with the mixing of a free jet wit.11 the s ~ ~ r r o ~ l n d -
0
ing fluid i t i s noticed t h a t the pressure increases in t,l~edirection of flow in :I m:rllnrr
750 X X I V . I'rrr. t.i~rht~lnnt
flow^; j n b R I ) ~vakcs
~ c. Examples 75 l
3
\vliic:h rrsc:tnl)lrs t,Ile pl~cnomrnnnonr a sucl(lcn incrcnsc in cross-scrt.ionn1 nrcn is turbulcnt. The earliest experiments on such a configuration were pcrformcd in I934
nntl somctitncs t1rscril)ctl ns (::1rriott's loss. A tfhcorct,icnl cnlculxt1ion bnsccl on by E. Foerthmann [ I l l . Later mcnsurcrnents are due t o A. Sigalla [37] and 1'. 13nrlte

-
I'mntf(,l's tni sing Irngtli hy l)otlicsis sliowctl t h a t t,hc vclority dist.ribution l~chnvcsin
t,ho s:lrlir \tray ns in n t:ircsr~la.r\ w k c (witlt.11 z-'/", centre-line vrlocity - ~ - ~ 1 : ' ) .
[3]. E. Foerthmann discovered t h a t the velocity profilcs are self-similar, rlisrcg,zrtling
the immediate do\vnst.rearn dist,ance from the slit; they cnn be described by t,hc cgun-
tion
\\'l~cii $1, jet, of fini1.r wiclt.11 rmcxrgrs ir1t.o n ~ ~ n i f o rst-ream,
~n tJio urliforn~vclocity
tlist.ril)rit,ion I)rc~oii~rs l.r:~nsfortnc*t11lc.n.r t,lio n1o11t.hof tho nozzlc ittto the prccctlirig
prolilc. 'l'lir case in Iinntl \vn.s sl,t~jlirtl11y A. h7. J<r~rt~lic [24] and 11. B. Squire nntl This tlernonst,rates tlint, thc vclocity mnxinium tlecreasrs as x-112 nntl t,liat t,lie witlt,ll
J . 'I'ro~~nccr1981. 'J'~trl)~~lcnt jotas issuing i11t.on pn,mllcl llow whosn vnlocit,y is 11, of the velocit,y profilc itlcrenses as z,where z denotes a fictitious diatnnce ~ I T I I : ~t.lic
clifTvr Prorn W:IIZCS ror1~1(:(1 l)oI~i~l(l single 1)otlics rssr~it.i:~llyonly in tlint t l ~ osign of 7 ~ , cxit slit.
in rrln. (24.31) is ol~positc;in n jct 76 > I ] , , wllcrrns in n waltc IL < U,; . 111 p:w-
tic:r~lar, at. n largo c\ist,anrc from t,hc orifice wllerc we hnve 111, I < IJ,, we find Evaluating the distribution of shcaring stresses, F. Foerthmann foniltl t,l~ntthe
mixing length follows a law of the form
t,li;~tt.lio Inws wl~ic:l~ t l r s r r i l ) ~t,lic st~rc!nclingof tlic jet nrc tho sxnic ns those given
in 'l'nl,lf: 24.1 for t.ho t,wo-clii~irnsion:~l or n.xinl1y synlrnotric waltc. Now, 11. Rciclmrdt
1321 tlisrovt:rrtl on tlic: I~asisof csl~c~t~itnont.s tJint t.hc tlist,ribution of t,otnl prcssrlrc,
t,lint, is, of c:xrc\ss r n o m r n l r ~ n ~ where h rlcrlotcs t11c width of the ~valljct.
The preceding results were confirmed by the measurements undcrtalrcn by A.
Sigalla [37]. It was ascertained t h a t the local sticaring stress is
npproxim:ltrs a Clniissi:~n cIistril)r~tionovrr tlie witlth of t h r jet, e x r r p t i n the
proximity of tlir orilirr itsvlf 1 L cbnii, tl~crrforc,IIP rrprc~rrit~rtlI I tlic
~ forrnuln
I L ~-- 1Jm2
-. .
urn2-',1( = rxp 1- (In 2 ) (y/b)'- J. where u, is t.he maximum velocity of the wall jct, and dl is tile corresponding dist,ance
from the wall.
TIIP tnrnsurc of witltli, I), was so cl~oscnns t o satisfy the co~ltlit~ion
that

-
e2

",n
,-- Uti,Z ---
.
1
for y =b

A [~npor11y , I . F. IZcffrr ant1 W. 1). IZnines [22] treats tlie case of a turbulent jet
untlcr t h r itifli~encrof nn external st,rcnm tlirect,ed a t riglit angles t o it. A paper by
It. \Yille (581 sttrnrna~.izescxpc>rimcnt.nl invest.igat.ions on free jet.8.

B~loynntjetn: Tliroret.iral prediot,io~isof m o n ~ e n t ~ r jet8

~ r n and forced plrimes dis-
chnrgctl into a homogcneotis or stratificd infinite ambient atmosphere of different
tlc~isit~yclopend on l~uoyancyforcrs. These forces I~nvea vital effect on the diffusion
rncclin.nisnl of n jot,. nlt,l~oughthe basic ttheory with its boundary layer assumptions is
gci~ernllgrct.ninecl. 'rlic appronch is the mcthod of integral balance laws of mass,
mome~lt~urn and energy and the cmcrging system of differential equations is completed
by a so-cnllcd cnt,rnintncnt. I~ypot~hcsis. 'rhc litcraturc of tllis subject is vast [ l b , 20a,
241,J. '1'11rl.n is cxporirnctlfa,l cvitloncc, Ilowevcr, thnt the ~tsunl bo~intlnry lnycr
nssllmpt,ion can 11c rcln.xed in buoyant jct,s and plumes, a t least a.t larger tlist,atiocs
froni t,hc nozzlo. In t.liis conncxion tthc papcr by Mr. Schncitlcr [36e] may klso be
n~rtit,ionrcl.
1
7. The two-dimensinanl wnll jet. A two-dimensionnl jet is formed when a fluid
jct of large lntcral wicltth issues from a narrow opening and flows along a wall on one Fig. 24.11. Velocity di~t~ribution
in a two-dimen-
side, t,hc ot.her side mixirig with a n expanse of fluid a t rest. Thus, the velocity dis- aional wall jet after the memorementa of N. V.C.
trihution ncq~tircsthe nntrlrc of a boundary lnyer near t h r wall but becomes that. of Swamy et al. [44]. The similarity law stated in
n frrr j r t n t n larger distance from it, see Fig. 24.11. I n most practical cases, the flow eqn. (24.48) ia aatiafied well
762 XXIV. Frcc t8~~rl)ulcl~t
flows; jcta arid wnltcs
The first attempt to describe the circrtmstances of a wall jet by theory was under-
taken by M.B . Glauert [16]. Thc former was considerably improved by E . A. Eiehel-
brrnner et al. [13]. The semi-empirical theory succeeded for the first time in predicting
the separation of a wall jet. Subsequently, J. S. Gartshore and B. (2. Newman [I41
establislled an integral-momentum method which was based on very extensive mea-
surements. Thesc includcd wall jcts wit,ll injection. 'rhe calc~tlationmade it possible
to determine tlte tlumcrical valr~cof the momentum coefficient that is necessary t o
avoid separation of the wall jet. T~urtllerexpcrimental results can bc found in the
papers by P. Bmdshaw and M T. Gee [4] as well as of V. IZrrrlta and S. Rskinnzi [23].
Tllc account by P. Thomas [51] describes expcrirrlcnts concerning thc mixing of a
turbulent,, two-tlimensional jet boundetl by a wall on one side with nn external flow on
the other.
Two-ditnensional jete on lligllly convex, curved walls exhibit the wcll-lrnown
C:nn.)~rln cffrct, that is the adherence of the jet over wide tlistances along the wall in
the flow directiofi. Experimental and t,heoret,ical investigations into the pattern
ereatcd by a plane jet flowing nlong the contour of a circular cylinder have been
cn.rrird out, by -1. Gersten [Is]. 17. A . Dvoralr [lo] deals with the calcnlat.io~iof turbu-
Irnt I)o~lncla,ry 1a.yorson highly convex, curvet1 wall^, pn.ying special attontion t,o wall
jcte flowing along cnr\~ctlwalls. Wall jets are employed in practice for boundary layer
cont,rol and in fill11 cooling; compn.rc a,lso H.G. Ncwrnan [25a.], A . hTcl,ral [24c, 24tlI
anti I). W. Young [ROa].
Thrre-rlirnr~wionnlunll jrls with a finite ratio of the two sides have been recently
stutlirtl expcri~ncntnllyIjy 1'. M . Sforzr~nntl G. Ilt.rl)st [42], 1)y 1%.( i . Nrwmnn ct, nl.
[25J, by N. V.C. Swnrny nnd U 11. Gowtlre 1431, as wcll as by N.V.C. Swaniy antl 1'.
Bandyopatfhyay [44] 'rliese measurcmcnts revealcd a very fast ratc of spreading of
the jet in the spanwise direction and the existence of a very different fictitious origin
for the growth of the widtll of the jet In the parallel as opposed to the normal wall
direction.
e. Dill'r~sion of tempernlure in free t ~ ~ r l ~ u l eflow
rit
I hc proccss of turb~tlenttnixirtg caltscs a tlransfcr of the proprrt,ics of the flr~itl
r 7
in a tlirot:l,ion at, right angles to thc main stream. On the onc hantl the mixing ntotiori
enltsrs ~nottlcttlicmto flow awny from Llto tnriin sl,rc:tm, on the otllcr I~:it~tl, p:rrt.iol(:s
srts~x:ntlt:d in the Ilrtitl (1lo:cting particlrs of dust, chcmical adtlit.ivcs) arc tlirectccl
into the stream, and in atltlit,ion there is a transfer of heat, that is a diKrlsiotl of
a tempcrature field. The intensity of the transfer of a given property in turbulent
motion is asctally tlcscribctl I)y a suitjal~lecoefficient. Denoting t,l~ecoefficient for
momrntrtm tmnsfcr by A , ant1 that for heat I)y A,, we earl define them (sccScc.XX11Ia)
k1.y writing
Ilere 11, ant1 r , T tlertofc morncl~tuma,rltl hcat per unit mass, respectively, and t and
q clcnotfe the lltlx of momentum anti heat ( = quantity of heat per unit area ant1
tinic) rc~pecl~ively. In t,his conncxion 14 and T denote temporal means. Since the
mechanisms for the transfer of momeritrtm and heat are not iclent,ical the values
of A , ant1 A, arc, generally spealring, different. However, accortling to Prantltl's
mixing-length theory the mechanisms of the transfer of ~norncnt~tin~ :~,titl 11r:et i t 1
free turbrllor~tflows are itletit~icalwhich means t,hnt A, ant1 A,, are nss~ltnr~l c:cl11:11 to
each other. The messuretncnt pcrformctl by A. 1i'nge anti V. M. I~:ilkticr1.50) in t.hc
wake behind a row of heat,ctl bars have showtl that t,l~et,cmprmtrrrc prolilo is \vitlcr
than the velocity profile antl that, by way of approxi~nat~iorl, wc mn.y assrtritc
A, = 2 A,. This rcsrllL agrccs with Cr. I. T:cylor's tlicory which was t1isc:rrssctl in
Scc. X I X c , and according to which brlrl)rtlcnt mixing ~not~ion c:~,tlscs:LII t.xc:ltnngc:
of vorticity rather than m o i n e n t ~ ~ mThe . problem of t,llc tliIFrlsiorl of tetnprratnrc
in free t,rlrbttlcnt flows was also consitlcrctl I)y It. 1tciclta.rtlt 1301, who tn:~.tl(> I)ot.l~
tlicorctical ant1 cxpcrirnont,al contribrtl,ions. 'J'he thcorctir:d work is closoly rol:~~ctl
to t.ltat tlcscribed in tiic prccecling scctioti. First, empirical rt:lat,ions have bco~ltlrtlr~cctl
for the temperature profile from exp~rimcnt~al results in the same way as was tlonc
previously for the velocity (ni~ment~rtrn) distsribution, I~ypothescson turbrtlcnt flow
having been avoided. On the basis of an argument which we sl~allomit. l~cre,
Rcichardt s~tceecdedin ticriving a rcn~arlrnble rclat.ion I)ctwecti l,hc t~ctnl~c~~.;~I.~trc
and the velocity clistribution. This is given by
T = (ufn:)Ar'Aq . (24.60)
Tmnz
-
Hers, the subscript m a s refers t,o the n~aximntnvalues, and the sc:llt:s for 11. :111(1 7'
must I)c so rcrrattgctl ns l,o rcntlnr Ll~c~)oinl,sli)r W I I ~ C I I TC r 0 n ~ ~7't l . - 0 t . o i ~ t ( . i < l v ~ ~ t . .
Iteichartlt's experimental results for the two-tlin1cnsion.21 jct (Fig. 24.13) :~.tltlli)r
the two-dirncnsional wa,ke show good agrccnlcnt wit11 t,hc law TIT,,,,, -- (~II/~I,,,,,)'/~
whiclr implies A,/A, = 2 in n.grccrncnt,wit,l~G.1. l'nylor's tllcory 1601. Menstlrc~nlc~~ts
on thc tcmperatr~retlisLril)rrtion in n Ilcal,ctJ, circrrlar t r ~ r b ~ t l cjot,
r ~ t 1tt1.v~I)rc:t~~ w r -
formed by S. Corrsin and M. S. Uberoi [a], as well as by J . O . Winze and 13. G . van tlcr
IIegge Zijnen [20]. The temperature distribution behind a plane row of bars was also
measured by R. Gran Olsson as was reported in a paper already quotcd [l!)].
Mixing of coaxinl turbulent jets issuing with differerrt velocities and temperntr~res
in a pipe: Theoretical and experimental investigations concerning the mixing of co-
axial trirbulent jets issuing wit11 different velocitics and temperatures in a pipe wcre
carried out by S . R . Ahmed [I] in tllc incompressible case, Fig. 24.12. In this case,
the inner jet moved with a moderately larger temperature and velocity than tlitl the
outer jet,. The most important pnranictcr wl~icllgovcrns tllc mixing prooc>ss I.III.IIS
out Lo bo the ratio U* = I L ~ of the ~ two
~ jcts,
/ ~wllcrc
~ u~~ f ountl tlonot(: 1 . 1 1 ~
velocities in the inlet cross-section of the inner and outer jet, rcspcctively. l'hc ctlual-
ization of momentum as well as of temperature depends on this parameter.
Tlte diagram in Fig. 24.12a reprcscntx thc variation along t.hc pipe axis of t,lto
mtio ulr/ueo cleterminetl theoretically by S . R . Ahmctl (I] in t c r ~ n sol' t,Itc: volocil,,y
ratio U* = uIro/uso. The diagram in Fig. 24.121) depicts tltc snmc tluanl,ity in tc'r~ns
of the t,emperature ratio @* = Olro/Oso Both diagrams contain cxpcrimcnt~alpoint,s
for comparison. H.ere Oeo and Oso denote the tctnperatr~reof the i~ineror outcr jet.
in the pipe inlet. The agreement between theory and measuremenf is gootl. 'l'hr. in-
fluence of the temperature ratio @* on tile mixing process is insignificarit in t.llr range
covered by the measurements.
Natural convectiot~,i. r. the difi~sionof t,emperat,ure in a st,rrn~nerentc.d Ijy
tl~ermalIn~oy,zncy,was investigated I)y W. St~hmitlt,[36] who cotlsidcrctl tltr followitlg
754 XXJV. Frce turht~lentROIVB: jets and wakes Rcfcrenccs 755

Exp. two cases: 1, two-dimensional [low above a lincar sorlrce of heat placed on a horizotlt,al
a floor and 2. &xi-symmetrical flow above a point-source. I n both cases thc width of
0
0 the velocity and temperatmureprofilc increases in clircct proport.ion to the height
A abovc the floor, x. I n the two-dimensional cnsc thc voloait-y rcmains constant a t all
A heighbs, whereas the temperalure dccreeses as x-1. I n thc axially symn~etricxlcasc
the velocity is proportional to 2-113, the temperature being p r ~ p o r t ~ i o r ~toa lx-514.
The two-dimensional case was treated theoretically on the basis of Prantltl's mixing-
length theory (transport of rnomcntum) as well as on thc basis of G. I. Taylor's
vorticity tmr~sporttlteory. The nxially ~ymmetricnlcasc corild bc invcst~igntcdonly
with the aitl of Prarldtl's t,hcory bccausc (:. I. Taylor's tlicory brcnlts clown in thig
case. Measurements performed for thc axi-syn~met~rical enso conf rm t.11~tl~corrl,ical
cslculations. The diffusion of temperature behind a point-source atit1 behind n Linear
source placed in the boundary layer on a flat plat,c were investigatetl experi~ucntslly
by I<. Wieghartlt [56].I n the case of the point-source i t is found t h a t the transfer
of lrcnt is much largcr sideways than a t right anglcs to thc wall. The paper oont,nitls
Fig. 24.12. The tnixing of coaxial turbulent jets equations which allow us to transpose thc experirncntal results to sirnilnr cnscs. 111
of different velocit~iesand temperatures in a pipe, this connexion the paper by B. Frost [12] may also be consulted. Temperature
after S. R. Ahmcd [la]. Variations of the velocity fluctuations in a turbulent wake have been measured by D. W. Schmidt and W. J.
along the nxis of the pipe n) for vnrious velocity
"..
1.0 ; . X
A -
rntios U* = u r r o / ~ s oa t a constant value of the
tetnperntr~rerntio O*; b) for vnrio~tavalues of t.lie
Wagner [45].

a bl
~ r lhewy
temperature ratio Q* = Olro/Oso a t a constant
value of the velocity. F* = frro/fso der~otesthe References
O.gO -- nrea ratio of the inner jet Lo the whole jet
2 4 6 x 8 10
[I] Abrnmovicli, G.N.: The theory of turbulent jets (Trnnslntion fiorn the Russiort). MI'I' P r c ~ ,
d Cambridge, Maas., 1963. -
[In] Alnned, S.R.: Die Vern~ischt~ng von konxinlcn und Lrtrbtllcttte~iStrnhlcn verscliicrlrttcr
Gescli~sindigkcitund Tentperatur in einent ltohr. Disu. Braunscllwcig 1970. VI)I-l'orscl~u~igs-
heft 547, 18-30 (1971).
[Ib] Albcrlson, M.L.,Dai, Y.R., J ~ n n o n ,R A . , and Itortsc, H.: l)iIT~tniottof R I I ~ I I I I P ~ R Pjets.
C~
Trnns. Am. Soe. Civil Rtigrs. 115, 639-606 (1050).
121 Andcrlik, E.: Math. termeszett. E r h 52, 54 (1935).
[k] Antonia, 1E.A.. ant1 Rilgcr, R. W.: The h e ~ t c dround jet iti n collowing strcnrn. Al AA J 14,
1541 -1547 (1976).
[3] Barke, P.: An experimcntal inveatigntion of a wall-jet. JFM 2, 407-472 (1957).
[4] Bradshaw, Y.,and Gee, M.T.: Turbulent wall ]eta w ~ t hand without an external strcnrn.
ARC RM 3252, 1-48 (1962).
[5] von Bohl, J.G.: Daa Verhalten parnlleler Luftatrahletl. 1ng.-Arch. 11, 295-314 (1040).
[6] Bourque, C., and Nswmann, B.G.: Re-attachment of a two-dimensional inco~nprcasiblcjet
to an adjacent flat plate. Aero. Quart. 11, 201-232 (1960).
[7] Cordes, G.: Statischc Druck~nessungin torbulentcr Striimung. 11ig.-Arch. 8,245-270 (1037)
[8] Corrsin, S,, and Uberoi, M.S.: Furt.hcr expcrimcnta on the flow and heat transfcr in n heated
turbirlortt air jot. NACA TN 998 (1060).
[9] Davies, I1.R.: Thc problctn or dilTusion into n turbulotil. bonntlary lnyer front n plnne area
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- -perpendicular
- edges. Quart. J. Mech. Appl. Math. 7,468-
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.--
[Fig. 24.18. 'I'c.~nl)crat.~~rc
ant1 volocit,y dis(.ril)~~t.io~i
[ l l ] Fiirthmann,'E.: u b e r krbulento Strnhlnnsbreitung. Dim. Gijttirigcn 1003; 1ng.-Arch. 6 ,
(lnc to Jtricl~:~r(lt,
1291 42-54 (1934); NACA TM 789 (1936).
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~ ( t( Z~4 . ~1 5 ,) ;
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756 XXIV. Prrc torl)ulent flows; jeta and wakes

