Module 9 - Advanced Transmission Analysis and Planning

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Advanced Transmission
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Analysis and Planning
Study Techniques
Presented at the Jamaica Public Service
Company
March 19-22, 2019
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Restricted © Siemens Industry, Inc. 2019 usa.siemens.com/pti-edu
Power Academy Contact Information
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Siemens Industry, Inc.
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Siemens Power Technologies
International
Siemens Power Academy,
© 2019 Siemens Industry, Inc., Siemens Power Technologies International (Siemens PTI), ECCN: EAR99
400 State Street
Schenectady, NY 12305
EM Phone: (518) 395-5005
E-mail:
power-academy.us@siemens.com
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Siemens Power Academy TD – NA

Advanced Transmission Analysis and Planning Study Techniques Page #TOC-2
Exclusive Copyrighted Property
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Course notes provided to course participants in any form, electronic or otherwise,
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are the exclusive copyrighted property of Siemens Industry, Inc., Siemens Power
Technologies International. Course participants may only use the course notes
for completion of the course and for each participants own future reference.
Course participants may not make copies or share the course notes in any way.
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Course Objective
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• Provide a basic understanding of concepts, criteria, tools and methodologies
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for modern transmission planning
• Discuss issues and work through examples
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Course Outline
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1. Overview
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• System Performance Objectives
2. Transmission Planning Criteria
• Deterministic Criteria
• Test Conditions and Performance Measure
•
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Probabilistic Measure
3. Transmission Planning Methodologies

• Alternatives, Optimization
• Horizon Year and Staging
• Scenarios, Sensitivities
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• Trade-Off, Congestion

Course Outline
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4. Analysis Methods & Tools – Part 1
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• Power Flow Analysis
• Contingencies
• Modeling System Responses
• Computing Probabilistic Indices
•
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5. Analysis Methods and Tools – Part 2
• Linear and AC Transfer Analyses
Reactive Power Planning and QV Analysis
• Optimal Power Flow
• Dynamic Simulations
• Studying Voltage Stability
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Course Outline
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6. Current Trends
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• Merchant Transmission Projects
• Renewable Resources
• FACTS Devices
• Physical Security Concerns
• System Restoration
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• Interconnection with Neighbors
7. Modern Planning Method

• Planning Approach and Procedures
8. Case Study
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• Assumptions, Analyses, Plans Development

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Overview
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Restricted © Siemens Industry, Inc., 2019 usa.siemens.com/pti-education

Transmission Planning - Industry Needs
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• Key objective of planning is to optimize cost and reliability.
• Also considers economics, social perception of service, institutional
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frameworks and organization initiatives.
• Ensures near term solutions also satisfies long term needs.
• Evolution of electric power system introduces more uncertainties, e.g.,
independent developments of generation and transmission projects.
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• Be ready to adapt to multiple future scenarios.
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Advanced Transmission Analysis and Planning Study Techniques Page 1-2
Power System Studies
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Transmission planning requires system studies involving:
• Technical factors and designs (HVAC or HVDC? voltage level? etc.)
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• Economics (investment and return)
• Reliability (fundamental issue)
• Institutions (regulations and industry standards)
• Public (environmental and public concerns)
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• Increased complexities require efficient analysis tools.
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Interconnected System
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• AC interconnections over wide geographic areas
• Operating in electrical synchronism
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• Frequency is identical everywhere, when averaged over time periods
measured in seconds
External
system
Transmission
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plant
EHV Substation
Sub-transmission
Coal
plant
Transmission
Generator
Hydro
plant
Substations
Transformer
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Distribution
Distribution
Load

Example of Large Interconnection Systems
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AC Networks Linked by DC
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Nelson River
3,800 MW
James Bay
2,250 MW
McNeill
Vancouver 150 MW Eel River
Island 320 MW
Miles City Chateauguay
200 MW 1,000 MW
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Pacific Intertie
3,100 MW
M Hamil
100 MW
Inter-mountain
1,920 MW
Black-water
Square Butte
500 MW
Sidney
200 MW
CU
1,000 MW
Oklaunton
200 MW
Highgate
Madawaska
350 MW
Sandy
Pond
200 MW
Eddy County
200 MW
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Back-to-Back
Two-Terminal

Characteristics of Large Scale Systems
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• Complex System Behavior
• Nonlinear Response
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• Communications
• Computer Control
• Competition
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Power System Response
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System Reinforcement
Operator
Actions
POWER LFC
SYSTEM
CONTROLS Prime Mover Control
Generator Control
Protection
HVDC, SVC
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POWER
SYSTEM
PHENOMENA
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Economics
Frequency Variations
Operations Planning
Planning
Surges
10-4 10-3 10-2 .1 1 10 100 1000 104 105 106 107 108 109
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Time Period
in Seconds
1 cycle 1 min. 1 hr 1 day 1 wk 1 yr

System Response Time Frames
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• Surges – Switching events and fast controls of power electronic devices, such
as HVDC, SVC, fast-acting exciters.
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• Power Swings – Electrical and mechanical power imbalance can lead to
sustained oscillations.
• Inertial Response – Load/generation imbalance triggers inertial response of
synchronous generators, or synthetic inertia of wind/solar converters.
• Frequency Variation – Sustained energy imbalance can result in significant
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frequency deviations, requiring load frequency control and operator actions.
• Economic Operation – System operators continuously adjust network controls
and purchases to improve economics over minutes, hours, days.
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• Operations Planning - Looking days to a year ahead to ensure system
adequacy and security.
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• Planning – Seek balance in technical, economic, environmental and financial
aspects of power system expansion over a period of 5 to 20 years.

Simulation Tools
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Reliability
Production Simulation
Unit Commitment
SIMULATION Security Constrained Optimization

TOOLS
Optimal Power Flow
Power Flow
Dynamic Simulation
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POWER
SYSTEM
PHENOMENA
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Switching Surge Program
TNA
Power Swings
Economics
Frequency Variations
Operations Planning
Planning
Surges
10-4 10-3 10-2 .1 1 10 100 1000 104 105 106 107 108 109
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Time Period
in Seconds
1 cycle 1 min. 1 hr 1 day 1 wk 1 yr

Analysis Methods and Tools
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• Surge phenomena – Electromagetic transient (EMT) studies
• Power flow – steady state analysis of thermal loadings and voltages.
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• Dynamic simulation – analyze system undergoing significant variations in
power and voltage after faults and/or equipment tripping.
• Fault analysis – Assess adequacies of protection equipment.
• Optimal power flow – Steady state power flow that automatically adjust
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system controls to meet desired objective, such as minimizing losses while
observing system constraints.
• Unit commitment – Determining timing of generation schedules.
• Production cost simulation – Calculating cost of generation over time (up to a
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year) by committing and dispatching units and observing steady state power
flow constraints.
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• Reliability analysis – Assess reliability of generation and transmission
systems.

What is Reliability?
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Reliability is a measure on the ability of the electric power system to deliver
electricity to all points of utilization within accepted standards and in the amount
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desired.
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Basic Aspects of Power System Reliability
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• Adequacy - Ability of system to supply aggregate electrical demand and
energy requirements of their customers at all times, taking into account
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scheduled and reasonably expected unscheduled outages of system
elements
• Security - Ability of system to withstand sudden disturbances, such as electric
short circuits or unanticipated loss of system elements.
• Integrity - Ability of system to remain interconnected and in operation under
extreme events
contingencies
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• Restorability - Ability of system to recovery or restore speedily following
• Transfer Capability - Ability of system to move power from one area/region to

another.
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Reliable Electric Power
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Keeping the lights on
Unreliable power resulting in
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• (unrecoverable) costs
• system breakdown
• unrest
• chaos
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Focus is on minimizing unreliability
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Bulk Power System Performance Objectives
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1. Provide adequate capability to meet demand – capacity and transmission
reserves
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2. Preserve system security – able to recover from credible contingencies
3. Preserve system integrity – more extreme contingencies will not lead to
uncontrolled separation
4. Limit extent of bulk power system failure – take necessary defensive actions
such as controlled separation, load shedding, generation tripping
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5. Promote rapid restoration – plans for blackstart, load pickup, reenergization
6. Provide for strategic long-term capabilities – consider diversity of resources,
emergency capabilities, energy policies
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Other Bulk Power System Objectives
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• Communication, control and emergency supply
• Financial resource to maintain and upgrade
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• Analytical tools and skills are retained
• Integration with overall system development
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Characteristics of a Well-Planned System
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1. Adequate for normal and emergency conditions
2. Balance in size and strength
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3. Effectively maintained
4. Well protected
5. Facilitated recovery from disturbances
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Adequate and Secure Design
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• Internal transmission and interconnections have sufficient capacity to meet
demand even under uncertainties
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• Capability to withstand credible (probable) events
• Ride through extreme (less probable) events
• Isolate problems consistently through protection schemes
• Recover with restoration process
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Maintaining Suitable Balance
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Reliability is distributed
• elements have similar reserve in capacity
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• avoid overconcentration in generation and transmission
Compensate imbalanced by:
• maintenance
• protection
• operating procedures
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Characteristics of Today’s Systems
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Reliable on a system-basis
• Actual reliability varies by location
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• Prevalence of remedial measures (Operating procedures)
• Designed to survive the most severe probable events (Umbrella model)
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Steps in Transmission Planning
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Identify system weaknesses
• Study present system operation
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Develop set of options
• Detailed analysis and modeling
Develop a plan from the options
• The plan is as good as the data, assumptions, methodology
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Contents of Plans
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New facilities
• type, physical specifications
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• location
• characteristics
Upgrades and Modifications
Cost
Alternatives
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What is Considered a “Reliable?” Transmission
System?
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Meets reliability criteria
• Deterministic
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• Defined in planning guides
• Defined in operating standards (grid codes)
Recognizes probable and less probable events
• N-1, N-1-1 and N-2
• Extreme events
Voltage and reactive control
• reactive reserve
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• prevent voltage collapse
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Methods and Tools for Transmission Planning
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• Apply traditional planning methodologies
• Automate by use of computers.
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• Adapt to changes in power systems – introduction of energy markets,
separation of generation and transmission, competitive environment
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Planning/Reliability
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Criteria
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Transmission Planning Objectives
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• Assess performance or future system for a variety of test conditions
• Identify weaknesses and possible remedies.
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System Conditions Tested
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• Normal
• All elements in or ”N” condition
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• Probable events
• Single contingencies or “N-1” condition
• Double circuit outages
• Less probable events
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• Double contingencies or “N-2” condition
• Multiple circuits on same ROW
• Dynamic contingencies
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• Faults with normal clearing
• Faults with delayed clearing
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• Extreme contingencies
•
Umbrella Principle
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If the system survives under the more common types of critical events, it is
considered sufficiently covered.
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Test Procedures
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• Set up pre-contingency state (base case or normal condition)
• Apply disturbance
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• Assess system condition immediately after disturbance (stability)
• Assess system condition after several minutes (steady-state)
• May include automatic or operator initiated actions.
• tripping sequence and/or operator assisted corrective actions.
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• Compare against acceptable performance criteria
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Some Automatic or Operator Initiated Actions
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• Special relaying schemes
• Operating guides
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• Transformer tap-control and phase-shifter angle adjustment
• Capacitor/reactor switching
• Generation re-dispatch
• Load shedding
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Typical Acceptance Criteria
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• Equipment within operating limits – thermal loadings and voltages
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• System is Stable
• dynamically
• transient
• voltage
• No or minimum load curtailment
• No widespread failure
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Transmission Reliability in North America
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• North American Electric Reliability
Corporation (NERC) is the Electric
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Reliability Organization (ERO) NERC
whose mission is to ensure the
reliability of the Bulk Electric Power
System in North America. Regional Reliability
Councils
• Works with stakeholders and
standards.
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regional reliability councils to create
and update mandatory reliability
• Purpose is to protect the system

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Power Pools, RTOs/ISOs and
TransCos
from events that can result in

widespread interruption of power,
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such as cascading outages and Individual Transmission Providers
instability.

Reliability Regions
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• Florida Reliability Coordinating Council (FRCC)
• Midwest Reliability Organization (MRO)
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• Northeast Power Coordinating Council (NPCC)
• Reliability First (RFC)
• SERC Reliability Corporation (SERC)
• Southwest Power Pool Reliability Entity (SPP RE)
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• Texas Reliability Entity (Texas RE)
• Western Electric Coordinating Council (WECC)
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Each regional reliability
organization monitors the
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operation of its own
regional electricity grid.

Independent System Operators & Regional
Transmission Organizations
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• Alberta Electric System Operator (AESO)
• California Independent System Operator (CAISO)
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• Electric Reliability Council of Texas (ERCOT)
• Midcontinent Independent System Operator, Inc. (MISO)
• New Brunswick Power System Operator (NBPSO)
• ISO New England (ISO-NE)
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• New York Independent System Operator (NYISO)
• Ontario Independent Electricity System Operator (IESO)
• PJM Interconnection (PJM)
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• Southwest Power Pool (SPP)
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Functions of ISOs & RTOs
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• Operate electricity grids, administer wholesale electricity markets, and provide
reliability planning for bulk electricity system.
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• Can have their own reliability criteria, as long as they meet applicable NERC
standards.
• Define contingency tests and loading limits.
• Focus on integrity of regional bulk power system and impact of one utility
upon another.
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• Individual transmission owners can apply their own criteria, as long as the
potential adverse impacts are local.
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Regional System Plans
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• ISO/RTO regularly performs studies to develop regional system plans.
• Identify system needs to maintain reliability operation over a 10-year horizon.
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• May issue request for proposals to find competitive solutions.
• Reliability upgrades - address reliability needs.
• Market efficiency upgrades - reduce congestion and hence total production
cost to supply system load.
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• Public policy upgrades - meet objectives of regulatory/government bodies,
e.g., renewable energy targets.
• Other projects - projects funded by private developers, system upgrades
associated with generator interconnections, upgrades/replacements of
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existing facilities.
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Transmission Cost Allocation
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• Who pays for regulated (non-merchant) transmission projects?
• Transmission owners submit application for projects that qualify for regional
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rate recovery.
• ISO reviews costs, decide on whether they are reasonable and in accordance
with good utility practice.
• ISO determines if costs should be regionalized or localized.
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• Regionalized - Project improves reliability throughout the region. Costs are
shared by the region.
• Localized - Project does not provide regional reliability benefit. Costs are the
responsibility of the transmission owner.
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Deterministic Reliability Criteria
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• Criteria can vary due to different system requirements and characteristics,
planning approaches and traditions, and financial capabilities.
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• System characteristics are dependent on network density, location and types
of energy sources, transmission voltage levels, etc.
• Hence, failure phenomena of concern may vary.
• Most large power systems consider the commonly recognized types of
failures, such as overloads, low and high voltages, voltage collapse,
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cascading, uncontrolled separation and instability.
• Criteria are often shaped by traditions and associations with technical
institutions.
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Framework for Deterministic Reliability Criteria
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Deterministic transmission planning criteria should focus on:
• Failure phenomena and events that can occur in the power system, whether
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or not such events have resulted in problems in the past
• Frequencies of hazards that can cause such failure events to occur
• Resulting severities of such failure events, including the durations of the failed
conditions.
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• Aims to provide minimum impacts on consumers for frequently occurring
disturbances and marginal impacts (including some service interruptions) for
very severe but infrequent disturbances.
• Transmission reinforcements will be called upon to avoid frequent troubles as
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well as severe yet credible troubles.
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Defining Test Conditions
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• Equipment should operate within normal thermal ratings and voltage limits
when system is operating with all scheduled elements in service (N-0).
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• Equipment should operate within emergency thermal ratings and emergency
voltage limits immediately after a disturbance involving loss of a single
element (N-1), such as a single generator, transformer or line.
• Equipment should operate within emergency thermal ratings and emergency
voltage limits immediately after a disturbance involving loss of two circuits
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connected to the same circuit breaker in a substation or two circuits sharing
same towers (N-2). A less severe type of double contingency allows for
system adjustments after outage of the first element (N-1-1).
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• System should be able to withstand extreme (more severe but less probable)
disturbances without suffering voltage collapse, cascading failure or instability.
E.g., loss of right-of-way, loss of entire bus section.
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Example of Contingency Events
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Category Description
P0 System Intact
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P1 Single contingency-line, transformer, generator or shunt device by 3ø fault or loss
of a single pole of a DC line by a SLG fault
P2 Single event which may result in multiple element outage - open line w/o a fault,
SLG fault on bus section fault or breaker
P3 Loss of generator unit followed by system adjustments + P1 event. No load shed
is allowed. (N-1-1 event)
P4
P5
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SLG fault + stuck breaker. Some classes of events allow non-consequential load
loss and interruption of firm transmission service
SLG fault + relay failure to operate (delayed clearing). Non-consequential load
loss and interruption of firm transmission service allowed for HV system
P6 Two overlapping single contingencies. Non-consequential load loss and

interruption of firm transmission service allowed for EHV & HV system
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P7 Common tower outages; Loss of bipolar DC. Non-consequential load loss and
interruption of firm service allowed for EHV & HV system

Defining Acceptable System Conditions
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• Normal thermal ratings and voltage limits that can be sustained indefinitely
without increased risk of equipment failure or loss of life.
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• Emergency thermal ratings and voltage limits that can be tolerated for a
relatively shore time, such as a few hours (long term emergency) and a few
minutes (short term emergency)
• Availability of automatic control or operation action that can relieve the criteria
violation.
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Defining Tests to be Performed
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• Steady state power flow to assess adequacy.
• Dynamic simulation to assess stability.
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• Other analyses to assess voltage instability and overload cascading
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Example of Reliability Criteria
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Test Conditions Analysis Acceptable System Conditions
Reliability Test Normal Steady Steady State System within normal loading and
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Criteria for State Power Flow voltage limits
Transmission Conditions
Expansion Single Steady State System within emergency loading
Contingencies Power Flow and voltage limits immediately after
Steady State outage and within normal limits
after system adjustments
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Contingencies
Steady State
Dynamic
Contingencies
Steady State
Power Flow
Steady State
Analysis
Dynamic
System within emergency loading
and voltage limits after system
adjustments
No voltage collapse or overload
cascading
Transiently and dynamically stable
Analysis
Supplementary Extreme Steady State Avoidance of widespread load
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Test to Assess Contingencies and Dynamic interruptions, uncontrolled
System Analyses cascading, system blackouts
Reliability

Example of Steady State Performance Criteria
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• Transmission lines :
• normal continuous rating – based on standard ampacity of conductor
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• long term emergency, 2 to 4 hours - 120oC to 130oC for ACSR conductors,
90oC for aluminum alloy conductors, typically 115% - 120% of normal rating.
• long term emergency, 15 minutes – allow operation at higher temperatures
with some loss of life, typically 130% - 135% of normal rating.
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0.90 - 1.10 pu under N-1,
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• Transformers – typically 100%, 120% and 150% of nameplate rating.
• Bus voltages - 0.95 pu - 1.05 pu normal,
<10% change during a contingency.

• Voltage change <2% for shunt
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capacitor/reactor switching.

Test of Dynamic Performance
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• Main concern is uncontrolled system separation triggered by large power
swings or fluctuations in voltage or frequency.
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• 3-phase fault or single-phase fault with delayed clearing or stuck breaker
condition.
• Fault on transmission line, transformer, bus section.
• Outcome can influence choice of substation configuration, e.g., breaker-and-
one-half scheme for bulk power system stations.
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Test of Extreme Contingencies
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• Initial outage of a generator, line, transformer or single pole of DC line,
followed by 3-phase fault with normal clearing
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• 3-phase fault on a generator, line, transformer or bus section with delayed
clearing (caused by stuck breaker or relay failure).
• Test if system can withstand contingency without uncontrolled cascading,
widespread load interruption of system blackout.
• Determine the need of RAS or SPS.
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Some Other Transmission System Criteria
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Contingencies Failure Types
Country Load Levels
Separation/
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N-1 N-2 Overload Voltage
Collapse
Australia Vary 1N 1N + 1NM or N-1-G1 yes yes
Belgium2 Vary 1N or 1G2 1N or 1G + 1NM2 yes yes
Brazil peak and off-peak 1N 2L yes yes yes
Czechoslovakia vary 1N, 1C or 1G 2N, 2C or 2G yes yes

Germany vary 1N or 1G no yes yes
Hungary
Ireland
Japan
Netherlands
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peak load
winter & autumn
peak
peak
1N or 1G
1N or 1G
1N or 1G
1N or 1G
2N at nuclear plants
2L
combined with N-1

yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
Summer, winter 1N, 1G, 1L, 1T or

New Zealand NERC P3, P4, P5, P6 or P7 yes yes yes
peak light load 1C
Romania 1N or 1G 2L at nuclear plants yes
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South Africa vary 1N 1L + 1L or 1T yes yes
UK-National Grid Vary 1L, 1T3 2L, 2T, 1L&1T3 yes yes yes

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Deterministic Vs
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Probabilistic Reliability
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Outcome of Deterministic Testing
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• Pass or Fail
• No in-between
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• Except for operating procedures
• Planned systems all meet the same criteria
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Probabilistic Reliability Criteria
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Considers specific probability or risk of events
• What’s the difference with deterministic criteria?
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System Problems & Customer Impacts
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Assessment Approach Criteria
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Deterministic
No criteria violation
Go – no go!
Probabilistic Frequency of
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System Problems
Probabilistic –
system problem < x/year
Curtailed load or energy

Consumer Impact MWh/year < y/year
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Probabilistic Reliability Indices: Frequency, Duration & Severity (Loss of Load
Expectation or LOLE, Expected Unserved Energy or EUE)

Probabilistic Methods
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• Contingency enumeration
• Monte Carlo simulation
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Requirements for Probabilistic Methods
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Outage rates for transmission and generation equipment
• generic
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• specific
Load-varying model
• load duration curve
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Unserved Energy
Load Duration Curve Model
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EN
9
7
ENS
5
584 2336 4088 5840 7592
E M Load
Hours
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Examples of Probabilistic Indices
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System Problem Indices
• Frequency and Duration of:
EN
• overloads
• voltage violations
• load shedding
• voltage collapse
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Deterministic to Probabilistic Analysis
S
EN
Northern
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Deterministic:
Line is
overloaded for
outage of a
parallel circuit
System
Load
Area
Probabilistic:
Line is overloaded
once a year with
average duration
of 2.5 hours
Southern
System
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Introducing Customer Focus in
Reliability Indices
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• Measure impact of system criteria violations on customers
• Use load shedding to eliminate overloads, low voltage and voltage collapse
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• Measure over a load cycle (e.g., one year)
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Examples of Probabilistic Indices
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Load Curtailment Indices:
F = S Fi in times/year
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• Frequency of load curtailment,
D = S Fi*Di in hour/year
• Hours of load curtailment,
• Average MW curtailed, C = S Fi*Ci in MW/year
• Energy unserved, E = S Fi*Di*Ci in MWHr/year

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Examples of Probabilistic Indices (continued)
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Normalized Bulk indices
• Bulk power interruption index
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• Cn = C/Cmax (per year)
• Bulk power energy curtailment index
• En = E/Cmax (hour/year)
• System Minutes
• En x 60 (minutes/year)
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System vs. Customer Indices:
More Contrast
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EN
Northern
System
E M System:
Line is
overloaded for
outage of a
parallel circuit
Load
Area
Customer:
25 MW of load is
curtailed on
outage of a circuit
Southern
System
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Deterministic vs. Probabilistic
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Deterministic: Probabilistic:
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• 12 contingencies result in • Frequency of an overload within
overload system is .2658 times/year
• 2 of the contingencies involve • Frequency of overloading line A
line A is 0.027 times/year
• Maximum overload is 12% • Average duration of overload is
E M 4.6 hours
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Unserved Energy
S
EN
1942 MW-
E Mhrs/yr
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547 MW-
hrs/yr
Value-Based Planning
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• Cost of Unreliability
• Cost of Reinforcements
EN
• Cost of Must-Run Contracts
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Siemens Energy Inc., Siemens Power Technologies
Advanced Transmission Analysis and Planning Study Techniques 3-40
Page 2-40
Cost of Unreliability
S
EN
Damage Cost Function
400
350
300
Interruptible
250
M
$/kW
Firm
200 Critical
150
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100
50
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0 Hours
0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Reliability Worth of Reinforcements – Example of
Value-Based Planning
S
EN
Option Invest Unrel
Do nothing 0 3356
Add Generator 4750 215
Add Line 2930 52
E Improve Grounding
Repower Gen
Add Capacitor
M 98
52
490
3160
2346
365
Live Line Maint 440 3327
Interruptible Load 87 2553
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S
EN
Transmission Planning
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Methodologies
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Steps in Transmission Planning
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Identify system weaknesses
• study present system operation
EN
Develop set of system reinforcement options
• Detailed analysis and modeling
Develop a plan from the options
• the plan is only as good as the
• data and assumptions
• methodology
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Input to Transmission Planning Process
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• Existing transmission system and committed facility additions.
• Load predictions for next 5 to 20 years.
EN
• Generation expansion plan – locations, types and sizes.
• Transmission ROW and substation site restrictions.
• Technical data on transmission facility options.
• System performance (reliability) criteria.
• Cost and other economic data.
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• Environmental and regulatory attributes.
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SI

Technical Analyses
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Simplified Power Flow Studies
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More
Alternatives ß Less Details
AC Power Flow Studies
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Stability Studies
ß
E M Special Transient Studies
ß
Short Circuit Studies
ß
Line Design Studies
Fewer More Details
ß
SI
Alternatives
Protection Coordination Studies

Output from Transmission Planning Process
S
• Economic transmission expansion plan that will perform satisfactorily
throughout planning period.
EN
• Identifications of locations and connections of new or replaced facilities.
• Identifications of characteristics of facilities, e.g., AC or DC, kV level, current
rating.
E M
SI

Planning Methods
S
• Alternatives
• Optimization
EN
• Horizon Year and Staging
• Scenarios
• Sensitivities
• Trade-Off/Risk Analysis
• Congestion
• Wait-and-See
E M
SI

Alternatives Method
S
• “I must have CHOICES!”
• Simple and straightforward to apply when choices are limited
EN
• Best for short term planning when risks are minimal and costs are relatively
limited.
E M
SI

Alternatives Method (continued)
S
Identify Basic
Alternatives
EN
ß
Engineer Alternatives to
Functional Equivalency
ß
E M Select Prime
Alternatives
Optimize Prime
Alternatives
ß
SI
Select Final
Plan

