Chapter 11 Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter foinemecnoue © Introduction Introduction © Electron Emission Various phenomena like interference. diffraction and polarisation of : light were explained by the wave nature of light. Wave nature of light Photoelectric Effect 1s further supported by Maxwell's equations of electromagnetism and © Experimental Study of production and detection of electromagnetic waves in 1986 by Hertz Photoelectric Effect Many historic discoveries took place during the study of discharge through gases at low pressure. The discovery of cathode ray by © Pisotolectrio Rifet and: ‘William Crookes in 1879, X-rays by Roentgen in 1895 and electrons. Wave Theory of Light by JJ. Thomson in 1897 helped to understand the atomie structure. * Einstein's Photoelectric J.J. Thomson, using the mass spectrograph, experimentally Equation : Energy Quantum — determined the velocity and specific charge (charge/mass) of cathode ‘of Radiation rays and predicted that the eathode rays are nothing but the stream . a of fast-moving electrons, He concluded that speed of cathode ray Particle Nature of Light: The: “es from 0.1 to, 0.2. tines tHe speed of Mehl and, specific chats Photon ‘of cathode ray 1s 1.76 x 10!! C/kg, which is independent of © Photocetl W) Nature of gas in the discharge tube (i) Nature of material used fas cathode means cathode ray particles are universally alike © Wave Nature of Matter a ay Pere * It was found that the electrons with small velocities were emitted If * Davison and Germer certain metals were irradiated by ultraviolet light or heated to high Experiment for Wave Nature temperature. This observation suggested that electrons are ef Blectron fundamental particles and are universal constituent of matter. Millikan later on measured charge on the droplets and predicted © Some k Dey Important Definitions os sege on a droplet in integral multiple of elementary charge of © Formulae Chart electron (1.602 x 10°! C) and concluded that the charge on a body © ou 4s quantised. From specific charge (¢/m) and the value of change (e) Quick Recap mass of the electron was determined (= 9.11 x 10-3! kg. Photoelectric effect by Hertz, Compton effect by Compton, Stark effect by Stark were discovered in 20 century and were explained by quantum theory of light. According to which, the light consists of the packets of energy. Each packet of energy is called photon or quantum of light (-1=%) where h is Planck's constant, ‘Aakash Educational Services Pvt Lid. - Regd. Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005 Ph. 011-47623456182 Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter Board & Compotitive Exams. v is the frequency of light, c is the velocity of light and 4 ts the wavelength of light and these packets of energy travel in straight line with the speed of light. Thus, the particle nature of light was established. Hence, it was concluded that light is of dual nature as some phenomena were explained by wave theory of light and some by particle nature of light, In thts unit, we shall study dual nature of radiation and matter. ELECTRON EMISSION ‘The phenomenon of emission of electrons from the metal surface is called electron emission. In metal, electrons are quite free to move easily within the metal. These electrons are responsible for the conductivity of metals. These olectrons in the outer shell (called valence electrons) of the atoms are loosely bound. These loosely bound electrons are called free electrons. However, the free electrons cannot normally leave the surface. When an electron try to come out of the metal, the metal surface acquires a positive charge and attract the electron. The free electron is thus held inside the metal, If it has got sufficient energy to overcome the attractive pull then only the electron can come out of the metal surface. Work Function : To pull out electron from the surface of the metal, a certain minimum amount of energy is required. This minimum energy required by the electron is called the work function of the metal ‘Work function is generally denoted by 9, and it depends on the properties of the metal and nature of its Surface. It Is very sensitive to surface impurities. ‘Work function is measured in eV (electron volt). One electron volt is the energy acquired by an electron, when thas been accelerated by 1 volt potential difference. (1 eV = 1.602 x 10-'? J) ‘Work function for caesium (0) = 2.14 eV) is the lowest and highest (¢ = 5.65 eV) for platinum. Work function for some metal is given in the following table. ‘Table : Work functions of some metals ‘The required minimum energy for the electron emission from the metal surface can be supplied to the free electrons by the following physical process. () Thermionic emission : The process of emission of electrons when a metal is heated is known as thermionic emission. Sufficient thermal energy can be given to the free electrons of metal to enable them to