[14] Gartnhore, ,J.S.,end Newman, B.G.: The turbulent wall jet in an arbitrary pressure gradient. [36a] Schrreider, W. : Uber den CinfluB dar Schwerkreft anf at~iuother~~i, t~~rbrltcnto Ifrc.intrnl~lo~~.
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Lt~rb~tlc~tco intr.~~sit,ion.,I. I'lr~i(ls ICII~. 'I'ratr~.ASM 1': I, 98, 229-235 (1976). -,- '.-l~otr~prcarril~lcr
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of vor(.i(:iI.y nncl hcnl l.hro11~11 f I ~ r i ( I n it1 I.II~IIIIII!III. ~l~#>Iiot~.
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[25] Ncwmntr, B.G., Pntr.1, It.P., Snvago, S.B., and Tjio, H.K.: Thrcc-dimensio~ialwall jet ./.: Die von J<(rr~nhnschcAli~~licl~koital~~~~otllcse in der Turbolcllz-'Tl~aoricr111d
originnting froni a circular orifice. Aero. Quart. 23, 188-200 (1972). drlc Windschattcnproblcn~.11ig.-Arch. 4, 1- 15 (1933).
[25n] Nc\\.~nnn,1%.(:.: 'l'llc tlcllcctiot~of III~IIIC jets I)y ndjcaent. bo~tntlarics-- Coandn elfcct. G . V.
I.ncIi~nn~in (~(1.):Ilolrn~lary Lnycr nncl I'low (:otiLrol. I'crgnn~on Prcss. Vol. 1, 232--264
., owns send, A.A.: Momentrlln and enrrgy tliKiroiorl in the t ~ ~ r b ~ ~ lwakc c r i t of n oylintlor.
I'roc. Itoy. Soc. Lontlon A 197, 124-140 (1949).
(InGI). [55] Vikloril~,I<.: ~lntcwtrclt~lttgcn t~trl~ltlc:rr(n!r
Mis~ltvorgiittgc.1'10r:9c/tg. 111g.-Wca. I2. I(; .-:I0
1261 I'ai, S.I.: I'lrtid ctynncniw of jcta. New York, 1054. (1!)4l); NACA 'I'M 10!)6 (1!)46).
[26a] I'fcil, 11.. nntl ICillcr, J.: Zur I'rngc clcr RcIlr~bs~)nn~i~~~~gsvcrteilurig fiir dic cboion frcicn (561 Wicghardt, I<.: Ubcr Atral~miltlngsvor~t~ge in Inrbrrlo~tcnItcibur~g~ncl~icl~t~o~~. XAMM 28,
t.url)rrlcrlteti Slriirnnngen. l~orsclig.Ing.-\Vea. 41, 105--180 (1975). 346-355 (1948).
[261)1 I'fcil, H., and l':ifler, J.: I\lcssnngc?nit11 tt~rbnlcntcnNar!hlarrf des J1:inzelzylinrlern. Forachg. [57] Wille, It., and Ferr~ltolz,H.: Report on the Iriwt Mcchnnics Colloqnium on t,he Conncla
111g.-WCR. 4 1 , 137-- 145 (1975). e h c t . JPM 23, 801-819 (1965).
1271 PmnclL1, I,.: Tlic ~nec:hanicaof viscous fluids. 111 W.F. Dtlrnnd (or].): Acrodynnmic Theory, [58] Wille, It.: Beitriige zur l'liiinolnenologic (lor Frcistrablon ('I'hird Ott,o-Lilientl~nl-Lecture
I I l , I6 -208 (1!):35); scc also I'roc. Ilntl Intern. (:ongrcas Appl. Mech. Ziiricli 1926. 1962). ZPW 11, 222--233 (1903).
1281 Rcirlinrtlt, 11.: Ubor cine nauc Thcoric dor fmien Ttzrbcllcna. ZAMM 21, 257-264 (1!)41). 1591 Wucqt, W.: T u r b u l e ~ ~ Mischvorgnnge
tc in zylindriachen 11nd kogcIig.cn Pnngdiiscn. Z. VI)I
12!)1 Itcicharclt,. H.: (~csetzrniiRsi~kritcn
> - der freien Turbulenz. VDI-lporschungsheft 414 (1942). 92, 1000- 1001 (1950).
2nd ed. 1651. [(iO] Yan~agrrcbi,S.: Tt~rbuler~te Verrnisc1111ngrincs ebcticn Strnlrlcs in glcic:ltgcric:hlot,er A~tsscn-
.-[:301 Itoirhnrclt, 11.: 11111)1tls.I I I I ~W i i r ~ ~ i r : ~ ~ ~ ~ ill
(1944).
t , nf~r tesi r~:rIT~~ ~ r b ~ ~ lZAMM
e t ~ z . 24, 268--272 striirnr~tig.1ng.-Arcb. 35, 172- 180 (1!)6(i).
[OOnJ Yonng, 1). W., nnd Zonnru, I).: Wintl t.t~r,t~cl trstn of 1 . 1 1 ~(~oancln~airignrrd 110%7,1c-.IJSA I?
[311 Ikirl~arclt,IT., nnd IErmshn~ts,It.: I~npuls-nnd Wiirnloiibcrtrag~lngin tnrbulcnten Wind- 'Scchn. J<eport,GI!)!) (1!)50).
arl~attcnhinter Robtionakiirpcrn. Int. J. Heat Ma Transfer 5, 251-265 (1902). [Gl] Zin~ni,W.: Ubcr die St,riin~~~ngnvorgiinge in) frricn LuftaI.ralil. V1)I-l~orncliungnl~db 234
1321 Itcichardt. 11.: 'rurbulcntc Stmhlaosbreitnng- in -gleichgerirhteter
L - B
- Grvrndstromnng. Forschg. (1921).
111g.-U'os.30, 1f:t- 13!) (IV(i4). I621 noports of the AVA Gottingcn, Ergcbniwe tlcr Acrorlynamiscl~enVerstlcl~sanst~nlt Oiittingen.
1331 Ilrttlcn, I).: 'l'~trl)~~lcnto Allshrcit,~lngitn PrcistrahJ. Nat,1~rwimenact1afterer1 21,378-378 (1993). R. Oldenhonrg, blunclien, Vol. 2, GO-77 (1023).
1341 Sawyer, l<.A.: 'l'hc flow c11~cL,o 11 two-dirnensional jet issuing parallcl to a flat plate. .JVM
0 , 543- 5(iO (I!)(iO).
.1x51- Srl~lichtinp, 1-1.: Ubor (Ins cbcnc \?'ir~rlacl~nt,tenproblcm.Diss. (:iit.tingen 1030; Ing.-Arch.
1 , 5:1:\ --57I (I0:lo).
(3GJ Srlra~i(l~.. \V.: r l j ~ r l ~ ~ ~~Zl Ir I~S ~~ tI ,~ ~~ (%it~rs
~ ~ , I St,rotncs
III~ erIiit.ztrr ~,~lft.. ZAMM 21, 205--274
anrl 35 I :)li:3 ( I!kk I).
 b. The expcrimetltol method due to nets 759

in t,he wake. The int.egra.1 must be taken a t s~lclta large tlistlancc from Mre body that
tlie static pressure a t the measuring section becomes equal to that in tlic r~ntlistrirbctl
~t~ream 111. practical cases, whet,hcr in a wind tunnel or in frec flight incasr~romcnt,s,
i t is necessary to come mucli closer to the body. Consequently it becorncs nroessnry
t o take irho acnorint the c~nt~ribution from trhe pressure b r t n ant1 eqn. (26.1) nlctst
CIIAPTER X X V be inotlificrl. 'l'his correcttion term has an appreciable vhlr~owhcn r n c a s ~ ~ m m c are t~t,~
performetl close to the body (e. g. a t distances lcss tldan onc cl~ordin tfhc case o f
aerofoils) ancl i t is, therefore, important to have a compbrat,ivcly accuratc exprcswior~
Determin~ationof profile drag for it.. The corrcctiorl tnrm was first calcr~latcclby A. I3ct,z 141 and 1at.or by 1%.Rf.
tJorrcs [2G]. At prcsct~t~ most ~ricasuremci~barc bcing cvalu:~tcclwi0li t,l~o:lit1 of t.116
f o r n ~ i ~ clue
l a to Jones because of its compnmt,ive simplicit,y. Ncvcrihrlcss, wc: pro-
a. General remarks pose t.o cliscuss Bet,z's formula as well becausc it* cleri~at~ior~ exhibits scvcm.l very
irit1crrsttirig f e a t ~ ~ r e s .
The t,ol.aI tlrag on a 1)otly placctl in a stream of fluid consists of ski~r./;iction
(equal to thc intcgml of all slirnrii~gstrcsscs takcn over the surface o ~ ~ ~botly) l i e
ant1 of Jorm or pre.T.surc, drag (integral of normal forces). Tho sum of th6 two is called b. Tile cxperirner~tnlmethod due to Betz
totnl or pro/ils tlmg. 'rlic sltitt frictiolt can bc ~:~1~11lat~od with some accuracy by the
rise of the rnct,liotls of the procccling cliaptrrs. The form drag, dhich docs not exist \Yit.li rcfcmnec: 1.0 I'ig. 25. I we s~lcct. a coritrol si~rfaccarolintl t.11~ 1)ocly:i.s sliow~i.
in frictionless subsonic flow, is due to the fact that the presence of (.he boundary layer I n tlic rnbry cross-scctio~~ 1 in frorit of the body the flow is loaslcss, its total prcssuro
modifics the pressurc distribl~t~ion on t,he body as compared with ideal flow, but i t s bring g,. Tho total 1)rc:ssltrc in cross-soct.iori I1 I)chirttl t.ho l)otly is !j2 , :(I,.,. '1'110
comput~ationis very difficr~lt.Consequently, reliable data on total drag must,, in remaining cross-srct,ions of t,he control s11rf;lcc arc imaginocl placed far cnoirgl~from
general, bc obtained by measurement. I n more modern times methods of estimating the body for the flow in t81iem to be untlistorbect. I n order to satisfy the condit.ion
the amount of profile drag have, nevertl~nless,been established. We shall discuss them of continr~ity,tire velocity tc2 in cross-sect.ion I t nir~stin sorile places cxccocl t,l~e
bricfly in See. d of the present chapter. ~ ~ ~ ~ r I i s t , u velocity
r l ) ~ c I 11,. Applying tlic m o i n e n t i ~ ntlrcorcrn
~ t o the control surf:~c:c
1.11 many cascs the t l c b r m i n a t i o ~of
~ total drag by weighing lacks in accuracy gives t.llc following aspression for the drag on a cylinder of length h :
bccarisc, when m e n s ~ ~ r c ~ r i rarc
n t s perforlncd, for example, in a wind tunrlel, the drag
on the srispcnsion wires is too largc compared with the force to be measured. I n some
cases even, such as in frec flight cxperimcnts, its direct determination becomes im-
possible. In srrclr cases the mctliotl of tlctermitting profile d m g from the vclocit,y
clis~rih~t,iottin the wn.lzc (I'itot travrrsc met,hod), wliich has alreatly been clescribcd I n order to ntlapt t.11isrq~li~t,ion
to tile c~nlriat~ion ~ n l it, is ~~cc~eswary
of c x p c r i ~ n r n ~rcs111t.s
in Cliap. I X , 1)ccotnrs vcr.y ~uscf~tl. Morcover, i t is often the only practicable way of 1.0 t,mnsfornt l.he above int,cgmls so that trhey necct h r t l y bo cvnlunt.rtl ovvr tl~nt.
pcrforrning this kind of tncasr~rctnent.In priuciple i t can or~lybe user1 in two-tlimen- sect,ion of the velocit,y cr~rvewhich includcs the depression of plarlc: I 1 irt t,hc 1)rofilc.
sional and axially symntctricn.l cnscs, but we shall restrict ourselves to the consitlera- The total pressures satisfy the conditions:
tion of tlic two-dimcnsiont~lcasc.
Thc formula in cqn. (9.2'7) whic:h was tlcdacer~in Chap. I X and wlii~liserves to
dctorn~inct,hc magriitr~tleof tlrag from t,hc v ~ l o c i t ~distribution
y in the wake is valitl
only for co~nl)arat,ivclylargo ctisb~tcesfrom the body. According to it t.he total drag
;it.

$1
inlinit.y:

t cross-section 1 :
900 = Pm

Bm = P I
+I
+ .K1
Q

Q
utx?
%2
I' (26.3)
on a botlyt is givcn 11y the cxprcssion: I
+m
1) = = ~ Q / U ( U , - - u ) d y . (25.1)
y= -OD

Tlcro h tlrriot,rs tile Irngt,li of the cylitttlrical body i r t the direction of thc axis of the
cylittdcr, I / , is the frcc-st,rcam velocity, and u ( y )dcnotcs thc velocity rlistxibution

The first integml already hns the tlcsirrcl form, I ~ c m ~ t stfhc

o total prcssrirtx is rt111aIt,o
t I n Cllnp. TX tho totnl drag or1 a l>orly ~.laclrnokd hy 2 I) (for tho two ~ i d of~ the
, plate);
g,, rvrrywlierc outsidr t l ~ ctleprcssion In order to transform the s c c o ~ ~inirgml
tl in
111 this chnptcr Llic sy~llbolU is used for iL.
760 XXV. 1)otcrminnLion of profilo drag
I n order t o determine the drag, D, i t is ncccssary to measure the total prcsslirc, g,,
the same way wc intro(1uce a hypothetical flow u,'(y) in cross-section II which is and tho static pressurc, p,, over the cross-scction I 1 bcl~intlt,lrc body. Thus wo also
idCllt,i~al
with IL, cvcrywhcrc o~ttsidcthe tlcprcssion but which differs from u, in the obtain g, as i t is equal to g, out,sicic tho clcpression. Thc l~ypothct~icalvclori1,y IL,'
of tllc dr1)rc~siotlin LhaL 111~toLal ~rcssllrofor 1 ~ is~cqllal
' to gm. ' r h ~ ~ is (lcfincd in cqn. (26.5) from which i t can bc calc:i~l:~tctl.
1
gaJ=p2+ Ze~,'a. (25.5) In cascs when the static prcssurc ovcr the measurir~gstation cquals that i l l tllc
rrntlist.~lrhcdstrrarn, i. c. whcn p, = p,, wc also have u2' - IJ.,, : ~ n ( rcjn.
l (25.9)
since t,hc actrlal flow u l , u, satisfirs the equations of contir~nity,the mass flow of the transforms back into cqn. (26.1).
hypot,llctical flow r l , 11,' is too largo across scction I[. 'Phis is cquivaleat to the I~cfirlinga tlirnensionlcss cocfficicnt of clrng I)y writing
exist,ellee of a source whiclt is locatccl, essantially, a t the body ant1 whose strength is

where qm = 11; denotes the dynamic prcssurc of t,hc oncoming steream nrld 1, x 1
is the reference area, we can rcwrite eqn. (25.9) to read:

Fig. 25.1. 1)ctornlitlntioll 01 profilc

'I'his i~ t3ho tnost convcnior~t~
form for I,llo ovrtlllntiotl of o x ~ ~ o r i r n c ~I.(*HIIII.H.
~~l.r~l
drng by tho method due to Bctz [4]
c. T h e experinicntnl nicthncl doe to Jnues

A source which cxists in a frictionless parallel stream of vclocity U, suffers a thrust Some time later, I3. M.Jones [26] indicatcd a similar mcthod for the dctcrn~i-
cq11al to nation of profile drag. The final formula duc t o Jones is somcwhat simpler t,l~anthat
R = - - p u,Q. (25.7) due t o A. net,z.
The cross-section I1 (Fig. 25.2) in whicl~measurements are performed is locatctl
We now apply the momentc~mtheorem from cqn. (25.4) to the hypothctiml flow, behind, the body at a short distance from i t ; the static pressure p, a t the measuring
i. e. we assume a velocity u l in sectioll I, and a velocity u,' in section XI. Since station is still markedly different from the static pressure in tlle undisturbcrl st~rcam.
g', = ,g and since the r e s ~ ~ l t a nforce
t is equal to R from eqn. (25.7), we obtain Cross-section I is placed so far bel~lndthe body that p, = pm. Applying ccln. (26.1)
to cross-section I, we obtain

Subtracting this value from eqn. (25.4) we have

~+~~,Q=b(~(g,-q,)dy+-;e/(u;'-~~?dy). (25.8)

111 view of eqn. (25.6) we have now

Each of t.hc above integrals necd only bo evaluated over the wake since outside i t Fig. 26.2. Dotcrminstion of profile drag
?I,' = r,. Sincc u,', - uZ2= (u,' - 11%)(u.~'f %), the above can be transformed to by the method due to B. M. Jones [2F]
762 XXV. Determination of profile drag c. The experimental mct,l~oddue to Jones 7 63

I n order t,o confinc the determination of u, to the use of results obtained from mea- A. D. Yor~ng1711 extended t.he applicability of Jones's mothod to comprcrrsihlc flows,
surementa in cross-section 11, we first apply tlhe equation of conbinuity along 8 Itetracing the steps in that derivation, we apply the continuity cquat,ion for co~nprwsihlcflow.
streamtube el u, ~ Y =
I el dyt . (25.17)
euldy, = e u z d y . (25.12) and deduce the following formula for drag:
Hence
~ = b ~ / u ~ ( ~ ~ - u ~ ) d y . (25.13)

Secondly, accortling to B. M. Jones 1261, we make the assumption t h a t the flow
proceeds from section I1 t o section I without losses, i. e. that the total pressure
remains constant along every strcnm-line betwcw~the sLat*ionsI and 11:
tnmrcnrecl in plnno 11. In ~ l ~ o
Fiem, again, i l i8 n c m s a r y to cxprcae u, in torrns of t.lre qrrn~~tit,ic:s
r m l ~ nof w m p r m i b l e flow i t is necrmuary 10 rcplnco Jonra'e nna~~mpLiorl t l ~ n tg, = g, hy tito
mnutnpt,ion thnt the entropy remains constant along a atrcamlinc from plnr~cI1 to plane 1.
This lends to the isentropic rclation

lntroil~icingthe total pressures

If, now, the stagnation p m u r e measured by the Pitot tube in cornpro~siblcflow is clonotctl
by g, we have

we see from eqn. (25.13) that and i t can be vcrificd that e n (2.5.19) also lends to tlio rnonmpbion g, -- g,. 1.110 vrlr,rif.y
-- cnn bc doternlined front t ~ h~i r nc o u ~ l iequation for co~~tprcssiblc
,Io,r, nnmnly
u.,