Notes on Alternatives Method
S
• Alternatives are not all equal
• Tend to select expensive option
EN
• May not be optimal
• Significant amount of work involved
• Systematic procedures that can be automated
E M
SI

Example of Alternative Method
S
• Develop several transmission alternatives
EN
• Identify attributes and perform measures
• Perform ranking of alternatives
• Apply weights to different attributes to provide overall measure:
Ranking of Alternatives
E M
Attributes
Net present worth

Environmental impact (ROW)
A
2
1
B
3
2
C
1
3
Operation flexibility 2 2 1
Transmission strength 3 2 1
SI
Favorable Financing 1 2 3

Optimization Method
S
• Compare alternatives which are technically feasible
• Develop algorithm to identify optimum plan
EN
• Define options for reinforcement at the start
• Define “objective function” from choices, e.g.:
Utility Function = a * Cost + b * Environmental+ c * Reliability + …
• Optimize objective function
• Not widely used in industry
E M
SI

Optimization Algorithms
S
• Gradient
• Linear programming
EN
• Integer programming
• Dynamic programming
• High-order optimization
E M
SI

Notes on Optimization Method
S
• Objective function can be artificial - requires all key factors expressed in the
same units of measurement
EN
• Model and criteria may have to be simplified
• Weighting factors may be subjective
• Several alternatives may have the same performance index.
• No insight as to selection process, other than index
M
• Provides “sensitivities” to objective function
• “Optimal” in mathematical sense may not be “optimal” in the practical sense
E
SI

Horizon Year and Staging Method
S
• For long range planning covering 10 to 20 years, year-by-year forward
planning may not produce the best plan, especially if new technologies may
EN
be introduced and replacement/upgrade decisions have to be made.
• Instead, apply forward planning for the horizon year and looking back at
several intermediate stages.
• Select a future (Horizon) year.
• Develop alternatives to satisfy needs in the Horizon year.
M
• Select one or more intermediate (Staging) years reflecting some critical
changes, e.g., addition/retirement of a major power plant
• Select projects from Horizon year which are applicable to the staging years
E
SI

Notes on Horizon Year and Staging
S
Horizon Year
• Most uncertainties
EN
• Most number of alternatives
Staging Years
• Less uncertainties
• Certain staging years are common to several horizon years
E M
SI

More Notes on Horizon Year and Staging
S
• Allows for a long-term view
• Selection of conditions for horizon year is critical to method
EN
• Develop flexible/adaptable plans
E M
SI

Scenarios Method
S
Represent future uncertainties by scenarios
• Typical scenarios:
EN
• load growth forecasts
• Fuel and hydro resource availabilities
• Severe weather models
• Generation location uncertainty
Develop plan for each scenario
M
Integrate scenarios by identifying common features
E
SI

Notes on Scenario Method
S
• Amount of effort increases with number of scenarios
• Scenarios may need to be qualified by, e.g., probability
EN
• Very flexible results
• Can identify robust projects
E M
SI

Example of Scenario Method
S
• Define scenarios representing different load forecasts, generation resources,
import capacities, etc.
EN
• Identify transmission projects for each scenario.
• Compare timing needs of projects, e.g.
• Project A needed immediately, irrespective of scenario.
• Project C needed in all scenarios, but timing varies.
M
• Project B needed in several,
unless Scenario D materializes.
• Best to proceed with Projects A and C.
E
• Find out likelihood of Scenario D.
SI

Sensitivities Method
S
• Develop basic plan
• Consider small changes to assumptions, typically, not the critical parameters
EN
that are represented as scenarios
• Test robustness of basic plan
• Determine amount of fine-tuning needed
E M
SI

Trade-off/Risk Method
S
• A plan may have conflicting objectives.
• Resolve conflicts by trading off different attributes within a plan or comparing
EN
with competing plans.
• Develop a set of plans according to pre-defined rules.
• For each plan, list attributes of interest (e.g., NPV, ROW requirement,
reliability, financing, operation flexibility, environmental impact, etc.)
M
• Measure attributes of each plan.
• Eliminate unacceptable or inferior plans.
• Select dominant plans (decision set)
• Measure robustness of plans decision set
E
• If plan is not completely robust, measure exposure.
• Develop hedges (new options) to protect against adverse futures.
SI

Congestion Method
S
• Used in open access market
• Identify transmission congestions
EN
• Measure impact of congestion
• Must-run MW
• Re-dispatch cost
• Identify transmission reinforcements to alleviate or minimize congestion
• Evaluate cost impact
E M
SI

Must-Run Generation
S
Reliability Must-Run
• Generation kept online to meet reliability criteria.
EN
Load Pocket
• dependent on external sources
• dependent on local generation
Associated with Congestion Management
E M
Import from
external Local
sources Generators
Load Pocket
SI

Must-Run Generation Assessment
S
Shut down all Redispatch
EN
Start units in load from external
area areas
Use optimal power
Normal Condition
flow to resolve Yes
Problems?
E M problem/s by
increasing dispatch
in area
No
Yes N-1 or N-2 Problems?

SI
No
Stop

Example of Must-Run Generation
S
• IEEE Reliability Test System
• Significant hydro and thermal
EN
generation resources in North
• North-to-south power transfer with
transmission constraints
• Some generators near load centers 170 MW
Must-Run
are must-run
E M 0 MW Must-
run
SI
133 MW
Must-run

Notes on Congestion Method
S
• Identifies incremental changes only
• Applicable for short-term planning
EN
• Does not work well for long-term applications
• Ideal for competitive environment
• Does not control future dispatch and generation
E M
SI

Wait-and-See Approach
S
• In open energy markets, planning of generation development is less
centralized.
EN
• Short lead time of modern generation projects, e.g., wind and solar, gas
turbines.
• Generation dispatch often dependent on bid strategies, therefore, more
difficult to predict power transfer needs.
• Strengthen transmission backbone and let generation develop around it.
requests.
M
• Make incremental changes in response to generation interconnection
• Failure to identify future load pockets may result in market power by local
E
generators.
SI

S
EN
Analysis Methods &
E M
Tools Part I
SI

Technical Analysis Methods & Tools
S
• Steady state power flow to identify transmission needs
• Multiple contingencies to test system reliability
EN
• Consideration of automatic or operator initiated system responses
• Computing probabilistic reliability indices
• Transfer limit analysis
• Reactive power planning using PV and QV analyses and Optimal Power Flow
• Voltage stability
E M
• Dynamic and transient stability
SI

S
EN
E M
Steady State Analysis
SI

Analytical Method: Power Flow
S
Power Flow
• define normal conditions
EN
• snapshots of “worst” states
E M
SI

Power Flow Solution
S
I =Y V
EN
Boundary conditions:
• loads
• generators
• swing bus
Non-linear, iterative solution

E M
SI

Power Flow Solution Methods
S
Gauss-Siedel
• Insensitive to poor initial voltage estimates
EN
• Slow convergence
Newton-Raphson
• Sensitive to poor initial voltage estimates
• Fast convergence
E M
SI

Comparison of Solution Algorithms
S
Method Advantages Disadvantages
EN
Use when: Do not use when:
n Data is suspect n Network has very low (or
n Poor initial voltage estimate negative) impedance
Gauss-Seidel n Newton-Raphson fails to branches
converge n Modified Gauss-Seidel
n Network has reactive power method works for negative
E M problems
Use when:
n Network is well conditioned
n Network contains negative
branches
Do not use when:

n Network contains branches
with low X/R ratios
Newton-Raphson reactance branches n Reactive power problems
n Converges quickly for well-
conditioned systems.
SI

Newton-Raphson Method
S
Initialize all voltages
EN
¯
Calculate:
é DPi ù é Dq i ù
ê DQ ú = [ J ]ê D E ú
ë iû ë i û
where: [ J ] is the Jacobian

matrix
¯
E M Do DP and DQ meet
convergence tolerance?
¯ No
Solve for Dq and D/E/ using

Jacobian inverse
¾¾®
Yes
Calculate
Line Flows
and Losses
Update voltage estimates:

SI
Enew = Eold + DE

Linearized “DC” Power Flow Model
S
• Approximation to conventional non-linear problem.
• Provides estimate of branch real power flows.
EN
• Considerable speed advantage.
• No convergence issues.
• Useful for processing many solutions, e.g., screening contingencies for thermal
overloads.
E M
SI

Linearized Power Flow Equation
S
V1 ÐQ1 V2 ÐQ 2
• Start from conventional AC non-linear Z = R+jX
branch equation:
EN
Bus 1 Bus 2
2
[ V1 - V2 ]* ½V1½ - ½V1½½V2½ ÐQ12
S12 = V1 I * = V1 =
Z R-jX
• Expression for real power flow:
R ½V1½2 - R ½V1½½V2½ cos Q12 + X ½V1½½V2½ sin Q12
P12 =
• Assume: Z12 » X12 i.e.

E M
| V1 | = | V2 | » 1.0
X >> R
sin Q12 » Q12 = Q1 - Q2 (radians)

R2 + X2
• Becomes linear set of equations relating Q12

P12 » Þ [P]=[B] [Q]
SI
X12
bus real power injections to bus angles :

Accounting for Transmission Losses in Linearized
Power Flow
S
• Ignoring all transmission losses in a large power system may result in
significant change in system swing bus power and hence power transfers
EN
through system.
• Main application of linear power flow is for contingency analysis.
• Calculate losses from AC power flow solution of base (pre-contingency) case.
• Assign loss as fictitious load at sending end of each branch.
solutions.
E M
• Assume losses are constant in subsequent post-contingency linear power flow
SI

AC Power Flow Solution Outcomes
S
1. Solution converges within desired accuracy or tolerance. Final bus voltage
magnitudes and angles can be used to compute branch flows. System state
EN
can be checked against performance criteria.
2. Fails to converge within desired tolerance due to some constraints, e.g.,
difficulties in controlling voltages using generators, transformer taps and other
shunt capacitors/reactors. Final bus voltage magnitudes and angles give only
approximate representation of branch loadings and bus voltages.
M
3. Solution diverges or “blows-up.” Numerical values of bus voltage magnitudes
and angles cannot give meaningful indication of system state.
E
SI

Diverged Power Flow Solution
S
• Power flow solution divergence often associated with singular Newton-
Raphson Jacobian matrix.
EN
• Often occurs when system state is weakened, e.g., during a severe
contingency.
• Resulting bus voltage magnitudes and angles are not useful (blown up).
• Try to interrupt power flow solution just before divergence and salvage some
meaningful information.
M
• Although solution is not converged, the final bus voltage magnitudes and
angles may indicate if parts of the system are highly stressed, e.g.,
experiencing voltage collapse.
E
SI

Non-Divergent Power Flow Algorithm
S
Initialize all voltages
¯
Calculate:
EN
é DPi ù é Dq i ù
ê DQ ú = [ J ]ê D E ú
ë iû ë i û
where: [ J ] is the Jacobian
matrix
¯
Do DP and DQ meet Calculate
convergence tolerance? ¾¾® Line Flows
Yes and Losses
E M ¯ No
Solve for Dq and D/E/ using
Jacobian inverse
m=1
¯
Update voltage estimates:
Enew = Eold + uDE

SI
¯ m=m/2
No Diverge? Yes

Non-Divergent Solution Monitor
S
ITER DELTAP BUS DELTAQ BUS DELTA/V/ BUS DELTAANG BUS SUMSQM ACCFAC
0.0 6.0319( 201 ) 1.4821( 205 ) 74.383 1.00000
0.0.1 0.3814( 205 ) 2.1465( 205 ) 8.1844 1.00000
EN
0.00000( ) 0.09540( 201 )
. Sum of Squares
. of Mismatches
.
2.0 0.1965( 205 ) 1.7818( 205 ) 5.7729 1.00000
2.0.1 0.0126( 206 ) 1.8110( 205 ) 5.9059 1.00000
2.0.2 0.1024( 205 ) 1.7964( 205 ) Reduce ACCFAC if 5.8190 0.50000
2.0.3 0.1495( 205 ) 1.7891( 205 ) SUMSQM not 5.7909 0.25000
2.0.4
2.0.5
2.0.6
2.0.7
2.0.8
2.0.9
2.0.10
2.0.11
E 0.1730(
0.1848(
0.1907(
0.1936(
0.1951(
0.1958(
0.1962(
0.1965(
205
205
205
205
205
205
205
205
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
1.7855(
1.7836(
1.7827(
1.7823(
1.7821(
1.7819(
1.7819(
1.7818(
M
205
205
205
205
205
205
205
205
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
0.00000( )
diminishing
0.00000( 102 )
5.7806
5.7765
5.7746
5.7737
5.7733
5.7731
5.7730
5.7729
0.12500
0.06250
0.03125
0.01563
0.00781
0.00391
0.00195
0.00000
TERMINATED AFTER 2 ITERATIONS--NON-DIVERGENT OPTION COULD NOT REDUCE MISMATCH
LARGEST MISMATCH: 19.65 MW 178.18 MVAR 179.26 MVA AT BUS 205 [SUB230 230.00]
SI
SYSTEM TOTAL ABSOLUTE MISMATCH: 646.83 MVA
Quit when Acceleration Factor
reduced to almost zero

Characteristic of Non-Divergent Power Flow Solution
S
EN
Mismatch >
100*Ptol
Mismatch >
10*Ptol
E M Mismatch <
Ptol
© Pow er Technologies, Inc. 1998

SI

S
EN
E M
Contingency Analysis
SI
Outline for Contingency Analysis
S
EN
E M
SI

Contingency Enumeration
S
Base Case
EN
Contingency from Implement
Contingency List Contingency
Perform islanding
New Island? Yes
redispatch
No
Store load shed

Solve power flow No Load shed? Yes Store load shed
Apply non-
E M
Implement trip
Yes
Converged?
Yes
Trip sequence active?
No
Overload or
voltage troubles?
No
Yes
Yes
divergent power
flow
Converged?
Store trouble/s
No Record voltages
No
Store load shed,

Corrective Identify corrective gen redispatch
Yes
actions active? actions and phase-
SI
shifter action
No
End of evaluation for

this contingency

Contingency List
S
Types of contingencies may include:
• Generator outages
EN
• Line outages
• Transformer outages
• Other outages, e.g., double-circuit tower failures
M
Computational effort increases with number of contingencies
• Use special algorithm to identify the more critical contingencies
• Perform simple calculations to screen out the less critical contingencies
E
SI

Applying Contingency Rankers
S
• Focus on contingencies with
significant impacts on branch
EN
loadings. LIS System
• Focus on contingencies with
significant impacts on bus
Contingency Area
voltages.
compare impacts and rank

contingencies.
E M
• Develop performance indices to
• Conduct detailed analyses only

Monitored Area
on those with more significant

impacts.
SI
• Tremendous saving in effort.

Contingency Screening
S
• Use linear of DC power flow to identify major loading issues (without
consideration of voltage changes and reactive power flows)
EN
• Perform AC power flow solution only on the area surrounding a contingency to
detect voltage problems.
• Screening methods are not time consuming and less problematic (in terms of
power flow solution convergence)
• After initial screening, perform more comprehensive analyses, e.g., using AC
M
power flow solutions, to evaluate the problematic contingencies.
E
SI

Contingency Analysis Process in PSSE
S
1. Prepare base case
2. Prepare input data files:
EN
• Study area
• Equipment to be monitored
• Contingencies to be tested
• Other auxiliary data files
•
E
DC contingency checking
M
3. Read basic input data files (DFAX)
4. Perform contingency analysis
• AC contingency solution
• Multi-level AC contingency solution
SI
5. Review results

Build Distribution Factor Data File (DFAX)
S
(Power Flow > Linear Network >
Build Distribution Factor Data File) SUB MON CON
EN
“Pre-processor” for contingency DFAX
and transfer limit calculations:
1. Reads data from:
E •
•
•
M
SUBsystem description file
MONitored element file
CONtingency description file
2. Calculates line outage distribution
DFX
factors – only for ”DC” analysis

SI
3. Stores information in binary output file
(DFX)

Subsystem Description File
S
SYSTEM MONITOR6
AREAS 6 10 -------> Areas 6 to 10 inclusive
EN
END
SYSTEM WEST
BUSES 3001 3008 -------> Buses 3001 through 3008 inclusive.
END
SUBSYSTEM CONT2 -------> “Subsystem” means the same as “System”
JOIN
END
END
END
E AREA 2
KVRANGE 230 500
M
-------> JOIN defines elements between 230 & 500 kV
“AND” within Area 2
Specify generator/load buses participating in generator/load shift for transfer limit analysis:
PARTICIPATE
SI
BUS 123 0.4
BUS 456 0.6
END
Monitored Element File
S
MONITOR BRANCHES
3004 152
EN
3006 153
3008 154
201 151
202 152
203 154
205 154
Interfaces can be input as
END
3004 152
3006 153
3008 154
E M
MONITOR INTERFACE WEST RATING 200 MW
individual branches or as a
group. E.g., Interface East
has all tie-lines from AREA
1 to AREA 2.
END
MONITOR INTERFACE EAST RATING 350 MW
SI
MONITOR TIES FROM AREA 1 TO AREA 2
END
END
More Monitored File Options
S
Monitor all branches
Monitor branches from bus 3004 (all branches connected to a bus)
EN
Monitor branches in area 2 (both branch ends must be within area)
Monitor ties from area 5 to zone 40 (from and to sequence significant)
Monitor branch from bus 100 to bus 200 to bus 300 (3-winding transformer)
Monitor branches in area 5 3WLOWVOLTAGE (low voltage bus does not have to
be within area 5)
M
Monitor voltage range all buses 0.9 1.1 (upper limit is optional)
Monitor voltage deviation all buses 0.1 0.05
E
SI

Contingency Description File
S
CONTINGENCY TRIP1NUCLEAR
REMOVE UNIT 1 FROM BUS 101 dispatch
EN
bus 3001 .2
bus 3008 .1
n Number of contingency
bus 201 .2
bus 206 .2 elements per event = 32.
bus 102 .3 n Contingency label has 128
end characters.
END
CONTINGENCY EASTLINE1
E M
TRIP LINE FROM BUS 3004 TO BUS 152
END
CONTINGENCY DOUBLE1
TRIP LINE FROM BUS 153 TO BUS 154 CKT 1
TRIP LINE FROM BUS 153 TO BUS 154 CKT 2
SI
END
END

More Specified Contingency Definitions
S
Close branch from bus 3003 to bus 3004
Trip line from bus 100 to bus 200 to bus 300 ckt 2
EN
Disconnect bus 500
Set bus 201 generation to 50 percent (of initial value; changes MW generation
only)
Decrease bus 6001 shunt by 100 percent
Reduce bus 501 load by 20 percent (maintain same power factor, error if
reduced value is negative)
M
Move 10 mw load from bus 401 to bus 402 (both buses must have in-service
loads; final load cannot be negative)
E
Remove unit 2 from bus 202
Add machine 1 to bus 5 (machine must initially be out-of-service)
Remove INDUCMACHINE 1 from bus 1234
SI
Add shunt 2 to bus 7890 (turn fixed shunt #2 on)

Multiple Contingency Specifications
S
SINGLE LINE IN AREA 5
DOUBLE LINE IN AREA 5 (all combinations of 2 branches within area)
EN
BUSDOUBLE LINE IN AREA 5 (all pairs of branches connected to each bus)
PARALLEL LINE IN AREA 5 (must have identical “from” and “to” buses, no 3-
winding transformers)
SINGLE MACHINE IN SUBSYSTEM ABC (at buses with multiple machines, the
one with largest PGEN selected)
M
SINGLE BUS IN KV 345 (disconnect buses)
E
“Line” and “branch” are used interchangeably
SI

AC Contingency Calculation Procedures
S
1. Power Flow>Linear Network>DFAX
• Pre-processing of subsystem, monitored element & contingency
DFAX
EN
description files.
• Distribution factors need not be calculated.
2. Power Flow>Contingency, Reliability, PV/QV Analysis>AC
Contingency Solution (ACCC)
• Defines solution mismatch tolerance. (MW / Mvar)
• Select solution engine: Full Newton, Fixed Slope Decoupled ACCC
•
•
•
•
E M
Selects power flow solution options (tap adjustments, etc.)
Designates Load Throwover Data File. (optional)
Performs contingency solutions & stores results in binary file.
3. Power Flow>Report>AC Contingency Report
Reads ac contingency output file. (binary) Report
• Applies filters to reduce volume of output.
• Selects report options - overload report, loading table, available
SI
capacity table.
• Output in spreadsheet or non-spreadsheet format.

AC Contingency Solution Options
S
EN
Solution
Options
Input and
E
output files
M
SI
Go Directly
Activate ACCC
to Reports
Browser
AC Contingency Reporting Options
S
Power Flow > Reports > AC
contingency reports …
EN
Report Format:
• Spreadsheet Overload Report
• Spreadsheet Loading Table
• Available Capacity Table
• Non-converged Network
E M
• Non-Spreadsheet Overload Report
• Non-Spreadsheet Loading Table
• Non-spreadsheet Corrective Actions

SI
Activate ACCC
Browser
Example of Contingency Analysis Report
S
EN
E M
SI

Example of Available Capacity Table
S
EN
E M
SI

Explanation of Branch Loading Reporting
S
MVA flow
EN
n % Loading in “MVA”: % Loading (MVA) = x 100
MVA rating
MVA flow
n Branch Flow in Ampere: I flow (amp) = x 1000
Ö3 x kV actual
n Branch Rating in Ampere:
n % Loading in Ampere:
E M I rating (amp) =
% Loading (amp) =
I flow
I rating
MVA rating
Ö3 x kV base
x 100 =
MVA flow
x 1000
MVA rating x Vpu

x 100
MVA flow
SI
n “Current expressed in MVA”: MVA Flow =
V pu

S
EN
Multi-Level Contingency
E M
Analysis
SI

Multiple-Level Contingency Testing
S
• N-1, N-2 and N-3 contingencies
• User-specified or automatically ranked contingencies
EN
• Models tripping/protective actions
• Applies corrective actions to relieve branch overloads or bus voltage limit
violations (e.g. generation redispatch, load curtailment)
• Performs probabilistic reliability assessment (requires input of equipment failure
statistics)
E M
SI

Some Contingency Analysis Terms
S
• Contingency element – a branch or generator outage
EN
• Contingency event – outage of one or more elements from a single cause,
such as common tower outages
• Multi-level contingency – combination of contingency events, assumed to be
M
independent overlapping outages, i.e., happening “at the same time” but
initiated by “different causes”
E
SI

Use of Automatic Contingency Ranking
S
• Create list of contingencies from base case condition according to ranking
algorithm
EN
• Start testing each contingency according to ranking sequence
• If algorithm perfectly reflects severity of system problems, such as overloads or
severe voltage depressions, only need to test top few contingencies
• Can quit analysis as soon as a contingency that does not result in system
problems is found
are found
M
• To be more conservative, wait until “x” consecutive problem-free contingencies
• Tremendous savings in computation time

E
SI

Contingency Ranking
S
Two Criteria:
EN
L æ P ö2
1. Overload Performance Index: = åç i
÷
i =1è RATE iø
L
2. Voltage Depression Performance Index: = å X i Pi 2
i =1
M
where L is the set of monitored branches.
• Can compute performance indices quickly and rank single branch

E
contingencies.
• Single generator contingencies can also be ranked using overload
performance index. Assume all other on-line machines make up MW lost.
SI
• Needs MONitored element file & SUBsystem description file as input.