come out of the metal by suitably heating the metal. The emitted electrons are called thermions. Emitted number of thermions depends on the temperature of the metal surface. (il) Fletd emission : The process of emission of free electrons when a strong electric field (= 10" Vim) is applied across the metal surface is known as field emission. Field emission is also known as cold ‘emission or cold cathode emission. One of the examples of cold emission is spark plug. (iil) Photoelectric emission : The process of emission of electrons when light of suitable frequency is incident ‘on a metal surface is known as photoelectric emission. These photo (light) - generated electrons are called photo electrons. The number of photo electrons emitted depends on the intensity of the incident light. (iW) Secondary emission : The process of emission of free electrons when highly energetic electron beam is incident on a metal surface is called secondary emission. The electrons so emitted ara called ‘secondary electrons. Aakash Educational Services Pvt. Ltd. - Regd. Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Dalhi-110005 Ph, 011-47623456Board & Competitive Exams. Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter 183 PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT ‘The phenomenon of emission of electrons from (preferably) metal surface exposed to light energy of suitable frequency is known as photoelectric effect. ‘The emitted electrons are called photo electrons and the current so produced is called photoelectric current. Alkali metals (lithium, sodium, potassium, caesium etc.) show photoelectric effect with visible light, whereas the metals like zinc, cadmium, magnesium etc. are sensitive only to ultraviolet light. Hertz's Observations ‘The phenomenon of photoelectric emission was discovered in 1887 by Heinrich Hertz (1857~1894) while studying experimentally the production of electromagnetic waves by means of spark discharge. He found that when the emitter plate was illuminated by ultraviolet light, high-voltage sparks across the detector loop were enhanced. This observation led him to conclude that light facilitated the emission of some electrons. From this it was concluded that when suitable radiation falls on a metal surface, some electrons near the surface absorb enough energy from the incident radiation to overcome the attraction of the positive ions in the material of the surface. Hallwachs’ and Lenard’s Observations Witheim Hallwachs and Philipp Lenard studied in detail the phenomenon of photoelectric effect during 1886-1902. Lenard (1862-1947) observed flow of current when ultraviolet radiations is exposed on the emitter plate of an evacuated glass tube enclosing two electrodes (metal plate). The current flow stops as soon as the ultraviolet radiations were stopped. These observation indicate that electrons are ejected from emitter plate C, when ultraviolet radiations fall on it which are attracted towards the positive, collactor plate A by the electric field, ‘Thus current in the extemal circuit is due to light falling on the surface of the emitter. Hallwachs and Lenard studied variation of photocurrent with collector plate potential and with frequency and intensity of incident light. Hallwachs, in 1888 for further study, connected a negatively charged zinc plate to an electroscope. He found that when zinc plate was illuminated by ultraviolet light it has lost its charge. When uncharged zinc plate was illuminated by ultraviolet light, it became positively charged. Further when positively charged zinc plate was, tuminated by ultraviolet light it was found to be further enhanced. He concluded from these observations that under the action of ultraviolet light negatively charged particles were emitted from the zinc plate. It became evident after the discovery of the electron in 1897 that the incident light causes electrons to be emitted from the emitter plate. The emitted electrons due to its negative charge are pushed towards the collector plate by the electric field. Hallwachs and Lenard also observed that when the frequency of the incident light was smaller than a certain minimum value, no electrons were emitted at all from the emitter plate, This minimum frequency is called the threshold frequency and it depends on the nature of the material of the emitter late. It was found that some alkali metals such as lithium, sodium, potassium, caesium and rubidium were sensitive even to visible light whereas certain metals like zinc, cadmium, magnesium etc. responded only to ultraviolet light, having short wavelength for electron emission from the surface. Electrons are emitted, when photosensitive substances are illuminated by light. These electrons were termed as photoelectrons after the discovery of electrons. This phenomenon is known as photoelectric effect. The electric current constituted by photo-electrons, is known as photoelectric current. EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT ‘The experimental set-up to study photoelectric effect is shown in figure. It consists of an evacuated glass or quartz tube having two electrades. The electrode ‘C’is a photosensitive plate, which emits photoelectrons when exposed to ultraviolet radiation. The electrode ‘A’ is a charge-collecting plate. The tube has a side window, which will allow the light of a particular wavelength to pass through it and falls on the photosensitive plate ‘Aakash Educational Services Pvt. Ltd. - Rogd. Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Puss Road, New Delhi-110005 Ph. 011-47623466184 Dual Nature of Radiation and Mattor Board & Competitive Exams. Fig, : Experimental arrangement for study of photoelectric effect. “The window is made of quartz covered with a filter. The electrons collected by the plate A (collector), are emitted by the plate C. Battery creates the electrical field between collector and emitter. The potential difference between the plates C and A is maintained by the battery, which can be varied. From a commutator the polarity of the plates C and A can be reversed. Thus with respect to emitter C, the plate A can be maintained at a desired positive or negative potential. The electrons are attracted, when the collector plate A is positive with respect to the emitter plate C. Electron emission causes flow of electric current in the circuit. Voltameter (V) measures the potential difference between the emitter and collector plates. Microammetor (WA) measures the resulting photocurrent flowing in the circuit. The current flowing in the circuit can be increased or decreased by varying the potential between collector plate A and emitter plate C. We can also vary the intensity and frequency of the incident light. To study the variation of photocurrent with (a) intensity of radiation (b) frequency of incident radiation (c) the potential difference between the plates A and C, and (d) the nature of the material of plate C, the experimental arrangement of above figure is used. To get different frequency of light falling on the emitter C, suitable-coloured filter or coloured glass is used. ‘The change in distance of light source from the emitter varies the intensity of light. Effect of Intensity of Light on Photocurrent To attract ojocted electron from C towards collector A, the collector A is maintained at a positive potential with respect to emitter C. The intensity of light Is varied, keeping the frequency of the incident radiation and the accelerating potential fixed and the resulting photoelectric current is measured each time. It is observed that the photocurrent increases linearly with intensity of incident light as shown in the figure. 1 E 3 Intensity of ight —e Fig.: Variation of Photoelectric current with intensity of light. As we know the photocurrent is directly proportional to the number of photo electrons emitted per second, so the number of photo electrons emitted per second is directly proportional to the intensity of the incident radiations. ‘Aakash Educational Services Pvt. Lid. - Regd. Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005 Ph. 011-47623456Board & Competitive Exams. Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter 185 Effect of Potential of Photoelectric Current Illuminate the plate C with radiation of fixed frequency (greater than threshold frequency) and fixed intensity, keeping the plate A at some accelerating positive potential with respect to plate C. Now we gradually vary the positive potential of plate A and measure the resulting photocurrent each time. For fixed frequency and fixed intensity of incident light, this photoelectric current increases with the increase in applied positive potential of plate ‘A’. The photoelectric current has the maximum value, when all the photoelectrons emitted by electrode 'C' reach the plate ‘A’. This maximum current is known as saturation current. Further increase in accelerating potential of plate A does not increase the current. When the polarity is reversed (meaning applying a negative (retarding) potential to the plate A with respect to the plate C) and increase retarding potential gradually, then electrons are repelled. The photocurrent is found to decrease rapidly and at a certain, sharply defined critical value of the negative potential V, on the plate AA it drops to zero. The minimum negative (retarding) potential Vp given to the plate A, for a particular frequency of incident radiation, for which the photocurrent stops or becomes zero Is called the cul-off or stopping potential. At this stage photo electrons of maximum kinetic energy (the fastest photoelactron) cannot reach the plate A, therefore Krac= Vy (Kyay if maximum kinatic energy of photostactron) When we repeat this experiment with different intensity 1, /, and J, (Is > Iz > /,) of incident radiation and of the came frequency, we observe that the saturation currenis have reached fo higher values which implies that more