-
= 2 6 1 d g ~ p2 ( ~ / 9 ~ i&=-%)
- z ~ dy , (25.15)
I 9-1 1

where t,he integml extends over cross-section 11. I n this case, as in the previous one,
the integrand differs from zero only across the distr~rbwlportion of t h e velocity
profile. Introducing a dimet~sionlesscoefficient., in thesame way as in cqn. (25.9a),
and taking into account t h a t g, - pm = qm, we have
I n order to solvc the problem in principle, it, is only ncrc.usary to express tlrc vclocit,y 11, i11 terms
of the measured prrasurea g, and p, in plane 11. A mcaaurcmcnt of the totnl and stnlic prcssurcs
in plane I1 is again sufficient for tlie determination of the drag of the body. However, the coni-
p l i c ~ t e drelation between velocitiea and prewures in the compressible Bernoulli eqatbtion Icndn
to a very cun~bemomcequation. For t,his rowon, A. D. Young cxpnntied tho vclocitics ?I., aricl u ,
into series of the form

Jones's prccrtling c q ~ ~ n t i oalso n transforms into the simple equation (25.1) in cases
when the static pressure a t the me,asuring station is equal to the undisturbed static
pressure, pz = pm. I n this manner, the terms in eqn. (25.15) derived by Jont.8 for the incomprc~siblccnsc. can now
be separated, and tlic remaining terms can be nrrangrd in a jmww scrim in t c r n ~ sof 1 110 hlnc.11
A. 1). Yorrng [75] inclicatacl n transformation of Jones's formula which sirnpli- number. T h l ~ s
fie9 the e v a l ~ ~ a t ~ iof
o nt,hc intcgral in cqn. (25.16). The resulting equation contains
an ntltfitivr corrertion term npnrt from t,hc ir~bcgralof t,he total prrss~lroloss taken
ovrr bhr tlrprcssiorl in t,hc vclocity profile. The correctiorl term depends on the allnpo where ca, ( denotrrr t,llo drag coeflicicnt for tho incotr~prcssiblccnue, na given by eqn. (25.16),
of the vrlocity profilc in the measuring station, but i t can be computed once and
.
and the cocfficicnts Al, A,, . . rcpreaent certain integrals w11ich can be calcc~lnktlfrom tllc
measured data in plane 11. Rcstxicting one~clfto low Mach nnn~bers,and I~cnceto two k r n ~ s
for all. A critiral nppmis:ll of this method is contained in a note by G. I. Taylor [67]. in tlrc oxpansion (2.5.23), one ohtaina
The prcrc(ling two experimental mct,hotls have been used very f r c q u e ~ ~ t lfor y
t.hn tlct~enninxt.ionof profilc drag 110th in flight snrl in wind tunnel measurements,
[(i, 12, 16, 20, 38, 39, 61, 62, 69, 701, and have l r ~ $0 l very satisfactory results. 11.
I)oc.tsc~h[6] derno~~st.mt~cd that both the 13etz and the Jones formulae can be uscd
whcn the clist.nncc bctwccn the mcn.suring statmionbel~indthe acroloil ant1 the aerofoil
il.sclf is as short as 5 pcr cont. cl~ortl.In this casc thc corrcct.ion term in Betz's
formr~laa r n o ~ ~ ~ t . s 30 1)crcent. of t,hc first term, not11 n~cthotlsare partvicularly
t,o~RIIOII~,
s~lit.ahlewhen the i~lfl\~cnc.c: of strrfacc ro~~gltncsscson profile dmg is being determined
as wall as t,o t,hc tlrt.rrrninnt.ion of the vnry stnnll drag of laminar nerofoils.
764 XXV. I)ot.crtnin~rtiotiof profile drag

Tt~endditionnl term which d~po~irls on the Mnell nlnnber provides n negntivc contribution Integrating over z from the trailing edge of the body (sub~cript1) to a stntion
to tllc drag cooffirirnt,. I t is poasiblc t.o cvalnxtc lllis ndditiot~altorrn once and for nll if a stlitable sufficiently far downstream, so as t o have U = U, and p = pm, we oblain
nsst~rnptiotii4 nindc for tho shape of t,lie drpression i n the velocity profile i n tlie wake; this was
also (lone by A. I). Young.

'1. C n l c ~ ~ l o t iof
o ~profile
~ drag m

At a large distance behind the body we have H = 1, and consequently

Mct~hoclswhich can 11c usctl [or the calculation of profile drag ant1 which arc n-n.
I~a~sctl
011 t,l~c same principI(:s as t11o abovc cxpcrirncnt:~l mctrhotls, have I)con tlcvisctl
by J . Pretscli [40] and IT. U . Squire ant1 A. 1). Young [MI. Thcse are tied in with
t,hc calculat,ion of bountlary layers, as described in Chap. X X I I . IIowever, in ordcr B-I
t.o bc in a position to calcu1at.c pressure drag i t is necessary in each case to make Here H I = 61/6, denotes the value of the shape factor H = 611/821a t the trailing
use of certain additional, empirical rclat~ions.See also H. Goertler [19]. edge which is known from the calculation of the boundary layer. This equation
We tlow propose to give a short des~ript~ion of 11. B. Squire's and A. D. Young's gives the required relation between BZm a r ~ d821, provided that TJ1/U, and the valuc
mct,ltod of calc~~lat~ion taking into acconr~tsome more rcccnt reqults. We shall begin of the integral on the right-hand side are known. First we find that
by transforming eqn. (25.1), wliicl~relates the tlrag on a body with the velocity
profile in t l ~ cwake behind Chc body. 111t~roducingthe momentum thickness (j2, from
cqn. (8.31) ~ l l i lthc tlrag coefficient from eqn. (25.9a), we can rewrite it as
I n ortlcr to bc: in a position to cviiluntc the ir~trgml,it, is ncccssriry lo know L11c rc-
lation between the static pressure in the wake, which determines the valuc of U ,
and the velocity distribution in the wake which, in turn, determines thc valuc of
the sllnpo factjot- If. Tho ~nngriitutloof In (U,/U) docrcascs monolonically along
the wake, starting with the valuc In (U,/U1) a t the trailing cdge until i t roaches
zero a t a large distance. Simultaneously I1 decreases from the value If1 a t the trai-
ling edge, until i t reaches unity a t a large distance. H. I3. Squire established an
tlcnotcs t l ~ rmomcnt,nrn tl~ickncssof the wake a t a largo distance from the body. empirical relation between In (U,/U) and H. According to experiment:
On the otllrr hnntl, the calculation tlescribed in Chap. X X I I permits 11s to evaluate
thickness
t l ~ cm o m e ~ t t ~ ~ ~rn a t thc trailirig edge, for which the symbol a,, will be used.
The cssencc of Squire's method consist8 in relating these two quantities, dz, and
dzl, in such a way as to permit the calculation of drag from eqn. (25.25) when the so that
momc:ntum tl~iclrncssa t the trailing edge of the body is known from a boundary-
layer cnlc~~lation.
'l'hr ~ n o m r r ~ t l ~integral
rn equation of boundary-layer theory, eqn. (22.6), is
valirl also for the wake behind a body with the only difference that the shearing On substituting into eqn. (25.27), we obtain
st,rrss s,, must be equated t o zero. Thus we have

or, with the rouridcd-off value of H I = 1.4:

whc~rc11 - - Ol/b2 ant! U' = dU/dxt. The symbol,^ denotes now the distance from
tllc trailing erlge of the body measurctl along the centre-line of the wake. The last
rqnatiori v:tn also be written in the form 1
On substituting this valuc into eqn. (25.25) wc obt,ain an cxprcssion for t.hc coof-
ficicnt of total drag in the f o r n ~

t 'I'lir shapr f ; ~ v l o r,Y,/,Y, will now Ivo drnobrtl by If, for uilnplicit.y, rntl~erLIinn hy [ I , , , ns hrfore.
766 XXV. Dcterminat.ion or profile drag

The coefficient of profile drag can be evaluated from the above oq~lat~ion, if the mo-
mentum tltickness a t the trailing edge is known from the boundary-lnyer calculation
ant1 if, in adtlition, the ideal, potential vclocity a t thc trailing edge, U1, is known.
The latter can be found, for example, from a reading of the static pressure a t the
trailing edgc. According t o a method proposed by II. R. IIelmbold 1221 the deter-
mination of IJ,/IJ, call also proceed as follows: We begin by evaluating the mo-
mentum tl~ickncssa t the trailing edge, 8,,/1, from eqn. (22.17) using the value 7~ = 4.
This valuc is tltcn substiti~tcdinto eqn. (25.28), and in thc resulting formula IJ1/U,
is raisecl to the power -1 0.2. 'I'hrts this fnctor can bc approximntcd by tlte valuc
of unity, because Ul/U, itsclf (Ides not dilTer much from unity, ant1 the valr~eof
the coefficient of profile drag for onc side ( R = U,Z/v) can be found from eqn. (25.28)
to l)e
i I
potential flow. It ww pointed ouf there, Fig. 17.10, that as a first approxinlatiot~i t
is possible to assume t h a t the point, of transition coincides wit11 tlte poirtt of nlinilnom
d t>licReynolds tinmber is large, say R w lo7. Nutnerical values
prcssrtro ~ ~ r o v l d ctllnt
obtained on tho basis of this assumption show satisfactory agreemcrtt wit11 measured
values.
Thc precc(lirtg met.hod was first generalized to incll~deaxially symtlletrical
rases by A. D. Young [72]. The met-ltori proposed by N. Scholz [58J Itas been
mnsiclernbly clevclopcd and can br, Ix)t-h for t \ v o - d i ~ ~ ~ ~ t ~ anrl
s i o t for
~ n laxially ~ J ~ I I I -

The subscript 1 rcfers to tho point of transition nnd thc vnlrre of tlte constant C
can bc cletcrmincd from the condition t,hat thc laminar and tltrbulcnt momentum
thicknesses must be cqilnl to each other a t the point of transitmion,bzt = d z t , ~ b=
aZfarn.The valnc of dzlatn can be found from cqn. (10.37). For uniform ~ot.entia1
flow 1vit.h IJ = U,, eqn. (25.20) transforms to the corresponding exprcssion for the
flnt plate a t zero incidence, eqn. (21.11), if, in addition, we put C = 0 for fully
tleveloprtl t , ~ t r k ~ ~ ~flow.
lettt
TC. 'l'rrtcl~cnbrotlt [G8] t,ransformcd cqn. (25.20) replacing tho potential vclocity
distribut,ion by t,lic coordinates of the acrok)il scction thus, evirle~~t.ly, eCcct.ing a
consitlerable simplificat.iort. Fig. 25.3. Profile drag in terms of Rey~toldsnumber a~ cvnl~~ated
by Squire nnd Yorrng [64]
z, dcnote8 the position o l 1l1e point of lrnnsition
11. B. S c l ~ ~ in.ntl
r c A. I). Young [64] cvnlr~atcda 11umbcr of cxamplcs by tile use
of a tliffcrcnt mctltotl. We shall now tlcscribc somc of tollern, rcfcrritlg to Fig. 25.3,

-
wltirlt csontains n v c a t ~ v t kof thcsc rcsrrlt~.Tltc thickness of t,he acrofoils was vnricti
from dl1 0 (flnt platc) to rl/l -- 0.25 nrttl tho Reynolcls nr~rnl)crsR -- IT, 1 / v
mnpcd from 10Q,o 108. I t is found that the profilc drag is very sensitive to the
position of the point of transit,ion from Iamitlnr t,o tiirbitlent flow. This liitter para-
met,cr wns vnricd from x,/E = 0 t,o 0.4. The increase in profile drag with thicltncss
is, rssenl~i:rlly,tiiic t,o an incrcnsc in form tlrng. Fig. 25.4 shows the relation bctwccn
form ntttl profile tlrng. Annlogolls calculations were performctl by J. Pretsclt [40]
in rclation to von I<&rm6n-Trefftz acrofoils. TI* measure of agreemcrlt bctsfeen
t-nlo~tlnt,ionn.ncl experiment depcntls dccisivelyi'on the assumod position of the Fig. 25.4. Relation between pressure drag
point of t,mnsit.ion. It will 11c recn.llcd from Chap. XVTI that t.lle positlion of the CDform, atid skin-frictiondrug, c f , at vnrying
point or t.mnsit.iort is Inrgt\ly t l c ~ ) m ~ l r on
n t the p r ~ s s u r cgmrlirnt of the respect.ive thickness rntios
.-.
t L. Sycidcl [GB] katctl tlrc vnlidi1,y of tl~isnitnplr rqtrntion ngilinnt. n very Inrgc? tltrmbcr ol
actual cxnttiplr8.
 XXV. Determination of profile drag
768
Fig. 25.5. Increase in the coefficient of pro-
file clrag plotted in terms of relative thick-
ncas, as calculnted by Scholz [58]
Totnl or proflla drag cl)tOt - CU form -1-
metrical cases, applied t o rough walls (equivalent sand roughness) as well. From
a very large number of calculated examples on aerofoils (two-amensional case)
and bodies of revolution, i t proved possible to deduce relations t o describe the in-
fluence of thickness on profile drag. 'Sliese are shown plotter1 in Fig. 25.5. The
difference Ac, = c, - c,, denotes the i ~ c r c a s ein the coefficient of skin friction,
related t o tJie wetted surface, as against, its val~tcfor rr. flat plate a t zero incitlcnce,
c,,. The curve for t h e two-dimcnsiorial case agrees fairly well with tlie results
shown plotted in Pig. 25.3 for the case of a fully turbulent boundary layer (z,/l = 0).
I n this conncxion the paper by P. S. Granville [lS] may also be consulted.
These calculations give an indication about the effect of friction on lift. The
displacement of the external streamlines caused by the bountlary layer modifies
the pressure distribution on a n acrofoil arid causes the experimental value to become
lower than that givcn by potcntial theory. This loss of lift was calculated by I<.
ICracmcr for thc range of angles of inritlcncc brlow the st,alling angle.
Fig. 25.0. Drag cocKcients for bicon-
vex profilca in srlpcrsonic flow and
with fully developed turbulent bound-
ary layer, after A. 13. Young and
S. Kirkby [76, 771; no heat transfer
Prsndtl nlrmber P = 0.7. The drag coerfl-
cicnt must be sugmcntcd by the contribution
from wnve drag. eqn. (25.31)
J 10' 2
c. Losses in thc flow through cilclcatl~s 769
The preceding metl~oclof evaluating t,otal drag by the application of tho tnontcn-
tum equation was extended by A. I). Young and S. Kirkby [76] to t,hc rnsc of
supersonic flow. Some results of their calculations for biconvex profiles of varying
tliirlzt~rssrat,io nncl nt zero inciclcncc arc shown plottctl in Fig. 25 G . 'l'hc tlrng roc4'li-
cicrit c,,,, includrs pressure drag ant1 skin friction arltl milst bc nugmclltctl by tho
coiitril~i~tion of trhe wave drag which exists in supcrsonic, idcal flowt. For 1)iconvcx
profiles, according to the lir~earizcd tlicory, the latter is givcn by
16 d z 1
CI
WIZ- =T (T) (M"-l)'i. .
Accortling to tllc results shown in Fig. 26.6, tjhe influence of tho thioltri~ssof t,hc
aerofoil on drag is very small, particnlnrly in the supersonic mrigc. The il~ll~rol~c:r
of the Mach number is approximately of the same order as in thc case of a fl:~tplnte
a t xcro incidence.
1. Geriernl remnrks. Thc nunloricnl calorllnt,ions of (,tic t.ot.n.1 tll.:tg of' :L witiglv
aerofoil which wcrc cxplainctl in Scc. XXVcl have bcor~cxtcntlctl I)y 11. Sclllic:l~t.ing
and N. Scholz [40, 491 t,o inclutlc t,hc case of n row, or cascntlc, of ncroli~ilx:bncl
can, therefore, be applied to the iiow t.lirongh blacles. When tliscussing axial t,url)inc
or tnrbo-compressor stages, i t i~ customary to simplify the prol)lcm by tjalring a
co-axial cylir~dricalsection tlirot~ghthe stationary and moving row of blatlcs and
to dcyelop the resulting pattern on to a plane. The pattern of aerofoils thus obtaincd
is known as a lwo-dimensional cascade. Thc arrangement of blacles in a cascade
is usually dcscril)ccl by specifying the solidil?y ratio 111 and the mean blade nn.glc or
angle of stagger, P,,, Fig. 25.7. I n contrast to the cwc of flow past a single acrofoil,
thc application of potcntial thcory to tho casc of flow piwt a cnscadc leads to t . 1 1 ~
conclusion that, generally speaking, thcre exists a difference in the prcssr~rein front
of and behind the cascade. The pressure decreases downstream, whcn thc cascade
transforms pressure into velocity (turbine blading). When the cascade performs
the reverse (compressor blading), the prcssure incrcsscs in the clircctiori of flow.
This change in pressure, together with the shape of the blade, dctern~iricsthe pressure
distribution around the contour of tlie blade and henco also the structure of the
boundary layer. Figure 25.7 shows a plot of the pressure distribuLion antl of tlie
position of the points of sepnration on two tliffcrent turbine blados. Tn tlic casc of
profile 9, Fig. 25.7n, the point of scpamtion is loc'atcd closcly bcl~intllhc prcsslrre
minimum for an angle of inflow PI = 90°. lIowcver, this occurs only a t hhc low
Reynolds number R = 10" a t R = 10Qhere is no separation on citlicr side of the
blade in this case. As far as profile 15, represented in Pig. 25.7 b, i$ conccrncd, the
point of separation on the pressure side lies downstream of, but very close to, the
point of minimum pressure for both angles of inflow. The point of separation on
the suction side is very close to the trailing edge in either case.
t Here, the pressure drag represents the change in wave drag duo to the displacerncnt cffcot.
770 XXV. Determination of profile drug e. Lomen in the flow through cascndca 771

mixing loss into account in atltlit,ion to the loss of rnergy in the 11ountl:ar.y layers
of the intlividaal blades. Thus a calcrilation of losses in n casc:~tlce o ~ ~ ~ iof s t f~. 1s1 ~
following three partial calcnlntions: 1. I)eternminatiot~ of t.lic itlcal, potrlitji:tl prcssure
~list~ribut~ionaround tllc contour of the blacles. 2. Calculat.ions of t,llc (1:rminar or
turl)rrlo~~t)hoilntlary layer a t a blntlc. 3. DcLcrrninat.ion of t l ~ elosses clrle t o mixing
in t.11~wake bchintl the cnscadc.
The tot,al amount, of losscs nssociated with a cascade is best spccifictl by intli-
catjing thc tliffcrcncc Ag in t,ltc total prcssl~rcsbetween the nnclistttrbctl flow in front
of I,ltc rascnclo rirltl Ll~c"srnoot,llctl out" nc111nl flow far b o l ~ i r ~it.
d 'Jll~us

where p2' ant1 7nz' denote the pressure and v c l o c i t , ~in~ the real (i. e. alfcctctl I1.y
losses) flow far bchintl the cascatlr, respcctivcly. 'rhcsc sl~orlldbo cIist.ingrtisl~ctlfrom
thc valrles p, and I I J ~ , respcctivcly, wltich refer t o ideal (losslcss) flow. I t is con-
venient t o render thn tot.al loss Ag tlimensionlcss with reference t o the dynnmio Ilond
formed wit11 the axial velocity component in,, = wl sin P, = toz sin P,, as it tlct.cr-
mines the mass of fluid which passes thro~tgllthe cnscadc. For reasons of rontfillttit,y
i B vnluc must be tho same in front of ns bclti~ltltltc cascade. We t l t o ~il~l.rotlttc:c
the following coefficient:
t, = - -9-
few,," '