Output Contingency Ranking - RANK
S
PI calculated
explicitly if
EN
branch X too Islanding
small contingencies
Branch
overload
ranking
E M Branch
voltage
ranking
Generator
contingencies
ranked by
SI
overload
index

Islanding Contingencies
S
• Branch outages causing network
separations
EN
• Skip if island is “small” – pre-
contingency branch MW flow is
below tolerance
E M
SI

Example of Generator & Branch Contingency
Ranking
S
CONTINGENCY 'UNIT 3001(1)'
REMOVE UNIT 1 FROM BUS 3001 / PI = 0.195089 FROM BUS 'MINE 230.00'
END
EN
CONTINGENCY 'UNIT 3008(1)'
REMOVE UNIT 1 FROM BUS 3008 / PI = 0.055399 FROM BUS 'CATDOG 230.00'
END
CONTINGENCY 'OVRLOD 152-153(1)'

OPEN LINE FROM BUS 152 TO BUS 153 CKT 1 / PI= 4.8284 'MID500 500.00' TO 'MID230 230.00'
END

M
OPEN LINE FROM BUS 154 TO BUS 205
END
OPEN LINE FROM BUS 151 TO BUS 152

END
E
CKT 1 / PI= 2.7108 'DOWNTN 230.00' TO 'SUB230 230.00'
CKT 1 / PI= 2.4744 'NUCPANT500.00' TO 'MID500 500.00'
OPEN LINE FROM BUS 153 TO BUS 154 CKT 1 / PI= 2.2882 'MID230 230.00' TO 'DOWNTN 230.00'
END
SI

Masking Effect in Contingency Ranking
S
Suppose there are 5 lines in the study area
EN
Outage of Line A results in loading of 90% on each of the 4 remaining lines.
\ Performance Index A = (0.92 + 0.92 + 0.92 + 0.92) = 3.24
Outage of Line B results in loading of 120% on line A and 70% on each of the
other 3 lines.
M
\ Performance Index B = (1.22 + 0.72 + 0.72 + 0.72) = 2.91
E
Since Index A > Index B, outage of Line A is ranked above Line B
Which contingency is more important?
SI

Multi-Level AC Contingency Solution
- Power Flow Control Options
S
EN
Power flow
control options
identical to those
in basic ACCC
E M
SI

- Contingency Testing Options
S
EN
E M
SI

Contingency Testing Sequence
S
Top
User defined specified
outages in CON file
EN
(Test all)
Most
severe
Ranked single unit outages
from overload ranker
Least (Stop after “X” non-failures)
E M severe
Branch outages causing
system separations
(Test if pre-cont flow
> MW specified)
Most
severe Ranked single branch
SI
outages from overload and
voltage rankers
Least (Stop after “Y” non-
Bottom severe failures)
2-Level Contingency Analysis Procedure
S
• Begin testing one contingency from primary list
• Perform ranking of secondary contingencies based on system state after first
EN
contingency has occurred
• Start testing secondary contingencies until contingency list is truncated or
exhausted
• Return to base case and test next primary contingency
M
• Repeat process for each primary contingency
• Procedure recognizes contingency duplications (e.g., primary A + secondary B
considered same as primary B + secondary A)
E
SI

Application of Ranking to 2-Level Analysis
S
PRIMARY CONTINGENCY LIST
O O O O O O O O
EN
X X X X X X O O
X X X O O X O O
X X O X X O
X X X X O O
O X O X X
X O X O O
SECONDARY
CONTINGENCY LISTS X X X X O
E (ONE FOR EACH
PRIMARY)
M O
X
X
X
O
X
X
X
X
O
X
O
X
O
X
O
X
X
O
O
X
O
O
O O
O
SI
X = FAILURE
O = NON-FAILURE
CUTOFF is 2 in this example

Cut-off for Multi-Level Analysis
S
• If a primary contingency already results in “failure” (criteria violation), should
secondary contingencies still be tested?
EN
• Enabled à N-2 and N-3 contingencies will not be studied if N-1 contingency
results in system failure.
M
• Enabled with failure cutoff Disabled à continues to study N-2 & N-3
contingencies even if an N-1 contingency results in system failure
(unless N-1 fails to converge or diverges).
E
SI

Contingency Result Classification
S
Based on power flow solution outcome:
• Converged and worst bus mismatch within tolerance
EN
• Stopped by non-divergent power flow algorithm (grouped as voltage collapse)
• Not converged
For converged contingencies:

• Islanding
• Overload
• High voltage
E M
• Low voltage
• Voltage deviation
SI

Other Considerations in Contingency Analysis
S
• Response of power system to load/generation imbalance
• Pre-defined response, such as Special Protection Systems (SPS) or Remedial
EN
Action Schemes (RAS)
• Operator initiated response to return power system to secure state.
E M
SI

S
EN
M
Responding to a
E
Contingency
SI
Generator Response to Power Imbalance
S
Response of power system to sudden outage of generator or load or creation of
network islands:
EN
• Inertial Response
• Governor response
• AGC/Operator action
• Economic dispatch and unit commitment
M
• Assign all changes to system swing bus in power flow solution
E
SI

Handling Load/Generation Imbalance in PSSE
S
• Automatic redispatch to balance load & generation during a contingency
(changes in load or generation, or network separation)
EN
• Dispatch changed In proportion to:
1. (PMAX – PGEN) or (PGEN – PMIN)
2. PMAX
3. Machine inertia
4. Governor droop
• Last 2 require INLF data file
• Can study contingencies that
result in network separation
E M
• Available in AC contingency analysis
SI

Generation Redispatch Procedures
S
• Identify network islands using tree searching technique – check for
connectivity.
EN
• Assign swing bus to each network island – bus with largest on-line generation
capacity (PMAX).
• If no swing bus, shed loads and shut down island. No power flow solution for
island. All loads shed.
• If swing bus found, determine MW load and generation imbalance within each
island.
M
Gen = Load + shunts + losses
• Too much or too little generation?
E
SI

Correcting MW Imbalance
S
If generation deficient:
• Increase generation of participating machines according to participation factors
EN
(in dispatch formula)
• Next, all other on-line machines within island
• Observe generators maximum limits PMAX
• Next, shed all island bus loads proportionately, maintain pf
If generation excess:
M
• Decrease generation of participation machines
• Next, all other on-line machines within island
E
• Observe minimum limits PMIN.
• Will not turn machines off-line.
SI
• If still excess, shut down island.
If PMAX or PMIN undefined, limit is set at PGEN

Simulating Responses of Relays and Breakers
S
• Remedial Action Schemes (RAS) or Special Protection Systems (SPS)
• circuit tripout
EN
• generation runback
• load transfer
• load shedding
• generation dropping
E M
SI

Modeling of Tripping Actions in PSSE
S
• Actions triggered by predefined rules
• Examples of actions
EN
• transfer of load
• closing tie-breaker
• tripping line on overload
• Examples of rules
• Equipment status
• Equipment loading
possible tripping action

M
• Network condition checked after each contingency power flow solution for
• If tripping action activated, power flow solution repeated and checked again for
E
more trips
• Can simulate overload cascading
SI

Tripping Model Data
S
Tripping Label
Monitored element list
EN
Trip element list
END
• Each tripping definition can have up to 10 monitored elements
M
• If any one monitored condition is “true,” trip action is triggered
• Can also use “JOIN” command for “ANDing” of monitored conditions
• Can have up to 16 trip elements
E
• All elements within a tripping definition are tripped simultaneously whenever
activated
SI

Trip Model – Monitor Element Data
S
Bus voltage:
MONITOR VOLTAGE RANGE BUS id TR r1 [r2]
EN
Where r1 is lower bound pu voltage, r2 is upper bound
Single machine:
MONITOR UNIT id AT BUS id TR r MW/MVA
E M
SI

Trip Model – Monitor Element Data (continued)
S
Branch flow:
MONITOR BRANCH FROM BUS id TO BUS id CKT id TR r
EN
• Where r is rating in MW, MVA, MVAR or AMPS
• If r is positive, trip when monitored flow > r
• If r is negative, trip when monitored flow < r
• If r = 0, trip when monitored branch is out-of-service
• Flow direction is important (FROM à TO).
Interface:
E
Branch specifications
END
M
MONITOR INTERFACE LABEL TR r
• Where r is rating in MW, MVA, MVAR or AMPS

• Trip when sum of flows > r
SI
• If r=0, trip condition disabled

Trip Model – Trip Element Data
S
Branch:
OPEN BRANCH FROM BUS id TO BUS id CKT id
EN
CLOSE BRANCH FROM BUS id TO BUS id CKT id
Bus generation, load or shunt:
SET BUS id GENERATION TO r MW/PERCENT (R must not be negative
E when PERCENT is used)
M
CHANGE BUS id LOAD BY r MW/PERCENT
INCREASE BUS id LOAD BY r MW/PERCENT
DECREASE BUS id LOAD BY r MW/PERCENT
MOVE r MW/PERCENT LOAD FROM BUS id TO BUS id
SI
REMOVE MACHINE id FROM BUS id (Turn machine offline)
ADD UNIT id TO BUS id (Turn machine online)

Global Tripping Specification
S
Single branch in | Area i | TR r Percent of | A, B, C |
EN
| Zone i |
|… |
• Monitors all branches within specified subsystem and simulates tripping of a
Example:
E M
branch if flow exceeds threshold
Single branch in Subsystem XYZ TR 100 Percent of C

SI

Multiple Conditions in Tripping
S
Tripping Label
JOIN
EN
Monitored element one
Monitored element two
END
Trip element
END
M
• If any monitored condition within a tripping definition is true, action is triggered
E
à OR condition
• When JOIN block is used, all monitored conditions within block have to be
SI
“true” à AND condition

Contingency Analysis with Tripping
S
Apply
EN
Contingency
New Perform islanding
island ? redispatch
Yes
No
Apply trip Solve
event
E M Yes
power flow
Converged?
Yes
Trip
No
Apply non-divergent
power flow
Yes No
activated ? Converged ?
No
SI

this contingency

- Tripping Simulation Options
S
EN
M
Number of tripping events per power flow:
• During each contingency power flow
solution, several tripping events may be
E
triggered.
Number of power flows per contingency:
• One set of tripping actions may trigger
another set (cascading).
• When should this process stop?
• How many are allowed to be tripped at the (Default= loop up to 10 times per
SI
same time? (Default=1) contingency)
• Power flow solution performed, list of
tripping events checked again.
Examples of Tripping Action
S
Tripping SELF-TRIP
MONITOR BRANCH FROM BUS 200 TO BUS 300 CKT 1 TR 350
EN
OPEN BRANCH FROM BUS 200 TO BUS 300 CKT 1
END
Tripping GEN-RUNBACK
E END
Tripping LOAD-TRANS
M
DECREASE BUS 200 GENERATION BY 300 MW

SI
MOVE 50 PRECENT LOAD FROM BUS 600 TO BUS 700
END

Results of Tripping Action
S
PROCESSING CONTINGENCY 'OVRLOD 6':
OPEN LINE FROM BUS 153 [MID230 230] TO BUS 154 [DOWNTN 230] CKT 2
EN
CASCADING FAILURE LEVEL:: 1
TRIPPING SELF-TRIP1
Tripped
CASCADING FAILURE LEVEL:: 2
TRIPPING LOAD-TRAN2 one at a
time
TRIPPING SELF-TRIP1
E
TRIPPING LOAD-TRAN2
1
M
PROCESSING CONTINGENCY 'OVRLOD 6':
OPEN LINE FROM BUS 153 [MID230 230] TO BUS 154 [DOWNTN
CASCADING FAILURE LEVEL::
Tripped
230] CKT 2
simultaneou
sly
SI

S
EN
Applying Post-
Contingency Correction
E M
Actions
SI

Corrective Actions with Optimization Approach
S
Determine minimum requirements to resolve power system criteria violations:
• phase-shifter
EN
• generation re-dispatch
• load curtailment
• Transformer tap adjustment
• Shunt capacitors/reactors switching
E M
SI

Modeling Corrective Actions in PSSE
S
• Power flow solution identifies branch overloads and/or bus voltage violations
(constraints)
EN
• Apply corrective actions (controls) to remove violations
• Allowable controls:
• phase shifter angle adjustments
• generation redispatch
• load shedding
• Transformer tap adjustmentsM
• Shunt capacitor/reactor switching
E
• Turning generators online
• Determined using LP algorithm
SI
• Power flow solution can be AC or DC based
• Can apply to base case solution or AC contingency analysis

Handling Constraints
S
• Branch loading violation
• Computed in pu value
EN
• MW flow in DC solution
• “Current” flow in AC solution
• Bus voltage violation
• Interface flow violation
• MW flow only
E
• Constraint Penalties
M
• Multi-linear segments
SI

Correction Action Controls
S
• Control types:
• phase shifter angle adjustments
EN
• generation redispatch
• load shedding
• Off-line generator control
• Transformer tap adjustment
• Switched shunt control
• Can enable/disable each type
• Can define type by subsystem
E M
• Relative effectiveness determined from network sensitivities
• Penalty or weighting factor for each type
SI
• Minimize deviations (movements) from existing values

Weighting Factors for Controls
S
• Internal (built-in) multipliers
DC Solution
• 1.0 times pu generation deviation Penalty
EN
• 2.0 times pu phase shifter angle deviation
• 100 times pu load shed
• For DC solution, single linear segment
Deviation from existing
• For AC solution, multi linear segments
M
• External (adjustable by user) factors
• Allowable value 0 to 1 (0 = disabled)
• One factor for each control type
E
• Applied to entire system subsystem
AC Solution
Penalty
• Trading off penalties of controls with penalties of

Deviation from existing
SI
constraints

AC Corrective Action Procedure
S
• Identify constraint violations from AC power flow solution
• Derive sensitivities
EN
• Formulate objective function in LP
• Find control actions using LP
• Repeat AC power flow solution
• Identify any remaining or new violations
• Repeat LP solution, if needed
M
• “Number of AC power flows” – looping of linearized optimization + AC power
flow solution
E
SI

- Corrective Action
S
EN
E M Rating used in
identifying loading
violations
SI

Contingency Analysis Corrective Action Flow Chart
S
Apply
contingency
EN
New Perform islanding
island ? Yes redispatch
No
Apply trip Solve AC
event power flow
Run LP to identify
E
No
M
correction actions
Yes Trip
activated ?
No
Converged?
Yes
No Apply non-divergent
power flow
# of loops Yes Problems Yes

Converged ?
exceeded? found?
SI
Yes No No

this contingency

Contingency Results Stored
S
• Limit violations
• Tripping events activated
EN
• Possible correction actions
Results stored during 3 stages:
• Immediately after contingency (post contingency power flow)
M
• After all tripping events have occurred
• After correction actions applied
E
SI

S
EN
E M
Sensitivity Analysis
SI

Sensitivity Analysis
S
• Compute change in branch flow, interface flow or bus voltage as a result of a
real or reactive power injection at a bus.
EN
• Can use either linear (DC) or AC network model.
E M
SI

Branch Flow Sensitivities
S
• Sensitivity for a single branch, multiple branches, interface
• MW, MVAR, MVA, Amps
EN
• Sensitivity to MW injection at any bus, generator bus only, load bus only or
sensitivity to phase shifter angle
• Bus MW injection can be applied against system swing bus or a group of buses
• Opposing system dispatch can be scaling: DFAX gen, DFAX load, DFAX gen
M
or load, subsystem load, MW, MBASE or Reserve.
• Sensitivities are shown in pu flow change ¸ pu power injection.
E
SI

Example of Flow Sensitivities
S
SENSITIVITY FACTORS OF BRANCH FLOW (MVA) ON 151 NUCPANT 500.00 TO 152 MID500 500.00 1
GREATER THAN 0.10000
EN
<------- BUS NAME ------> MW-SENS
101 NUC-A 21.600 0.2370
102 NUC-B 21.600 0.2370
151 NUCPANT 500.00 0.2382
201 HYDRO 500.00 0.1370
211 HYDRO_G 20.000 0.1359
E 101 NUC-A
102 NUC-B
211 HYDRO_G
M
<---- GENERATOR BUS ----> PGEN(MW) PMAX(MW) PMIN(MW)
21.600
21.600
20.000
750.00
750.00
600.00
810.00
810.00
616.25
0.00
0.00
0.00
MW-SENS
0.2370
0.2370
0.1359
<------ LOAD BUS -------> LOAD(MW) MW-SENS

151 NUCPANT 500.00 0.00 0.2382
SI
201 HYDRO 500.00 0.00 0.1370

Bus Voltage Sensitivities
S
• Sensitivity for a single bus or multiple buses
• Sensitivity to MW & MVAR injection at any bus, generator bus only or load bus
EN
only
• Sensitivity to phase shifter angle, transformer tap or switched shunt
• Sensitivities are shown in pu voltage change ¸ pu real or reactive power
injection, or pu tap ratio or phase shift angle in radian.
E M
SI

Example of Voltage Sensitivity
S
SENSITIVITY FACTORS OF BUS VOLTAGE (pu) AT THE BUS 153 MID230 230.00 GREATER THAN
0.01000
EN
<------ BUS NAME -----> MW-SENS MVar-SENS
152 MID500 500.00 0.0004 0.0140
153 MID230 230.00 0.0015 0.0181
154 DOWNTN 230.00 0.0047 0.0162
<----- LOAD BUS ------> LOAD(MW) LOAD(MVar) MW-SENS MVar-SENS

152 MID500
153 MID230
154 DOWNTN
500.00
230.00
230.00M 0.00
200.00
1000.00
<--------- TAP CHANGING TRANSFORMERS -------->CKT

E
152 MID500 500.00 153 MID230
0.00
100.00
800.00
230.00 1
0.0004
0.0015
0.0047
TAP
1.0100
0.0140
0.0181
0.0162
RMAX
1.0500
RMIN
0.9500
SENS
-0.7455
SI

S
EN
E M
Transmission Solutions
SI

Options for Increasing Transmission Capacity
S
• Increase thermal limits
• Increase limits imposed by voltage
EN
• Increase stability limits
• Operating actions
• Special relaying schemes and automatic controls
• Others: FACTS, UPFC, etc.
E M
SI

Increasing Thermal Limits
S
• New lines and transformers
• Thermal upgrade of lines and equipment
EN
• Voltage upgrading of lines
• Dynamic ratings for lines, cables, and transformers
• Series capacitors
• Series reactors
• Phase shifters
E M
SI

Increasing Limits Imposed by Voltage
S
• Shunt compensation
• Series compensation
EN
• Static VAR compensators
E M
SI

Thermal Analysis Case Study
S
EN
New Plant
Site
E M
SI

Constraints
S
New Plant
EN
Site
Thermal
Capacity on
E M Thermal
Capacity on
this line
this line
SI

The Affected Lines
S
EN
E M
SI

Options for Resolving Thermal Constraints
S
Revisit static ratings
• Look at critical spans for clearances
EN
• Are thermal ratings based on line sag or substation equipment?
• Consider higher temperatures
Apply dynamic line ratings
Reconductor
• New type, e.g., ACSS
Rebuild line
E M
Operating restrictions
SI

S
EN
Security Constrained
E M
Analysis
SI

Maintaining Reliability and Security
S
• Corrective mode – if a disturbance occurs that negatively impacts system
reliability, take post-disturbance remedial actions to resolve the system issues
EN
as quickly as possible
• Preventive mode – operate the system such that, if any from a pre-identified
list of disturbances does occur, the system is still reliable without the need to
take remedial actions.
E M
SI

Enhancing System Security
S
Corrective mode:
• Applies after a contingency has occurred.
EN
• Identifies appropriate response to resolve system criteria violations.
Preventive mode:
• Prepares the system for a select set of contingencies.
constraints. M
• Optimizes the controls to prevent violations of base case and post-contingency
• Eliminates the need for post–contingency adjustments/operator interventions.

E
SI

Preventive Security Constrained OPF
S
• PSCOPF function considers system
START
constraints derived from base case
EN
and contingency cases.
Initialize the set of critical
• Controls are similar to those in contingencies
Corrective Action.
• Can apply to a single power flow case Perform power flow solutions of base
case and contingency cases; build the
or set of critical contingencies
E M
in N-1-1 AC contingency analysis
Is the set
empty?
Yes
STOP
No
SI
Solve security constrained optimal
power flow and find control
adjustments

PSCOPF Process in PSSÒE
S
Constraints observed:
• Power balance equations of base & contingency cases
EN
• Limits on controls
• Operation limits under base & contingency cases
Controls modeled:
• Load controls
• Transformer tap adjustments
E M
• On-line and off-line generator MW generation control
• Switched shunt adjustments

• Adjustments are pre-contingency
SI

Optimization Algorithm
S
Generate Bender’s cuts
• Successive Linear
Programming Prepare controls and constraints
EN
• Solves master problem and Build master problem
sub-problems (critical
Solve master problem with
contingencies) Successive Linear Programming
• Returns to AC power flow Adjust base case system

solution
E M Solve power flow for a contingency
in the set and identify violations
No
Violations
found?
No
Yes Update Bender’s cuts
for this contingency
Finished all
contingencies in set?
Yes
SI
Yes Bender’s cuts
updated?
No
End

PSCOPF Run Options
S
Base case and contingency case solution options
Solution engine, non-divergent solution option
EN
Generation dispatch for contingency case
Constraints
Controls
Tolerances:
• Mismatch
• Iteration limit
• Cutoff for clean cases
E M
SI

Power Flow Solution Options
S
• Different selections for base case & contingency case
• Tap adjustments
EN
• Area interchange controls
• Phase shift adjustments
• DC tap adjustments
• Solution engines available:

M
• Treatment of induction machines
• Fixed slope decouple Newton-Raphson

E
• Full Newton-Raphson
SI

Generation Dispatch for Contingencies
S
• Options similar to those in AC Contingency Solution
• Adjusts dispatch to handle system load/generation imbalance caused by a
EN
contingency
• Changes generation MW according to:
• Reserve
• PMAX
• Inertia
• Governor droop M
• Last 2 options require inertia/governor data file.
E
• Can define subsystem within which the machines will be dispatched first
SI

Constraints
S
• Branch rating set & percentage for base case and contingency case
• Branch overload violation tolerance (%): e.g. 0.1% means flow will be kept
EN
within 100.1% of rating.
• Bus voltage violation tolerance (%): e.g. 0.1% means voltage will be kept
between 0.949 and 1.051 pu, if actual limits are 0.95 and 1.05.
• Can choose to ignore violations in base case
E M
SI

Controls
S
• Generator active power dispatch
• Load controls
EN
• Phase shifter controls
• Off-line generator active power dispatch (no reactive power)
• Tap setting adjustments
• Switched shunt controls
• Each control category has
activation flag, weighting
factor and subsystem.
E M
SI

Solution Tolerances
S
• Power flow solution mismatch tolerance
• Maximum # of PSCOPF iterations
EN
• Cutoff for clean cases - At each iteration of PSCOPF, a power flow solution will
be performed on each contingency and the results checked for branch flow and
bus voltage limit violations. If a contingency does not cause any limit violations
(“clean”) in several consecutive iterations of PSCOPF, it will not be tested any
more in subsequent iterations.
E M
SI

Solution Output
S
Progress window shows:
• Base case violations, if any, and control adjustments
EN
• Main loop to test contingencies
• Inner loop to determine control adjustments
Report window shows:

• Summary of control options
M
• Constraint violations in base case, if any
• Adjustments made to resolve base case violations, if any
E
• Adjustments made to resolve post-contingency violations
• Unresolved (active) constraints
SI

S
EN
N-1-1 AC Contingency
E M
Solution
SI

N-1-1 Contingency Analysis
S
• Performs an AC power flow to solve the primary contingency
• Applies appropriate system adjustments to return system to an acceptable
EN
state
• Performs another AC power flow to solve the secondary contingency.
E M Solve a primary contingency
Implement system adjustments

SI
Solve a secondary contingency

N-1-1 Analysis in PSS®E
S
EN
Option to skip the
secondary cases
Options for
Controls &
constraints
E M
List of
secondary
SI
contingencies

Control Modes
S
• Local control – Each adjustment aims to achieve its own local objective, e.g.,
control a specific bus voltage or a specific branch flow.
EN
• Corrective action – Adjustments made to maintain system within defined
criteria after each contingency.
• Security constrained optimal power flow (PSCOPF) – Adjustments made to
ensure a secure system state, i.e., no violations if the next contingency occurs.
E M
SI

Controls Available
S
• Transformer tap adjustments
EN
• Phase shift angle adjustments
• DC tap adjustments (local mode only)
• Area interchange control (local mode only)
• Induction machine response (local mode only)
M
• On-line generator MW control (corrective & PSCOPF modes)
• Off-line generator MW control (corrective & PSCOPF modes)
• Load control (corrective & PSCOPF modes)
E
SI

Convergence Criteria
S
• Solution under primary contingency is deemed infeasible if system condition
does not comply with steady state performance criteria (thermal limit and/or
EN
bus voltage violations).
• If control devices are available, system problems may be resolved by corrective
action analysis.
• Objective is to remove violations while minimizing system adjustments, subject
to operational constraints.
E M
SI

Anticipation of the Next Contingency
S
• Even if system problems after a primary contingency can be resolved by
operational strategies, system may still be in unsecure state.
EN
• System may not be within acceptable criteria if a secondary contingency
occurs, unless more corrective actions are taken.
• Preventive security constrained optimal power flow will ensure feasible and
secure solution, i.e., no limit violations after the primary contingency and no
limit violations if any one from a list of pre-defined secondary contingencies
occurs.
E M
SI

N-1-1 AC Contingency Solution Run Options
S
• Primary & secondary contingency case solution options
• Solution engine, non-divergent solution option
EN
• Generation dispatch for contingency case
• Constraints & controls
• Solution modes:
• Local
• Corrective
• Preventive
• Other:
E M
• Mismatch
• Iteration limit for PSCOPF
SI
• Cutoff for clean cases

N-1-1 AC Contingency Solution Output
S
• Progress report shows adjustments made, active constraints and solution
outcome (converged or not).
EN
• Contingency output in ACC file can be reported using AC Contingency Reports,
Reliability Assessment Report, Contingency Browser Grid or users’ own Python
program.
E M
SI

Local Adjustment Mode
S
• Similar to AC contingency Base case
solution.
EN
Impose a primary contingency
• Primary contingencies from
CONT file.
Solve power flow with automatic adjustments
• Secondary contingencies
Check solution against performance criteria
from same or another
CONT file. Yes
Skip secondary
Yes
• Base case not checked for

violations.
E NextM No
secondary?
Yes
Violations?
No
Impose a secondary contingency

Cont?
No
Check solution against performance criteria

SI

Corrective Action Mode
S
• In addition to local
Base case
adjustments during
EN
contingency power flow Impose a primary contingency
solution, also applies
corrective actions after each Solve power flow with automatic adjustments
contingency.
Yes
Find corrective
Violations?
• Corrective actions supersede actions
No No
local adjustments, if the same
equipment participates in
both.
E M Next
secondary?
Yes
Violations?
Yes
Find corrective
actions
No
SI

PSCOPF Mode
S
• Preventive adjustments are made Base case
to each primary contingency case
EN
to avoid secondary contingency Impose a primary contingency
violations.
• If violations cannot be completely
prevented, post-contingency No Run preventive
Secure?
SCOPF
corrective actions will be applied.
No Yes
E M Next
secondary?
Yes
Yes Find post-cont

Still has
violations? corrective
actions
No
SI

N-1-1 in Corrective Actions Mode
S
<----------- C O N T I N G E N C Y E V E N T S -----------><--------- O V E R L O A D E D L I N E S ----------> <- MVA(MW)FLOW ->
<----------- MULTI-SECTION LINE GROUPINGS -----------> <------- F R O M -------> <--------- T O --------->CKT PRE-CNT POST-CNT RATING PERCENT
----------------------------------------------------------------N-1 CONTINGENCY N1OVRLOD 1
OPEN LINE FROM BUS 212 [EASTIE-2 230.00] TO BUS 223 [BIGCOAL 230.00] CKT 1
110 EASTIE-1 138.00 211*MIDTIE-2 230.00 1 638.3 543.6 510.0 106.6
EN
<--------------- POST - CORRECTIVE ACTIONS -----------------><--------- O V E R L O A D E D L I N E S ----------> <- MVA(MW)FLOW ->
<----------- MULTI-SECTION LINE GROUPINGS -----------> <------- F R O M -------> <--------- T O --------->CKT PRE-CNT POST-COR RATING PERCENT
-------------------------------------------------------------------POST-CORRECTIVE ACTIONS
*** NONE ***
Corrective actions for primary contingency
<----------- C O N T R O L A D J U S T M E N T S --------->
*** PHASE SHIFTER ADJUSTMENT (DEGREE)*** <------- F R O M -------> <--------- T O --------->CKT PHAS-INIT PHAS-DELT
212 EASTIE-2 230.00 110 EASTIE-1 138.00 1 -15.4 1.6

-----------------------------------------------------N-1-1 CONTINGENCY N1OVRLOD 1:OVRLOD 2
OPEN LINE FROM BUS 216 [MIDCOAL
M
230.00] TO BUS 225 [ADDON
Additional corrective actions for secondary contingency

230.00] CKT 1
103*WESTIE-1
103 WESTIE-1
213 BIGOIL
ALL BUSES WITH VOLTAGE < 0.9500

138.00
138.00
230.00
103 WESTIE-1
109 MIDTIE-1
224*WESTIE-2
223*BIGCOAL
138.00 1
230.00 1
230.00 1
138.00 0.94810 0.99362
<--------------- POST - CORRECTIVE ACTIONS -----------------><--------- O V E R L O A D E D

85.2
372.9
386.1
224 WESTIE-2
209.2
534.9
725.9
208.0
510.0
600.0
106.1
104.9
115.2
X-------- B U S --------X V-CONT V-INIT X-------- B U S --------X V-CONT V-INIT

230.00 0.92043 0.96665
L I N E S ----------> <- MVA(MW)FLOW ->

E
*** NONE ***
*** GENERATION DISPATCH (MW) *** X-------- B U S --------X PGEN-INIT PGEN-DELT
107 MIDOIL 138.00 240.0 59.1
SI
213 BIGOIL 230.00 400.2 15.0
216 MIDCOAL 230.00 155.0 -20.8
223 BIGCOAL 230.00 1010.0 -113.2
*** PHASE SHIFTER ADJUSTMENT (DEGREE)*** <------- F R O M -------> <--------- T O --------->CKT PHAS-INIT PHAS-DELT
212 EASTIE-2 230.00 110 EASTIE-1 138.00 1 -13.8 3.9

N-1-1 in PSCOPF Mode
S
----------------------------------------------------------------N-1 CONTINGENCY N1OVRLOD 1
EN
110 EASTIE-1 138.00 211*MIDTIE-2 230.00 1 638.3 543.6 510.0 106.6
<--------------- POST - CORRECTIVE ACTIONS -----------------><--------- O V E R L O A D E D L I N E S ----------> <- MVA(MW)FLOW ->

*** NONE ***
Adjustments made by
*** GENERATION DISPATCH (MW) *** X-------- B U S --------X PGEN-INIT PGEN-DELT
101 COAL-A 138.00 228.0 12.0 corrective actions for
102 COAL-B 138.00 228.0 12.0
107 MIDOIL 138.00 240.0 60.0 primary contingency
213 BIGOIL
215 MIDCOALP
230.00
230.00
341.6
155.0
14.2
-126.8
and PSCOPF
E M
*** PHASE SHIFTER ADJUSTMENT (DEGREE)***
*** DISPATCH OF OFF-LINE GENERATORS(MW) ***
*** TAP SETTING ADJUSTMENT ***

218 NUKE-A
221 NUKE-B
223 BIGCOAL
212 EASTIE-2
225 ADDON
101 COAL-A
102 COAL-B
224 WESTIE-2
211 MIDTIE-2
212 EASTIE-2
230.00
230.00
230.00
230.00
230.00
138.00
138.00
230.00
230.00
230.00
400.0
400.0
1010.0
110 EASTIE-1
214 CONDENS
0.0
0.0
103 WESTIE-1
109 MIDTIE-1
109 MIDTIE-1
-75.1
-3.1
-30.0
<------- F R O M -------> <--------- T O --------->CKT
X-------- B U S --------X PGEN-INIT PGEN-DELT

138.00 1
230.00 1
29.0
35.6
<------- F R O M -------> <--------- T O --------->CKT
138.00 1
138.00 1
138.00 1
PHAS-INIT
-15.4
15.8
WIND-INIT
1.0375
1.0469
1.0391
PHAS-DELT
14.5
1.1
WIND-DELT
-0.0624
0.0031
0.0109
211 MIDTIE-2 230.00 110 EASTIE-1 138.00 1 1.0500 -0.0563

SI
-----------------------------------------------------N-1-1 CONTINGENCY N1OVRLOD 1:OVRLOD 2
*** NONE ***

S
EN
E M
Probabilistic Analysis
SI

Types of Reliability Assessment
S
1. Deterministic – System Problem
2. Probabilistic – System Problem
EN
3. Probabilistic – Customer Impact
4. Effectiveness
E M
SI

Starting from Deterministic Analysis
S
From deterministic contingency analysis, one can obtain the number and severity
of system problems from contingency power flow solutions
EN
For example:
Contingency
• Where: which transmissions lines are overloaded? Analysis
• How severe: what is the % loading?