Some results of t h e systematic invest,igat,ions on cnscntles, rarrircl oltl :rl t 110

Braunscllweig Engineering University 1601, alao [49], are shown in Fig 25.8 These
represent a comparison between 1nea.sured and calculated values of the loss coeffi-
cient. All blades were derived from the aerofoil NACA 8410. The variable parameters
I'osition of poinl of nlillimllm
prrssllrc ( 4 1 ) nncl n l point or
srlmr%biott( S ) : A n t R = 10';
A rrt R = 10'

Pig. 25.7. Prcssrlrc clist,rihulion nnd position of point of scpnrntion or n tnrhnlcnt, houndery
l:rycr oil tho I)lntlo of n l.llrl~il~o
I\laclt! nngla (I, 1.
-
mscntlo for two tlilTercnt nnglca of inflow, afler F.W. Iticgcla [44]
07 5 " ; Solldil.). ratio [ ( I 0.8
Fig. 2.5.8. T,ORS co~flicicntt t from eqn.
(25.33) in terma of the deflexion coeffi-
cient, dn = ' ~ t l * d / f o ,for
z ttlrhine cnscndes 8..
with difircnt solitlity ratios t/1, after
The work ill rnf. [4G] shows Itow t,o employ the method outlined in Sec. XXVtl [49J. Men.911rc1ncnlaand calculntio~~a by
it\ ortler t,o c.nlt:nl:~tct.ltr. losscs of n two-clirncr~sionnlcascade a t varying angles of N. Scllolz nnd L. Speiclrl [GO]
illllow. N. Srllolz allti I,. Spcitlel 1601 syst,cmatixecl such cnlculnt,iolls ancl comparccl Itlarlr prolllc. N A r A R l l O
Reyeol~lsea~olrerR = ~a,llr - h x 10'
t.llt!tn n.it.11 rxl~orin~cntal results.
'I'ltn vrloc.it,y tlisl.ril)t~t,ionirnn~rrlintcly I)eltiric\f t,l~eexit plarlc of t J ~ ccascnrle
shows s t . r ~ n gtlc~~,rrssions wllicl~st.c?nl from t,hc borl~~tlary layers of tlto it~tlivicl~lal
l~l:~.tins. 'I'url)ulrttl~ntixing rausrs t.I~cscv ~ I o ~ i t tliffernr~ce~
,y to s n ~ o o f ~out
l ~ f~~rt.her .- .- -.. -~ -
clowrlbl.rcnm, t . l ~ l l sgiving rise t,o an ntltlit.iotlnl loss of energy. 'l'l~c anloctnt o f los.9 t In t,hc dmign of stcnru turbines it is 11sunl to employ n aelocit?y coc//icient, 111, wl~icllis clrfit~cd
t l l t c l o n,il:iltg r:rn IIC t:v:~.I~t:~l,c.tl wit.11 t.ltc nit1 of t.11~rnomt>nt,llm t,l~rorrm.When as the ratio of thc raal exit vclociLy to its veluc in ideal flow, so tllet y, -- tu',/tc~,. Co:~scq~~rn(ly,
tlt~t~orrni~ t.t~c
~i~t.ot,:l.l
~ g loss i t 1 t,hc flow t.l~rollgI~ cascncl~s,i t is rlcccssary t,o take Chis thc two cocflieictth snlisfy t l ~ ercl:~tionLt = ( I -i/~2)/sinZP2.
 XXV. I)obr~~~inalion
of proRlo drag

included the solidity ratio 111 (= 0.6, 0.76, 1.0 and 1.25); the blade angle was Ps = friction coefficient of a flat plate a t zero incidence arid are proportional to R-'12 for
30" (turbine cascade). The loss coefficient defined in eqn. (25.33) is seen plotted in laminar flow, becoming proportional to R-lI5 in tJurbulent flow. I n both cases, t,he
terms of the dcflcxion cocfficient or deflcxion ratio Reynolds number is formcd with the blatlc length, I . Thc dcpcndcr~ccoft.hc loss cocffi-
ad
= Awd/?l~,,, cient on Reynolds number in the absence of separation can be determined by calcu-
lation with the aid of a method proposed by K. Gersten [15]. A rcsult of this ltintl is
where A?(?, tlcnolcs 1.l1c t.m.r~svcrsccompor~cntof vclocit,y (i.'e. vclocit,y in circom- seen displayed in Fig. 25.9. The diagram describes thc variation in the loss coefficient,
ferential direction) created by the cascade. If we first center our attention on the
middle range of the polars (adhering boundary layers), we notice a steep increase in (12 = -Ag
;be4 ' (25.84)
the loss coefficient which occurs as thc solidity ratio decreases. The reason for it lies
in the fact that the number of blades per unit of length of the circumference is larger
when the pitch is small than when thc pitch is larger. T o a first approximation the loss of a cascade consisting of thick, strongly cambered bladcs, over a considcrablo range
coefficient is proportiorlal to the number of blades. At the right and left edge of the of Reynolds numbers, that is from Rz = wzllv = 4 x lo4 to 4 x 105. I-Icre Ag dc-
polar we observc a sudden and large increase in the loss coefficient. This is due to flow notes the loss in stagnation pressure and iuz is the exit velocity. I n order to providc a
separation on the pressure side (left end of curve) or on the suction side (right end of comparison with mensorcmenta, thc diagram contains a thcorctical crrrvc which tnltcs
polar) of the bladc. I n the latter case, an increase in the flow angle causes the admis- into account separation losses computed with the aid of Ref. [GO]. As far as the posi-
sible load on the blade to be exceeded. It is remarkable that the polar curves displace tion of the point of transition is conccmed, the calculation was based on the expcri-
themselves in the direction of largcr angles of deflexion as the solidity ratio decreases. mentally verified circumstance that the boundary layer on the pressure sitle of a
blade remained laminar as far as the tmiling edge, whcreaa that on the suction side
R -. to, llv
I~our~tlnry
-
The ~ n c a s ~ ~ r c m ca.nd
n t s the calculat.ions were carried out for a Reynoltls nurnbcr
5 x 10% .TIC calcr~lat~ions wcrc performed on the ass~rmptior~
Ixycr was turhrrlcr~t.all along ( $ 1 1 hlatlcs.
~ In the oxpcrin~or~Lal
that thc
nrmngcrncnt
undcrwcnt transition a t the point of minim~rmpressure. Thc dingmm in Pig. 26.9
demon~t~rntcs
ment.
t.11ntthcrc cxist.8 cxccllcr~tngrccrncnt I~cLwccnoalcnlntiotl nnql rtltrclrrilra-
the boonrlary layers wcrc made turbulent by the provision of tripping wires ncar
the leading edges. Thc calculated and measured values of the loss cocfficier~tshow The magnitude of the losses is strongly influenced by t.he position of the point of
very good agrccmcnt with cnch other. Furthcr examples and comparisons between transition. As thc Rcynolds number is incrcnsctl, tho point of transition rnovcs for-
theory and experiment are givcn in [47,631. ward and this lengthcns the turbulent portion of the bour~darylayer and carlscs the
losses to increase. The forward movemcnt of the point of transition is cnharlced by
Wake: A very dctailcd experimental investigation of the flow in a turbulent increased roughness 1131 or by a n increased turbulencc intensity [a], as one would
wake bchind a cascade of blades is described in a paper by R . R a j and B. Laksh- expect to find in a turbomachine. A t very low Rcynolds numbers the boundary laycr
minarayana [42]. Mcasr~rementsincluded determinations of the velocity distribution, can separate before transition has occurred in it thus causing a large incrcasc in t l ~ c
intensity of turbulencc, and of the apparent Reynolds stresses in the wake a t different
distances from the cascade. It has transpired that the wakes are not symmetric u p
t o a distance (314) 1 bchind the blades in cascades which turn the flow. The decrease
in velocity downstream from the cascade exit section is considerably slower than a t
a flat plate, behind a circular cylinder or downstream from a single aerofoil a t zero
incidcnce.
Jet flnp: The angment,at,ion of the turning angle A,'? = Dl - p2 of colnpressor
cascades by a jet flap has been investigntecl by U. Stark,[G4a].
2. 111flue11cr:of Reyrlolds nrlmher : Thc chnngcs in the acrotlynan~iccoefficients of
n cascadc protl~~cctl by a chnngc in l,hc itcynol(1s n n ~ n b e rarc i m p o r t , n ~ when
~l it
becomes ncccssary to apply the results of tcsts on models to thc design of a full-
scale tr~~r1)o~nachine. This effect is excrt,etl principally on the loss coefficicr~t,and
can be found discussed in a sizeable umber of publications 15, 41, 651.
the
A"
From t,hc physical point of view, the cffect of Rey olds number on the loss coefficient
of a two-tlimcnsional cascndc is analogous t o that of the slrin friction of a single aero-
foil: hccnusc in eit.her case the cffect originates in the boundary layer. The losses
sufTcred by the cascatlo stem rnainly from the boundary layer if the pressure distri-
but,ion along a I)latlo in n cascadc is sl~cllthat rlo imporL3r1t scparntions occur. Fig. 25.0. Loss coefficient of a turbine cascade, eqll. (25.34). in brr~rsof the Rryr~oltlstl~it~~bcr
Rz,
'l'hry nro t,hcn ak:rl.otl hy tllc Ttcynoltls number in a h o ~ r t,hc
t same way as t,l~eskin- after I<. Gor~tcn[Ili]
I

XXV. Dctcrminntion of profile drag
a ) rrennurc tlintribution for vnriotln Rry-
noltl* nrln~beront Mz -- 0.3
b) Lons cocfficirnt ( 1 2 from cqn. (25.34)
nrr n function of tho Reynolds numbcr Rz
Fig. 25.10. Aerodynamic coefficients of a turbine cnscnde its a frlnction of t.11~Itrynoltls number as
menanred by H. Sclllichting nnd A. Dns [52, 531
n) I'rcauure rlist.ribt~t,ionfor vnriorln Rey-
tlolds nt~lnberunt MI = 0.7
I is possible t o discern the existence of shock waves on the suction side of the blade.
b) 'IJous coerficieut. I r a from C ~ I I(25.34)
. These cause separation of the boundary layer.
as a hlnction or the Mach number Mz tor
various vnlura of the ltcynoldu number
vig. 25.1 1. Aplclrlyljnnlir.rorffir*irntnof n t,t~rl,inr~nnrnclrits n f1111rtionof Mnvh nrllnhrr nn measrl-
T& by 11. Schlicl~tinga l d A. I)RR[62,53]
c. L o s ~ e sin the flow tl>ro~lghcnscndos 775
loss cocfficient under certain circumstances. This large increase in the loss coefficient
a t low Reynolds numbers is illustrated in Fig. 25.10b which refers t o a turbine c w -
cade. At larger Reynolds n u m b ~ r s ,Rz = 5 x 105, the transition is spontnnear~sand
the losses are small. At moderate Rcynolds numbers, Rz = 1 x 105, thcrc is Inn~inar
separation followed by turbulent re-attachement. Thus under the boundary layer
there forms a so-called separation bubble and the loss coefficient increases consider-
ably. At very low Reynolds numbers, Rz = 0.5 x 105, the laminar layer separates
and stays separated to t,he end of the blade. The losses increase by a large amount
once more.
The details of the separation of the boundary layer are once again mirrored in
the pressure distributions plotted in Fig. 25.10a for three valr~csof the Itcynolds
number. The extent of the separation bubble depends strongly on thc lteynolds
number and on the intensity of turbulence of the oncoming stream. See [8,20,28,37,
43, 57, 601, and the pnpcr by R. Kiock [30]. C/. W.B. IEobcrts 1431.
I n conjunction with our discussion of the cffect of thc Rcynolds number, it is
necessary to stress that under certain circumstances the surface roughness can have
a large influence on the losses. I n addition to enhancing transition, roogl~nesscan
also directly increase the losses. This occrlrs whcn thc protubcrnnccs cxccrd n crrlnin
admissible value; see [3, 561.
3. Effect of Mach ~ ~ u m h :eThe
r preccding results concerning the Loss coefficient of
cascades refer to incompressible flows (M < 0.3). The effect of compressibility can
be said to set in a t M > 0.4. An example of this effect is shown in Fig. 25.11b. The
plot represents the loss coefficient for a cascade producing a small angle of turn in a
subsonic flow. The Mach number Mz is the independent variable and t,he t l ~ r c ecurves
refer to three different Reynolds numbers. The pressure distribution for M = 0.7,
Fig. 25.118, shows that a t Rz = 4 x 105 the loss coefficient increases sharply as the
Mach number is increased. The sharp increase occurs as a rcsult of shock formation
in region8 where the local value of the velocity of sound, c p , crit, has bcen exceeded in
the flow. For the two lower Reynolds numbers, Rz = 1.0 x 105 and Rz = 2-0 x 105,
the pressure distribution points to a separated flow. The results displayed in Figs.
25.10 and 25.11 demonstrate t h a t the Mach number exerts a deep influence on the
flow through cnacades in the range of Reynolds numbers from R = 104 to 105, in
addition to the large effect of the Reynolds number itself. The preccding measure-
ments were performed in the high-specd cascade wind tunnel in Brunswick [54] in
which the Reynolds number and the Mach number can be varied independently.
The diagram of Fig. 25.12 illust.mt,es the effect of the Mach number on the loss
coefficient of a cascade that produces a large angle of turn in the flow. 'rhc cascade
was designed for incompressible flow. The loss coefficient remains nearly constant a t
the value Ct2 M 0.03 up to M2 = 0.7; it increases sharply as the Mach number is
further increased. The reason for this behaviour is clear from Fig. 25.13 in which it
The effect of the Mach number and of the turbulence intensity on the loss coef-
ficient of cascades has been studied in two theses presentcd to the Engineering
University at, Rraunschweig by J. Bahr [2] and 1%.ITcbbeI 1211, respectively. Rcfe-
rence [50] may also be consulted on this point.
776 XXV. 1)ctormination of profile drag
Fig. 25.12. Loss coefficiet~tof a turbine
cascade, t t z from eqn. (25.34) in brnis
of the Mach nnmbcr Mp after 0.
Lawaczeck [34]
blnclc nnule: Ps = 56'; snllclily rnt,lo: 111 -0.81
A, -
ntiulr nl inlet: /1,
0 x 10'
= 00'; Ileyt~ol<lnnrtmbcr:
Fig. 25.13. Transonic Row through n
t,nrbinn cancndc. Pl~ot,ogrnpl~ obtain-
nd wi1.h the aid of Schlieren tnetlrod
by 0. Lawaczeck and H.J. Neinernann
[32]. Exposi~re 20 x 10-9 sec. The
strong shock waves on the suction side
of the aerofoil cause separation and
hence large losses, see also Fig. 25.12
[20a] Hans, H., arid Maglion, H.: Maglielie Wirkungsgradverbc~scrungenbei Dariipf- und (>as-
I n modern times, the development of steam turbines of increased powcr density
has caused the outer blndc sections of the low-pressure stngcs to operate in the trnn-
sonic vclocitpyrregimc. l'l~is rnnde it neccssnry t o undertslte systernntic investigations
into l,hc behnvio~trof t,ransonic turbine blades. Here tho Mach nrimber of the a p -
pronching stream is lower t,han unity (MI < l), ,whereas that a t exit exceeds i t
,
(Mz I ) ; cf. 1.11 1. Rcfcrcncrs 133, 341 contain a n ~ a c c o r ~ of
cn.scndc with n Inrgc angle of turn.
n t t,ransonic flow across
11. IInas and IT. Mnghon [20a] give a comprehensive accotlnt of the practical
appli~at~ionsof these research results on flow through cascades ns tiley relate t o
modern devclop~nentsin steam and gas t,urbines.
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Sprritcr, .J.lt., nntl Alltmr, A.U.: Solar-wintl flow past ohjcch in the solar system. Mollo-Christensen, E.: Interrnittcncy in Inrgc-scnlc t,~trbulentflows.
R,irh. J.W., arid 'rrrnnor, Ch.13.: Vibrational rclnxnt,ion in gas-dytiatnic flows. Nieo\vland, G.Y., and Spee, R.M.: Transonic airfoils: Rcccnt dc~~cloptncnta in t,heory, cxpcri-
Marble, F.IC.: 1)ynninics of dusty gaucs. n ~ e n t arid
, design.
782 Bibliography

Fay, J.A.: Bnoynnt ~ l n t n r sand wakes. Bird, R.B.: Useful non-Newtonian models.
Acoata, 8 . J . : Hydrofoils nnd hydrofoil craft. Petorlin, A.: OpLical effects in flow.
Saibel, E.A., and Mackcn, N.A.: The fluid mechntlica of lubrication. Davis, St.11.: The stt~bilityof tittle-pcriodic flows.
Gebhart, B.: Instnhility, transition, and turbulence in huoynncy-induced flows. Ccrinak, J.E.: Aerodynnntics of buildings.
Horlock, J.H., and 1,nkshminorayann. B.: Secondary flows: Theory, experiment, and applica- Fischer, H.B.: Mixing and dispersion in estttnrieq.
tion in t~trl~oinnrhi~tcry acrodynnnlics. Hill, J.C.: IIomogcneo~tsturbulent mixing with cllctnicnl reaction.
MrCune, J.E., and Kerrehrock, J.L.: Koise from aircraft turbon~nchinery. Pearson, J.H.A.: Instability in non-Newtoninn flow.
Perri, A.: Mixing-controlled anpersonic combustion. Reyt~olda,W.C.: Colnpntntion of turbulent flows.
Eicl~elbrcnner,E.A.: Three-dimensional boundary layers. Coti~te-Rallot,G.: IIot-wire anc~nott~ctry.
Werlc. 11.: Hydrody~intnicflow visualization. Woocling, R.A., and Morrl-St-ytonx, H..I.: M~tltiphnscfltlitl flow tllrortgh I)t~ronstnrtlin.
Kognn. M.N.: Molecolnr gas dynamics. Itimnti, D.L.,Nordstrom, C1i.E.. and Flick, 1t.E.: Currcmtn in ai~htnnrinerntiyons: An nir-sea-
Nickel, I(.: I'randtl's bootldary-layer theory from the viewpoitit of a mathematician. Intic1 inh.rnction.
Rcshotko, E.: Bonndnry-layer stability and tmtisition.
Vol. 6 (1974)
Libby, P.A., and Williams, F.A.: Trtrbnlent flow^ involving clierttirsl renctions.
Taylor. G . I . : The interaction botwcen experiment and theory in flrtid niechanics.
Ruannov, V.V.: A blunt body in a sctpersonic slrcani.
Milea, J.W.: Hnrhor sciching.
Turner, J.S.: Double-diffusive phenotnena. Vol. 9 (1977)
Streeter, V.L., and Wylie, E.B. : Watcrhammer and aurge control. Jones, R.T.: Recollections fmm an earlier period in Americnn aeronnrttics.
van At&, Chaw.: Sampling techniques in turbrtlcnce mcaanremente. Pipkin, A.C., and Ttmncr, R.1.: Steady non-vincnmctric flown of vincoclnntic Iiqrtitln.
Phillips, 0 . M . : Nonlinear dispersive wttves. Bradshaw, P.: Cotnprerrsible turbrtlcnt shear layers.
Truesdell, C.: The meaning of viaconietry in fluid dynainica. Davicluon. .l.Jr., H t ~ r r i ~ o I).,
n , ant1 (?nctIe~11e ( ~ t ~ r v ~ ~,J.It.l~.:
l t ~ o , 0 t 1 thtt liq~ti~llikn
t111111~vior
of
Panofsky, H.A.: The atmospheric boundary layer below 160 meters. Ilt~iclizcdbccln.
Roberta, P.H., and Donelly, R.J.: Superfluid mechanics. Tani, I.: History of bonndary-layer theory.
Batchrlor, G.K.: Transport properties of two-phase materials with random utructure. Williarn~,111. J.C.: Jncotnpreasible bountlary-layer neparation.
Benton, E.R., anti Clark, jr., A.: Spin-np. Pleaset, M.S., and Prosperetti, A,: Bobble dyna~nicsand cavitation.
Orzng, St.A., and Israeli, M.: Nunierical simulation of viscous incompressible flows. Holt, M.: Underwater explosions.
Korbacher, G.K.: Aerodynamics of powered high-lift systems. Zel'dovich, Y.B.: Hydrodynamics of the universe.
Pedley, T.J.: Pulnionary fluid dynamica.
Vol. 7 (197.5) Canny, M.J.: Flow and transport in plan&.
R ~ t-r ~ e r .I.M.:
s, Some rnemorica of early work in fluid mechanic8 a t the Technical University of Spieltnan, L1.A.: Particle capture froin low-spcetl laminar flows.
I )elft. Saville, D.A.: Elcctrokinotic effocta with atnall particlcs.
Willniart,h, W.W.: Pressrtre flrlctnations beneath t~irbulentbonndary layers. Brenncn, Ch., and Winet, 11.: Fluid ~necltanicsof propulsion by rilin and flagella.
Palm, E.: Nonlinear thernlal convection. Hiitter, U.: Optimum wind-energy conversion ayetenis.
Lomnx, IJ., and Steger. L.: Relaxation methods in fluid mechanics. Shen, Shan-fu: l'inite-element nletl~odsin fluid mecl~anics.
Wiegliardt, K.: Experiments in granular flow. Ffowcs M'illintns, J. E.: Aeroacortstic~.
Christiansen, W.H., Rumell, D.A., and Hertzberg, A. : Flow I ~ m r s . Belotacrkovskii, S. M.: Study of the unsteady nerorlynn~nirxof lifting surfaces wine, the r.otrll)rrt.c~r.
Widnall. SI1.E.: The structure and dyiianiica of vortex fileinenta.
Tien, C.L.: Fluid mechanics of heat pipes. Vol. 10 (1978)
Koh, R.C.Y., and Brooks, N.H.: Fluid mechanics of waste-water disposal in the ocean. Binnie, A.M.: Some notfa on the nt,ttdy of fluid ~neclianicsit1 Canibritlge.
Goldsmith, H.L., and Skalak, R.: Hemodynamica. Tnck, 1E.O.: I-lytlrorlynantic problonls of ahipa it1 rcst.riclotl 1vnt01.e.
I,adyzlienskaya, 0.A.: Mnthcmaticnl nnalyais of Navier-Stokes equntiona for incontprcsaible Bird, C.A.: Monte Ca.rlo simulation of gnsflows.
liqrrida. Berninn, N.S.: Urng roctllction hy polyniers.
Mnxwortliv. 'r., nncl Ilrowand. F.K.: Experinlent8 in rotaLing and stratified flowa: Oceanographic Ryzhov, 0.S. : Viscons transonic flows.
application. I
Griffit.h, W.C.: Dust explosions.
L a ~ ~ f eJr.,: New trends in experimental turbulence rwearch.
Leith, C.E.: Objective methods for weather prediction.
Itnichlen. F.: The cflect of wavw on rubble-mound str~~ctorea.
Callancler, R. A,: River meandering.
Csn~acly.G.T. : llydrodynan~icsof largo lakes.
Dickinson, R.E.: Rosshy waves - 1.ong-periotl oscillatiori~of ocenns ntld atmospl~rrca.
I'ol.8 (1.976) Jenkins, J.T.: Flows of nomatic liquid crystals.
ROIIRR, 11.: 11ydrnnlirs' Int*?st gol~lenage. I,eibovicli, S.: The structtare of vortex breakdown.
Lawn. E. M., and I,ivruey, ,l. 1,. : Flow tltrongh Rcrrotts.
784 Bibliography

Sherman, I?. S., I~nbcrger,J ,ant1 Corcon, G.M.: Turbr~lencoant1 mixing in ntably stratified waters. Rnylnor~cl. H., and ltobcrt,, l'.IJ.: Sotno clctnentnry problen~a in tllngr~cto-llydro(Iy~~;l~tlil.n.
Patkrson, G.S., Jr.: ProspecLq for c o n ~ p u l t i o n a lfluid ~nec~hanics. p. 210-319.
Taub, A. 11.: Lielntivistic flnirl tnechanirs. VoZ. 8 (IBG4), cd, by 1T.L. Dryclon and TI). von K h r n ~ h t ~ ,
Rcethof, G.: 'I'~rrl~r~lr~~rc-ge~~rrntrd tloine in pipe flow. Sears, W.IE., and Resler, E.L.: Magneto-arrodynarnics flow past liodics. p. 1-68.
Ashton, G. D.: ltivor ice. Markovitz, H., and Coleman, B.: Inco~~~pressible second order fluida. p. 69- 101.
Mei, Chiang C.: N~t~ncrical mothods in water-wave diKraction and radiation. Ribner, 1I.S.: The generatior1 of sound by turbulent jets. p. 104- 182.
IZcllrr, 1-1.R.: N ~ ~ ~ n c r i mrthods
cal in bortntlery-layer theory. Rnn~yantsev.V.V.: Stability of motion of solid bodies with liqrtitl filled cavities by I,yap~~nov's
e , H: Mngr~etol~ytlrodyt~alnics
B ~ ~ s s F. of the carth'u dynamo. method. p. 184-232.
Moineev, N.N.: I ntrodrrction to thc theory of oscillntions of liquid-rontnining botliru. 11. L?:!:!-28!)
A 2. Advances in Applied Mecl~anics,Academic Press, New York I'ol. 9 (196G). etl. by O.G. Clwrny e t al.
(only ront.ribrttions to fluitl tnechanics listed) Drnzin, P.G., and Mos.ard, L.N.: Hydrotlynsn~icstability of pnrallel flow of invinoitl finid.
p. 1-89.
Vol. 1 (1948), ocl. by R. von Misea and TII. von Krirn~hn, Moiseev, N.N., and Petrev, A.A.: The c a l c ~ ~ l a t i of
o t ~free oscillationu of a liqrtid in a tnot.ionlonn
Dryden, H.L.: ltcront advances in the mcchanics of boondary layer flow. p. 2-40. container. p. Ill - 154.
Unrgcrs, .J.M. : A tnatl~ctnat,ictnodcl illr~rrtrnt.ingtllo theory of tnrhulcnco. p. 171-1!)0.
Vol. 10 (1067), ed. by G.G. Cherny e t al.
von Mises, R., and Schiffer, M.: On Horgn~nn'ointegration rnethod in two-dimensional compres-
sible fluid flow. p. 240-285. Lick, W.: Wave propagation in real gases. p. 1-72.
Paria, G.: Magneto-elast,icity and magneto-t,l~crmorlnsticity.p. 73-112.
Vol. 2 (1062), ed. by R. von Mises and Th. von I<hrrnQn
Vol. 11 (1971). ed. by Chin-Shun Yih
von Khrtnbn, TI)., and J h , C.C.: On the st,nt.i~t,icalthcory of iuotropic tnrbrrlence. p. 2-19.
Yao, 1'11..nnrl ' ~ R I IW.V.:
, IIydrodyna~nic~
of ~\vinl~ning
f i ~ l I~L IrI ~
~CO(.~CPIIIIU.
1). I ti:!.
Kuorti, G.: l'he Intnitlar boundary lnycr in ro~nprc.ssiblcflow. p. 23-92.
Fung, Y.C.: A survey of the blood flow prohlenl. p. 65-130.
l~olubarinova-Korhina,Y.Y.: Theory of filtration of liquids in porous media. p. 154-225.
Sichel, M.: Two-dimensional shock structure in transonic and hyperuonic florv. p. I01 -- 207.
Frol. 3 (1953), ccl. by R. von Mises and Th. von Kkrn~&n
Vol. 12 (1972), ed. by Chin-Shun Yih
Carrier, G.F.: I3onndnry lnycr prohlcmn in applied mcchanics. p. 1-19.
Harper, J.F.: The motion of bubbles and drops tl~roughliquids. p. 69- 129.
Znltlnatani, 0.: Tho one-dimonsionnl iticntropic fluid flow. p. 21-59.
Gerrnnin, P.: Shock waves, jump relations and structure. p. 131 -104.
Frcnkicl, F.N.: T~trbulcntdiffnaion: Mcan concontrat,ior~distribution in a flow field of homo-
geneons tnrht~lct~cc.p. 62- 107. Liu, V.C.: Interplanetary gas dynamics. p. 195-237.
I,udloff, H.P.: On aorodynamics of blastn. p. 100-144. Vol. 13 (3973), ed. by Chia-Shun Yih
Gudcrlcy, G.: On t,l~cprescncc of shock^ in mixcd suhaonic-sopcrsonic flow patterns. p. 145- 184. Veronis, G.: Large scale occan circulation. p. 2-02.
Rosenheacl, I,.: Vortcx systcms in wakes. p. 185-195. Wehausen, J.V.: Wave resistance of ships. p. 03-246.
Kuo, H.L.: Dynamics of qunsigeoatrophic flows and instability theory. p. 248-300.
Vol. 4 (19,5G), ed. by 13.1,. Dryden and Th. von IZhrn~hn
Cla~iscr,F.H.: Tho trirbt~lentbonndary layer. p. 2-51. Vol. I4 (1974), ed. by Chin-Shun Yih
Moore, F.I<.: Thrcc-dintensional boundary layer theory. p. 160-228. Stewartson, I<.: Multistructured boundary lnycrs on flat platos and rolatcd bodies. p. 145--230.
Joseph, D.D.: Response curves for plane Poiseuille flow. p. 241-278.
1'01. 5 (195R), ed. by H.L. Dryden and Th. von KSrmhn
Cowin, S.C.: The theory of polar fluids. p. 279-347.
Fabri, J., and Sicstrunck, R.: Srlpcrsonic air ejectors. p. 1-34.
Van Do Vooren, A.I.: Unsteady airfoil theory. p. 36-89. Vol. 15 (1975), ed. by Chis-Shun Yih
Fricman, X.A., and I<ulsrnd, 1t.M.: Problems in hydromagncticu. p. 195-231. Vnnoni, V.A.: River dynnn~ica.p. 1-87.
Wcgnnrr, 1'. I'., ntttl Mnrk, L.M.: Condonsnl.ion in S I I ~ C ~ R O ~and
I ~ C 11ypcrs011icwind tt~nt~ols. Tuck, T.O.: Mataching problems involving flow through slnall holes. p. 80-168.
p. 307 -447. Willmarth, W.W.: Structure of turbulence in boundary layers. p. 159-269.
Vol. 6 (IBGO), ctl. I)y F1. I,. Drydcn and Th. von I<&rmhn' Vol. 16 (197G), ed. by Chia-Shun Yih I

Stewartson, K.: Tho ttrcory of unokady laminar boundit* layers. p. 1-37.
Lodwig, G., and Jleil, M.: Bonndary layer theory with dissociation and ionization. p. 39-118.
Chester, W.: The propagation of shock waves along ducts of varying crosu section. p. 120-152.
Oswntikch, It.: Similarity and eqrlivalencc in rompressible flow. p. 153-271.
Wille, R.: Jcarman vortox utrech. p. 273-287.
I'ol. 7 (1962). 4. hy 1I.L. Dryden and Th. von KBrmbn
Ziiwlz. H.: H > p r c n n i r flow over slender a e i a t e d with poser-bu shocks. p. 2 - 3 .
Batchelor, G.IC.: G.I. Taylor as I knew hirn. p. 1-8.
Peregrine, D.H.: Interaction of water waves and currents. p. 10- 117.
Moffatt, H.K.: Generation of magnetic fields by fluid motion. p. 120-181.
Yih, Chia-Shun: Instability of surfacc and internal wnvea. p. 300-410.
I ~ n q R.I?.:
, Some anrr?r:tn of t.~~rht~Icnce
in yeophyaiml ryatfirnn. p. 2 -.!Nj.
Ogilrk. T. F.: Sinpular-prturbation pmblems in .hip hvdrd?-namicq. p. T2 - 1W.
 Bibliogrnphy 787
786 Bibliography
Vol. ZX (I968), ed. by D. Kiichemann
A I). Progress hr Aeronautical Sciences, Pcrgamon Press, London Vrics, D.U., and Ueatrix, C.: Leu procbdds gCnOrnux dc tncaurc d r s cnrnt(.riatiqnos. p. 1- 39.
(only contribtttions to fluid mechanics listed) Chushkin, P.J.: Numericnl method of cl~arncteristicsfor three-dimcnsiot~nl s~tpersonictlows.
Vol. I (lSIil), ed. by A. Forri. D. Kiichernnnn nnd I..FT.G. Sterne p. 41 - 122.
Mmkell, E.C.: 011t.11~prit~ciplwof acrodynnrnic design. p. 1-7. Mirllcl, It.: Cnrncti.rintiqtteu tl~crlniqueatlw rottrhrs li~nitcsc t cnlcul prntiq~tcdrs tra11sk:rls tie
Legcndrc, R.: Celcrtl den profils d'nuhcs pour turbo~nachitiest.ranuuoniqnes. p. 8-25. cltalcur en hypersonique. p. 123-214.
Fennin, M.:l,n thkorie den 6conletnrnt~b potent.icl I~omogPncctses applications an cnlcttl den S ~ ~ C R Brondbcnt, E.G.: A review offl~tidmechnnicnl rind rrlntrcl problems in Ml-li) gcnrrntors p. 215 --
en rhgitnc ~uperaonique.p. 20- 103. 327.
Becker, E.: lrtstationiire Grcnzschiclltct~ hinter Verdicl~tungsat~sscn ontl Expansicna\\~cllen. ICiichemnnn, I)., and Wrbcr, J.: An analysis of some pcrformnnca n~pectaof vnrio~sst y l m of
p. 104- 173. aircraft dcuigl~edlo Hy over dilTeront rnngra a t diffcrcnL nl)rcds. p. 320- 4li6.
GoldworLl~y.1P.A.: On 1110tlyna~nicnof iot1i7.ctl g n ~ 1).
. 174 --205. Vol. X /1970), ctl. hy I). ICiirltetnnt~n
~ n r r o n C.l1.E.,
, attd Randall, D.C.: The theory of sonic bnngs. p. 238-274. Joromin, 1..0.1'.: Tlic st,atrta of researcl~ in t,~~rhulont bonntlnry lnycrs \vit,l~fl~ricl it~jc:rlior~.
p. 65-189.
Vol. I1 (1962), ed. by A. Forri, D. I<iichemann, nnd L.H.G. Sterne
Fennin, M.: Cnlcul nun16rique des ailes en rbgimc aupersoniquc station~~aire ou instntionnnirc.
Rotta, J.: Turbulent boundnry layers in incompremible flow. p. 1-219. p. 191-259.
&oke, .T.C., and Hall, M.G.: Boundnry lnycrs in three-dinicnaions. p. 221-282. Enuclmc, M.: Contribr~tiotinu cnlcr~ltlca cnrnrlkrisl,iqt~esdrodyt~nlniqi~rud'nn 116ront.f~ * I Pt.onle-
I
~ncnLsupersonique stationnairc ou instationnniro. p. 261 --:DO.
Vol. I l l (1962), ed. hy A. Ferri, D. Kiichrninnn, and L.H.G. Sterne
Bnglcy. J.A.: Sotno ncrodynamic principles for the design of swept wings. p. 1-83. Vol. X I (I970), ed. by D. Kiichemnnn
Sacku, A.H., and Rt~rncll,J.A.: Ducted propellers - a critical review of the state of the art. Dutton, J.A.: ElTecta of tnrl)nlettce on aeronnrtt.icn1 systems. p. 67 -- 100.
p. 85- 135. Corlpry, G.: Problbtncs t111 vol d'rttt nvion r n turbnlct~cc.11. I I I - - 181.
Cox, R.N.: Experitnental facilit,ies for I~yprraonicrescnrch. p. 137-178. Bttrttltnm, .7.: At.mo~phcrict~~rbr~lcttoo r r l Ll~ccruino nltitttdc~of ntt~~c:rnot~i(:
lrn11411tlrl,rril.crr~f~.
Panofsky, H.A., and Press, H.: Mcteorologicnl nnrl ncrona~ttiralwpcctn of ntmosphcrir turlro- p. 18:)-~234.
lcnce. p. 170-232. Grcen, .J.R.: Jnternct,ions bctweett sl~ockwnvcs nntl tr~rbulcntI)o~~r~clnry 1nyt:r.s. p. 235 -340.
Vol. 1' (I964), ed. by D. I<iichc~nannand L.H.O. Sterne Vol. XI1 (1972), etl. by D. JCiichernntln
B r ~ l s l i a w ,P., and I'a~~kli~~rut,,
ILC.: The clrsign of low speed wind tttnnels. p. 1-G9. Jnffc, N.A., and Stnith, A.M.O.: Cnloulnl.ion of Inntinnr hotn~tlnryInycrs by nlcnnn of x tlifir.
Tnni, I.: 1,ow slrectl llou involving I)ubblc separation. p. 70-103. et~t,inl-dilrcrcncetnetl~od.p. 49-212.
Tcipcl, I.: Erg;bt~isue clcr Theorie schallttnher Stro~nungen.p. 104-142. Micltalke, A.: The instability of free shcnr Inycrs. p. 213-2:19.
Gcrtnnin, l'.: 15coulc11ienta t,ranssoniques honiog~ncs.p. 143-273. Smith, J.H.B.: Itcmnrks on tltc st.rt~ctrrrcof conicnl flow. p. 241--272.
Estertna, J . , anti Roshko, ti.: Rnrifcd gn.9 dynamics. p. 274-204. Chevnllier. .T.p.,nnd Tnillct,, J.: Rbccttt 1rrogri.s dnna Icn t c e l i t t i q ~clc
~ ~11tr811rc
~ rn ~ I Y ~ ( * I . R O I I ~ ~ I I P .
p. 273 -348.
F'ol. VI ( l 9 6 5 ) , cd. I)y 1). Kiicl~rtnntinant1 L.1i.O. Sterno Vol. XI11 (1972), cd. Iry 1). ICiichcti~n~~n
Stnoltlcren, J.J.: The evolution of the rqnntiona of gas flo\v a t low density. p. 1--132. Barnntscy, It.(:.: Sorne problctns of gns solid ar~rfriccintcrnct.ion. 1,. 1 ---80.
Cnsbr, M.: 'rhe role of spntinlly growing waves in the theory of l~ydrodytinn~irs stnbility. I)rttt~~mond,A.M.: I'crfortnnnce rind stnbi1it.y of l~ypervcloritynirt:rnft Ilying on n t~tinorcirc:lc.
p. 251 -270. p. 137-221.
Kdcl~cnlatt~i, D.: IIypersotiic nirrrnlt and their nerodynatnic problems. p. 271 -353.
Vol. XI I f (1973) ccl. by I). I < i i c l i e ~ ~ ~ : ~ t ~ t t
Vol. I'll (1966). etl. by D . ICiichemnnn L11kn.9icwicx, J.: A crilicnl review of dcvcloptnct~~ of expnri~ttrnt~r~l
~ t ~ e t , l ~ in
o d IrigI~.~l)rcd
s rroro-
Itoy, M.: On thr rolling tty of the conical vorticos above a delta wing. p. 1-6. dynn~nics.p. 1-26.
Lrgrncfre, It.: Vortex sheetn rolling-up nlortg lending-eclgcs of delta wings. p. 7-33. Conor, A.J,.: l'hcory of I~yprrsonicflow I I ~ O I n J ~~r~ing.
p. 109. - 175
Smith, J.H.B.: 'Ft~corcLirnl \rork on the formntion of vortex slicets. p. 35-51. Tnnncr, M.: Tlicorctirnl ~)rcdictionof I)nsc I)rmsltre for strncly I)r~nt.flon.. p. 177 2%.
Hall. M.(: : 'l'ltc strt~cturoof conccntrntctl rortcx corrs. p. 53-110. I'url~s, H.V.. nntl Micl~nllto,14.: I~ttrotl~tclion to ncrotlynrrn~icnoise tl~cory.1,. 247 2!)7.
Ilotl. N., ant1 I,t~\vellt~~i,W.S.: Boundary lnycrs and their interaclions in rotating flo\r~.
p. 111-144. 1'01. X Y (1974), cd. by I ) . Kiiclten~nnn
RWtnnssen, 11.: Application of vnrintionnl t)1cthot1s in compresail)le flow cnlr~~ln(iot~.s. 11. 1 35.
Morton, 1l.lt.: (:rophynicnl vortices. p. 145-104.
Willc, 11.: 011t ~ t ~ ~ t r n Aows
r l y nnd 1rnnsic.nt r~totions.p! 195-207.
t I . J . , nnrl Sbnrkc~t,H.: Sl~prrsoniccnscndc flo\rr. p. 37 - ~ 14!).
Liclit,f~~ss, -
Hacker, T., nnd Oprisiv, C.: A d i s c t l ~ ~ i oofn tho ro/I-coupling prolrlc~n.p. I51 -- 180.
C'nl. I'III (I967), rcl. I)y 1). I<iic~ltcmnntl Biitpfisch, K.A., and \'ene~iia~in,D.: The electron ben~ntcrltniqt~cin I~jprrrionic.rnrrficd &IS
fIt.pn. .l.l,., nntl Srnitl~,A.M.O.: Cnlculntion of ~)ol,cr~tinl flow nbont nrbit,rnry bodies. p. 1 - 138. dynnmics. p. 217--255.
1.oc.k. 1t.C.. nntl Uri~lgc:\vnt.c?r..T.: Tiicory of noroclynn~nicdesign of swept-wingccl aircraft a t ' (1117.5), etl. by D. I<tic.ltr~nenn
Vol. X 11
lrr~r).s~>~~ic s~)t!t-tl.s.11. l:l!) -.22U.
nnd snp~-rnot~ic.
Wnzznn, A.R.: Spatial stability of Tol111iic11-Srltlirl~ti~tg
~I'IIVCR p. 90- 127.
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788 Bibliogrnphy Bibliography 789