E M
• How often: caused by how many contingencies?
<- FAILURE CRITERIA ->

NO. OF
CONT.
WORST.
VIOL. <-- WORST CONT -->
Number and severity
of system problems
LOW VOLTAGE 161 0.42 7_3(SINGLE 103-22

HIGH VOLTAGE 1 1.06 28_3(SINGLE 216-21
OVERLOAD 281 202.04 11_2(SINGLE 107-10
SI
LOSS OF LOAD 6 242.50 19_4(SINGLE 211-21
NOT CONVERGE 5
SYSTEM ‘TOTAL 322

Assessing Probabilities of System Problems
S
• Start from deterministic assessment
• Associate individual contingencies with equipment outage statistics
EN
• Outage data from historical records, typically grouped by equipment type,
voltage level
• Compute how often (number of times per year) and for how long (duration in
hours) are the system problems
Contingency
Analysis
E M Probability of
system problems
*** System Reliability Index Summary Report ***
FAILURE
CRITERIA
LOW VOLTAGE
HIGH VOLTAGE
FREQUENCY DURATION PROBABILITY NO. OF
(OC/YR)
9.1151
0.0050
(HR/OC)
9.4
5.0
(H/Y)
85.7
0.0
FAILURES
161
1
Outage OVERLOAD 26.5498 10.5 278.0 281
Statistics
LOSS OF LOAD 0.0897 4.2 0.4 6
SI
NOT CONVERGE 0.0355 5.3 0.2 5
SYSTEM TOTAL 28.5189 10.2 291.2 322

Frequency, Duration & Probability
S
N
Frequency Freq = å freq i
EN
i
N N
freq i · dur i
Prob = å p i =å
Probability
Duration
E M Dur avg =
i
Prob
i
´ 8760
8760
Freq
SI

Assessing Customer Impacts
S
• Determine impact on customers – energy not served
• How often? – # of times per year
EN
• For how long? – # of hours
• How much load is interrupted? – KW or MW
• e.g., frequency (no. of times per year) * duration (hours) * load loss (MW) =
MWH/yr
E M
Outage Statistics Customer Impact
Corrective Actions
SI

Calculating Load Curtailment Indices
S
• Post-process AC contingency analysis output file (.acc)
• Identify contingencies resulting in load curtailment
EN
• Isolation of load
• Initiates a trip sequence which isolates or trips a load
• Results in violations resolved by load curtailment
• Associate load curtailment contingencies with outage data (frequency and
duration)
E
<-B U S E S
M
• Compute load curtailment indices
PROBABILISTIC RELIABILITY INDICES FOR BUS LOAD CURTAILMENT

W I T H-> LOAD FREQ. DURATION PROB. A.I.P. I. P. E.U.E. B.I.P. B.E.U
<LOAD CURTAILMENTS(MW)> (MW) (OC/Y) (HOUR) (H/Y) (MW/OC) (MW/Y) (MWH/Y)
SUBSYSTEM RTS 3563.0 2.0209 6.61 13.37 159.80 322.94 2119.27 0.0906 0.594
104 MARYLOAD 138.00 92.5 0.0143 3.55 0.05 92.50 1.32 4.69 0.0143 0.050
105 ANNELOAD 138.00 88.8 0.0083 3.57 0.03 88.80 0.74 2.63 0.0083 0.029
SI
106 REACTOR 138.00 170.0 0.0129 3.56 0.05 170.00 2.18 7.78 0.0129 0.045
107 MIDOIL 138.00 156.3 1.9601 6.68 13.09 156.30 306.36 2045.90 1.9601 3.089
108 ERIKLOAD 138.00 213.8 0.0289 3.54 0.10 213.80 6.17 21.81 0.0289 0.102

Probabilistic Assessment of System Problems
S
Define: Define:
Operating Limits Base Case Contingency Outage Statistics
Monitored Sub-system Power Flow List Specified Contingencies
EN
Contingency Rankers
Contingency Sub-
system
Contingency Level
Evaluate Each
Contingency Account for:
Islanding
Divergence
Trip sequences
Load Curtailments
Generation Redispatch
Classify
E M No trouble
Results
Local trouble
Overload
Low Voltage
High Voltage
Islanding
System trouble
Voltage Collapse
Cascading Outage
Load Shed
SI
Calculate
Probabilistic
Trouble Indices

Probabilistic Assessment of Customer Impact
S
Define: Define:
Operating Limits Base Case Contingency Outage Statistics
Monitored Sub-system Power Flow List Specified Contingencies
EN
Contingency Rankers
Contingency Sub-
system
Contingency Level
Evaluate Each
Contingency Account for:
Islanding
Divergence
Trip sequences
Load Curtailments
Generation Redispatch
Classify
E M No trouble
Results
Local trouble
Overload
Low Voltage
High Voltage
Islanding
System trouble
Voltage Collapse
Cascading Outage
Load Shed
Calculate
SI
Eliminate Troubles Probabilistic Load
Using Optimization Curtailment
Indices

Sources of Load Curtailments
in Contingency Enumeration
S
• Contingency causes isolation of substation load
EN
• Contingency initiates a trip sequence or special protection system, which
Isolates or trips a load
• Contingency results in system criteria violations which can be resolved by

curtailing load
E M
SI

Example of Some Load Curtailment Indices
S
• Bulk power interruption index (per year) å (Fi .Ci )
C =
i = contingency resulting in load curtailment N
EN
Peak load
• Bulk power energy curtailment index (hours/year) å (Fi .Di .Ci )
E =
N Peak load
• System Minutes EN .60 (minutes/year)
• Customer Indices:
M
• System average interruption duration index (SAIDI)
• System average interruption frequency index (SAIFI)
E
• Often used in distribution systems
SI

Probabilistic Reliability Calculations in PSS®E
S
• Perform AC Contingency Solution or Multi-Level AC Contingency Solution and
store results in “ACC” file
EN
• Prepare outage statistics file
• Start Probabilistic Reliability Assessment
• Must have matching “DFX” file
• Must have matching power flow case in program memory
• Select report types
E M
SI

Example of Outage Statistics Data File
S
• Frequency and duration of outage for each element
• Derived from historical outage statistics.
EN
• Typically grouped according to equipment types, voltage levels, sizes, etc.
• Generic data are then applied to each piece of equipment, reflecting its
characteristics, e.g., length of transmission line, age of equipment, operating
environment (exposure to ice and snow or sea water
E M
SI

General Outage Statistics – Lines
S
Lines | in/from | |kV/area| Xm, Bm, Ft, Dt, Fmt, Dmt
• Xm = branch reactance (ohm/mile)
EN
• Bm = branch charging susceptance (mho/mile)
• Ft = frequency of terminal-caused outage (occurrences/year)
• Dt = average duration of terminal-caused outage (hours)
• Fmt = frequency for line caused outage (occurrences/mile-yr)
• Dmt = average duration of line-caused outage (hours)
M
If line length not in branch database, Xm & Bm used for estimating line lengths
from line X & B.
Length (Lx) estimated from X is used to compute line outage frequency from
Fmt.
E
If line lengths estimated from X and B are different, print warning.
Example:
SI
lines in kv 138.0 0.762 0.00000058 0.10 10 0.10 7

General Outage Statistics
Transformers & Machines
S
Transformers | in/from | | kV/area | Ftr, Dtr
• Ftr = frequency of transformer outage (occurrences/year)
EN
• Dtr = average duration of transformer outage (hours)
Statistics typically grouped according to kV levels
Example:
transformers from system ‘MY230' 0.12 100
E M
| Units | min_size, max_size, in | area i | Fmt, Dmt
• Fmt = frequency of machine outage (occurrences/year)
• Dmt = average duration of machine outage (hours)
Machine MBASE used to determine “size”
Example:
units 0 100.0 in system ‘ABC' 1.0 50
SI

Specific Outage Data
S
For specified contingencies:
Contingency ‘contingency label’ F D
EN
For individual elements:
| LINE | FROM BUS i TO BUS j |CKT| cktid F D
| LINE | FORM BUS i TO BUS j TO BUS K |CKT| cktid F D
| MACHINE | macid AT BUS i P D
M
• F & D for individual elements can first be computed using general statistics and
E
saved in data file for future use.
• P is machine outage probability.
SI

Probabilistic Reliability Assessment Module in
PSSE
S
EN
E M
SI

Reliability Reports Available
S
• System problem summary
• System loss of load report
EN
• Bus loss of load report
• Branch overload report
• Bus voltage violation report
• Contingency Summary
• Reports with and without
probabilistic indices
E M
SI

Report Options
S
• Probability cutoff (H/Y) & frequency cutoff (OC/Y)
• Contingency simulation output mode:
EN
• Post contingency, Post tripping, or Post corrective actions
• Branch rating set (A, B or C) and loading percentage
• Output by subsystems, with or without interfaces & ties
• Normalizing probabilities
M
• Use exact state probability calculation, i.e.,
Probability of element “i” out = Pi * (1-P1) * (1-P2) * (1-P3) * …
E
SI

Three Stages in Multi-Level Contingency Analysis
S
• Power system states stored
in up to 3 stages for each Apply
EN
contingency studied. contingency
• Can be retrieved for
reporting in AC Contingency Solve AC Store post-
Reports, Probabilistic power flow contingency results
Reliability Assessment,
Export to Excel, slider
diagram display.
E M Tripping
Simulation
(if any)
Corrective
Store post-
tripping results
Store post-corrective
Actions
action results
(if any)
SI

Exact or Approximate Probability Calculation
S
• Assume system A + B, State A B State Probability Failure
1 In In 0.9 x 0.9 = 0.81 No
outage probability = 0.1 each.
EN
2 Out In 0.1 x 0.9 = 0.09 Yes
• System fails whenever one 3 In Out 0.9 x 0.1 = 0.09 Yes
or more element is out. 4 Out Out 0.1 x 0.1 = 0.01 Yes
Total 1.00
• N-1 analysis:
• Exact state probability of failure = 0.09 + 0.09 = 0.18
• N-2 analysis:
M
• Approx. probability of failure = 0.10 + 0.10 = 0.20
• Exact state probability of failure = 0.09 + 0.09 + 0.01 = 0.19

E
• Approx. probability of failure = 0.10 + 0.10 + 0.01 = 0.21 A&B In
• Which method is preferred?

SI
Failure
A out B Out
states
A&B Out
Example of System Problem Summary Report -
Deterministic
S
SYSTEM PROBLEM PROBABILISTIC RELIABILITY INDICES SUMMARY
MONITORED ELEMENTS LOADED ABOVE 100.0% OF RATING SET B
OUTPUT MODE: POST CONTINGENCY SOLUTIONS
EN
FREQ. DURATION PROB. IMPACT NO. OF WORST. WORST CONT.
<-- F A I L U R E C R I T E R I A --> (OC/Y) (HOURS) (H/Y) CONT. VIOL.
'AREAS125 ' BUSES WITH VOLTAGE LESS THAN 0.950 (PU) 8.7886 9.6 84.1 8.47 138 0.406 4_3
OVERLOAD (%) 5.9792 12.8 76.5 10.45 134 202.144 1_9
LOSS OF LOAD (MW) 2.0209 6.6 13.4 2119.27 41 370.100 12_2
NOT CONVERGE 0.0355 5.3 0.2 5
SUBSYSTEM "RTS" TOTAL 12.6588 11.6 146.5 223
CONTINGENCY LEGEND:
LABEL
4_3
1_9
12_2
E EVENTS
: OPEN LINE
OPEN LINE
: OPEN LINE
OPEN LINE
: OPEN LINE
OPEN LINE
FROM
FROM
FROM
FROM
FROM
FROM
M BUS
BUS
BUS
BUS
BUS
BUS
215
106
107
108
108
108
[MIDCOALP
[REACTOR
[MIDOIL
[ERIKLOAD
[ERIKLOAD
[ERIKLOAD
230.00]
138.00]
138.00]
138.00]
138.00]
138.00]
TO
TO
TO
TO
TO
TO
BUS
BUS
BUS
BUS
BUS
BUS
224
110
108
110
109
110
[WESTIE-2
[EASTIE-1
[ERIKLOAD
[EASTIE-1
[MIDTIE-1
[EASTIE-1
230.00]
138.00]
138.00]
138.00]
138.00]
138.00]
CKT
CKT
CKT
CKT
CKT
CKT
1
1
1
1
1
1
(Unconverged contingency solutions are not included in other reports, such as branch overloads, voltage
violations, load curtailments)
SI

Example of Reliability Indices For Bus Voltage
Violations
S
PROBABILISTIC RELIABILITY INDICES FOR BUS VOLTAGE VIOLATIONS
EN
ALL BUSES WITH VOLTAGE LESS THAN 0.950
FREQ. DURATION PROB. IMPACT MAX VIO. NO. OF
<- BUS WITH VOLTAGE VIOLATION -> (OC/Y) (HOUR) (H/Y) (PU) CONT. <--- WORST CONTINGENCY --->
RTS 7.1478 10.6 75.5 9.15 4
102 COAL-B 138.00 1.6125 7.2 11.6 0.15 0.9367 1 SINGLE 106-110(1)
103 WESTIE-1 138.00 3.9003 13.4 52.2 1.31 0.9248 2 SINGLE 215-224(1)
104 MARYLOAD 138.00 1.6125 7.2 11.6 0.07 0.9436 1 SINGLE 106-110(1)
106 REACTOR 138.00 1.6125 7.2 11.6 5.07 0.5125 1 SINGLE 106-110(1)
108 ERIKLOAD 138.00 1.6350 7.2 11.7 0.36 0.9196 1 SINGLE 107-108(1)
224 WESTIE-2 230.00 3.7803 10.0 37.8 2.18 0.8922 1 SINGLE 215-224(1)
CONTINGENCY LEGEND:
SINGLE 215-224(1)
SINGLE 107-108(1)
E M
<----- CONTINGENCY LABEL ------> EVENTS
SINGLE 106-110(1) OPEN LINE FROM BUS 106 [REACTOR
OPEN LINE FROM BUS 215 [MIDCOALP
OPEN LINE FROM BUS 107 [MIDOIL
138.00] TO BUS 110 [EASTIE-1
230.00] TO BUS 224 [WESTIE-2
138.00] TO BUS 108 [ERIKLOAD
138.00] CKT 1
230.00] CKT 1
138.00] CKT 1
IMPACT = S (Violation * Probability)

Voltage impact = Pi * (Vik - Vlimit)
SI

Example of Reliability Indices For Branch Overloads
S
PROBABILISTIC RELIABILITY INDICES FOR BRANCH FLOW OVERLOADS
MONITORED ELEMENTS LOADED ABOVE 100.0% OF RATING SET A
EN
<------- O V E R L O A D E D L I N E S ------> FREQ. DURATION PROB. IMPACT MAX VIO. NO. OF
<----- F R O M ------> ß----- T O --------> CKT (OC/Y) (HOUR) (H/Y) (PU) (%) CONT. <-- WORST CONT -->
SUBSYSTEM 'RTS' TOTAL 21.7952 11.6 253.0 33.31 0.00 8
102 COAL-B 138.00 106 REACTOR 138.00 1 1.6125 7.2 11.6 7.44 164.21 1 SINGLE 106-110(1)
103 WESTIE-1 138.00 224 WESTIE-2 230.00 1 2.9785 14.4 43.0 0.68 101.58 2 SINGLE 216-225(1)
110 EASTIE-1 138.00 212 EASTIE-2 230.00 1 0.1200 120.0 14.4 0.15 101.05 1 SINGLE 110-211(1)
214 CONDENS 230.00 225 ADDON 230.00 1 17.0842 10.8 184.0 10.48 111.44 4 SINGLE 215-224(1)
216 MIDCOAL 230.00 225 ADDON 230.00 1 17.0842 10.8 184.0 14.56 114.46 4 SINGLE 215-224(1)
CONTINGENCY LEGEND:
SINGLE 106-110(1)
SINGLE 216-225(1)
SINGLE 110-211(1)
SINGLE 215-224(1)
E M
<----- CONTINGENCY LABEL -----> EVENTS
OPEN LINE FROM BUS
OPEN LINE FROM BUS
OPEN LINE FROM BUS
OPEN LINE FROM BUS
106
216
110
215
[REACTOR
[MIDCOAL
[EASTIE-1
[MIDCOALP
138.00]
230.00]
138.00]
230.00]
TO
TO
TO
TO
BUS
BUS
BUS
BUS
110
225
211
224
[EASTIE-1
[ADDON
[MIDTIE-2
[WESTIE-2
138.00]
230.00]
230.00]
230.00]
CKT
CKT
CKT
CKT
1
1
1
1
IMPACT = S (Violation * Probability)

Overload impact = Pi * (Loadingik / Ratingk – 1)
SI

Example of Reliability Indices For Loss Of Load
S
PROBABILISTIC RELIABILITY INDICES FOR BUS LOAD CURTAILMENT
LOAD FREQ. DURATION A.I.P. I. P. E.U.E. B.I.P. B.E.U. NO. OF
EN
<BUS WITH LOAD CURTAIL(MW)> (MW) (OC/Y) (HOUR) (MW/OC) (MW/Y) (MWH/Y) CONT. < WORST CONT >
RTS 3563.0 0.0897 4.22 139.04 12.48 58.85 0.0035 0.0165 6
104 MARYLOAD 138.00 92.5 0.0143 3.55 92.50 1.32 4.69 0.0143 0.0507 1 4_4(SINGLE 102-
105 ANNELOAD 138.00 88.8 0.0083 3.57 88.80 0.74 2.63 0.0083 0.0297 1 3_6(SINGLE 101-
106 REACTOR 138.00 170.0 0.0129 3.56 170.00 2.18 7.78 0.0129 0.0458 1 5_5(SINGLE 102-
107 MIDOIL 138.00 156.3 0.0289 3.54 30.18 0.87 3.08 0.0056 0.0197 1 12_1(SINGLE
108 ERIKLOAD 138.00 213.8 0.0289 3.54 41.28 1.19 4.21 0.0056 0.0197 1 12_1(SINGLE
PROBABILISTIC RELIABILITY INDICES FOR SYSTEM LOAD CURTAILMENT

FREQ. DURATION PROB. I.P. E.U.E. NO. OF <---- WORST CONTINGENCY ---->
<-- LOAD CURTAILMENTS (MW) -->
70.0 -- 80.0
80.0 -- 90.0
90.0 -- 100.0
170.0 -- 180.0
240.0 -- 250.0
RTS
E
CONTINGENCY LEGEND:
M (OC/Y) (HOUR)
0.0289
0.0083
0.0143
0.0129
0.0255
0.0897
3.5
3.6
3.6
3.6
5.9
4.2
(H/Y)
0.1
0.0
0.1
0.0
0.2
0.4
(MW/Y)
2.06
0.74
1.32
2.18
6.17
12.48
(MWH/Y) CONT.
7.29
2.63
4.69
7.78
36.46
58.85
1
1
1
1
2
6
12_1(SINGLE 108-109(1):SINGLE
3_6(SINGLE 101-105(1):SINGLE 1
19_4(SINGLE 211-214(1):SINGLE
Interrupted power, IP = S (Cloadi * Fi)

12_1(SINGLE 108-109(1):SINGLE 10 OPEN LINE FROM BUS 108 [ERIKLOAD 138.00] TO BUS 109 [MIDTIE-1 138.00] CKT 1
Average
OPEN Interrupted
LINE FROM BUS 108 Power, AIP = S
[ERIKLOAD (CloadTO
138.00] i * Fi) / S Fi
BUS 110 [EASTIE-1 138.00] CKT 1
3_6(SINGLE 101-105(1):SINGLE 105 OPEN LINE FROM BUS 101 [COAL-A 138.00] TO BUS 105 [ANNELOAD 138.00] CKT 1
SI
Expected
OPEN Unserved
LINE FROM BUS 105Energy,
[ANNELOAD S (CloadTOi *BUS
EUE =138.00] Fi *110
Di) [EASTIE-1 138.00] CKT 1
Bulk System Interruption Power, BIP = S (Cloadi * Fi) / Loadsystem

Bulk System Expected Unserved Energy, BEUE = S (Ploadi * Fi * Di) / Loadsystem

Example of Contingency Summary Report
S
CONTINGENCY SUMMARY REPORT WITH OUTAGE STATISTICS
MONITORED ELEMENTS LOADED ABOVE 100.0% OF RATING SET B
EN
FREQ. DURATION PROB. MISMATCH TOT.LOAD LOADING VLT.DROP VLT.RISE MIN.VLT. MAX.VLT.
<-- CONTINGENCY LABEL --> (OC/Y) (HOUR) (H/Y) (MW) CURT.(MW) (%) (PU) (PU) (PU) (PU)
SINGLE 101-102(1) 0.4475 7.7 3.4 0.33 0.00 89.34 0.0003 0.0001 0.9888 1.0499
SINGLE 101-103(1) 5.3800 7.1 38.0 0.17 0.00 89.02 0.0111 0.0000 0.9805 1.0499
SINGLE 101-105(1) 2.2125 7.1 15.8 0.33 0.00 90.40 0.0291 0.0000 0.9879 1.0499
SINGLE 102-104(1) 3.2675 7.1 23.2 0.24 0.00 89.77 0.0408 0.0000 0.9740 1.0499
SINGLE 102-106(1) 4.9000 7.1 34.6 0.33 0.00 89.94 0.0015 0.0000 0.9886 1.0499
SINGLE 103-109(1) 3.0750 7.1 21.8 0.12 0.00 90.69 0.0081 0.0019 0.9833 1.0499
SINGLE 103-224(1) 0.1200 120.0 14.4 0.21 0.00 114.45 0.0908 0.0386 0.9249 1.0499
SINGLE 104-109(1) 2.6925 7.1 19.1 0.07 0.00 88.75 0.0240 0.0022 0.9893 1.0499
SINGLE 105-110(1)
SINGLE 106-110(1)
SINGLE 107-108(1)
SINGLE 108-109(1)
.
.
.
E
CONTINGENCY LEGEND:
M
2.3075
1.6125
1.6350
4.2275
7.1
7.2
7.2
7.1
16.5
11.6
11.7
29.9
0.05
0.22
0.22
0.07
0.00
0.00
156.30
0.00
88.87
164.21
89.81
89.34
0.0149
0.5256
0.0853
0.0122
0.0024
0.0000
0.0000
0.0005
0.9892
0.5125
0.9196
0.9890
1.0499
1.0499
1.0499
1.0499