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I<on(:l~, M. Tcw 321
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13o111.1io,D. 1':. :10!), 32 1, 724,
725
I I o t t s s i ~ c.
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~ q755
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I3011tlticr,M. 484
I3ritclshn\v, 1'. 557, 575, 592.
5!)3, 594, 642, 605, 672,
087, 090, (1'32, 6117, O!)!),
724, 752, 755. 791. 7!)5
13r1tincrt1,, I , (:. 334. 37:)
I3rllnlo\v. A. I,. 545
l3rc11or,\V. lli2
13rcvoort. H. J. 7:)!). 756
Ilriley, \V. R. 223
Ilri11ic11,1'. F. 540, 541, 545,
724
13rooko-Bcnjn~nin.'1'. 545
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I ~ I I S ~ I I I A.
~ I I I:1:!0.
I , :!(Xi, 373,
795
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(!rqs, Jt. J). 325 445 I)or~iliri(f, A. 1':. von 544, Ekninn, V. W. 451, 485 Forutcr, V. T. GO5 (:lttttcrt, M. 13. !)!), llili, 22:l,
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, 237, Silvcrnt.ri~~, A. 552 l , I<, 607. (i34
s t ; l l l t ~ ~ l'I'. Tar~llcr,M. 757
23!), 241, 20:s S~IIIIIIOIIS, I,. 1'. (:. 32, 45, S t ; ~ r k U. , 772, 77!) Tno, 1,. N. 111 'rrillirig, L. :1!):1, 406
Scl~olz, N. (?!(I, (i21, (i:3:3, 568, 577 Xl:1rr, It,. I+'. 18 T n t s l ~ ~T. ~ ~ i480,
, 488, 553 , 1,. 448
I ' r i ~ l ~ p i11.
701, 71i7.7li8, 7(i!), 770,77!) S i ~ n p s o l 1-1.~ , 158, 162 Stci~tbacl~ 1)., 6!)1, (in9 'Cnr~ber,A I . E. 554 T r o u ~ ~ c cJr ., 750
S c ~ l ~ r c ~A f~. l t .77!) S ~ I I I I I II,.I ~M. , 224 Slrir~beck,P. C.: 553 Taylor, (:. 1. 122, 126, 230, ' ~ r ~ ~ r k e n I ) r o i I<.
l t , , 201, 2'24.
Srl~t.c.l~k,0 . 4li, :$HI, :1!)5, S i ~ l ~ l n iAr ., 1t. 524, 545 S l c ~ i ~ ~ l ~ .rI .t ~ c!12, r , 111, 138, 264, 473, 488, 511, 612, 380, 243,
242, 9!)3, 244,
40G. 26:). (iCi8. 204,
(i72,
40fi Singli, 1'. 1 . 543. 540 166, 185,200,2(i:3. :1R!), 402 513, 526, 528, 594, 557,
Scl~riiclrr,I<. 141, 14!), l(i2 Sir~glr,S. N. 32.5 Stcrldrr, \+I. 552 507, 51i8, 509, 571, 574, 073, 077. 1\81. (;!Is. 701,
S c l ~ ~ r l ) a t ~(I.v r ,11. 217, 224. S ~ I I I I II<. L ~I). , 1'. :1!)l, 406 S l r n ~ ~ i t tA. g , If. 434, 446 575, 570, 584, 595, 008, 676, 793. 795. 7!)li
454. 455. 456, 458. 4G2. S l t o ~ c t ,M ~ . 13. 3125 Stort~l)rrg,J. 335, 374, 494, 034, 708, 709, 728, 731, Trr~itt,.Ib. \I. 7!):1
473. 471;. 477, 478, 47!). S l t r n ~ ~ ~ s t nF1. e l .I<. 473, 476, 496. 553 757, 700, 704 Iknl~alis,1). 1'11. 447
, 32, 46, 543, 481, 487, 4!)1, 4!)5, 5:38, 477, 478, 47!1, 481, 487, , I?. F25, 554
S l c t s o l ~ I<. 'rnylor, J . 11. 712 T s i r ~ H. ~ , S. 2li0, :3:$!1, 374
552, 5lifi, 572. 575, 577, 401, 4!)5, 5:38, RFS. 7!)5 Slc\v:lrl,, \I. 14;. :12ri, 405 .mylor, nr. 11.' 725 'I'sIIJ~,11. 444, 4,tS
(i7 1, li85. fi87. 700, 701. S111il11.I\. (i. :108, :325 Sto\v:irtson, I<. 107, 111, 'L'vl~t-11,C. A l . 727 'I':I(.I~CF, nl. 571;. 723, 727,
727. 7!):1, 7!)5 S111il.11, A. hl. 0. 188, 200, 147, lfi5, 200, 220, 223, 'l'clio~~in,1). 1'. 427, 447 --
72R
SVIIIIII. H . 157. lfi2, :30!), 601, 515, 545, 548, 552, 258, 264, 3:30, 340, 376, Tenllekcn, I t . 557, 577 TtrIil>, hi. 1'. 575
:125, 415, 447 554, 584. 594. 672. (i!)O, 43!). 447, 480, 488, 793 l'rtervilt, N . 204, 673, 698 'J'~~rrotto,I). L. 688, 701
r r . .I. 551
S ( , l ~ ~ t l (!. 095, rinx, 701, 724, 792, Slivers, 1,. S. 544 'I'l~rodo~ SPII, ' ~ I I . I I I, 400, 'rylcr, 13. 437, 44(i
S c ~ l ~ ~ ~ l I z - ( ~I". r r ~ r153,
~o\~. 79.5 Stojn~~o\ric. I). 320 554
I fi2, 200, 51 I , 527. 533. S m i t l ~ .I). \V. (i42, 667 Stoltcn, (:. (:. 60. Mi, 69, 77, T l ~ i ~ i oI<. t , 11. 422, 447
534. 552. l?2!), (;:1:1. G14, S n ~ i t , l.I.~ , \I. 953, 375 !)O, 93, I l l , 113, ll(i, l2fi 7'11o111, '4. 75, 82, 173, 200,
(i4:1, (i.50, (i54, li5(i, 667. 7%; h'~~iit,l~, I<. G. 728 Stokes, \'. I<. 110 792
S c ~ l ~ ~ ~ l t ~ . - 13. . l ; ~715,
~ ~ r728
l~r, S n ~ i t l M. ~ , H . 30!1. 406 Stollcry, J . 1,. 524, 552 'J'l~o~n:~s, ti. G. 720, 726
S c , l ~ \ \ ; ~ lhl.) t , 425. 427, 447 Sl11it.11.1'. 1). 724, 728 Str:rt,fortl, 13. S. 220, 224, 'L'l~o~~ins, 1'. 701, 752, 750
sf~ll\\;lrlx.I+'. 701 S ~ ~ ~ o l t l c v c1':.n . 194. 200 674, (i87, 701, 727 'rl~oll~nq, 1,. 11. 480, 488
Vnrlloti, 11. ,J. 315. 324
Vnn, I . I(. 372. 376
Vmatlln Itatn, V. 257, 26:1,
302. 326, fi87. 701
VnLqa, V. N. 3172, 3176
\'rrollrb, 13. 644. O(i5
Viktorill, I<. 74!). 757
Virk, 1'. S. 030, 634
Vinrotlbi, 1.' 545
(i. 121. 122, 126,
~rl~ll)lll,
v\PO, 264, 270. :IPl;
Voinit~c.t.,It.. 1,. 1'. 7%;
Volllt~rrs,Ii. 5!)5
Vr~I~:ilovic~l~, T. 520, 549
Wadltwn. Y. 1). 422, 448
Wagnrr, W. $1. 755, 757
Wnlkcr, ,J.Il. 18, 19, 23,
:S!)7, 404, 642, 667
IValkrr, \V. S . 5:15. 536,547,
777
\lrnlz, A. 213, 224, 3931, 672
074, 701, 723, 728, 7!)4
Wntlp, 11. 12. 2!)!1, 315, 32:).
43fi. 440
\Vantlc.r, A. 77!)
IVartlrr, \V. 11. 324
W:rrs:%p,,l. 11. liii4, (ilk5
Wrtitlt, li. 335, 339, 357,
374, 554
Wcllnc-r, I<. 305, 31 I, 325
Worltr, M. ,1. 372, :S7(i
Wcnlnrvrlt, 1'. .1. 448
Mlllcclcr. A. , J . 6!)9
Wllitc, (:. nl. (i2fi. 627, 634
Whilr, 1'. M. 41i8, 473, 483,
488, 672, (;!la, fi!XS, 701,
7!)4
Illl~it.t!l~v:~.(l, I,. (:. 778
Wl~il,cl;i\v,,l. lili2
Wl~it,liclcl, J. 11. 522, 525,
65 1
Wirtlcrl~oltl,\\'. 634
\I1iephn.rtlt,. I<. I(i0, 102,
21!), 224. 204, :3!)2, 399,
406, 554. 577, (i01, 034.
044, 055, 650, O67, 07:S,
075, 701, 757
Wicsclsl)crgnr, C. 42, 46,
243, 204, 488, 64 1, 607
Wijkcr. 11. 554
Wilt.lzc.11. 11. (i!)O. 701
Wi1rot.k. 1). 1'.
Wiltl, .l. M. 2P2, 2(i4
Wilki~ls,M. 11:.
Willo, J t . 44. 445
\ V i l l i a t ~ ~I).~ ,11. 657, G(i7
Wollinrtlt,, W. 1). 253, 263
Wollg, .I': Y. 1'. 687, 697
Woo(1, I). I I . (Xi5
Waocl, (:. 1'. 73!), 75fi
Wood, It. 'l'. 54!)
WorL~nnnn,1'. X. 399, 407,
495, 603, 535, 554
W I I I M ~W., 378, 384, 388,
:!!)I, 401, 407, 422, 4:lli,
448, 510, 554, 701. 757
Wl~t~tIl., I f . 422, 448
Wygt~:~t~sIci, J . 455, 488
YRIIIR~R, P. 311, 357, 370,
.l. 245, 204, 320
Y~rt~~.zg.z,
Yanlag~~chi, S. 757
Yanlamoto, I<. 553
Yan~nsltit.n,I. 202
Ynng, I<. T. 326, 353, 377,
415, 448
Yih. C. S. 309, 3'23
Yor~ng,A. 11. 220, 224, 257,
123. 120
264, 330, 3152, 353, 360,
377, R!fl, 444, 6-54, 667,
fi54
728, 702, 763, 706, 707,
708, 76!), 77!), 7!)2, 796
Subject Index
tiI)l:itio~t 382, 30!)
nccclcr:rtio~t 47, 42:)
-, sudden scc i i n ~ n ~ l s i stnotion
c -. .- ,c o ~ ~ ~ ~ w ~ ~ n327.
s i i l 70%
lc
sco~lat~ics428, 43V8 - --,rorlcnvr wnll 532
ndl~esioti .we 110-slipco11tlit.ion - ---,collrrpt. 24
~ d i n b a t ~ cor~~prassion
ic 268, 327, 763 - --,control 43. 378, 379. 400. 5Oli, 687
- tc?tnpcrnture 270, 279, 280, 832, 717 -. -- , c o r ~ v c r g < *
:111tl
~ ~ ttliv(;rg(*l~l, (i!)(i
-- wnll 279, 280, 332, 354, 358, 717 - , cortlcr :SO:!, 6.1-4, (;!I7
.-
nrrorlynan~irs 2 - --cqrraI,io~~s44, 128. 1:10, 151. lfi:!, 201,
--,structural 37 282, 284, 285, :S:)O, 40!), (i71i. 704. 70ri,
xeroioil 22, 23, 37, 38, 213, 219, 221, 358, 7t 0
397, 399, 499, 500, 503, 057, 684, (i90, 769
-, Ianlit~nr ace lnrtlinnr ncrofoil .
-- - f(:tl(:c 25:1
.--. Iligllcr ortlor 14.1, 1!)4
-, t ~ ~ n x i n l l llift
t l ~ (i9O; rne rtlro %I111ko\~lzii - -,t~o~~scrl)t~rt~t,it~g
- 687
norofoil; NACA nororoil --- -- , tt~)tlel(?:rtly 408, 40!)
-- t,llcory 2 -- - -- , l~crioclic: 4 1 1, 428. 4:) I . .I:I2
nir 8, 2fil) - - - l)rolilc flee vclorilly ~Iist,ril)~tt,io~i
nircrcw G96 - - r c - : i t t a o l ~ ~ ~ ~088 rnt
d'Alctnhcrt,'~~)iirntlox 5, 20 -- - - , rotiil,it~gl~otly 695
~

\VtiL8t)11,I(. .I. :l!)O, 40(i, 425, \\!iIli:~t~~s, , I . 4 0 6 , fi87. 701, Yotltlg, 1). W. 752, 757 i ~ ~ l i l i i t i o458, t ~ 460, 47 1, 472, 4!)1, 508, -- - ., si11ti111rs o I ~ ~ t , i o11t1tI
t ~ s st4l'.sit11il:1r~ I I I .
Yolltlg, (;. 1). \v. :5:1!), 374 530 tiotls I:)(;. 151. 152, 203, 2:1l. 287,
4:W, 448 728
\Yilli;r.~~~s, .I. (>. 223, 224 -- factor 4g9, 532 2!):1, :Joe, :144, :1S!l. 4 15, 4 16, .4!10, w o ,
\\'trtno11, -1. !)5, !)!I, I I I . 224,
4 48 \ V i l l ~ ~ ~ : r r\\I.l l ~\\I.
. 570, 577, alralogy .gee llcy~~oltls's :\llnlt>gy 735
\Vn~mt~l~Iz:tl~r~. 1'. 637, 701 (i!f5, 728 nrlglc o f i~lllow 7(i!) -- - s i ~ i l i i o80, ~ 123, 282; .POC (II.TO
W ~ ~ S OI<..I I .1':. 718, 728 %ant, .7. A. l(i2, 264, 353. - of st.aggcr 70!) Iroll~ltl:iry lnyor
\\'nrd:~t~. 11. Jb. 472,488, 4!)2
515, 554 Wiltkrl, I<. 1.: 728 377 annrllar r:llct 438 -- - t,llcory 2, 24
\Vrl)rr, 11, I{. 2:10, 2114 \Vi~~lzl~:r, 16. M. 721, 720, 728 Zntllir, M. 257. 264 approxitltnto 111(!t.Iiodn lo!), 1 12. 127, 158, -- -, l11t(rr~1~:i13, 265, 2M. 292. :10:1. :1O!l.
\Vrdrlnryrr, 15. 32. 40 \Yitllcr, I<. (:. 728 Zcrllcr, I?. 750 201, 214. 2 I!), 2:l!), :10,i, :1m, :S!)2, (;:15, 67 I :S 15
W1ridingcr, 11. 77!) \Vi~~ld:rl)nl,f,o~~~, 11. A. 770 %icri:p, ,I. 531, 553. 7!)6 nsynlptotic nuc:l.io~rprofile :185, 50fi - -- t.l~ickt~cns25, 21;. 40, 4'2, IPS. I:ll,
\\'rillnln.ill, 1,. M. 525. 547 \Yir~Lrrl~ot.t.o,~~. N. 1';. 77!) Zilntll, W. 747, 757 attack snc i t ~ c i ( l c ~ ~ c e 140, 230, (i:Hi, G4!). 673,
\!'risr. \!I. 2!)7, 2!)!1, :%08, Winlnrnitz, I?. A. I,. 627, Zimmcrmann, D. R. 575 natocorrclat,ion frlnction 569 - -, tl~rco-clin~msionnl225, 23s). 247. 52.5,
:!12, :12 I 1;:14, (ifins 728 Zimmcrlnnnn, G. 505, 554 nxinl synllnctry 420; neeo1.w l)otly of rcvo- 535. 0!)2
\Vc-izn:rrl<t.r. (:. 1'. vorl 570, \Via~~it~~rslti, 11,. .I. 524, 548 %otl:irs, 1). 757 111t,io11; (!ylintIt:r; pipe; s1111cro - .-, I , I I ~ ~ I I I I ~ I I 635,
L Mi8, G7 I, li77. 7(P2.72!)
572, 577, 5!)5 WiLI.illg, 11. 200, 481, 485 % I I I I I ~ ) I I0.
S ~ ~fi5O
I, - - I I ~ I I I I O I I II o ~ r t i l l702
hulk visconil:y (il
bavk-flow ans rovrrsc flo\r, b ~ ~ o y a n c y27 1, 285, 48!)

I%C~,"R 1 1 1 ~ ~ 1 1 075!3
~~
binary I~iycrs 400
IIjcrkr~cs'spolar front 512
blade angle 7(i0
I%lnsirtssrries 108, 236, 250, 251, 303
1)lowing 379, 380, 382, 400, 687
hotly force 48,71, 102,22fi, 258,285,489,510
I)otly of revollrtion 235, 086,092; see also
cy li~lclcr; pi1,c; sphere
- - -. rot,aIir~e 6!)4

I
r,
I)o~~~iclnry layer 2, 3, 24, 78, 127, 131, 035,
fi(i8, 702
805 S l ~ l > j r clntlrx
t

cornpti1)ility corrtlitior~( ; ~u~nll) t 133, 172 209, 354, 385, 637, 673 f1exil)lc wall 505 11y[)crno11icfloxv 328, 4325
corrrl)rrsnil)ility !). I!), 327, :!!)I, 430, 514, tlissipnt,ion (;:I, 74, 207, 705 flow asc bnuntl:rry layer iclcnl gas ROC pcrrct:t g n ~
516, 70'2 -- f ~ ~ l r c t i o n267, 705 --, cot~rl)rcssihlr 47, 264. 327, 514, 61 1, 702. Illi11gwort.l1-St~c~vnrt8011 t r n r ~ s f ~ r ~ ~ r : ~:140
I.i~tr
co~r~~~rnssiorr. ntlial)nt,iv 2(i8, 327, 7(i:) ctinlort.ion 54, 57 71:). 7(i9 ilrrpt~lsivcr ~ l o l i o l ~no, 416
vor~~~)rc:ssor0!)5, 7(i!) t l i n l ~ r ~ r b n ~nrt.ifirinl
r~~c, 477 - , fren, I ~ ~ r l j ~ ~ l r720 rrt, ir~tritlc~~cr, nrrglc! o f 23, 37
rotrrl)trter 187 - cquntiolr see Orr.So~i~~r~rr.frlcl rqllntiorr , i ~ ~ t ~ n r ~ ~ l ) r c s s47,
i l r II%,
e 285 i ~ ~ c o ~ ~ ~ ~ Illlid ~ r c u 47, ~ i b65, l c 285
r o ~ ~ c r n t r ; i t . ioq~~:rIiorr
ol~ 400 - -,nnt,ur;rl 45!), 477 -. ilrlct 185 inrlices, ~rrct~lrod of I 5
c~orrrl~~ctivity, I l ~ r r r ~ ~ 2li!)
nl , spiral 530 ... , I I I ~ ~ I 557 I irrcrt,in forco 14, 26, 71, 112, 127
~~or~stitrctivt: c r ( ~ ~ a I i o lil
r~ - , tlrrc:e-di~rrc~rsional 460, 481, 525 , rro~rslrncly 8!), 408 ir~flrxion acc poirrt, of il~(lrxic)tr
c.orrtir~uilg,rtll~:rtiorrof 47, 74. WiI, 704 ~lisl.r~rl>a~rccs. ~r~otlrotl of stlr;tll 457 - 11atlc>r11, sr~l,r:riticnl 41, 42 i ~ r l l r ~ c ~ful~ct.iorrs
~cc (i8:)
1.4)lltrO1sltrr:lco 175, 202, 759
r,or~vrc(int~27 1. 285, 2!)2, 70:!
tlr;\g 2, 5, lli. 20, 25, 27, 2!), 114, 176, 202,
7 I ,7 7 7 .vccrrIsoff~r~~~rlrag;
- . ~~criorlic~ 4 I, 1 428
rvv(.r~:~lli70: SPC ( r l ~ or ~ v ( - r s cIlo\v
il~jrrt,iolr sre blo\virrg
irllct, Ilow 185, 2:1!), 241, :IHli, 5.12. Tr!)ii .
, II:LI,II~ILI 285, 315, 7V2 slzi~rfric4io11 .s1111rr<~riIic~:il 41, 42 i~rrrlnl~ilil~y 45(i, 4lY2, 4li5, 4iiIi. 472. ,I!l:1
cnoliug 278. 2!)4. 382, :)!)I, :1!):!. 515 -, :rcrt~foil 22. 7(i7; scc olso :rc>roli,il - , stvirlilrg 230 -, 1)oirlL of 455. 4G6, 4!1:1, 4!)li, 4!17, 4!1!)
eoortlinntrs, cr~rvili~rrnr(i7 - irc111ar l i ~ l c r 7 4 4 8c.n rllso I l ~ ~ ~ ~ t ~ ~ ~57. r t iNi7,
n r r 072,
s 702, 705 i ~ ~ l c r f c ~ r o ~ r rpr tirvi tc~ ~ r r s:$I:$, 3'20
, cylirrtlricnl (ici c~.lirlder,circ:r:lar --,tIc~rnit,y 7 0 3 irrtrrrlril tc!lrcy 451
. tm~rriforr~~nlio~r of 188, 245. :140,715, 718 -, flat, plat,c 2(i, 138, 6:17,641,644, li5:1, 716; - , Ir~rrl~c*rnlr~rc 702 --- f:rct.or 452, 544, 5li8
( 'oriolin force (;!I5 sen n1.w fl:rt. plate Ilr~id.irIr:rl I , 5
cvrllor Ilon. :10:1, 04.1, li!)7 - , rllol.or vrh:cla 35 - l'l.i(,li t ) r r I . 5 ; 4cc rrlxr) frict iolr~il11r:il
corrrl;rliot~ 560 - , pressrrrc? 758 - rtrcc~ll:rr)ics 1, 47
- t:orfliciorrt f,lM, 51i(i, (i72 --,prolile 758, 764 -, hTcn.lor~i:tr~ 47, 48, 58, (il
('or~c,ttc. flo\\r 6 , 70, 84, 91, 277, 5!)0, 64!) - rerIt~rt,io~rli:!O --,~ ~ o r r l r ~ , ~ r r o g e ~512, ~ e o73!)
r~~
rrrcpir~g~rrot.iorr 76, 1 12 - - , t,ot.nl 758 -. , ~ r o r ~ \ . i s r ~ oI~ ~ s

rrit.irnl lnyrr 464 tlyc cxl)crirr~errt. 38, 449 , t.c:r l 7,s itlc:rl I , 5, 20
rross-flolv 252. 312 - .
- V ~ S C O I I S 51
c.rrrvnt,~~rc (or vrlot.ily ~ ~ r o f i l r )I:$:!. 207, 221, ~ t l ~ l t ll l ' : l ~ 2. 21). :!:!
4!)1. 515 IEc.kcrt rt11111Lrr 273 For~ri(v's1111s 2(iii, 705
rglinrlcr, circ,~rlnr 17. 20, 25, 2!), :!I, 38, 41, rtlrly coeffirirtrt.s 579, 5!)1. liO9, 70(1. 708, frcc colrvrc:tiorr scc cotrvcct~ior~, flat,nri~l
I(;#. 170, 17 1. 215,:!05, 320, 378, 418,424, 731, 752 f r r q t ~ c ~ ~ c:!I. y !)3, 134, 428, 459, 6!10, 758
(ili.1 - -,t , ~ ~ r b r ~ I e Mi!)
r~L - . s~":':t~r"lll 570

- ,rlliptio 41, 217, 418, 407 ctlgr: clTrrt (i44 f r i c l i u ~ ~Ir l : 268, 2!)2, 2!):1, 2!)6, 2!)7, 514
. oncillnt~ir~g428 rigtv~va.lucp r o l ~ l c ~ r4(i0,
~ 5:1:1 fciclion vnlocity 537, 585, 600, 641, (i59
. .
rotrating 43. 72, 87. 525 clorlgnt,ioll 54, 57 I ~ r r ~ r ~ ~ l c r ~ I~6~ r r ~ I ~ r r
,ynwrtl 248 cnrrgy rIistril)r~t,io~r (t,r~rl)rrlr~it)571
c,ylir~~Irir:rl ( ~ r ~ o r d i r r ; ~ I(it;,
( ~ .227
~ cIissi~~:~~,inrr t,l~it!l<lrons354. 673
c:cl~~nt,ior~
- li5, 265, 400 grin nec 1)crfrc:t g:m; rc::~l gnn
L I 158, I (i0, 201,:)5:1,:150,
int-c!g'.:tl ~ ~ I I :in11 (:iirllrr vortices W2(i, 532
(i75, (i80, 723 (:r:rnIlof 11tr1111)rr273. 315
- .
ill t,crtr:~l 2(i7
Inrrrirr:~~. ncrofoil :!82. 45fi, 502. 57:I
- t~rctlrorl 457, 677, 680
- Ll~icl<rress 304, (i73 I~:I~PII-l'oine~tillo flow 11, 85, 280, 512; .we - - IlO\Y :1, 1 I
e~rI.lralpy 267, 354, 400 1r1,To 1)il)e Ilo\v, li~rrlirrnr s111)Iaycr 563, (iO:1, 708
-- tlrickrress 354 J~cnt-rnrrrl~~r:tiorr nq~lntion 157; see rclso I,:r~)l;rct:'srqr~n.Iif)rt 10
erl11at.innof state !), 65, 271, 705 1'ollric:r cclrtnt.iorr Inm of (,Ire \s'II 640, li4:1; n c r nlso ~ ~ r ~ i v r r n n l
1':11lrr's cqr~nt.iorrs 1, 66 -- lllrx 275, 703, 706 vrlocity (list.rib11ti011In\\'
rxclr:~rrgecooClicic~rts scr, ctlcly rocffirierrts -, frict,ionnl sce frict,io~r:~l lrrnt lift 16, 23, :!(;, 43, 394
r?cl~:r~rniorr fan 440 - - t~rar~sfrr3, 2fi.5, 286, 2!)6, 315, 514, li8!), -- , I I I : I ~ ~ I ~ I2,I I35,
I I 4:). 380, 687
70'2, 707; ace also corrvc:ct,iotr; tlrrrlrrnl IAirr9nnrol llod 41 1, 432
11ot1nd:rt.y111.yor Iov:rl xt.t~Io.~)rilrr.il~lc: o r 58
firtilt* clilli~rt:~~ccs
', 187, 194, 671 - -- :rlialogy 286, 707 I,ortl I(:aylr~igl~'~ c ~ q ~ ~ ~ i l ~4(i2
iorr
- olcrrrcrrl.n 672 - -.
rolrgh nnrf:~cc 712 - tlrcoro~rrs 4li3, 4(i4
loss cwcClir:iclrt. fcnnrntlrs) Ii(i:!. 77 1
liirst. I,aw of tlrcrn~ocly:~n~~rics 265 Ilclc-Slrnw flo~v 123
Ilap li89 Irrliropter rotor 254
1
lI:il, p1:r.I.c 24. 26, 32, 40, 135, l:l9, 156, 175, 1%it'lll~ll7. flow !IS, 194; See ~ l 8 0~t~~gllfL(~iol1
201, 214, 250, 2!)2, 2!15, 392, 333, 383,443, flow
4531, 4li5. 468, (inn, 07!), 707, 711; 11ytlrn11lir:tllys r ~ r o o t l~.rgirrrc
~ dse r o t ~ g l ~ ~ r c s ~
- -, oscill:it.ing !I:!, 432, 4314 heiglrt,, crilical
- --, ror~glr fi52, 720 hydralrlic: dinlrrrter GI2
- --,yntvctl 250 hyrlrar~lics 1
I~lctt,rror'srotor 380 Irytlrost~nt~ie sl,ress 51

NACA norofoil ROO, 502, (i!)l, 707, 771
Nnvier-Stokm cq~lntion 1. 44,47,04, 70,84,
320, 561
.. - - in con~l)rtwiI~lc flow (M
nentrnl ~tnl)ilit~y rnrvr 4lil, 4li!), 470, 47 1,
472, 479, 4!)2, 493. 507. 530, 534
Newt.onin11 flnid scr flttitl, Newtonian
Newton's law of friction 7, 26
- Srrotid Lnw 48
no slip contlit ion 5, 20, 72
nnincric.nl n~rtllotl 187, 219
Nussrlt nnnibcr 275. 296, 708
orf*:in c ~ r r r c n t ~5 I3
Orr-Sotnntcrfeld rqctntion 459, 400, 462
onnillnlions see tlistr~rhnnms, tnctliotl of
sn~nll; poriotlio flo\s; I>o~~ntl:iry
pcrioclic
oucillogrnn~(t,~lrl)nlent. tlow) 452, 477, 4!)1
Osccn's in~provcmcnt 1 I5
11"rnflox S/!C d'Alrn~l~rrG's ~)R~BI~OX
1'i:clot nnrnl~nr 273
perfcc:t gas 10, (M, 267, 271, 327, :$!)!I, 705
~~criotlic flow 41 1. 428, 432
j ~ r r t ~ t r l ~ ~ ~413
l~iot~
11ipn llow .tne rrlso inlett flo\v; nt~rlr~lrrr
rcsinl.nnce cocflioictit,; rcsistnnce forlnul:r
- --,r:urvcd (i26
- , it~lct 92, 241, 560
.~. -. , lentinxr 1 1, 12, 85. 92
- - , nonnhirtly !)2, (i2!)
- --,osr:illntjitig 436
- --, st.nbi1it.y of 542
- . , st.nrl, of tnot.ion !)2
- - - , t,ran~iI it111 :)!I, 44!)
ct Index
-- --,turbnlcnt 13, 39, 85, 449, 544, 59(i - --,extended 709, 710 slat 380
IJil.ot t,rnversc niethod 758 - dye expcrin~cnt 12
plntc ace flat plate -- eq~tnlionof Inbrir:~t,ion 121 slipprr (of hmring) 117
---,rong11 (i5 - ~)rinciplcof siniilnrity 12, 70 slit 68!)
-- t.l~ern~on~ctcr 286, 333 llicl~artlsonnutnber 512 solidity mtio 7110; see nlso cnsc~rtlrflo\\-
poitit of inflexion 1:I2, I65 Il,icl~:irtlson'unnnr~l:iroffnct 4:18 sorltid velocity SPF Mnt.11 I I I I I I I I I ( - ~
-- - -- ~:ritcrit>ti 463. 4!)0, 514 rigid-l~orlyrnt:btion 55, 56, 57 specific lieat 269
- - itint.nbility 41i2 rotnting l)otly 242, 005 sl)ertr~itn see f ~ r q ~ ~ c ~st pl cc-cyt r u ~ ~ i
.- - tant~nit,ior~462 - flow 225 ~ l i l ~ c r e17, 10, 21, 25.4'2, I I:!, 237. 24:). :)20,
I'oiucnillc llow see flagen-I'oi~crtilln;see nlao r ~ l l g l l l l 5:10,
~ ~ ~(il9, 624, 652, 712, 723 42
.-.1
pipc flow, I:brninnr; -, tirlt~iisnil~leli57, 660 spots aee tnrl~nlc?ntupots
~ ~ o l y t ~(i:IO ~cr --,tlistril)rrt~cl 540, 6.52 sqrtnlinmu 557
~ ~ ) l , c t ~ tflow
i ; i l 71, !)ti, 128 -- c l c n ~ o ~ t537,
, 655, (M!) st.nl)ility c q ~ ~ n t i o naec!O r r - S o ~ ~ i t ~ ~1~c111:i-
~~rf~~lcI
po\vcr law (117-tlt) R!W, IiOO, 637, 648 - f:~ctor (i 1 (i, li52 tion
I'rnntltl I I I I I I I I ) ~ ~ 26!), 273, 274, 283, 289, 330 - heigl~t,,rriticnl 537, 663 - -, frictioi~lc~s462
- --,t~lrhnlcnt 70(i, 708 -, l~ydrnnlicnllystnootl~ 016, (I50 -- , l i ~ n i of
t 460, 4!)7, 502
Prsu~tltl-Scl~licl,Li,~g forrnuln 641 -, int,er~nectintornngc (transition rcgitnc) -, nei~trnl 4(i6; aer. nlso ~tcntralstnliilit,y
I'rnntltl'u pijlc rcsiatnnce lsrw 01 1 537. (i17. 622, 650, 713 cnrvc
prossurc 51, GI -, rrlntive 015, 652 - t.l~eory :I, 451;
- distril)rtt.ion 2, 20, 21, 22, 40, 114, 117, -, stnntl:~rtl 623 stngnntion cnt 11nll)y 3533
122, 49!), 504, 770 - flow, tl~rce-tliti~cl~siot~nl 100, Ili5, 250
-- drag see fortn drag - -, t\vo-dinicnsiot,al 33, 35, !)5, 0!), 156,
- (lrop 12, 37, 92, 241, 596, 612 sand ro~tgt~ness615, 623, 654, 663 165, 214, 250, 252
-- grnrlicnt 33, 132, 206, 340, 456, 463, 48!), - ---, eqt~ivnlrntr,23,(i54; ncertlaoro~~gl~nrsu - lonl)cntt.~~ro208, :PP8
lili8; see nlso wetlgc Srlilic:rctt !ric.t.nrc :120, 3(iO, 3(i:), 364, 3(i5, st,~intlnrtl~ ~ l l g l l l lsect ~ mugl~nrsn
~~
-, t , I ~ c r t ~ ~ o t l y t ~ ~51, i t ~lil,
~ i t03
: :!(in, :III!) 1 1 1 r~ i v t r o i ~ r li72i
prit~cipalaxes 57 Scliobnucr-Skm1114tattcxpcritnellt 470 StnnI.on 11111nl~er(is!).708
prolilc dmg sect ctmg sccontlnry flow 102, 226, 230, 248,428,431,
pro11cller 6!)4 432, ($12, 613, 626, 644, 657
1)rol)crl.irs (L:rbloa of) 8, 9, 269, 662 self-sitnilsir solr~tinns see bonntlnry layrr, state see eqnnl.ion of sknte; locnl slcilc
])rotlr~~uion.we r o u g l ~ n e ~ siniilnr nntl aclf-siniilnr solutions stotilll tnrbinc, losses clllc t,o r o t ~ g l ~ nIiW2
~s~
se~ni-sitnilarsolutions 415 SI,okcs's tlrng fortnnla (spl~cro) 114
scl)nriition 2, 25, 28, :I:), 43, 131, 152, 172, - IirsL prol)lc~n !)O
rnrcfnc:t,ion wnvc aer! expnnsion fnn 215, 220, 243, 253, 254,258, 259, 382,378, - sccontl problen~ 93
Il:iylcigl~'s cqnntion see Lortl Ikyloigli's 417. (Xi!), 674, 687, 769 - l~ypotliesis (if)
cqnat.ion --,prevenI.io~~sec honntlsrry-lnycr control - In\\ of friction 2, 7, 48, 58
-- l l ~ r o r c n ~ s.tee J ~ ) r d
JtnyloigI~'~
theorelnu sl~tipcf:lct.or 208, BO(i, 4!l2, 675, 678, (i79 - secontl lwol)lrtn !)3
-- prohlciii 8r.e Stokcn's first prohlcm
- .., ~notlificcl 674 nl.r~iin 48
rr:il gns 327 slic?xriti,q s1.1.c~~ (nt !r.~tll) 26, 134, 138, 143, --,mtc of 7, 52. 58
Inynr, rocovcry fnclor 355. 713, 714 147, 202, 20!), 600, 037, (i54, 670; see nlso stmtilicntion 512, 73!)
rcfcrrncc t r ~ i ~ l ) n r a t t ~715,
r e 716 skin fricl.ion st,rcaln function 74, 133, 136, 15:I. 157, I(i3
rcsisltrnce see drag ship 054, 062 ~t.renn~ingace nrcontla.ry flow
- cocfficicnt. (of pipc) 12,86,507,607,012, sl~ooktlll~c 4:%0 s t r e i ~ ~ ~ i lI~otly
inc 22, 42
613, 617 - wnve 358, 3(i0. 3(il, :3li3, 314, 365, 368, ut,rrss 48, 4!)
- fi>rnillln (RIa.Ui11s'u) 597, 6 0 , 61 1 lltj!), 43!) -, nppnrcnt or Jlcynoltis's 3, 55!), 5li0, 704
- - , nnivcrsnl 609 sitnilnr nnd self-ain~ilnruolnliona 90, 101, --,tlcvintoric: 48, 41)
rcvcrnc flow 2,25,28,85, 108, I 2 ; see a h o 107, 13li. 151, 152, 164, IMi, 203, 2D3, 300, --,l~ytlrontnt,ic 50
scpnrntioti 316, 344, 38!), 415,48!), 735, 737, 740, 746, - tennor 50
rcvc?rsil~lcproc:csu 62 751 ; see rrlso I)onntlnry I~iycr,ui~nilnrnntl Slrol~linltiunlbt?r 31
Itoytiolds nt~ri~bcr12, 14, 72, 128, 150, 772 srIf-ui~nil:tr~0111lionu snblayrr ace lsrtriitlnr slibt:iycr
effect; - -, criticnl 3. 461, 480, 514, 573 siniilnrity 12, 70, 151, 271, 450, 597; see substnntivc dcrivnt,ive 47
- -, - (ncrofoil) 490, 500, 502 also bonntlary Inyer, si~nilnrsolllt,ions nnd snction 43, 379, 381, 383, 506, 645, ii87
- -, - I(cylir~tlcr, splicre) 173 self-sitnilnr solut,ions -, nsylnpt,ot,ic profile 385, 506
- -. - ,(I>II)O) 37.80.450 - in lientot.mnsfcr 271
-, von I<hr~niit~'s l~~.potl~csis 585, 608
--,c k c t on t,rtiilsit,ion 506
-, I I I ~ ~ I ~ ~ I(1110st
I I ~ I I fnvornhle) 388, 501;
siniilit.ntlc sre sitnilnrity Sut,llerland'a f o r n ~ ~ t l n328
- - cffoct on loss coefficient 772 singnlnr pert,nrhntion 80; ace nlso honnd- s\virlirig wake 543
-- -, retltrcntl 117 nry Inyer, I~igl~er order
- st.resscs 559, 703 skirt friction 2, 32, 134, 138, 143, 204, 286,
lteynolcls's analogy 286, 706, 707 035, 637, 630, 654, 07(i, 758
 - vorl.irrs 526, 527 ---- bellind bars 741, 744
tc~~~pcrat.~ tlill't~sio~r
lro, of 752 - - , cl~nnnel 84, 107, 168, 277, 668
- licltl 8P.c Ll~crnrnlbou~ltlnryInyor - --,cilitldor 171, 21(1
- - rise, :~dinl)ntic 270, 27!), 286, :1R2, 717 - -, jet see jct
t,l~eorcticnlI ~ y d r o t l y ~ ~ n ~ n1i c s - -, l~rbricntion 117, 121
I,l~errn:~l barrier 3 .- -, pipe see pipe flow
- hon~~tln.ry l:ryer 3, 78, 265, 327, 3:10, 514, , ~'lnto
- .- 142, 205, 385, 454, 0:%9
702, 712, 713, 754 -. .-, W C ~ I ~ O165
co11d11c1ivit.y 2(ili, 2(i!), Mi2 -- -, wing 249, 085, (i8!), 690
-- d i f l ~ ~ ~ i v i2(i!). t : ~ 273 -- grntlicnt :!:I, 128, 132 Abbreviations
t , l ~ c r l ~ ~ o t l y t ~prcss~~rt!
: t ~ ~ ~ i c : 51, 61, 6:s --- ofprol)ngntio~~ (ofclist~lrl)n~~re)
459, 460,
'I'oll~~~ictl-Srl~lic:l~ti~~$ \VILVCR 45!), 474, 4!)5, SRC ( r l x ~
0t~r-S0111111t:rfel11tq~~iil.io~~
see nl.so tlist,~~rl)a~~cos, n~c!l.l~otl of slnnll - of sonntl aec Mac11 ~ i n n ~ b c r The following nl)breviat.ions l ~ n v ebeen un(d t l ~ r o ~ ~ g ltllc
~ o book
~~t.
t,orqr~e 105. 24'2, 647, 649
l.mce (of nt.rcs~,tensor) 51
trnn~forn~ation, c*o~~~l'rcssiblc t t ~ r b l ~ l e nflow
t
- t)~iclc~~cso 356
viscosity 6, 6, 8, 9, 60, 2n9, 328
- , convcraion factors 8
AIAA J. - Journnl o/ the American Inslilale of Aeromc~ticsnnrl A..lronlrrr/ir.~. New
York, pr~bliahetlaince 1903 (nee J A S nnd JASS)
7 18; ace r~lno I l l i ~ ~ g t v o r ( . l ~ - S l c n . ~ r t m -, I c i ~ ~ e l ~ ~ n7,t i8,
c 9, 269 ARC = Aeronnuticnl Rc.senrch Cooncil, Jmndon. P~~l)lint~r.s
two 8rrir.s of (lot-11-
trn~~sfor~nnt,iol~ - ~ ~ ~ c n a u r c n ~ 12, e n t88
lnontq, rncll r ~ ~ ~ t n b c rucpnrntnly
ctl
t,ra~~sforn~rcl vnri:r.l)l~~s (Tor n ~ ~ n ~ c r i11reLhot1)
cnl - tnbles 8, 9, 269, 662
I87 vortex f l n n ~ c n t 89 ARC RM - Iteporta nnd Memornndn
- for~nnt,ion 2, 19, 25, 28, 425, 427, 525,
ARC C P - C~lrrentPnprm
529
- sliedtling freqtlcncy 91, 173 ARSJ = Jor~rnnlt1111erirn11
Rocket Sorirty
- so~~rco
- spirnl 529
230
ASME .-An~rricnr~Socict,y of hlccl~nnicnlKnginrors, Now York
- st.rccb (von 1Cdr111rll11's) 18, 28, 17:) J . iIpf11. hfrc11. - Jm~rn111o/ Appliril ,Ifrr/trt?tir,v, l'vit~g pnrl, C ,I/ ! h ~
I of L11o 7'rc~tta1r(l~on~
vort.icily 58, 73 ASME (see nbove)
-- t r n ~ ~ s f cqunt,ion
er 73 .I. Ment Transfer - .lourmzl o/ IIrnl Trnn.~/cr.Oring part (: of t l ~ rTrrtn.~arlionao/ Ihp AShll':
-- - t,l~cory((:. 1. 'l'nylor) 584, (i08, 755