SINGLE 101-102(1) OPEN LINE FROM BUS 101 [COAL-A 138.00] TO BUS 102 [COAL-B 138.00] CKT 1
SINGLE 101-103(1) OPEN LINE FROM BUS 101 [COAL-A 138.00] TO BUS 103 [WESTIE-1 138.00] CKT 1
SI
SINGLE 101-105(1) OPEN LINE FROM BUS 101 [COAL-A 138.00] TO BUS 105 [ANNELOAD 138.00] CKT 1
SINGLE 102-104(1) OPEN LINE FROM BUS 102 [COAL-B 138.00] TO BUS 104 [MARYLOAD 138.00] CKT 1
SINGLE 102-106(1) OPEN LINE FROM BUS 102 [COAL-B 138.00] TO BUS 106 [REACTOR 138.00] CKT 1

Calculating Annualized Indices
S
• Reliability results can vary with load levels and generation dispatch patterns.
• Studying only peak load case may overestimate unreliability.
EN
• Need to consider different load/dispatch conditions.
• One example is to select several discrete load levels from load duration curve,
perform calculations at each level and combined weighted indices.
1.2
1.0 M 1.1
1.0
Per Unit Load
Per unit load

0.8 0.9
0.6 0.8
E
0.4 Load
0.7
0.2 Served 0.6
0.0 0.5
SI
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 0 2000 4000 6000 8000
Hours Hours

Estimate of Unserved Energy
S
Each power flow represents a load/dispatch condition with a certain exposure
For example,
EN
• If unserved energy computed at load level i is Xi MWHr/Yr
• If exposure of load level i is Ti hours / 8760 hours
• Annualized index is ∑ Xi * Ti / 8760 MWHr/Yr

E M
SI

Cost Effectiveness Analysis
S
• Translate unserved energy index into cost of unreliability
• Use cost data from past outage events.
EN
• Outage cost may depend on load type, outage duration, etc.
• Represent as Damage Cost Function
Damage Cost Function

400
E M $/kW
350
300
250
200
150
Interruptible
Firm
Critical
100
50
SI
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Hours

Reliability Worth
S
• Trade off costs of reinforcements against and costs of customer interruptions
EN
System Improvement Cost of Cost of
Options Investment Unreliability
Do nothing
Add Generator
Build Line
Improve Grounding
E M 0
4750
2930
98
3356
215
52
3160 Cost
Total Cost
System
Reinforcement
Costs
Repower Gen 52 2346

Add Capacitor 490 365
Customer
Live Line Maint 440 3327
SI
Interruption
Interruptible Load 87 2553 Costs
Reliability

S
EN
Analysis Methods &
E M
Tools Part II
SI

Other Analysis Methods and Tools
S
• Transfer analyses – linear and PV analyses
• Reactive power planning and QV analysis
EN
• Optimal power flow
• Dynamic simulations
• Voltage stability study
E M
SI

S
EN
E M
Transfer Analysis
SI
Transfer Capability
S
• Transfer is the ability to move power from one region to another.
EN
• Transfer capability provides a measure of the reliability of interconnected
systems.
• Available transfer capacity is of paramount importance for a commercially

viable electricity market
E M
SI

Transfer Capability Definition
S
• A measure of the ability of interconnected systems to reliably move or transfer
power from one area to another over all transmission paths between those
EN
areas, under specified system conditions.
• “Area” means an individual system, power pool, control area, sub-region or a
portion of any of these.
M
• Transfer capability is directional in nature. Transfer capability from Area A to
Area B may not be the same as transfer capability from Area B to Area A.
E
SI

Definitions
S
primary path
EN
Sending / Receiving /
exporting importing
area Incremental area
power transfer
E M Neighboring
interface
area
SI

Some Transfer Analysis Terms
S
• Total Transfer Capability (TTC) - amount of power that can be transferred
over the interconnected transmission network (or over an interconnection) in a
EN
reliable manner, within all pre- and pos-contingency criteria adopted for that
particular network.
• Available Transfer Capability (ATC) - a measure of the transfer capability
remaining in the physical transmission network for further commercial activity
over and above the already committed uses.
M
• Transmission Reliability Margin (TRM) - amount of transmission transfer
capability necessary to ensure that the interconnected transmission network is
secure under a reasonable range of uncertainties in system condition.
E
• TRM = TTC - ATC
SI

TTC Definition
S
• TTC = Minimum of { Thermal limit, Voltage limit, Stability limit }
EN
Transfer Stability limit
A B Voltage limit
Thermal limit
E M TTC
SI
Time

Transfer Capability vs. Transmission Capacity
S
• Transmission capacity = S thermal ratings of interface circuits
• Due to loop flows (parallel paths), interface circuits cannot all be loaded to
EN
their respective maximum capacities.
• \ Transmission capacity is generally larger than transfer capability
interface
E M
Area A
Area B
Area C
SI

Determination of Transfer Capability
S
• Computer simulations of interconnected transmission network under assumed
operating conditions.
EN
• Each simulation represents a single “snapshot” of system operation that is
dependent on many factors.
• Factors may include: customer demands, generation dispatch, network
configuration, base scheduled transfers, equipment outages.
E M
SI

Physical Impact of a Transfer
S
• A power transfer (transaction) from A to F will impact the flow on each
transmission path, depending on network topology and branch impedances.
EN
• Power transfer distribution factors (shown in diagram below) can be
computed.
• E.g., Loading on A to C transmission path will increase by 77% of the power
being transferred from A to F.
E M A
77%
C
11%
67%
E
11%
16% 7% 1%
SI
B D F
16% 22%

Physical Impact of Transfer (continued)
S
Initial Condition With 500 MW
EN
0 MW Transfer Transfer AàF
500 MW x 0.77 = 385 MW
E M 200 MW
500 MW
585 MW
(0 MW)
SI
AàF AàC AàF AàC
Transfer Flow Transfer Flow

Incremental Transfer Capability
S
• Incremental Transfer Capability (ITC) - amount of power increment above
base transfers that can be transferred between two areas without overloading
EN
any branch above its thermal rating.
• Normal Incremental Transfer Capability (NITC) – under normal or pre-
contingency operating conditions, normal thermal ratings observed.
• First Contingency Incremental Transfer Capability (FCITC) – under N-1
contingency conditions, post-contingency (emergency) thermal ratings
observed.
E M
SI

Transfer Limit Analysis Methods
S
• Determine thermal limits using linear or AC power flows
• Determine voltage limits using AC power flows
EN
• Determine stability limits using dynamic simulations
E M
SI

Linear Methods
S
• Use of distribution factors
• Interpolation from linear power flow solutions
EN
E M
SI

PTDF (Pre-contingency Transfer Distribution Factor)
S
• Compute PTDF: Impact on line loading due to increase in power transfer
EN
120
Loading of Line A 120 Loading of Line B
100 100
80
80
60
60
40
20
E M
transfer
40
20
transfer
0 250 500 750 1000 0 250 500 750 75 1000

SI
PTDFA PTDFB
= (120 MW - 80 MW) / 1000 MW = (110 MW - 30 MW) / 1000 MW
= 4% = 8%

NITC (Normal Incremental Transfer Capability)
S
• Compute pre-contingency transfer limit:
NITC = (Normal rating - Pre-transfer base flow ) / PTDF
EN
120
Line A Thermal Limit 120
Line B Thermal Limit
100 100
80
80
60
40
20
E M NITC(A)
60
40
20
NITC(B)
0 250 500 750 1000 0 250 500 750 75 1000

SI
NITCA NITCB
= (100 MW – 80 MW) / 0.04 = (100 MW - 30 MW) / 0.08
= 500 MW = 875 MW

LODF (Line Outage Distribution Factor)
S
• Compute LODF: measure of flow re-distribution for an element outage
Example:
EN
• Line B has initial flow of 30 MW.
• Outage of Line B increases flow on Line A by 10 MW.
• Line outage distribution factor for Line A due to outage of Line B is:
LODFAB = (Flow increase on Line A) / (Pre-contingency flow on Line B)
M
= 10 / 30 = 33.3%
• Line A has initial flow of 80 MW.
• Outage of Line A increases flow on Line B by 20 MW.
E
• Line outage distribution factor for Line B due to outage of Line A is:
LODFBA = (Flow increase on Line B) / (Pre-contingency flow on Line A)
SI
= 20 / 80 = 25.0%

OTDF (Outage Transfer Distribution Factor)
S
Compute OTDF: Change in line flow due to an outage during a power transfer
EN
OTDFAB: Response of Line B to outage of Line A during a transfer
= PTDFA + (PTDFB x LODFAB)
= 4% + (8% x 33.3%) = 6.67%
OTDFBA:
OTDFBA
E M
Response of Line B to outage of Line A during a transfer
= PTDFB + (PTDFA x LODFBA)
= 8% + (4% x 25%) = 9.0%
SI

FCITC Determination
S
• Compute post-contingency transfer limit:
EN
FCITC = contingency rating - pre-transfer post-contingency flow
OTDF
• Assume post-contingency ratings of Line A and B are 120 MW
FCITCA = (120 – 90) / OTDFAB = (120 – 90) / 0.0667 = 450 MW
M
FCITCB = (120 – 50) / OTDFBA = (120 – 50) / 0.09 = 777.8 MW
• In this example, FCITCA < FCITCB

E
• Also, FCITCA < NITCA
SI
• Therefore, lowest transfer limit is FCITCA = 450 MW.

Interpolation Model
S
EN
LOW HIGH
A B A B
• Interpolates between two BASE CASES with low and high transfers
• Recognizes generator and phase-shifter limits
E M Line Flow FHigh
line rating
FLow
transfer limit
SI
TLow TLimit THigh Transfer

Level
Sample Linear Transfer Limit Table
S
EN
*** OVERLOAD TRANSFER LIMIT ANALYSIS ***
TRAN LIMITING ELEMENT RATE CONTINGENCY DESCRIPTION SLOPE
MW FROM BUS TO BUS ID MW LABEL FROM BUS TO BUS ID DT/DL
-(1)- ----------(2)----------------- ----(2)--- --------------(3)------------- -(5)-
806 217 NOLOAD 216 MIDCOAL 1 540 LTE 215 MIDCOALP 221 NUKE-B 1 12.8
806 217 NOLOAD 216 MIDCOAL 1 540 LTE 215 MIDCOALP 221 NUKE-B 2 12.8
992 216 MIDCOAL 225 ADDON 1 320 COND80 ------ Base Case (4) -- 3.2
1060 109 MIDTIE-1 108 ERIKLOAD 1 171 CABLE 108 ERIKLOAD 110 EASTIE-1 1 2.4
1098 109 MIDTIE-1 108 ERIKLOAD 1 187 LTE 108 ERIKLOAD 110 EASTIE-1 1 2.4
M
1098 110 EASTIE-1 108 ERIKLOAD 1
1123 109 MIDTIE-1 108 ERIKLOAD 1
1123 110 EASTIE-1 108 ERIKLOAD 1
1168 109 MIDTIE-1 108 ERIKLOAD 1
E 187 LTE
198 STE
198 STE
124 CABLE
108 ERIKLOAD 109 MIDTIE-1 1
108 ERIKLOAD 110 EASTIE-1 1
108 ERIKLOAD 109 MIDTIE-1 1
------ Base Case ------
2.4
2.4
2.4
4.4
SI

AC-Based Transfer Limit Process
S
DTransfer
EN
A B
Interface
Sending Area Receiving Area
Increment Transfer by:

M
• Increasing load or decreasing generation in B
E
• Increasing generation or decreasing load in A
• Stop when solution fails to converge or maximum transfer level reached.
SI
• Repeat study for normal (N-0) condition and each N-1 contingency condition.

AC Power Flow Overload Transfer Limit
S
Non-linear characteristic
EN
Flow
Line Rating
Overload Transfer
E M Incremental
Transfer
Limit
SI

Low Voltage and Voltage Collapse Limits
S
1.00
Low Voltage Level
EN
Voltage
0.98
Post-Contingency Voltage (p.u.)
Collapse Point
0.96
0.94
Low Voltage
E 0.92
0.90
0.88
M Transfer Limit
Voltage Collapse
Transfer Limit MW Margin
0.86
SI
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Pre-Contingency Incr. Transfer (MW)

Sample AC Based Transfer Limit Table
S
EN
*** AC TRANSFER LIMIT TABLE ***
INTERF INCR. SLOPE
LIMITS TRANSF LIMITING ELEMENTS CRITERION DT/DL DT/DV CONTINGENCY DESCRIPTION
(MW) (MW) From BUS To BUS ID (MW/MVA MW/KV) From BUS To BUS ID
------ ------ -------------------------------- --------- -------------- --------------------------------
528 -279 106 REACTOR 110 EASTIE-1 1 175 MVA 8.21 102 COAL-B 106 REACTOR 1
564 -243 224 WESTIE-2 230 KV 88 % -24.6 215 MIDCOALP 224 WESTIE-2 1
801 -6 103 WESTIE-1 138 KV 88 % -39.4 103 WESTIE-1 224 WESTIE-2 1
869 62 106 REACTOR 110 EASTIE-1 1 175 MVA 10.85 101 COAL-A 102 COAL-B 1
1093
1122
1163
E 286
315
356
105 ANNELOAD
110 EASTIE-1
M
212 EASTIE-2 .094
106 REACTOR .081
110 EASTIE-1 .078
138 KV
211 MIDTIE-2 1
230 KV
138 KV
138 KV
90 %
400 MVA
20 MW
1.75
-34.2
V.C.
101 COAL-A
110 EASTIE-1
212 EASTIE-2
105 ANNELOAD 1
212 EASTIE-2 1
213 BIGOIL 1
SI

S
EN
E M
PV Analysis
SI
Restricted © Siemens Industry, Inc. 2019 usa.siemens.com/pti-education

PV Analysis Basics
S
• Investigate relationship between power transfer and voltages.
• As transfer (or load) increases, system reactive consumption increases and
EN
voltages fall.
• Want to find maximum power transfer (or load supply) level before voltage
collapse – knee of the curve.
• Perform many power flow solutions and plot results.
E M V
Knee of the
Curve
Transfer
SI
Limit

PV Analysis Procedures in PSS®E
S
• Prepare power flow base case
• Run DFAX to input subsystem, monitored element and contingency description
EN
files
• Select PV analysis options
• Initiate calculations
• View graphical results
E M
SI

Prepare Base Case
S
Must Have:
• Valid reactive limits of generators and other reactive support devices
EN
• Generator MW limits for redispatch, if applicable
• Branch ratings, if needed
E M
SI

PV Analysis Run Options
S
Transfer
EN
Increment
Power
Flow
Solution Stopping
Criteria
Transfer
Dispatch
Method
E M Subsystem
Selection
SI
Input & Output Files

PV Analysis: Transfer Dispatch Methods
S
Subsystems - source & sink (from DFX
file)
EN
Dispatch methods:
• DFAX generation and/or load
• Scale by machines MW, MBASE,
reserve (PMAX-PGEN)
• Observe MW Limits
M
• Economic dispatch (ECDI) file (with
option to include unit commitment in
V33.2)
E
• Loads can be scaled to new power
factor
SI

PV Analysis: Transfer Increments
S
• Initial transfer increment - Adjust “dispatch” in source & sink by normal step
size.
EN
• Tolerance - If solution at normal step fails to converge, retry from last
converged point using binary search technique.
• Negative minimum incremental transfer - Extend PV curve below zero transfer
level.
E M
SI

PV Analysis – Stopping Criteria
S
• “Transfer increment tolerance” reached
• “Maximum incremental transfer” reached
EN
• “Branch loading threshold” reached (optional). List of branches defined in
MON file
• “Minimum monitored bus voltage” reached (optional). List of buses defined in
MON file. Use voltage limits from:
• One global minimum limit
• Set of normal and/or
E
emergency voltage limits
from bus data
M
• Voltage limits in MON
SI
file are not used

Example of PV Analysis Output
S
Select Select
EN
Graph Base &
Type Cont
Cases
Select Bus
or
Generator
E M Y-axis
elements
Selected
SI

S
EN
E M
Reactive Power Planning
SI
Reactive Power and Voltage Control
S
• Efficient and reliable operations of a power system require proper control of
voltage and reactive power.
EN
• Voltages should be kept within specified ranges under both normal and
emergency conditions (e.g., within 0.95 to 1.05 p.u. for normal conditions, and
within 0.9 to 1.1 p.u. for emergency conditions). Operation of equipment
outside acceptable design limits may result in damage to the equipment.
• Proper control of voltages also will help reduce reactive power flows in the
transmission network.
E M
network, i.e., reduce I²R and I²X losses, and promote more efficient use of the
SI

Reactive Power and Voltage Control (continued)
S
• Large number of generating plants supplying reactive power and vast number
of loads in the system complicates matter further.
EN
• Reactive power requirement changes as loads vary, either from light load to
peak load or as their power factor changes.
• High X/R ratio of transmission lines prevents long distance transfer of reactive
power, since much of it is consumed in I²X losses.
• Transfer of reactive power over long distances should be avoided, and
M
localized means of voltage control should be used, if possible.
E
SI

Reactive Losses and Load Power Factor
S
GEN LOAD
105 ® 105 ® 100 100
® 62.0
EN
81.2 ® 62.0
81.2
1.000 0.878
p.f. = 0.85, losses = 4.5 MW, 19.2 MVAR
20
MW loss MVAR loss
GEN LOAD 15
104 ® 104 ® 100 100

10
E 64.3
64.3
1.000
®
M
p.f. = 0.9, losses = 3.8 MW, 15.9 MVAR
GEN
® 48.4
0.899
LOAD
48.4
5
0
0.85 0.90 0.95
103 ® 103 ® 100 100

46.0 ® 46.0 ® 32.9 32.9
SI
1.000 0.922
p.f. = 0.95, losses = 3.3 MW, 13.1 MVAR

Reactive Losses and Line Loading
S
• Losses also increase with line loading.
• Lines loaded below Surge Impedance Loading generate vars, while those
EN
loaded above consume vars.
GEN LOAD
25.1 ® 25.1 ® 25.0 25.0

5.9 ® 5.9 ® 8.1 8.1
E M 1.000 0.985
p.f. = 0.95, loading below SIL (50 MW)
GEN LOAD
103 ® 103 ® 100 100

10.2 ® 10.2 ® 0.0 0.0
SI
1.000 0.967
p.f. = 1.0, loading above SIL (50 MW)

Reactive Power and Voltage Control (continued)
S
• Rise/drop in voltage is associated with reactive power flow.
• Approximate relationship describing voltage difference between two adjacent
EN
buses and reactive power flow is:
RP + XQ
DV =
V
• Since, for most networks, X >> R, then DV determines Q.
M
• Further, reactive power flows towards bus with lower voltage.
• Thus, deficiency in reactive power will cause voltage to drop; surplus will cause
voltage to rise.
E
SI

Reactive Supplies and Demands in System
S
• Generators: Can either generate or absorb reactive power. Supply reactive
power when overexcited and absorb it when underexcited. Reactive capability
EN
curve determines limits for production/absorption of reactive power by
generators.
• Overhead Lines: Can also provide or absorb vars, depending upon loading.
When loading is above SIL, lines absorb reactive power; at loading below SIL,
they produce vars.
M
• Transformers: Always absorb reactive power, regardless of loading.
• Underground cables: Generates vars. (loaded below SIL)
E
SI

More Reactive Supplies and Demands
S
• Loads: Normally absorb reactive power.
• Series Capacitors: Generate vars proportional to I².
EN
• Shunt Capacitors: Generate vars proportional to V².
• SVC: Able to control voltage by changing effective (net) generation/absorption
of vars. Relies on shunt capacitors or shunt reactors. Therefore, output is
proportional to V² when fully on (at limit).
M
• STATCOM: Able to control voltage like an SVC, but based on voltage source
converters. When at limit, performance is similar to I=constant; therefore, var
output is proportional to V.
E
SI

Methods of Voltage Control
S
• Controlling voltage in a power network is controlling the reactive power
(generation, absorption, and flows).
EN
• Primary method of voltage control is the level set by generators at their terminal
bus.
• Another popular method of controlling voltage is to use tap-changing
transformers.
• Additional means include shunt capacitors, reactors, SVCs and series
capacitors.
E M
SI

Voltage Collapse
S
• Voltage stability is the ability of the system to maintain acceptable voltages at
all buses, following a disturbance.
EN
• The problem of voltage collapse normally occurs in heavily stressed systems.
Voltage collapse is the progressive, uncontrollable drop in voltage following a
change in the system condition.
• While the events leading to voltage collapse may be caused by different
disturbances, the key issue is the difficulty in balancing reactive power supply
M
and demand (including losses).
• Heavily loaded lines and transformers cause large reactive power losses.
E
SI

Voltage Collapse (continued)
S
• Shunt capacitors, line charging, and generators supply the needed reactive
power.
EN
• In addition to system loading and transmission network characteristic
(strength), other factors influencing voltage collapse are: generators reactive
power limits, characteristics of reactive compensation devices, and actions of
under-load tap changing transformers.
• Voltage instability usually develops over a period of 10 to 20 minutes, in which
M
all, or part, of the elements described above participate. It can even occur in a
few seconds in a system with high motor load content.
E
SI

Event Sequence in Voltage Collapse
S
A typical voltage collapse may happen as follows:
1. A disturbance (trip of a generator or line) near the load center causes a
EN
voltage drop (reactive power supply deficiency). Because of the voltage drop,
load is temporarily reduced.
2. Transformers (LTC's) begin restoring voltage at the distribution levels, hence,
restoring load.
3. The rising load keeps depleting reactive power reserves. Transmission line
currents increase and so do reactive losses. Reactive power supplied by
E M
shunts and lines decreases due to the low voltage.
4. When generators in troubled area reach reactive power limits, operators may
try increasing reactive power output from distant plants, hence increasing
losses.
5. When bulk system voltages reach about 90%, LTC’s usually reach their tap
limits, allowing voltages at the customer load to drop. This load reduction may
SI
help stabilize system voltages. If voltage drop causes little reduction in loads,
voltage will continue to fall. Eventually, motors begin to stall, which then
causes a rapid collapse.
Studying Voltage Collapse
S
• Studying voltage collapse requires steady state as well as dynamic (long-term)
simulations.
EN
• In steady state, the most widely used voltage stability tools are the PV (real
power versus voltage) and QV (reactive power versus voltage) curves.
E M
SI

S
EN
E M
QV Analysis
SI

QV Curve
S
• A useful tool for analyzing voltage collapse
EN
M
• When an area is identified as having voltage problems, QV curves can be
generated at a subject bus by running a series of power flow cases
• Voltage collapse occurs if there is no stable operating point.
E
• Collapse may also occur if the operating point has very low voltage, causing
motors to stall.
SI
• QV curve can be used to derive margins for reactive power, hence setting up
operating limits.

Q-V Curve
S
• When an area (bus) is identified as having voltage problems, develop QV curve
by running a series of power flow cases with different levels of controlled
EN
voltage.
• Control voltage at the selected bus by adding a synchronous condenser in the
power flow model.
• Usually, a range of loading conditions are tested, and a family of curves is
obtained.
M
• QV curve can then be compared with
a shunt capacitor bank characteristic
to determine the compensation
E
needed to maintain voltage stability.
SI

QV Analysis Procedures in PSS®E
S
• Prepare power flow base case
EN
• Run DFAX to input subsystem, monitored element and contingency description
files
• Select QV analysis options
• Begin calculations
• View graphical results

E M
SI

QV Analysis – Starting and Stopping
S
• Sets study bus voltage at VHI and solves power flow
EN
• Decreases voltage setpoint in steps of DLTAV and resolves
• Stops when solution fails to converge or voltage setpoint reaches VLO
E M
SI

Example of QV Analysis Output
S
Contingency 21, which
EN
disconnects GSU
between Buses 205 &
206, outaging machine
at Bus 206, is most
critical.
E M
Minimum is
SI
about 622
Mvar.

S
EN
E M
Optimal Power Flow
SI
Optimal Power Flow
S
Minimize a cost function, f(x)
subject to:
EN
• power flow equations, e(x) = 0
• inequality constraints, g(x) > 0
E M
SI

Conventional vs. Optimal Power Flow
S
Conventional Power Flow
• Constraints – power balance equation, generator var limits, transformer tap
EN
ranges
• Controls – generator reactive output, transformer taps, phase shifter angles
• Objectives – control local bus voltages
E M
SI

Conventional vs. Optimal Power Flow (continued)
S
Optimal Power Flow
• Objectives are global – e.g., minimize losses in entire system
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• Constraints
• Equality, power balance equation
• Inequality, e.g., generator var limits, transformer tap ranges, bus voltages,
branch flows, etc.
M
• Controls - MW dispatch, taps, phase shift angles, shunt capacitor addition,
series compensation level, load shed
E
SI

OPF Solution Methods
S
Linear Programming (LP)
• primal or dual simplex solution
EN
• successive linear programming
Nonlinear Programming (NLP)
• Kuhn-Tucker
• Penalty
• Barrier
• Gradient
• Newton
E M
SI

OPF Applications
S
• Reduce system losses
• Minimize fuel cost
EN
• Voltage instability/collapse analysis
• Shunt compensation requirements
• Series compensation requirement
• Identify load shedding strategy to resolve system problems
M
• Determine maximum power transfer capability
• Impact assessment base case development
E
SI

OPF Example
S
Single bipolar outage imposes a
significant stress on the
EN
interconnection Weaker
lines
E M 500 kV bipole taken out of service

SI

The Problem at Hand
S
Two questions need to be addressed:
1. How much var support is needed to overcome the outage and prevent
EN
voltage instability/collapse?
2. Without imposing changes in var support, what’s the maximum power that
can be transferred across the interface without causing voltage instability?
E M
SI

Initial OPF Run to Achieve Solution Convergence
S
Summary Table for Added Shunt (MVar):
EN
-------------------------------------
Bus Name Area Zone Initial Final Change Minimum Maximum Cost
-------------------------- --------- --------- --------- ---------- ---------- ---------
448 LAKOTA 7 115 6 90 0.000 20.012 20.012 -5000.000 5000.00 100.000
707 CALEDON7 115 14 90 0.000 52.835 52.835 -5000.000 5000.00 100.000
720 SWEETWA7 115 14 90 0.000 36.647 36.647 -5000.000 5000.00 100.000
962 LOMA JT7 115 14 90 0.000 6.016 6.016 -5000.000 5000.00 100.000
1620 PRASWCP7 115 14 74 0.000 0.112 0.112 -5000.000 5000.00 100.000
------- -------
Total: 0.00 115.62
E M
Added shunt capacitors at several locations to
satisfy constraints (e.g. voltages < 0.5 pu)
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Check Resulting Voltages
S
BUSES WITH VOLTAGE LESS THAN 0.9000: Still very low
EN
X------ BUS -----X AREA V(PU) V(KV) X------ BUS -----X AREA V(PU) V(KV)
430 EGF IND7 115 6 0.8774 100.90 437 GRNDFKS4 230 6 0.8638 198.66
443 GRNDFKS7 115 6 0.8661 99.601 445 JAMESTN7 115 6 0.8998 103.47
452 RUGBY 7 115 6 0.8961 103.06 455 BOTTNO 7 115 6 0.8832 101.57
705 DRAYTON7 115 14 0.8935 102.76 706 FALCONR7 115 14 0.8657 99.558
708 KARLSTA7 115 14 0.8414 96.756 710 NARY 7 115 14 0.8298 95.422
712 PRAIRIE7 115 14 0.8931 102.71 713 TRFALLS7 115 14 0.8214 94.456
714 WARSAW 7 115 14 0.8537 98.177 716 LAPORTE7 115 14 0.8449 97.164
E 722 OSLO
M
717 ULRICH 7 115 14 0.8872 102.02
7 115 14 0.8503 97.786
729 RICELAK7 115 14 0.7987 91.855
755 PRAIRIE4 230 14 0.8696 200.00
759 PICKERT4 230 14 0.8457 194.51
904 AUDUBON7 115 14 0.8962 103.06
908 BEMIDJI7 115 14 0.8108 93.239
916 BUFFALO3 345 14 0.8869 305.99
718 HALMA 7 115 14 0.8491 97.648
727 RICELKT7 115 14 0.7989 91.870
752 DRAYTON4 230 14 0.8891 204.49
758 WINGER 4 230 14 0.8435 194.01
792 MAPLE R3 345 14 0.8717 300.74
906 BAGLEY 7 115 14 0.7977 91.738
913 MN PIPE7 115 14 0.7809 89.804
922 CASS LK7 115 14 0.8252 94.895
923 CASS N 7 115 14 0.8250 94.880 924 CLEARBR7 115 14 0.7811 89.825
926 CLBKPIP7 115 14 0.7807 89.783 928 CRKSTON7 115 14 0.8323 95.709
930 DONALDS7 115 14 0.8601 98.907 931 DONDPIP7 115 14 0.8600 98.902
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952 ITASCA 7 115 14 0.7975 91.710 973 PLUMTAP7 115 14 0.8223 94.569
974 PLUMPIP7 115 14 0.8219 94.513 975 PLUMMER7 115 14 0.8222 94.556
978 SHEVLIN7 115 14 0.8026 92.300 982 VIKING 7 115 14 0.8232 94.672

Second OPF Run After Raising Voltage Constraints
S
Summary Table for Added Shunt (MVar):
-------------------------------------
EN
Bus Name Area Zone Initial Final Change Minimum Maximum Cost
-------------------------- --------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ----------
709 LANGDON7 115 14 90 0.000 80.136 80.136 -5000.000 5000.00 100.000
759 PICKERT4 230 14 90 0.000 11.129 11.129 -5000.000 5000.00 100.000
913 MN PIPE7 115 14 90 0.000 17.225 17.225 -5000.000 5000.00 100.000
924 CLEARBR7 115 14 90 0.000 0.308 0.308 -5000.000 5000.00 100.000
926 CLBKPIP7 115 14 90 0.000 10.830 10.830 -5000.000 5000.00 100.000
973 PLUMTAP7 115 14 90 0.000 19.993 19.993 -5000.000 5000.00 100.000
974 PLUMPIP7 115 14 90 0.000 13.195 13.195 -5000.000 5000.00 100.000
E Total:
M
BUSES WITH VOLTAGE LESS THAN 0.9000:
-------
0.00
-------
152.82
Additional shunts
required to meet more
stringent voltage
constraints
X------ BUS -----X AREA V(PU) V(KV) X------ BUS -----X AREA V(PU) V(KV)
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* NONE *
Voltage check – no violations!

S
EN
E M
Stability Analysis
SI
System Stability
S
Power System Stability
• Basic Definitions
EN
• Stability Classifications
• Transient stability analysis and simulation
Options for enhancing transient stability

E M
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Basic Stability Definitions
S
Power System Stability:
• A term applied to a system denoting the property condition that enables the
EN
synchronous machines of the system to remain in synchronism for normal
operating condition and to regain an acceptable state of equilibrium after being
subject to a disturbance.
Conversely, instability has been traditionally applied to a condition involving loss

of synchronism.
E M
SI

Stability Classifications
S
EN
Power System Stability
Transient
E
Stability
Dynamic
Stability
M
Rotor Angle Stability
Mid-Term
Stability
Long-Term
Stability
Voltage Stability
Small
Disturbance
Voltage
Large
Disturbance
Voltage
Stability Stability
SI

Transient Stability
S
• Ability of the system to remain in synchronism when subject to a severe
transient disturbance.
EN
• Also called first swing stability
• Study period is typically 5 to 20 seconds.
• Dynamic response of system involves large excursions in the generator rotor
angles.
M
• Depends on pre-disturbance operating condition, type and severity of
disturbance, effective impedance of system, generator inertia and subtransient
reactance.
E
SI

Dynamic Stability
S
• Ability of the system to remain in synchronism when small disturbances are
occurring in the system.
EN
• Instability can be presented in two forms:
• Gradual increase in rotor angle due to insufficient synchronizing torque.
• Rotor angle oscillations of increasing magnitude due to lack of damping
torque.
E M
SI

Types of System Oscillations
S
• Local Mode oscillations (machines at one station swing against each other or
with another group(. Frequency range is between 1 to 3 Hz.
EN
• Inter-Area mode oscillations (many machines in one part of the system swing
against groups of machines in another part of the system). Frequency range is
between 0.1 to 0.8 Hz.
• Control mode oscillations caused by exciters, governors, HVDC and SVC
equipment. Frequency range is between 3.0 to 7.0 Hz.
M
• Torsional mode oscillations associated with turbine-generator rotational
components. Frequency range is between 5.0 to 55.0 Hz.
E
SI

Mid-Term Stability
S
• Dynamic response of a power system to a severe disturbance that triggers
actions of slow processes, controls and protections that are not usually
EN
modeled in transient stability studies.
• Focus is on synchronizing power oscillations between individual machines
and between groups of machines, including effects of slower phenomena,
such as large frequency and voltage excursions.
• Study period is from tens of seconds to a few minutes.
• Need to include models for both fast (generators/exciter) dynamics and slower
(governor) dynamics.
E M
SI

Long-Term Stability
S
• Deals with severe system disturbances resulting in large excursions in
voltages, power flows and frequencies.
EN
• Assumes inter-machine power oscillations have damped out and system
frequency is constant (or has very small excursions).
• Focus is on slower and longer duration phenomena accompanying large
sustained mismatches between generation and load or deficiencies in reactive
power.
M
• Need to model slow dynamics, AGC, boiler dynamics of thermal units,
penstock dynamics of hydro units, power plant and transmission
protection/controls, transformer saturation and tap adjustments, off-nominal
E
frequency and voltage effects on loads and network parameters.
• Study period is in the order of minutes.
SI

Voltage Stability
S
• Ability of a power system to maintain acceptable levels of voltages at all
buses in the system.
EN
• Voltage instability refers to the state of the system for which a disturbance, or
a change of system condition, causes a progressive and uncontrollable drop
in voltage.
• A small disturbance could be a small change in load or a control reference set
point which may be present during normal operation of a power system.
•
•
E
electrical fault.
M
A large disturbance involves severe system changes, such as the loss of a
large generator or load, or outage of a critical transmission line following an
Study period of interest is in the order of minutes

SI

Typical Dynamic Simulation Process
S
Input Data
EN
Initialization
Network Solution
E Apply
Disturbance
M Time Derivative Calculation
Observe/Plot Key Variables
Numerical Integration
SI
Advance Time
Factors Influencing Transient Stability
S
• Generator loadings and pre-disturbance system operating conditions
• Fault location, type, proximity to generating units
EN
• Fault clearing time
• Post-fault transmission network, i.e., effective impedance seen by generating
units
• Generator parameters; turbine-generator inertias, and generators’
M
subtransient and transient reactances and time constants
• Controls of plant equipment and other system devices
E
SI

Transient Stability Study Objectives
S
• To support system planning, determine equipment needs
EN
• To support system operations
• To simulate specific events:
• Branch outages
• System short-circuits
• Generator tripping
• Load shedding
E M
• Power system protection
SI

Steps in Transient Stability Studies
S
1. Selection of stability criteria
EN
2. Definition of pre-disturbance conditions
3. Selection and testing of disturbances
M
4. Interpretation of results according to stability criteria
5. Solution to stability problems found

E
SI

1. Selection of Stability Criteria
S
Usually, Independent System Operators (ISO’s) and Transmission Operators
(TO’S) determine the stability criteria to use.
EN
E M
SI

2. Pre-Disturbance Conditions Definitions
S
• Peak load – heavy power transfers, high reactive demand, low voltages
EN
• Light load – light flows, high voltages, low inertia
• All branches in service
M
• One or more generators or branches out of service
E
SI

3. Selection and Testing of Disturbances
S
• Type of fault and duration (normally cleared or stuck breaker three-phase or
single-line-to-ground)
EN
• Fault clearing mechanism (simultaneous or independent pole tripping)
• Permanent branch outage or with automatic reclosing

E M
SI

4. Interpretation of Results
S
Usually, the following variables are examined:
• Rotor angles
EN
• Speed
• Electrical power
• Mechanical power
• Field current
• Field voltage
• Terminal voltage
M
• Other variable such as AVR or speed governor responses
E
Applicable stability criteria are applied. Results may compared with similar cases.
SI

5. Solutions to Problems Found
S
Solutions based on security, reliability and economic considerations
EN
Possible solutions involve changes to:
• Generator /Excitation system
• Prime mover speed governor
• Protection system
E•
M
Transmission system
SI

Example of Transient Stability
(Rotor Angles)
S
EN
E M
SI

Example of Transient Stability (Voltages)
S
EN
E M
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Damping Issue in Transient Stability Simulations
S
EN
E M
SI

Damping Issue in Transient Stability Simulations
(continued)
S
EN
E M
SI

Countermeasures for Transient Instability
S
• Increase system inertia
• Use higher/faster response excitation system
EN
• Fast-valve actuation to reduce power transfer.
• Higher speed fault clearing
• Single-pole switching to minimize severity of disturbance
• Braking resistors to reduce power transfer.
M
• Static var compensators to provide voltage support and system damping.
• Add transmission to increase system strength
• Reduce transmission line reactance by using series compensation.
E
SI

S
EN
E M
Simulating Disturbances
SI
Typical Types of Disturbances Simulated
S
• 3-phase or 1-phase fault on a bus or a line
• Fault clearing
EN
• Line tripping
• Machine tripping
• Failure of breaker to open
M
Most disturbances can be modeled by changing power flow data:
• Represent a fault as a bus shunt
• Change on/off status of a line, machine or bus section
E
• More complex disturbances, such as stuck breaker events, require some
understanding of bus-breaker configurations of affected stations.
SI

Modeling Faults for Different Substation Bus
Arrangements
S
• Knowledge of bus arrangements in substations is needed for:
• Understanding of protection schemes
EN
• Modeling of complex events in dynamic simulations
• Some common configurations:
• Single bus, single breaker
• Double bus, single breaker
• Main and transfer bus
• Double bus, double breaker
E M
• Ring bus
• Breaker-and-a-half bus
SI

Single Bus, Single Breaker
S
• Common to distribution circuits and
low voltage transmission circuits
EN
• Internal bus faults
• trip all circuits
• External faults, normally cleared
• open breaker to the bus, and trip
only faulted circuit
M
• External faults, with stuck breaker
• open all breakers and trip all circuits
E
SI

Double Bus, Single Breaker
S
• Tie breaker may be normally open
• Internal bus fault
EN
• Open all breakers and trip all circuits
on faulted bus side.
• External fault, normally cleared
• Open breaker to bus and trip faulted circuit
M
• External fault, with stuck breaker
• Open all breakers and trip all circuits on faulted bus side
• Loss of one power source
E
• Tie breaker may be closed to restore service via other source
• Failure on tie breaker
SI
• Open all breakers and trip all circuits

Main and Transfer Bus
S
• Transfer bus normally operated de-
energized
EN
• Allows breaker maintenance without
requiring outage of the associated
circuit
• Trip all circuits on main bus
• Trip faulted line

M
• External fault, with a stuck breaker

E
• Trip all circuits
SI

Double Bus, Double Breaker
S
• No circuit outage for breaker maintenance
• Center portion of bus is protected by line relay
EN
• Faulted bus breakers open with no circuit
outage
M
• Open two adjacent breakers and trip faulted
line
E
• Open adjacent breaker and all breakers on
bus connected to stuck breaker, trip faulted
line and connected bus.
SI
• Unfaulted lines remain in service.

Ring Bus
S
• Used extensively, particularly at
small substations.
EN
• Provides good operational flexibility
with minimum number of breakers.
• No special bus protection required.
• Internal bus fault:
M
• open two breakers and trip line associated with open breakers
• open two breakers and trip line associated with open breakers
E
• open next breaker adjacent to stuck breaker
SI
• trip one more line in addition to faulted line

Breaker-and-a-Half
S
• Popular at high transmission voltages in substations
with multiple circuits
EN
• Open all breakers connected to faulted bus
• No circuits are switched out
• Open two adjacent breakers and trip faulted circuit
• Failure on center breaker
M
• open next adjacent breakers
• trip faulted line and adjacent unfaulted line
• Failure on side breaker
E
• open all breakers on bus connected to stuck
breaker
SI
• trip faulted line
• no unfaulted line tripping required

Stuck Breaker Simulation
S
• Stuck breaker capability
• 3 phase breaker → 3 phase fault remains
EN
• Independent pole tripping breaker
• Only one pole generally assumed to fail
• Becomes single-phase-to-ground fault after other two poles open
• Backup clearing time (after normal fault clearing)
M
• EHV: typically 6 to 12 cycles
• HV: could be as long as 40 cycles
• Other equipment may trip, depending on bus configuration.
E
SI

Example: Substation Breaker Diagram
S
• Breaker diagram of the 345 kV Center bus:
Bus - G
EN
Bus - C Bus - D
~
~ TR1 ~
~ TR2
Center - 2 Center - 3
Bus - F 101 104 107
Bus - B
E L1
L2
M102S
102P
105
L3 L5
108
110
111
Bus - A
L7
103 106
Bus - E 109 L6
L4
SI
Note: two breakers 102S and 102P installed in series at this substation to Center - 1
avoid loss of two circuits due to a stuck breaker fault

Example: Power Flow Representation
S
• Power flow representation of the 345 Bus - C Bus - G Bus - D
~
~ TR1 ~
kV Center bus has the following: ~ TR2
EN
• Seven 345 kV lines Center - 2 Center - 3
Bus - F 101 104 107
L1 L3 L5
• Two 345/230 kV transformers 102S
110
Bus - A
105 108
Bus - B 102 P 111
L7
L2
103 106
Bus - E 109 L6
L4
E M Center - 1
SI

Example: Simulation of Complex Event
S
Disturbance: Bus - C Bus - G Bus - D
~
~ TR1 ~
~ TR2
• Simulate 3-phase-to-ground fault on
EN
line L3 near Center bus, with failure of Bus - F
Center - 2
101 104 107
Center - 3
L1 L3 L5
Breaker 105 102S
110
Bus - A
105 108
Bus - B 102 P 111
L7
L2
103 106
Bus - E 109 L6
Data: L4
Center - 1
• Breaker 105 has independent poles
• Backup clearing time:

E M
• Primary protection: 4 cycles to clear
faulted line
• 5.5 cycles after normal fault clearing

at Center bus, open breaker 106
SI
• 6.5 cycles after normal fault clearing
at remote end of line L4

Example: Sequence of Events
S
Apply 3-phase-to-ground fault at Center bus.
Bus - C Bus - G Bus - D
EN
~
~ TR1 ~
~ TR2
After 4 cycles, Breaker 104 opens, two poles of
Breaker 105 open. Bus - F 101 104 107
L1 L3 L5
110
102S Bus - A
105 108
Bus - B 102P 111
L7
L2
Line L3 tripped by remote clearing at Bus G. 103 106
Bus - E 109 L6
Fault turns from 3-phase-to-ground to SLG at L4
Center bus.
M
After additional 5.5 cycles, Breaker 106 opens.
Fault is cleared from Center bus, but still seen
from Bus E as a single-phase, line-end fault.
E Center - 1
After additional 1 cycle, Line L4 opens due to

remote clearing at Bus E. Fault is completely
SI
isolated from system.

Example: PSS®E Simulation – Power Flow
S
Bus - G
Power flow: ~
Bus - C Bus - D
~ TR1 ~
~ TR2
EN
1. Split bus Center and move lines L3
and L4 to new bus Center_Dummy. Bus - F
L1
101 104
L3
107
L5
110
Tie line between split buses remains 102 S

105 108
Bus - A
L7
Bus - B 102 P 111
L2
in-service as a zero impedance 103 106
Bus - E 109 L6
L4
branch.
Center - 1
2. Solve power flow (should be no

change).
M
3. Convert loads and generators.
4. Solve with TYSL and Save.
E
SI

Example: PSS®E Simulation – Dynamics
S
Dynamics: Center - 2
1. Perform initialization and specify
EN
output file name. 104
Bus - G
2. Run to 0.1 second. Apply 3-phase X
L3
fault at new bus Center_Dummy.
105
3. Run for 4 cycles. Disconnect line Bus - E
L4
L3. Change fault MVA from 3-
E M
phase to equivalent SLG fault.
4. Run for another 5.5 cycles.
Disconnect tie between Center
and Center_Dummy.
5. Run for another 1 cycle.
Center - 1
106
Breaker opens at 4 cycles

2 poles open at 4 cycles
Breaker opens at 9.5 cycles
Breaker opens at 10.5 cycles
Disconnect line L4.

6. Run to 10 or 15 seconds.
SI

S
EN
M
Studying Voltage
E
Stability
SI
Studying Voltage Stability
S
• Studying voltage collapse requires steady state as well as long term dynamic
simulations.
EN
• In steady state, the most widely used voltage stability tools are PV (real power
versus voltage) and QV (reactive power versus voltage) curves.
E M
SI

Time Domain Simulation
S
• Simulation is a powerful aide in the analysis of voltage instability and voltage
collapse.
EN
• Voltage instability is affected by both “fast” and “slow” dynamics.
• Following a drop in voltage and thus load, load will restore power levels by
increasing their effective admittance.
• At bulk transmission level, this results in progressive decay of voltages,
M
characterized as “slow dynamics.”
• Speed of phenomenon is influenced by characteristics of the power system,

transformer tap changers and loads.
E
SI

Transmission Planning Criteria:
Transient Voltage Dip
S
EN
E M
SI

Transmission Planning Criteria:
Transient Voltage Recovery
S
EN
E M
SI

Tool for Studying Voltage Recovery
S
• Available since PSSÒE Version 32.
• Monitors bus voltages during a dynamic simulation and reports voltage
EN
violations if any.
• Two types of violation checks:
• Voltage recovery: primary check (should recover above V1 within t1 after
fault clearing) and secondary check (should recover above V2 within t2 after
fault clearing).
M
• Voltage dip: once voltage has
recovered above V3, it should
not dip below that value for longer
E bus
voltage
V2
V3
V1
than t3.
t3
t1
SI
t2
t0 time
Voltage Violation Check GUI
S
Dynamics > Simulation option…
EN
bus
voltage
V2
E
V3
V1
M
t3
t1
SI
t2
t0 time

Voltage Violation Check
S
• Voltage violation check has to be
manually triggered by User (by
EN
selecting ‘Trigger voltage violation
check’ in Dynamics>Apply
Disturbance menu).
• Violations are reported in progress

window.
E M
SI

Example of Voltage Collapse Study
S
• Top figure shows transformer
tap actions in attempt to restore
EN
distribution voltage.
• Bottom figure shows effects of
excitation limiter on generator
terminal voltage.
E M
SI

Illustration of Transformer Tap Changer Action on
Load Voltage and Power
S
EN
E M
SI

Study Tool
S
• Simulation tools / programs should recognize characteristics that are critical to
slow dynamics and mechanisms of voltage instability and collapse, such as:
EN
• Maximum limiters on excitation systems
• Self-restoring load characteristics, including effects of tap changers and
thermostatically-controlled loads
• Actuation of reactive power compensation schemes, such as automatic
switching of capacitor or reactor banks, and
response to the disturbance

M
• Others: phase angle regulator adjustment (automatic or manual), AGC
• Note also that actual system behavior may be affected by other events within
E
the time frame of several minutes (e.g., operator actions) that are not modeled
in the simulations.
SI

Simulation 1 – Using Static Load Model
S
• Constant current component
varies with voltage
EN
• Constant admittance component
varies with square of voltage
E M
SI

Simulation 1 – Voltage Response using Static Load
Model
S
Exercise DVA-1
1.0 2.0
EN
0.9 1.8
0.8 1.6
0.7 1.4
0.6 1.2
Voltage
P&Q
0.5 1.0
E 0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0 1
M 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
Time (seconds)
g
b
c
d
e
f 304 - VOLT 106 [REACTOR 138.00] : DVA-1
SI
b
c
d
e
f
g 327 - VOLT 1106 [REACTOR 13.800] : DVA-1
b
c
d
e
f
g 608 - PLOD 1106[REACTOR 13.800]1 : DVA-1
b
c
d
e
f
g 625 - QLOD 1106[REACTOR 13.800]1 : DVA-1

Load Response to Voltage Drop
S
• Example - thermostat controlled heating
EN
Temperature
69 º
67 º
50% on-time at 100% voltage

E MOff
On
Off
On
62% on-time at 90% voltage (assume constant R)

On On
SI
Off Off Stays on longer to
provide same energy

Slow Dynamics of Loads
S
EN
E M
SI

Simulation 2 – Using Load Reset Model
S
• Simulate general effects of
loads being reset to constant
EN
MW and constant Mvar in the
steady state without explicitly
modeling the equipment
(taps, capacitors, etc.)
responsible for this reset.
E M
SI

Simulation 2 – With Load Reset Model
S
Exercise DVA-2
1.00 2.0
EN
0.90 1.8
0.80 1.6
0.70 1.4
0.60 1.2
Voltage
P&Q
0.50 1.0
E 0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00
0 10
M 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
Time (seconds)
g
b
c
d
e
SI
b
c
d
e
f
b
c
d
e
f
g 608 - PLOD 1106[REACTOR 13.800]1 : DVA-2
b
c
d
e
f
g 625 - QLOD 1106[REACTOR 13.800]1 : DVA-2

Additional Models for Long Term Simulations
S
• Maximum Excitation Limiter MAXEX1, MAXEX2
• Minimum Excitation Limiter MNLEX1(2, and 3)
EN
• On-Line Tap Changer OLTC1T
• On-Line Phase Shifter OLPS1T
• LVSHxx, LVS3xx - Under-voltage load shedding models
E M
SI

Simulation 3 – Observing Maximum Excitation
Limitation
S
EN
E M
SI

Simulation 3 – With Max Excitation Limiter
S
Exercise DVA-3
EN
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6 With EXTLAL

Voltage
0.5
E 0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
M With EXTLAL
& MAXEX2
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Time (seconds)
SI
g
b
c
d
e
b
c
d
e
f

Impact of Transformer Tap Changer on Voltage and
Power
S
EN
E M
SI

Simulation 4 - Modeling On Load Tap Changers
S
EN
E M
SI

Simulation 4 – Modeling OLTC
S
Exercise DVA-4
EN
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
With EXTLAL
0.6
Voltage
0.5
E 0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
M With EXTLAL,
MAXEX2 & OLTC1T
With EXTLAL
& MAXEX2
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Time (seconds)
SI
g
b
c
d
e
b
c
d
e
f
b
c
d
e
f

Cap Banks in Dynamics
S
EN
E M
SI

Simulation 5 – Modeling Capacitor Switching
S
EN
E M
SI

Simulation 5 – Modeling Capacitor Switching
S
Exercise DVA-5
EN
1.1
1.0
0.9
0.8 With EXTLAL, MAXEX2,

Voltage
OLTC1T & SWSHNT

0.7
E 0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
M With EXTLAL,
MAXEX2 & OLTC1T
0.2
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Time (seconds)
SI
g
b
c
d
e
b
c
d
e
f

Air Conditioning Loads
S
• Peak during summer
• Controlled by thermostats
EN
• Low inertia motors
• Slows down quickly, prone to stalling
• Residential air conditioning motors stall if voltage drops below 60% nominal for 5
cycles
• Within typical clearing times for most system faults
M
• Speeds up quickly – sudden load injections
E
• Protection
• Thermal overload
SI
• Under voltage

Motor Stalling
S
Low voltage
• Typically occurs around 0.6 p.u. voltage
EN
• Conventional air conditioner motors will stay on-line through a stall, drawing
reactive power
• Inverter type air conditioner motors will drop out around 0.5 p.u. voltage
Re-Start
M
• Motors may restart if voltage recovers
• Typical recovery voltage: 0.7 p.u.
E
SI

Aggregation of Loads
S
EN
medium
voltage
industrial
consumer
transmission
system
(EHV and HV) sub-transmission
E M distribution
substation
transmission
or sub-
transmission
system
(EHV and HV)
aggregate
load
distribution
feeder
SI
individual
consumers

Simulation 6 – Using Complex Load Model
S
Complex load model containing:
• Small induction motors
EN
• Large induction motors
• Discharge lighting (e.g., fluorescent)
• Transformer saturation
• Constant MVA load
• Polynomial form real power loads
M
• Constant impedance reactive power load
E
SI

Simulation 6 – Using Complex Load Model
S
Exercise DVA-6
EN
1.1 With reset load &
switched shunt
1.0
0.9
0.8
Voltage
0.7
E 0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
M With motor load &
switched shunt
0.2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (seconds)
SI
g
b
c
d
e
b
c
d
e
f

Simulation 7 – Modeling SVC
S
EN
E M
SI

Simulation 7 – Modeling SVC
S
Exercise DVA-7
EN
1.2
1.1
1.0
0.9
With motor
0.8
load & SVC
Voltage
With motor load &

0.7
switched shunt
E 0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
M With reset load &
switched shunt
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (seconds)
SI
g
b
c
d
e
b
c
d
e
f
b
c
d
e
f