I I I V I I ~ I I ~7li!). 77G
- l ~ l a ~ l 7li!)~s \v;iko 25, 175, 234, 729, 733, 741, 758
- behind b l ~ ~body t ~ t 738
lurlt~~lr~~ ~1li.c.t~
c , c , on Ilrnt. 1.ransfcr 3 1:)
-- - c,nsmrle 772
, frco li35, 72!)
, llolllog~~llctllln 571
, i ~ ~ t c ~ t ~ s31:s.
i t y 475. li72
- - row of bnrs 744
-- single l)otly 7:1!)
IIFVLIZ - 13eotsche F o r s c l ~ ~ ~ r111c1
Kiiln (nincc I!)(;!))
~ ~ g s\ '-r r s i ~ c ~ l ~ s : ~ ~fiir
~ s t1,11rt..
;~lt I I I I ~lZ;it~~~~Ltl~rt,,
- , oiror~lnr 733, 743. 747
-
, isot,rol)ic 475, 57 1, 5!1 1 , t ~ w o - ~ l i ~ ~ r c ~ ~175, DV I, -
, origin of 44!l. I S ! ) : scc rrlso I.rnl~sition n i o7:1:1,
~ ~ n745
l fiir 1,11ft- I I I I ~ I I ( : I I I I I I ~ I ~ I ~ (l .i i i l t ~ . I : ~ . ~ I I I : I I I ~
I ) c ~ ~ t . s c lVcrsr~cl~sn~~sl;.II
~c
~ m l lncliebetic
, 268, 277, 28li, 2!)4, :1:!2, 333, (till l!)li!))
st.iilc of 5liX. li72; see rtlno I)o~c~~tlnry
335, 337, 344, 517, 5l!), 718 D(:l,lt = l)cl~tsrhe(:cscllsrl~aft. fiir I,llft,- I I I I ~I~~ : L I I I I I ~1Ciil11 ;I~I~~,
l:ly(T, tllrl'llll~llt~
t u r l ~ ~ ~ l llo~v
t - ~ ~ l 3,, 3!l, 555, 5!)li; .~CC (rlso
--,c ~ ~ r v r r 510,
l 525, 526, 6!)0
ETI1
-, flexible 505 -= Fedcrnl Ir~st,itutc(of Trc~lu~olopy (1Ciclgc~11or~ssisoIlr Tcrl~nisol~cIIocII~~~IIIIIc)
tri~nsilio11 Xl~ricll,S\vit.zcrlnntl
- - jct 750
l l ~ ~ r l ~ ~ : ~452. l i o477,
~ ~ n557, 504, 705
\v:ivc tlrng 7(i!) Forncl~g.111p.-Wrn. Scie~~tific j011r11nltb~~t.it.lc(l
s j ~ o l . ~4%;. 4X:1
n ; ~ v c l c ~ ~ g459,
t l ~ 532 Forsehung a i ~ /dctn G'chiclc dn.s Inyen i ~ : ~ Il'csens,
rr- V 0 1 (I:P~III:III
So(.iet,,y
rrctlgc 156, 364; see n1.w si~nilara ~ self- ~ d of l':ttginrcrs), 13rrlin :tntl I)~~osscltlorf(sillre 1!)48)
s i ~ ~ ~ isoll~t.ions
lar
I I I I ~ V ~ lI I o i Iislri111io11v 607, 640, n . i ~ ~ d(i54 Forachungnhrft. = 1tmt~nrrl1R I I ~ I I I P I I I C I I ~ 10 ITora(~I~g.
111g.-\\'cs. (src nllovc)
721 : srr: rrlso I:L\v of I.l~o\Y;III w i ~ ~ d - l . ~t ~, ~~ r~r nl ~c ~
l ~ l572
c~~ro
wing 24!). 685, fix!), li!)O
- ~ slolt,otl
-, 381
.
-- s\cept, 253
--,ynwod 248 JAS Journal of /he A~ro~~(tzrtirrrl
A"j'icncc*. N1.w York, (1!)32 1!)58);
I replnced in I959 by ,].ASS
J ASS = Jonrtutl of Anro/Space S c i e n r ~ . ~Ncn
, York (1!)5!) l!)T,2):
rcplnced in 19G3 by AIAA .I.
JElI = .lolcrnnl of E'luul Mrrhntctca, Cn~nl)~itlgt-,
lC11glir1111
J. Iloy. Arro. SO(,. - Journal o/ the Ilo!/~tl Arro?nr~~!ic*cl
Sortct!l. I,o~~clon,
IC~~gliu~cl
814

NACA - Tho Nntionnl Atlvisory Co~nnlittcc-for Arronautica, Wrurhingtan D. C.

[rrplncctl in 195'3 by NASA (nrc below)] P ~ ~ b l i s h rthree
d nrrica of
tlorumenk, ear11 nnnihrrrcl srpnrntcly:
NACA Itep. Rcportn
NACA TM Trclinic.~tlhlr~nornritln
NACA 'I'N 'I'rcl~nic~~~l
Notcn List of most commonly used synlbols
NASA - Nntionnl Aero11~11ticaancJ Spacr Adtninintrntion (crenbd in 1'359 in
rrplnrrmcnt of NACA) I n ortler not to clepnrt too drnat~icnllyfrom tdlc convent.iona normnlly c~nyloyrtlin pnpcrn
= Nntio~~nl
(inn 'l'l~rl~inr15nl:cl1lisl111irrit,(Irrnt Rritnin on the srll~ject,it was follncl neccannry 1.0 rtw t.hr anrnc aymbol to tlcnota ucvcrsl dilTcrrnt, clrlnll-

- Office Nstionnl d'fit~ltleae t do IErchrrrhc~A1Zdronpntinlen, CI~BtiIlon-ao118-

13ngncux. Frnnce
titics. Thus, for vxnmple, 1 clrriotru tho rcniat.ancr cocfficictit of pipe flow, k ~ o t lI:aniin~rr
~
turhr~lent,,and in the tlieory of stability of ln~ninnrhorrndnry lnyera i t denotes tlic r\~nvrlc-ngl.l~
o[n clintnrbnnco. Sirnilnrly, k tlenotes t.her~nalconclnctivity it1 the theory of t,hcrtt~nlbo~~nclttry
ant1

Proc. Roy. Sor. A - I'rr~ccc~lirr!l.~

of /he Ro!lnl Socirl~y.L o n d o i ~ ncricn
, A
Iayera, nntl llic licigllt of n prot~lbcrnncein thc discussion of the i ~ ~ f l u d ~of
turbulent flow.
i c cr o ~ ~ g l i n c(XI
~~s

I? I\ I< - Itoynl Aircraft I'~nt:~l~linl~l~~r~it.(:rrnt

I%rit,~~iri 'I'llr follorving in n lint of ~ y n ~ b o lnn~ o s tro~nnlotllyused in 1,110book.
USAF - Unitctl Stntrn Air Irorcr

V Dl - Vcrein Drr~tsclirrIngrnicr~rc(German Society of Engineem), Dueascidorf.

Publial~es:Poruchg. 1ng.-Wcs. with its supplement Fomchrtngsheft
I. General symbols

(aro nbovc) .1 -- wcl.tccl nrcn, or fronlnl nrca

- J n l ~ r l ~ ~rlor
t r l\Vissc:nncl~nft~lic.he~i
~ (:cncllnchnft fur I,r~lt.f:iI~rt,
1952- l!)(Y2; c: -, vc:lorit,y of R ~ I I I I C ~
fiir I,11ft- rrntl IZ.ar~nifal~rt,, lf)liJ--1975 ( H . J%lenkarltl W. SCIIIIIZ, ctls., d, L) = dintiictcr

ZAMM
Vicweg, Ilrn~it~ocliwcig) g
h --
E nrcclcrntiotl (IUC tn grnvily
rhnniirl wirlt h

ZAMI' - Zcibchrifl fiir nngnt~innrllr:Mnlheninlik sm! Phy,vik, nasrl. Switzerland

I, 1, lrng611
p = I)rranllro (Torco prr rinil nrm)
ZFM - Zoitschrifl /iir Flqtechnik und rlfolorla/lschi//ahrt, Munich nnd Ilerlin. T = 4 e V 2 = tlyrian~icl~rntl
Gersnnriy
r, R -
r, 4, 2 = cylindricnl coordinntea
radiun
a - nirnn velocity (in pipc)
Urn =. free-ntrcnni velocity
U(z) -- velocity in potrnt.inl flow
u,v, cu = velocity coniponcnta
72 = tempornl mean of velocity (pipc or bonnrlary Iayrr)
z, y, z = cnrtcsinn coordinntes
V = frcc-strcnnl velocity
e = dcnsit.y ( 1 1 1 ~per s unit volume)
w = nngulsr velocity

A, = eddy viacoaity
b = width of jet or wake
c~ = drag coefficient
c, = akin-friction coefficient
c,' = locnl akin-friction coefficient
D drag force
-
5

l l l z -- t51/,3z first nhnpr fnetor of \~rltwityj~rofilr

 I.int, of tnost commonly rtscd syrnhols
List of most cornmor~lyused syliibola
IV. Thermal and compre~oibleboundary layers
If,,= d,/rl, = uecond eltape factor of velocity profile
M = (rrlc) = Mnch nu~nbcr
k = l~eiglitof rorrgllnrss elemcnt (protuberance)
ks = lieiglit of grain for eq~iivalentaand rougl~ness
c
n =-
I=I/jyije)
c,,, c,
-
kle c,, = tl~rrmaldiS11oivity

--;
velocity of sortnd
spccific I~cntsn t constant presutlre antl volume. rco~~cctivcly
K = sl~npcfactor of velocity profilc in boundary layer E = Umz/c,, A T = Fhkert number
1 = mixing lcngtll G = qPP AT/iv2 = Crasltof nnnihrr
R = (VLIl! or ridlv or Ud/v) = Reynolds rluniber h - cntl~olpy
Rr = Riclinrdson numbcr k - t.hrrn~alcontlnrtivity

- -
S = Strorlhnl nnlnl>cr M -. Ir/r - AIILCII 1111tt11)er
T = turbnlcncn intensity (also dcgrce or level of turbulence) N = ul/k N~lsscltI I U I I I ~ C ~
u', v', w' = colnponcnt.9 of turbulent, velocity P v/n - 1'randt.l nr~~nl)cr
. ~ . .-
, u' v' . . . = teniporal means of tnrbr~lentvelocities
~ ' 2 v'*, (1 - lleat llrix (qrlant.ity of Itrat prr tanit. :rrc% and Lintc)
U = ~naxintr~tn vclocity at bipc centre r = rccovrry factor
U, = free sLrenin velocity 11' = gns conntant
4 <G 7 friction vclocity Ri - - -- {(qle)(rlQ/tly))/(d(l/dy)2rv =. Iticl~ardsonrturnlwr
E'* =
?/ = dintnncc from wall
S,
S-- N/RP = St,:ulhn nnn~l)rr
Srltniirlt. 1111nll1rr
tj = boundary-layer tllickncss
dl = dinplacc~ncrtttllickness
- 7
I = Lcln~)eraLurc
6, = m o ~ n r n t n ~thickness
n T,, = ndia1)atic \\.nil lon~l>rr:~t,r~rc (rec:ovc!ry I.enll~orat.~~n!)
= tc~nl,rr:it.~~rc : ~ Lhn
t wall
6, = energy thickness
E~ = a1)parent (virtual) kincrriatic viscouity in turbulent flow ("erldy viscosity") a
/I
--
'I1,,,
cocllirirnt of 1ic:rL t.rirnsfr:r
coefficient of t l ~ c r ~ n aex~)atlsior~
l
t] = yv+/v = dirnrnuionlcss distance from wall
x = empirical constant in tl~rbulcntflow; 1 = xy -c,,/c,
rjY -- incnt.rol)ic rxl)oncnt
Lhicknc.ss of t.l~c.rn~nl I~onnrl~rry 1:ryc.r
1 = rcuish.nce cocfficictit of pipe flow
A = uhapc faotor of vclocit,y profile in Ialninar 1)onndary layer A 7' = ternprrnll~rcclill'crcncc
1' = absolnte viscosity rD = dissip~~Lion fnnrt,io~i
v = /c/e = kinclnatic viscosit,~ rr, = exponcnt. in visrosit,y-tcl~ipcdr~rr r~*l:lLiol~
r = shearing stress (force per unit area)

- 7,. 7," = ullearing stress a t a wall

9 Z L / V * = di111cnsio111cssvelocity
y~ = st.rrani ftlnction

111. Transition from lnnlinar to turbulent flow

c = /I/a = r , 4- iri
cr = a~nplifimbion (or damping) factor
c, = wave propagation velocit.y of disturbance
RCriL -= ( l J , n ~ ~ l / ~ ~=) r critical
ril Itcynolds nn~nber
T,
-- Ttlylor nt~rnbcr

--
u', 11'
IT(!/)
vrlority co~nponc~ltrl of disttirbnncc
vr1ocit.y profilc in boundary layer ,

-
U,,,(T) vcIocit.y in potential flow
/I /I, -1- i/It
pi = alr~plifirat.ion(or damping) factor
I

p, = circnlar frcqecncy of disturbance

y = inkrrnit.t*ncy factor
A = 2nla = wavelcngt,h of dist,urbattce
+(y) = amplit,udc of nt.rcam function of disturbance