S
EN
E M
Current Trends
SI

Developments in Transmission System
S
• Merchant transmission projects
• Renewable resources
EN
• FACTS devices
• Physical security concerns
• System restoration
• Interconnection with neighboring systems
E M
SI

S
EN
M
Merchant Transmission
E
Projects
SI
Merchant Transmission Projects
S
• Often point-to-point transmission.
• Deliver power from large concentration of renewable energy sources, e.g.,
EN
hydro or wind, to major load centers.
• Often employ HVDC transmission to control power flow.
• Provide additional power transfer capability without negatively impacting the
underlying AC power system.
E M
SI

Example of Proposed Merchant Transmission
Projects
S
• Gateway West – Wyoming to Idaho, 115 miles, 230 & 500 kV AC.
• Southline - southern Arizona and southern New Mexico.
EN
• Mark Twain - Missouri, 89 miles 345 kV AC.
• SunZia Southwest - two 460 miles 500 kV AC, New Mexico to Arizona.
• Northern Pass – 1200 MW HVDC, Hydro-Québec to New Hampshire and AC
to southern New England.
M
• New England Clean Energy Connect – 145 mile Quebec to Massachusetts.
• TransWest Express – HVDC, south-central Wyoming to southern Nevada
• Wind Catcher Energy Connection - 350 mile, 765 kV AC, Oklahoma.
E
• Far West Texas – 345 kV AC, west Texas.
• R-Project – 220 miles 345 kV AC, Nebraska.
SI

Advantages & Disadvantages of HVDC
S
• Cheaper for long distance • Costly terminals
• Less ROW • No voltage transformation
EN
• Long cable possible • Not easy to sectionalize
• Asynchronous interconnection • Harmonics
• May aid system stability • Reactive power compensation
• Lower short circuit current • Dependence on short circuit ratio
• Power control
• Serve isolated load areas
E M
SI

HVDC Systems Around the World
S
EN
E M
SI

HVDC in North America
S
Quebec
EN
Back-to-Back
HVDC Links
Point-to-Point
HVDC Links
E M
Central/Eastern
Western System
SI
System
ERCOT
HVDC Long Distance Transmission
S
Monopolar
EN
Terminal Terminal
A B
E
Bipolar
M
Pole 1
SI
Pole 2
Terminal Terminal
A B

Back-to-Back Links
S
• Different system frequencies
• Different system control (∆f)
EN
• Exchange of low power compared to the size of the interconnected AC systems
• No AC faults propagation (“firewall”)
E M Back-to-Back
AC AC
System 1 System 2
SI

Modeling Conventional HVDC Systems
S
• Two-terminal transmissions
• Multi-terminal transmissions (radial or meshed systems)
EN
• Power Flow model: No difference between transmission line and back-to-back
substation
• Dynamics model: Represents single-pole systems only (needs two models to
represent a bipole)
E M smoothing
reactor
DC line of pole 1
(O/H and cable)
smoothing
reactor
converter
converter
12-pulse
Pole 1
12-pulse
(positive)
converter converter
transformer transformer
SI
converter
converter
12-pulse
12-pulse
Pole 2
(negative)
converter converter
transformer transformer
DC line of pole 2
(O/H and cable)
smoothing smoothing
reactor reactor

DC Terminal Representation in Power Flow
S
Type 1 or 2 R
TAP
I
EN
Converter R
Eac
t:1 I
Transformer
Primary Bus R
VDC I
DC Line
R R I
PAC I 1:T XC DC
I
R
E M QAC
R
I
TR
R
I
RC
I Alpha
Gamma
Standard Power DC Transmission

SI
Flow Data Model

Conventional DC Transmission Model
Representation
S
• Each DC line appears to AC system as 2 (equivalent) loads:
(PACR + j QACR) at rectifier and (PACI + j QACI) at inverter.
EN
• In normal DC line operation, PACR, QACR, and QACI are positive, while
PACI is negative.
• During each iteration of power flow solution, DC line logic calculates:
• PAC,QAC(R,I) equivalent AC loads at rectifier and inverter
• ALFA rectifier delay angle
• GAMMA
• VDC(R,I)
• IDC
• TAP(R,I)
E M inverter margin angle
DC line voltage at rectifier and inverter buses
DC line current
Off-nominal tap positions at rectifier & inverter
• Calculated loads are treated as power injections into/from AC system during
network solution of the latter.
SI

Power Flow Modeling of DC Line Operation
S
• Power flow solution logic adjusts bridge control angles (alpha and gamma) and
transformer tap positions to control DC voltage and current (to meet scheduled
EN
power output) subject to control angle limits.
• Steady state model provides for 2 basic control regimes:
1. “Normal” Operation - Rectifier and inverter AC voltages are near normal.
Rectifier maintains current control and inverter regulates DC voltage.
2. “Depressed Voltage” Operation - AC voltage at rectifier is depressed.
E M
Rectifier reaches limit (by reducing firing angle to raise voltage). Control of
DC voltage is abandoned. Inverter adjusts its margin angle to control DC
current below the desired value.
SI

Two-Terminal DC Line Data in PSSÒE
S
• Specify data for both rectifier and inverter, such as power set-point and firing
angle limits.
EN
• Specify data for converter transformers, such as commutating reactance and
tap limits.
• Specify data for DC Line, such as, resistance and scheduled DC voltage.
• 42 data elements required to characterize a 2-terminal DC line in power flow
model.
E M
SI

Types of DC Transmission Model Data Required
S
DC Line Data:
EN
Name = DC Line name
MDC = Control mode (0=blocked, 1=power, 2=current)
RDC = DC Line resistance (ohms)
SETVL = Desired power (MW) or current (Ampere)
(positive for rectifier, negative for inverter side)
VSCHD = Scheduled DC voltage (kV)
VCMOD =
RCOMP =
DELTI
METER =
E
=
DCVMIN =
M
Minimum inverter DC voltage for power control (kV)
Compensating resistance for voltage control (ohms)
Current margin (pu of current setpoint)
Metered end code: ‘R’ or ‘I’
Minimum compounded DC voltage (kV)
CCCITMX = Iteration limit for capacitor commutated DC line solution
CCCACC = Acceleration factor for capacitor commutated DC line solution
SI

Types of DC Transmission Model Data Required
(continued)
S
Converter data (for rectifier and inverter):
EN
IP = Converter bus number
NB = Number of bridges in series
Alfmx/Gammx Maximum firing/margin angle, degrees
Alfmin/Gammin Minimum firing/margin angle, degrees
RC = Converter transformer resistance per bridge, Ohm
XC = Converter transformer reactance per bridge, Ohm
EBAS = Primary bus ac voltage, kV
TR
TAP
TMX
TMN
STP
IC
E =
=
=
=
=
=
M
Transformer ratio
Tap setting
Maximum tap setting, pu
Minimum tap setting, pu
Tap step, pu
Converter angle measuring bus, if different from IP
IF = Tapped side bus of AC transformer branch
IT = Untapped side bus of AC transformer branch
SI
ID = Circuit ID of AC transformer branch
XCAP = Commutating capacitor reactance, ohms

Example of HVDC Modeling
S
EN
E M
HVDC Line
SI

Example of HVDC Modeling (continued)
S
1. Replace existing 345 kV AC line with 100 kV DC line with same capacity of
137.7 MW.
EN
2. Use following assumed model parameters:
"MYDCLINE ", 1, 1.6350, -137.70, 100.00, 75.00, 0.00, 0.100, 'I', 0.00, 20, 1.000
152, 1,15.00, 5.00, 0.0, 8.78, 500.0,0.1711,1.00,1.20,0.80,0.00625, 0, 0, 0,'1 ', 0.00
3004, 1,20.00,15.00, 0.0, 8.78, 500.0,0.1711,1.00,1.20,0.80,0.00625, 0, 0, 0,'1 ', 0.00
3.
4.
E M
Solve power flow and determine voltages and flows.
If necessary, add reactive support to maintain adequate voltages.

SI

S
Checking for low voltages in system after addition of HVDC model:
EN
BUSES WITH VOLTAGE LESS THAN 0.9500:
BUS# X- NAME -X BASKV AREA V(PU) V(KV) BUS# X- NAME -X BASKV AREA V(PU) V(KV)
153 MID230 230.00 1 0.9437 217.04 154 DOWNTN 230.00 1 0.8872 204.05
203 EAST230 230.00 2 0.9206 211.75 204 SUB500 500.00 2 0.9443 472.14
205 SUB230
3005 WEST
3007 RURAL
E 230.00
230.00
230.00 M 2
5
5
0.8996 206.90
0.9387 215.89
0.9072 208.65
3004 WEST
3006 UPTOWN
3008 CATDOG
From power flow bus based report, the reactive power consumptions are:
500.00
230.00
230.00
5
5
5
0.9415 470.73
0.9427 216.83
0.9037 207.85
Rectifier: 68.4 MVAR, PF = COS(ATAN(68.4/140.8) = 0.899

SI
Inverter: 78.8 MVAR, PF = COS(ATAN(78.8/137.7) = 0.868

S
Also, the difference in generator output between cases with AC line and DC line:
EN
With DC Line With AC Line
X------ BUS -------X MW MVAR MW MVAR DELTA MW % MVAR %
101 [NUC-A 21.600] 750.0 142.8 750.0 81.2 0.0 0.0 -61.6 43.1
102 [NUC-B 21.600] 750.0 142.8 750.0 81.2 0.0 0.0 -61.6 43.1
211 [HYDRO_G 20.000] 600.0 372.6 600.0 17.7 0.0 0.0 -354.9 95.2
3011 [MINE_G 13.800] 269.8 299.6 258.7 104.0 -11.1 4.1 -195.6 65.3
MVAR. M
System swing bus (#3011) reactive output was 104 MVAR; now it is almost 300
HVDC controls responded to low voltages by adjusting transformer tap ratios.

E
Add about 70 MVAR shunt capacitor at rectifier AC bus and 80 MVAR at inverter
AC bus to correct power factor and improve voltages.
SI

Voltage Source Converter (VSC) DC Lines
S
• Compact and robust mechanical design - small filters, no or simplified
transformers, less switching equipment.
EN
• Converter equipment placed in simple module-type housings.
• Can be pre-installed and tested at factory.
• E.g., VSC converter station with rating up to 20 MW and below 30 kV occupies
an area less than 250 square meters.
• Independent P and Q control
M
• Possibility to connect to passive loads
E
SI

Modeling VSC DC in PSSÒE Power Flow
S
• Independent of conventional 2-terminal DC line model
• Represents DC resistive losses and switching losses of converters.
EN
• Power flow boundary conditions defined by parameters and operating limits of
converter.
• Filter banks and transformers are external.
E M
’NAME’, MDC, RDC, O1, F1, ... O4, F4
IBUS,TYPE,MODE,DCSET,ACSET,ALOSS,BL
OSS,MINLOSS,SMAX,IMAX,PWF,MAXQ,MINQ
Vac Vt
VSC
Vdc
Reactor Vi
, REMOT,RMPCT
SI
IBUS,TYPE,MODE,DCSET,ACSET,ALOSS,BL
OSS,MINLOSS,SMAX,IMAX,PWF,MAXQ,MINQ
, REMOT,RMPCT DT01_001

Example of VSC DC Data
S
Data for converters 1 and 2 (rectifier and inverter):
IBUS Converter bus number or extended bus name
EN
TYPE DC control code: 1 = dc voltage control. 2 = MW control.
Exactly one converter must be type 1.
MODE AC control mode: 1=ac voltage, 2=ac power factor
DCSET DC setpoint.
type 1, scheduled dc voltage (kV) on dc side
type 2, power demand in MW, positive/negative value means
ACSET
E IBUS M
converter is feeding/withdrawing active power into/from ac network at
AC setpoint.
mode 1, regulated ac voltage
mode 2, power factor.
Aloss, Bloss Coefficients for calculating converter losses:
Losses = Aloss + Idc * Bloss
SI
Aloss is entered in kW, Bloss in kW/amp

Example of VSC DC Data (continued)
S
MINloss Minimum converter losses in kW
SMAX Converter MVA rating in MVA.
EN
SMAX=0 to allow unlimited converter MVA loading.
IMAX Converter ac current rating; entered in amps.
IMAX=0 to allow unlimited converter current loading.
PWF Power weighting factor fraction (0 ≤ PWF ≤ 1).
MAXQ Reactive power upper limit.
MAXQ>0 indicates reactive power flowing into ac network from
MINQ
REMOT
RMPCT
E M
converter. Not used in MODE=2.
Reactive power lower limit.
Bus number or extended bus name for remote voltage regulation. Not
used in MODE=2
Percent of total Mvar contributed by this VSC in order to hold desired voltage
SI

VSC DC – Power Weighting Factor (PWF)
S
• Reduce power orders when (P + jQ) exceeds SMAX (MVA rating) or IMAX
(current rating)
EN
• When controlling AC voltage (mode 1), reduce P-order & Q-limit
• When controlling AC power factor (mode 2), reduce P-order & Q-order
• Solve equations for reductions ΔP and ΔQ:
(P + ΔP)2 + (Q + ΔQ)2 = SMAX
E
If PWF=1, ΔP = 0
M
ΔP / ΔQ = (P / Q) x (1 – PWF) / PWF
If PWF=0, ΔQ = 0
If P-order is reduced at one converter, also reduced at the other converter

SI

Example of Modeling VSC DC in Power Flow
S
EN
202 152
EAST500 MID500 3004
WEST
-39.3 39.3
-89.1 -5.2 3002
0.995 E. MINE
497.7
153 -58.3 58.6
MID230 1521 30041 -39.1 32.4
VSC_ST1 VSC_ST2 1.020
200.0 -730.3 730.3 509.8
1
100.0 -259.8
M
291.4
1
1.01
3005
1
1
146.1 -146.1 146.1 -137.7 137.7 -137.7
WEST
0.976 -46.9 56.3 -56.3 -80.0 80.0 -70.4
1
224.5
151
NUCPANT 196.0 -195.8
1
1.020 1.027
102.0 102.7 109.4 -101.2
463.4 -457.9 100.0
1
E
0.0 -135.6 -119.7 50.0
1
610.8 0.979
463.4 -457.9 225.1
-135.6 -119.7 0.997
498.5
1.009 1.000
SI
504.5 500.0

Power Flow Data for VSC DC Model
S
X--VSC DC--X X------ CONVERTER BUS ------X X------ CONVERTER BUS ------X
X-- NAME –X BUS#-SCT X-- NAME --X BASKV BUS#-SCT X-- NAME --X BASKV MDC RDC DCAMPS
EN
MYVSCD 1521 VSC_ST1 100.00 30041 VSC_ST2 100.00 1 1.635 1440.9
X-- DC --X X-- AC --X
CNVBUS TYP SETPNT MOD SETPNT PAC QAC MVA ACAMPS KVDC ALOSS BLOSS MINLOS
1521 1 100.0 1 1.0000 -146.1 56.3 156.6 885.8 100.0 2000.0 0.00 0.0
30041 2 137.7 1 1.0000 137.7 80.0 159.3 895.5 97.6 3000.0 0.00 0.0
SMAX
0.0
0.0
E IMAX PWFF
0.0 1.000
0.0 1.000
M
MAXQ
80.0
80.0
MINQ PCT Q
-90.0 100.0
-80.0 100.0
X------- REMOTE BUS --------X
BUS#-SCT X-- NAME --X BASKV
152
3004
MID500
WEST
500.00
500.00
SI

S
EN
E M
Renewable Resources
SI
Integration of Renewable Resources
S
• Increasing development of wind and solar projects in the US and other
countries.
EN
• Wind projects often located in remote areas, where transmission system tends
to be weaker.
• Modern equipment employs power electronic devices, able to control voltage
and provide reactive power support.
• Short circuit ratio (SCR) is a critical measure to ensure stable operation of
inverters.
M
• Other than building new transmission lines, synchronous condensers used to
increase short circuit level and provide voltage support.
E
• Utility scale solar projects (10 to 20 MW), often located closer to towns and
cities, serve local loads, need less transmission reinforcements.
SI

Impact of Renewable Resources on System
Frequency
S
• Seconds timeframe - Increased renewable generation can result in reduced
inertial response to frequency events because inverters typically do not exhibit
EN
inertial response (some modern ones can).
• Seconds to minutes timeframe - Requires diverse types of conventional
generation reserves to account for wind/solar power variability.
• Few minutes timeframe - Commitment of conventional generation should
consider wind and solar forecast.
M
• Fast ramps in solar/wind power are undesirable – especially with strong
regional correlation (locations, cloud pattern, variance). e.g., solar eclipse.
• Some have used battery energy storage as possible solution.
E
SI
* Reference: “As it happened: Germany's grid grapples with solar eclipse”, March 20 2015, PV Magazine, https://www.pv-
magazine.com/2015/03/20/as-it-happened-germanys-grid-grapples-with-solar-eclipse_100018709 March 2015.

Short Circuit Ratio
S
• Short circuit strength of a power system is a measure of its voltage stiffness.
• Weak system can exacerbate perturbations from disturbances.
EN
• Sufficient SC strength needed for stable operation of power electronic
converters at wind and solar PV generating plants.
• Instability could be due to inaccuracy of the plant model (typically a positive
sequence representation) or to numerical instability.
M
• Equipment manufacturer often provides guidance on the lowest acceptable
short circuit ratio (SCR) to ensure stable operation and the location where it is
measured, e.g., at the terminal bus of the converter.
• Some equipment manufacturer provides special controls that can still function
E
when connected weaker systems (“weak grid option’).
SI

Calculation of SCR
S
• SCR is determined by:
1. Computing 3-phase fault current at the identified location (SSCMVA).
EN
2. Fault contribution from generating plant of interest is excluded.
3. Dividing by the MW rating of the generating plant (PRMW).
SCR = SSCMVA / PRMW
• Calculations sometimes performed under system outage conditions, e.g., N-1
M
or N-2, to ensure stable operation during maintenance outages.
• For multiple plants in close electric proximity, use weighted calculation:
E
SCRweighted = [ ( S SSCMVAi * PRMWi ) / S PRMWi ] / ( S PRMWi )2
S is over all plants “i” in close proximity

SI
* Reference: NERC Short-Circuit Modeling and System Strength White Paper, February 2018

S
EN
E M
FACTS Devices
SI
FACTS Applications
S
• Increasing use of FACTS for voltage and/or power flow control or energy
storage
EN
E M
SI

Power System Planning Objectives
S
• Flow control and line utilization?
• Reactive supply / voltage control?
EN
• Dynamic response?
• Time domain of interest?
• High speed response?
• Conventional solution available?
E M
SI

Some Conventional Solutions
S
Function Equipment
Voltage Control Power plants
EN
Conventional Transformer tap-changer
Conventional Shunt Capacitor/Reactor
Synchronous Condenser
Static Var Compensator (SVC)
Power Flow Power Plants
Control
Conventional Phase Angle Regulator (PAR)
E M Conventional switched series Capacitor
Transient Stability Conventional Series Capacitor
Thyristor Controlled Braking Resistor (TCBR)
SVC
Conventional
• Braking resistor
• Excitation Enhancement
• Generator Tripping
• FastValving
SI
• Line Sectioning
Dynamic Stability Conventional Series Capacitor
Power System Stabilizer
FACTS Devices
S
• Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS) refer to a group of resources used
to overcome certain limitations in the static and dynamic transmission capacity
EN
of electrical networks.
• IEEE defines FACTS as “alternating current transmission systems
incorporating power-electronics- based and other static controllers to enhance
controllability and power transfer capability.”
M
• Main purpose of these systems is to supply the network as quickly as possible
with inductive or capacitive reactive power that is adapted to its particular
E
requirements, while also improving transmission quality and the efficiency of
the power transmission system.
SI

FACTS Offers
S
• Improved reliability
• Lower maintenance
EN
• Enhanced control of power flow
• Higher speed of control
• Enhanced voltage control
• Deferral of transmission
• Better control of losses

• Space reduction
E M
• Control of sustained oscillations
SI

Static Var Compensator
S
SVC Objectives:
EN
• Enable regional exchange of power
• Damping of inter-area power
swings
• Reduce dependence on oil & gas
generation
E M • Improve system reliability
SI
0/+388Mvar SVC
Thyristor Controlled Series Compensation
(continued)
S
• Control of compensation level
• Dynamic control of power flow in the transmission line
EN
• Damping of power system oscillations
• Mitigation of SubSynchronous Resonance
• Thyristor Switched Series Capacitor (TSSC) - discrete
• Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC) - continuous
E M
SI
Siemens‘ First FSC - 3 x 735kV

Static Compensator (STATCOM)
S
STATCOM
EN
> Static
Compensator
GTO/IGBT Valves
Control & Protection
Transformer
E M TVA / EPRI / Westinghouse
Demonstration ±100 MVA STATCOM
• Increase transmission line capacity
DC Capacitors
52 ≤ kV ≤ 1000
50 ≤ Mvar ≤ 500
• Steady-state voltage regulation ~
• Transient voltage support to

SI
prevent system collapse
• System oscillation damping

SVC Versus STATCOM
S
EN
Voltage Voltage
E M
Current Current
SI
SVC STATCOM

Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC)
S
• UPFC is able to control voltage, real and reactive power
EN
• When Vpq is in quadrature with line current, effect is that of series capacitor
• When Vo and V'o are of same magnitude but different in phase, effect is that
of phase angle regulator
E M
SI

Interline Power Flow Controller (IPFC)
S
• Independently control reactive compensation of each line
• Transfer real power between the compensated lines.
EN
• Equalize both real and reactive power flows between lines
• Transfer power from overloaded to underloaded line
• Compensate against resistive line voltage drop and corresponding reactive line
power
M
• Increase effectiveness of compensating system for dynamic disturbances
E
P
SI

FACTS: Overview of Functions
S
Impact on System Performance
Principle Devices Scheme
Power Flow Stability Voltage Quality
EN
Variation of Line n FSC (Fixed series
Impedance: Compensation) l lll l
Series
n TPSC (Thyristor
Compensation Protected Series l lll l
Compensation)
n TCSC (Thyristor ll lll l
Controlled Series
Compensation
Voltage Control:
Shunt
Compensation
E M
nSVC (Static Var
Compensator)
nSTATCOM (Static
Synchronous
Compensator)
¡
¡
ll
ll
lll
lll
Power Flow n HVDC (B-B, LDT)

Control lll lll ll
n UPFC (Unified
SI
Power Flow
Controller) lll lll lll
¡ low or no impact l small ll medium lll strong

FACTS: Impact on System Performance
S
FSC SVC/SVG TCSC UPFC HVDC
EN
Voltage Quality l lll l lll ll
Power Flow Control
(Meshed System) l ¡ ll lll lll
Transient Stability
(Bulk Power System)
Oscillation Damping
(Transmission System)
E M ll
l
l
ll
lll
lll
lll
lll
lll
lll
Oscillation Damping
(Meshed System) l l l lll lll
SI
¡ low or no impact l small ll medium lll strong

Example of FACTS Application - Convertible Static
Compensator (CSC)
S
• Objective: to increase transfer limit
across power system
EN
3000
Low Transfer
• Shorter term needs: provides voltage 2500 Medium Transfer
Shunt or Series Capacitor (Mvar)
support and control High Transfer
2000
• Longer term needs: provides power

flow control
1500
• Hybrid solution: combines FACTS

and conventional technologies
• Benefits: addresses immediate
needs and provides future
E M 1000
500
Shunt Caps Series Caps
flexibility
SI

Example of FACTS Application - CSC Characteristics
S
Two ±100 MVA converters at a 345 kV substation
Multiple configuration/control modes
EN
• Static shunt compensation alone (STATCOM)
• Static synchronous series compensation alone (SSSC)
• Decoupled shunt & series compensation (STATCOM & SSSC)
• Coupled shunt and series compensation (UPFC)
UPFC)
E M
• Coupled series compensation on two or more lines (IPFC)
• Coupled shunt and series compensation on more than one line (Multi-line
Have Steady state and dynamic voltage and power flow control capability
References
SI
“Feasibility Studies for Application of a Novel FACTS Concept on the New York State Transmission System,” paper presented at the Future
of Power Delivery Conference, EPRI, November 1997.
“Convertible Static Compensator Application to the New York Transmission System”, paper presented at the 1998 CIGRE Session, Paris,
France, September 1998.

S
EN
Modeling SVC in Power
E M
Flow
SI

Modeling SVC in Power Flow
S
Use generator model:
• Set PGEN = 0
EN
MW=0
• Specify QMAX, QMIN
• QGEN remains constant when reactive limit reached
(not recommended)
Use switchable shunt model:

• Mode 2
E M
• Behaves like shunt capacitor/reactor when limits reached
Q = V2 * B
SI

Switched Shunt Data
S
EN
Data Elements:
Status 0 = out of service; 1 = in service
Control Mode 0 = Fixed
1 = Discrete, controlling voltage
2 = Continuous, controlling voltage
3 = Discrete adjustment, controlling reactive power of plant at remote bus
4 = Discrete, controlling reactive output of a VSC dc
VLO
E
VSC Name
M
5 = Discrete, controlling output of another switched shunt
6 = Discrete, controlling output of shunt element of FACTS device
Adjust Method 0 = switched in input order; 1= switched according to next highest/lowest
VHI
admittance
Maximum voltage or reactive power upper limit
Minimum voltage or reactive power lower limit
The VSC dc line whose converter bus is specified when mode=4
Shunt MVA Initial Shunt MVAR at 1.0 p.u. voltage
Note:
SI
Can specify up to 8 blocks, 9 steps per block.
All reactor blocks must be specified before capacitor blocks.
Blocks should be entered in order in which they are switched on (adjustment method 0).

Switched Shunt Control Mode 1
S
• Controls voltage at local or remote bus within desired band (VLO to VHI)
• Shunt reactors or capacitors switched in discrete steps
EN
• Can have up to 8 blocks, 9 steps per block.
• Reactor blocks specified before capacitor blocks.
• Blocks should be entered in order in which they are switched on (V31 or
before).
E M
SI
Siemens Mechanically Switched Capacitor

Damping Network (MSCDN)
Switched Shunt Control Mode 2
S
• Models Static Var Compensator
• Controls voltage at mid-point between VLO and VHI
EN
• Continuous var output range between sum of all reactor blocks and sum of all
capacitor blocks
• Switched shunt model is more appropriate representation of SVC than
conventional generator model when equipment reaches var limit
E M
SI
FC- TSC-
TCR TCR
Siemens -300/+100Mvar SVC in South Africa

Switched Shunt Control Modes 3, 4, 5, 6
S
• Mode 3 - Discrete adjustment, controls reactive power output of power plant at
remote bus
EN
• Mode 4 - Discrete adjustment, controls reactive output of a VSC dc
• Mode 5 - Discrete adjustment, controls output of another switched shunt
• Mode 6 - Discrete adjustment, controls output of shunt element of a FACTS
device
M
• Objective is to keep reactive output of the second voltage control device within
an adjusted reactive range by making use of capability of the first device
E
SI

Controlling Generator Var Output
S
• Switched shunt data: VHI=0.7, VLO=0.2
• Generator at remote bus has QMAX=100, QMIN= -40
EN
\ Generator var output range = 140.
• Adjusted QMAX = (0.7 * 140) + (-40) = 58
• Adjusted QMIN = (0.2 * 140) + (-40) = -12
• During power flow solution, generator holds its scheduled voltage and observes
its normal var limits.
M
• Switched shunt monitors generator var output and switches discrete
capacitors/reactors to move generator var output within adjusted limits.
E
SI
MW, Mvar
Controlling Generator Var Output (continued)
S
MW, Var output of
EN
Mvar Generator
Switched shunt
controlling generator var
output at remote bus
QMAX = 100
Adjusted
E M
Var output
range = 140
QMAX = 58
Adjusted
VHI = 0.7
VLO = 0.2
QMIN = -12
QMIN = -40
SI

Controlling Another Switched Shunt
S
Example: Substation with SVC and switchable capacitor banks
Uses switchable capacitors to free up reactive reserve of SVC for dynamic
EN
response
E M SVC Tasks:
• Supports 230kV transmission system
• Power system damping control
• Voltage control
• Improves system stability & reliability
SI
SVC Topology: 1 x TSC, 1 x TCR & FC

Automatic Adjustment Option
S
• Option allows automatic adjustment
of continuous-control (mode 2)
EN
devices only, but locks discrete-
control (mode 1, 3, 4, 5 or 6)
devices.
• Option available in standard power
flow solutions, inertial power flow,
analyses.
E M
AC contingency solution and PV/QV
SI

S
EN
Modeling STATCOM &
E M
UPFC in Power Flow
SI

FACTS Device Model in PSSÒE Power Flow
S
EN
Bus I Bus J
VSRMAX ISRMAX
PDES
QDES
M
SHNTMX
VSET VTMAX
VTMIN
BRDGMX
E
SI

FACTS Device Power Flow Data
S
Name Device Name
I Sending end bus number or name
J Terminal end bus number or name. J=0 for STATCOM
EN
MODE Control Mode (see next page)
PDES Desired MW power flow arriving at terminal end bus
QDES Desired Mvar power flow arriving at terminal end bus
VSET Voltage setpoint at sending end bus, pu
SHNTMX Maximum shunt current at sending end bus, MVA at unity voltage
BRDGMX Maximum bridge active power transfer, MW
VTMIN Minimum voltage at terminal end bus, pu
VTMAX Maximum voltage at terminal end bus, pu
VSRMAX
ISRMAX
LINEX
RMPCT
OWNER
E
SET1,SET2
M
Maximum series voltage, pu
Maximum series current, in MVA at unity voltage
Reactance of dummy series element used during solution, pu
% Mvar contributed by shunt component of FACTS
Owner number
Mode 3: resistance and reactance of constant Z
Mode 4: magnitude and angle of constant V
Mode 7 or 8: V-d & V-q of constant V
VSREF Series voltage reference code for Mode 4, 7 or 8
SI
REMOT Remote bus for voltage control
MNANE Name of Master FASTS device for this Slave Device.

FACTS Device Control Modes
S
1. Normal operation
2. Series element bypassed (zero impedance line), shunt element operates as
EN
STATCOM
3. Series and shunt elements are on, series element has constant Z
4. Series and shunt elements are on, series element has constant V
5. “Master” device of IPFC with P & Q specified
6. “Slave” device of IPFC with P specified
7.
8.
E M
“Master” of IPFC with constant series V specified
“Slave” of IPFC with constant series V specified
(Slave device must show name of master device)

SI

Example of Modeling STATCOM in Power Flow
S
EN
Replace 300-Mvar
E M bus shunt with 800-
Mvar STATCOM
SI

Example of Modeling STATCOM in Power Flow
S
EN
X-DEVICE-X X--SENDING BUS---X X--TERMINAL BUS---X
X-NAME-X BUS# X-NAME-X BASKV BUS# X-NAME-X BASKV MODE V SET SHNTMX PCT Q BRDGMX
1 154 DOWNTN 230.00 1 0.980 800.0 100.0 9999.0
154
153 DOWNTN 203
MID230 EAST230
226.2 -222.7 400.0 300.0

2 1
107.0 -90.6 350.0 150.0
E
1
M
1
1200.0
200.0
100.0
205
SUB230
271.5
132.8
1.046
-3.2
2
1
-267.3
-104.9
-106.1
-12.7
600.0
450.0
1
1
106.5
7.8
0.0
-48.9
0.988
-7.2
3008
CATDOG
700.0
333.5 -333.1 -70.9 71.1 200.0
1
0.0 -35.4 30.7 -59.6 32.0 75.0
-288.1 1 1
SI
0.0
1 0.992
0.980 -562.8 -8.8
-9.0
0.980
-9.7

Example of UPFC Modeling
S
1. Split Bus 154 to create terminal Bus 999 and connect the latter to the Line
going to Bus 3008.
EN
2. Open the zero impedance jumper between Bus 154 and Bus 999.
3. Add a FACTS device with parameters shown below.
4. Solve power flow.
DATA FOR BUS 154 [DOWNTN

M Fictitious X to help
solution convergence
230] RESIDING: VOLTAGE 0.98000

X-FACTS-X X---SENDING BUS---X X---TERMINAL BUS--X
E Values calculated during solution
X- NAME-X BUS# X-NAME-X BASKV BUS# X-NAME-X BASKV MODE OWNER VTMAX VTMIN
1 154 DOWNTN 230.0 999 TERM 230.0 1 1 1.050 0.950
BRDGMX SHNTMX V SET LINE X PDES QDES VSRMAX ISRMAX PCT Q
10.0 800.0 0.98000 0.0500 100.0 0.0 0.20000 120.0 100.00
SI
SERIES
PBRIDG QSHUNT P-SEND Q-SEND P-TERM Q-TERM VOLTAGE CURRENT
5.3 -435.3 94.6 -12.6 -99.9 0.0 0.14008 97.4
Report from List Data > Exam

Example of UPFC Modeling (continued)
S
154
153 DOWNTN 203
EN
MID230 EAST230
302.7 -298.0
1
1 73.1 -40.9
1 -144.2 145.1
-25.1 24.2 0.0
1 -49.6
252.3 -248.4
57.4 -37.3
2 0.996
2 -9.2
1.021
-5.0
E 1
0.0
-288.1
M205
SUB230
409.9
-42.0
1
0.0
-288.1
-409.3
39.2
94.7
12.6
1
1 100.0
0.0
999
TERMINAL
1.026
-5.0
0.980
-11.8 5.3
-435.3
SI
0.980
-12.6

S
EN
M
Physical Security
E
Concerns
SI
Physical Security Concern
S
• Outage of critical facilities that may lead to widespread system instability,
uncontrolled separation or cascading.
EN
• Need to identify and protect those stations and their primary control centers.
E M
SI

Physical Security Assessments
S
• Initial identification – e.g., include UHV facilities, EHV facilities connected to
multiple stations, facilities connected to critical power plants, other facilities
EN
identified by transmission planners as critical.
• Subsequent assessment – e.g., technical analyses
• Assessments verified by third party
• Evaluate potential threats and vulnerabilities of physical attack – e.g.,
characteristics of facilities, history of attacks, intelligence.
M
• Develop security plan – e.g., resiliency or security measures, law enforcement
contact and coordination, timeline for implementation, provisions to evaluate
evolving threats.
E
SI
* Reference: NERC CIP-014

Physical Security - Technical Assessments
S
Extreme Contingencies:
• Forced outage of one voltage level plus transformer at a substation.
EN
• 3-phase fault, delayed clearing at remote stations.
• Contingency power flows to check for branch loadings and bus voltages for
Transient Stability Analysis

E M
conditions that may result in cascading, e.g., > X% overload or < Y pu voltage.
• Dynamic simulations of extreme contingencies to check for post-transient

voltage recovery, e.g., above X pu within Y sec.
SI
• Check for sufficient damping within Z seconds of disturbance.

Technical Considerations
S
• Generation response – inertia or governor response.
EN
• Load response – undervoltage load shedding.
• Automatic voltage controls – transformer taps, shunt capacitors/reactors.
Transient Stability Analysis

• Reduce fault clearing times.
M
• Generator response, e.g. Out-of-Step protection.
• Load response – underfrequency load shedding.
E
SI

Approximating Undervoltage Load Shedding in
Power Flow
S
• In PSS®E power flow solution, change PQBRAK, voltage threshold below
which constant power load characteristic is no longer observed.
EN
E M
SI

Modeling Undervoltage/Underfrequency Load
Shedding in Dynamic Simulation
S
• In PSS®E dynamic simulation, use model LVSHxx / LDSHxx (xx = bus, owner,
area, zone or all)
EN
• Represents solid-state type load-shedding relay that disconnects load based
on undervoltage/underfrequency.
• Up to three stages, each with voltage/frequency setpoint, load shedding
fraction and pickup time.
E M
SI

S
EN
E M
System Restoration
SI
System Restoration
S
• After widespread blackout, no neighboring system available to help energize.
• Restoration begins from pre-selected generating units.
EN
• Bottom-up start from individual generating unit within an island and emanate
outward to larger power plants and critical loads.
• Need to perform regular analyses to ensure plans, procedures and resources
are available.
elements.
E M
• Document cranking path – number and switching sequence of system
SI
* Reference: “Black Start Studies for System Restoration,” by J.W. Feltes and C. Grande-Moran, 2008 IEEE PES General
Meeting, Conversion and Delivery of Electrical Energy in the 21st Century, 24 July, 2008, pp 1 – 8.

Black Start Resources
S
• Hydro units with fast response characteristics
• Diesel generators with battery power for starting larger generators
EN
• Small gas turbines with battery power, can pick up load quickly
• Larger gas turbines, require diesel generators to start
E M
SI

Typical Starting Sequence
S
• Self-starting unit
• Transmission line to motor loads in power plant
EN
• Include transmission lines, transformers, shunt compensation
• Load pickup
• Must control voltage and frequency
E M
SI

Typical Black Start Study
S
• Steady state – voltage and reactive power
• Dynamic – frequency and voltage
EN
• Transient – overvoltage
• Must have accurate models for generators and motors
E M
SI

S
• Maintain operational voltage and loading limits during each step
• Generator able to absorb reactive power from charging currents
EN
• Determine setpoints of generator voltage and transformer tap
• Able to withstand component unavailability
• Ensure load and generation matching capability
E M
SI

Dynamic Analysis
S
• Load frequency control – constant frequency control, droop control
• Voltage control – voltage setpoints of AVR during different steps
EN
• Motor starting – auxiliary loads at power plants, sequence of motors
• Self-excitation – High charging current, uncontrolled voltage rise.
• System stability – Frequency, voltage and rotor angle (multiple units)
• Cold load pickup – Inrush currents from deenergized loads, several times
higher than normal loads
E M
SI

Transient Overvoltage
S
• Switching surge from opening or closing of breaker or switching device
• Temporary overvoltage from line or transformer energization
EN
• Perform ElectroMagnetic Transient (EMT) simulations
E M
SI

S
EN
M
Interconnection with
E
Neighboring Systems
SI
Interconnection Considerations
S
• Desired interconnection capacity
• AC versus DC interconnection
EN
• Overhead line or underground/submarine cable
• Power system reliability
• Costs versus benefits
• Generation capacity and reserve
E M
SI
* Reference: VIWAPA Interconnection Feasibility Study Final Report, August 2011

Submarine Cable Analysis
S
• Available technologies – voltage levels, capacities, maximum distance,
maximum water depth
EN
• Routing – marine survey, landing sites
• Reliability considerations – internal failures and external causes, e.g., other
marine users, interference
• Preliminary design – number of cables, voltage level, material, cost, lead time
for production, installation method.
E M
SI

HVDC Analysis
S
• Convention HVDC or Voltage Source Converter
• Points of interconnection with AC systems
EN
• Reactive power requirements
• Controllability – e.g., power, frequency
E M
SI

Power System Analysis
S
• Assess potential impacts on systems being interconnected
• Steady state assessment
EN
• Transient and dynamic stability assessment
• Short circuit assessment
• Frequency stability assessment
• Identify reinforcements to support interconnection
E M
SI

Economic Analysis
S
• Capital cost estimates for interconnection equipment and required system
reinforcements.
EN
• Comparison of interconnection options, e.g., different interconnection
capacities, AC versus DC, voltage levels.
• Potential savings in fuel and reductions in emission (from production costing
simulations)
• Potential reliability improvement by reserve sharing.
E M
SI

S
EN
Modern Planning
E M
Method
SI

Planning Objectives
S
• Maximize benefits from the transmission system
• Minimize costs
EN
• Consider risks and uncertainties
E M
SI

Generic Process
S
Options
EN
Parameter Scenarios
s
Planning
Blackbox Revision
E M Disaggregate
Plans
Plan
Integration
SI
Transmission
Plan

Long Term Planning Approach
S
• Select horizon year
• Select staging years
EN
• Identify robust and flexible projects
E M
SI

Planning Procedures
S
• Identify Options
• Develop Scenarios
EN
• Develop Plans for Each Scenario
• Integrate the Plan
• Apply Hedges
E M
SI

Parameters
S
• Available right-of-way
• Transmission equipment design standards
EN
• Existing operating system
• Reliability criteria
• Analytical tools
• Discount and escalation rates for costs
E M
SI

Uncertainties
S
• Generation dispatch and development
• Load forecasts
EN
• Changes in industry structure
• Projection of fuel availability
• Price of generated power
•
•
•
E Include extreme conditions
M
Consider a range of scenarios – futures
Determine maximum and minimum transmission needs from extreme

scenarios
SI

Example 1 – Generation & Load Uncertainties
S
• Generation located in load area
will have limited transmission
EN
needs
• Generation located in Exporting
areas will require transmission
reinforcements
• High, normal and low load
growth forecasts
• Need to consider different
E
futures, including extremes
M 90000
80000
70000
60000
Load Forecast Uncertainty
50000
40000
30000
SI
20000
10000
0
1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009

Example 2 - Developing Scenarios
S
• Review existing system and identify
bottlenecks
EN
• Select scenarios based on expected
transmission impact
• Determine maximum and minimum
transmission needs from extreme
scenarios
• Example scenarios:
M
1. Generation near load center.
2. Generation in north
E Northern
System
Metro Manila
Area
3. Generation in south Southern

System
4. 50% - 50%
SI

Robustness
S
Risks:
• That future transmission will be inadequate/unreliable
EN
• That planned transmission will be underutilized
Robustness: Build new
500 kV lines
• Applicable in the near-term
E M
• Suitable for multiple scenarios Northern
System
Metro Manila
Area
Reinforce
existing system
Southern
System
SI

Flexibility
S
• Transmission development plan has distinct decisions
• Critical decisions have short or no lead time
EN
• Non-critical decisions are dependent on future uncertainties
Flexible Projects:
• Not needed immediately
E M
• Can be adapted to meet needs of particular futures
Northern
System Build new
500 kV lines
Upgrade
existing lines
Metro Manila
Area
SI
Southern
System
Additional
reinforcements
Technical Analyses
S
Prepare study model for each Skeleton Future Future
Network generation Load
scenario and study year
EN
Base Case
Evaluate Thermal Capacity
Available
ROW
Requirements Using DC
Line
Designs
Transmission
E M Available
Voltage Control
Equipment
Reinforcements
Evaluate Voltage
Control Requirements
Using OPF
Capacitor/reactor additions;
Compensation
If reliability criteria
not satisfied
with Corrective Actions
SI
Stability Evaluation,
Other Tests

Planning Horizons
S
Long-term (5-20) years
• Reflect typical useful life of new transmission
EN
• Take global view, e.g., going to higher voltage level
Near-term (2-5) years
• Load and generation uncertainties are more manageable
M
• Plan should account for both aspects
E
SI

Develop Horizon Year Plans
S
Input:
• Scenarios for Horizon Year
EN
• Transmission Constraints
• Transmission Reinforcement Options
Output:
• Horizon Year Transmission Plans
E M
SI

Decoupled Planning - Step 1
S
• Address thermal capacity needs
first – typically involve more
EN
Skeleton Future Future
extensive projects. Network generation Load
Base Case
E M Available
ROW
Line
Designs
Transmission
SI
Reinforcements

Decoupled Planning - Step 2
S
• Next, address voltage
requirements, which may involve
EN
local projects
Transmission
Reinforcements
E M Available
Voltage Control
Equipment
Evaluate Voltage
Using OPF
Compensation
SI

Decoupled Planning – Step 3
S
• Perform additional tests, e.g., Evaluate Thermal Capacity
AC contingency analysis,
EN
multiple level contingency
analysis, stability analysis Transmission
Reinforcements
Evaluate Voltage
E M Control Requirements
Using OPF
Compensation
Automatic Contingency
If reliability criteria
not satisfied
Analysis
SI
Other Tests

Other Planning Requirements
S
• Reactors for energization/de-energization events
• Short circuit levels
EN
• Transient overvoltages
• Line design
• Protection coordination
E M
SI

Check Over
S
• Against planning criteria
• Against sensitivities to study assumptions
EN
E M
SI

References
S
• “Some Aspects of Transmission System Planning and Design in Large Developing Countries,” by F.P. deMello, presented at the Henniker
Conference, August 22-27, 1976.
• “Quick Spread Sheet Corporation Models for Strategic Planning,” by H.M. Merrill and J.W. Feltes, IEEE Trans on Power Systems, Vol 1,
EN
Issue 3, 1986, pp 244-250.
• “Multiple Objective Trade Off Analysis in Power System Planning,” by. H.M. Merrill and F. C. Schweppe, Nov. 1986.
• “Assessment of Power System Reliability Using the TPLAN Program,” by N.D. Reppen and B.P. Lam, presented at the 1989 Canadian
Electrical Association Meeting in Toronto, Canada, March 1989.
• “Transmission Planning Under Uncertainties,” by N.D. Reppen, presented at the Research Needs for Coping with uncertainty in Power
Systems Workshop, sponsored by NSF & EEI in Norman, OK, July 1991.
• “Conflicting Objectives and Risk in Power System Planning,” by H.M. Merrill, et al, presented at the IEEE PES 1992 Summer Meeting,
Seattle, WA, July 1992.
•
•
Malaysia, Oct. 1996.
M
“Transmission Planning for Unbundled Generation Expansion,” by R.R. Austria, et al, presented at the 11th CEPSI Conference, Kuala Lumpur,
“Probabilistic Reliability Methods and Tools for Transmission Planning and System Analysis, “ by X. Xu and M.J.S. Edmonds, presented at
the 9th International Conference on Probabilistic Based Tools for Power Systems, Stockholm, Sweden, June 2006.
“Innovative Planning Approaches for Generator Interconnection Group Study,” by Y. Zhu and D. Brown, presented at the 2010 IEEE PES
E
General Meeting, Minneapolis, MN, July 2010.
• “Transmission Planning Studies for Grid Code Compliance,” by Y. Zhu and D. Brown, presented at the 2012 IEEE PES General Meeting, San
Diego, CA, July 2012.
• “Current Renewable Energy Generator Technical Interconnection Requirements,” by IEEE PES Working Group, presented at the 2012 IEEE
SI
PES General Meeting, San Diego, CA, July 2012.
• “Prepare to Meet the Challenges in Regional Transmission Planning and Development,’ by Y. Zhu and D. Brown, presented at the IEEE PES
General Meeting, Denver CO, July 2015.

S
EN
E M
Case Study
SI

Test System
S
• Derived from IEEE 24-Bus
Reliability Test System
EN
• 25 buses (with added Bus 225
and phase shifter)
E M
SI

Load
S
• Peak load: 3563 MW
EN
• Losses: ~83 MW
• 61.4% load factor
120
100
E M
% Peak
80
60
40
20
SI
0
1 5 9 13 17 21 25 29 33 37 41 45 49
Week
Generation
S
• Oil-fired 1,118 MW
• Coal-fired 2,066 MW
EN
• Nuclear 1,000 MW
• Combustion Turbine 80 MW
• Hydro 500 MW
• Total Installed Capacity

• Reserve
E M 4,764 MW
~34%
SI

System Characteristics
S
• 230 and 138 kV system
• North-to-south power transfer
EN
• Synchronous condenser at Bus 214, +100 MVAR, -400 MVAR
• Cable between Bus 106 and Bus 110
• Switchable shunt reactors at Bus 106, 5x20 MVAR
• Phase-shifter between Bus 214 and Bus 225, +/- 45 degrees, controlling flow
E M
SI

Future
S
Changing industry structure
• Has indicative generation plans
EN
• Separate transmission planning function
• Has 10-year load forecast
E M
SI

Load Growth
S
High Forecast
• 5.3% annually first 5 years
EN
• 7.2% annually next 5 years
Low Forecast
• 3.5 % annually for 10 years
Load Forecast
E M 7000
6500
6000
5500
5000
Low
High
4381
4613
4945
5301
5683
6092
6530
5026
4500 4160 4856
3951 4692
3752 4533
4000 4380
3563 4232
4089
3950
SI
3500 3817
3688
3563
3000
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Year

Future Generation
S
• Combined-cycle plants of 200 1800 MW at
MW each. North-A site
EN
• 3 possible sites with maximum
capacities shown.
E M 1200 MW
SI
400 MW

New Generation for HIGH Load Growth
S
EN
Year New Plant
Load & Installed Capacity at HIGH Forecast
1 0
2 0
8000
7000
3 0
6000
E4
5
6
7
1
1
2
2
M Peak Demand (MW)
5000
4000
3000
2000
8 2 1000
SI
9 2 0
0 2 4 6 8 10
10 3 Year

New Generation for LOW Load Growth
S
EN
Year New Plant
Load & Installed Capacity at LOW Forecast
1 0 7000
2 0
6000
Peak Demand (MW)
3 0
5000
4 0
E5
6
7
0
0
1
M 4000
3000
2000
8 1 1000
9 1 0
SI
0 2 4 6 8 10
10 1 Year

Exercise 1 – Existing System Assessment
S
• Assess reliability of existing system according to:
• Deterministic reliability
EN
• Probabilistic reliability
• Stability
E M
SI

Exercise 1 (continued)
S
Deterministic Assessment
• Use PSS®E power flow Multi-level Contingency Analysis function
EN
• Perform N-1 contingency analysis
• Store results in (.ACC) file
• Review results using AC Contingency Report function
Probabilistic Assessment
M
• Prepare generic outage statistics
• Use PSS®E power flow Transmission Reliability Assessment function
E
• Use (.ACC) results file from contingency analysis
• Produce probabilistic indices for overloads and voltage limit violations
SI

Exercise 1 (continued)
S
Stability Assessment
• Using PSS®E dynamics function
EN
• Read power flow data and solve
• Convert load and generation for dynamic simulation (conv.idv)
• Read stability data (dyre)
• Choose output channels (channel1.idv)
• Run a simulation (run1.idv)
M
• Plots selected channels to view results (plot1.idv)
E
SI

Exercise 2 – Define Planning Objectives
S
• Desired characteristics of future system
• Planning Criteria to be applied
EN
• Reinforcement options available
• Uncertainties
E M
SI

Exercise 2 – ROWs Available – 230 & 138 kV
S
• See separate table for complete list,
NORTH A
including line lengths, line and 226
EN
21
transformer impedances, line and 160 80
50
AA226
38 226
transformer ratings, equipment
112 226
34 50 28
180
costs.
25
127
66 142
185
76
E M 100
27
70
250
27
70
43
43
70
23
SI

Exercise 2 – 500 and 138 kV ROWs Available
S
• See separate table for complete list,
NORTH A
including line lengths, line and 501
EN
21 226
transformer impedances, line and 160
50
38 AA226
502
transformer ratings, equipment
112 226
34 50 28
226
180
costs.
25
127
66 142
185
76
E M 506
100
27
70
250 505
27
70
43
70
504
43
70 503
23
SI

Exercise 3 – Develop Scenarios
S
• Which is the Horizon Year?
• Identify Scenarios
EN
• Prepare power flow model for each scenario – scale loads, add new
generators
Low Forecast High Forecast

E M New Plant
Site
226 North A
Max
MW
1800
Max
Units
9
L1
4
L2
0
H1
5
H2
223 Bigcoal 1200 6 0 2 6 2

SI
224 Westie 400 2 0 2 2 2

Exercise 4 – Thermal & Voltage Design
S
Apply Planning Toolbox Skeleton Future Future
Network generation Load
• Design system to meet thermal criteria
EN
Base Case
• Run OPF, if necessary, to address voltage problems
• Check for stability performance Available
ROW
• Calculate cost of reinforcements Line
Designs
Transmission
Reinforcements If reliability criteria
E M Available
Voltage Control
Equipment
Evaluate Voltage
Using OPF
Compensation
not satisfied
with Corrective Actions
SI
Other Tests

Exercise 5 – Measure Plan Attributes
S
• Investment cost
• Active losses
EN
• Reliability (e.g., ability to withstand N-2 contingencies)
• Transfer limit (ability to accommodate future power transfers)
• Stability performance
• Others?
E M
SI

Exercise 6 – Plan for Staging Years
S
• Identify staging years, e.g., 4th year and 7th year
• Repeat analyses to design system
EN
• Measure attributes.
E M
SI

Exercise 7 – Select Plan
S
• Identify robust projects – needed to meet most futures
• Identify inflexible projects – highly dependent on limited futures
EN
• Develop hedges, if needed
E M
SI


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EM Phone: (518) 395-5005

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3. Transmission Planning Methodologies

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7. Modern Planning Method

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Restricted © Siemens Industry, Inc., 2019 usa.siemens.com/pti-education

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SIMULATION Security Constrained Optimization

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• Transfer Capability - Ability of system to move power from one area/region to

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Restricted © Siemens Industry, Inc., 2019 usa.siemens.com/pti-education

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whose mission is to ensure the

• Purpose is to protect the system

from events that can result in

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P6 Two overlapping single contingencies. Non-consequential load loss and

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<10% change during a contingency.

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• Energy unserved, E = S FiDiCi in MWHr/year