electrons are emitted in a unit time, proportional to the intensity of incident radiation but there is no change in stopping potential for a given frequency of the incident radiation, graphically shown in figure. =v, +— Retarding potentia! Cotlector plate —e potential Fig.: Variation of photocurrent with collector plate potential for differant intensity of incident radiation. ‘Thus stopping potential is independent of its intensity for a given frequency of the incident radiation or the maximum kinetic energy of photo electrons Is independant of intensity of incident radiation but depends on frequency (color) of the light source and the emitter plate material. Effect of Frequency of Incident Radiation on Stopping Potenti We now study the relation between stopping potential V, and the frequency v of the incident radiation. The resulting variation of photocurrent with collector plate potential for same intensity of ight radiation at various frequencies is shown in figure. Fig.: Variation of photoelectric current with collector plate potential for different frequencies of incident radiation, ‘Aakash Educational Services Pvt Ltd. - Rogd. Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Rosd, Now Delhi-110005 Ph. 011-47623456186 Dual Nature of Radiation and Mattor Board & Competitive Exams. We get same value of the saturation current but different values of stopping potential for incident radiation of different frequencies, The emitted electron energy depends on the incident radiations frequency. From figure, ‘we note that stopping potentials are in the order V, > V, > V,, for the frequencies in the order v, > v2 > v,. The stopping potential is more negative for higher frequencies of incident radiation. This means, greater the frequency ‘of incident ight, greater is the maximum kinetic energy of the photo electrons. Therefore we require more retarding Potential to stop them completely. We get a straight line if we plot a graph between the frequency of incident radiation and stopping potential for different metals. as shown in figure. 0] Frequency of incident radiation (v) —> Fig.: Variation of stopping potential V, with frequency v of incident radiation for a given photosensitive material ‘We nate from the graph (Linear relationship between stopping potential V, and frequency of incident radiation for a given photosensitive material. (@)_ There is a certain minimum out-of frequency ve (called threshold frequency) for which the stopping potential {8 zero for a given photosensitive material (ii) The maximum kinetic energy of photo electrons and frequency of incident radiation are having linear Felationship and is independent of its intensity. (&) No photoelectric emission is possible for a frequency v of incident radiation, lower than the cut-off frequency Yo, even if the intensity is large. This minimum cut-off frequency vg is called threshold frequency. For different metals itis different. It is also found that, if frequency of the incident radiation exceeds the threshold frequency, the photoelectric ‘emission starts without any apparent time lag (time of the order of 10-* s or less) even if the incident radiation ts very dim. To light, different photosensitive materials respond differently. Selenium is more sensitive than zine or copper. Response also depends on wavelength of light for the same photosensitive substance. Photoslectric effect ‘occurs in copper for ultraviolet light while for green or red light it does not. Laws of Photoslectric Emission (The photoelectric current is directly proportional to the intensity of incident radiation (above the threshold frequency) for a given photosensitive material and frequency of incident radiation. (@) Saturation current is found to be proportional to the intensity of incident radiation whereas the stopping potential is independent of its intensity for a given photosensitive material and incident radiation. (ii) There exists a certain minimum cut-off frequency, called threshold frequency of the incident radiation below which no emission takes place for a given photosensitive material irrespective of intensity of the incident radiation. The maximum kinetic energy or equivalently stopping potential above the threshold frequency of the emitted photo electrons increases linearty with the frequency of the incident radiation but is not a function of intensity. ()_ The photoelectric emission is an instantaneous process. The time lag is very small between the incidence of radiation and emission of photo electrons (~10-* s or less), even when the incident radiation is extremely dim. ‘Aakash Educational Services Pvt. Lid. - Regd. Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005 Ph, 011-47623456Board & Competitive Exams. Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter 187 PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT AND WAVE THEORY OF LIGHT By the end of the nineteenth century the wave nature of light was well established. The wave picture of light explained in a natural and satisfactory way ~ the phenomena of interference, diffraction and polarisation. As per this picture, light is an electromagnetic wave consisting of electric and magnetic fields with continuous distribution of energy in the space where wave is present. As per wave picture of light, the greater the intensity of radiation, the greater is the amplitude of electric and magnetic fies and the greater should be the energy absorbed by each electron. In this picture, it is expected to increase the maximum kinetic energy of the photo electrons with increase in intensity. Also a sulficientiy intense beam of radiation over sufficient time should be able to impact enough energy to the electrons, exceeding the minimum energy needed to come out from the metal surface. Therefore a threshold frequency should not exist. These expection of the wave theory directly contradict observations of photoelectric effect. Further, according to wave picture, the absorption of energy by electron takes place continuously over the complete wave front of radiation, meaning large number of electrons absorb energy. therefore the energy absorbed per electron per unit ime wil be very small. For a single electron to pick up enough energy 10 overcome the work function and come out of the metal will Lake long time. This conclusion is again in striking contrast to the observation that the photoelectric emission is instantaneous. This concludes that the wave picture Is unable to explain the most basic features of photoelectric emission. EINSTEIN'S PHOTOELECTRIC EQUATION: ENERGY QUANTUM OF RADIATION To explain photoelectric effect in 1905, Albert Einstein (1879-1955) proposed completely different picture of electromagnetic radiation. In this picture radiation energy is buill up of discrete units and photoelectric emission does not take place by continuous absorption of energy from radiation. These discrete units are called quanta of energy of radiation. Each quantum of energy is hy, where v is the frequency of ight and fis Planck's constant. In photoelectric effect, an electron absorbs a quantum of energy (hv) of radiation. If this absorbed energy exceeds the minimum energy (work function 0, of the metal), the most loosely bound electron will emerge with maximum kinetic energy, more tightly bound electron will emerge with kinetic energies less than the ‘maximum value. Einstein's photoelectric equation, Kan = AY ~ % ‘Above equation explains all the observations on photoelectric effect. * Krux '8 independent of intensity of radiation but depends linearly on v which is as per our observation because photoelectric effect arises from the absorption of a single quantum of radiation by a single electron. The intensity of radiation Is irrelevant to this basic process. Note that the intensity of light of a given frequency is determined by the number of photons incident per second. = Photoelectric emission is possible only if hy > do because Knax Must be non-negative. fy > v9 vey, ‘0 h vest where vo = 3 vq is threshold frequency. No photoelectric emission is possible below vg, even if the incident radiation of high intensity and long duration falls on the surface. ‘+ Further, intensity of radiation is proportional to the number of energy quanta per unit area per unit time. More intensity means, more number of energy quanta per unit area per unit time, more is the number of electrons absorbing the energy quanta and more, therefore, is the number of electrons coming out of the metal (for v > vo). This Is the reason, for v > vo, photosléctric current is proportional to intensity. ‘+ In photoelectric effect the elementary process is involved in absorption of a light quantum by an electron. This process is instantaneous and independent of intensity. Photoelectric current will depend on intensity. ‘Aakash Educational Services Pvt. Ltd. - Regd. Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pura Road, New Delhi-110005 Ph. 011-47623455188 Dual Nature of Radiation and Mattor Board & Competitive Exams. PARTICLE NATURE OF LIGHT : THE PHOTON Photoelectric effect gave strong evidence of particie-tike behaviour of light, and light in interaction with matter behaved as if it was made of quanta or packets of energy fv Einstein arrived at the important result that light quantum having a definite value of energy as well as momentum a (2) tea tons nator that he oh quan canbe soca wth a parc, heen was arc the vss esa coven te open vesretettnrexanepaectaergetisin ne fomeanae pet ty eeu cee crete ns emt Jue ee nero rete rent peered Gee et our par aeioere etal ocx phate Photon picture of electromagnetic radiation can be summarised as under : (route bone nee nade up arts cates prone merci wth ator (ach photon has oneray (=m) and momentum » (=!) and speedo th speed of oh (8) Photon energy is independent of intensity of radiation. All photons of light of a particular frequency v. 2) ant momen 9 (==). or tray beara xnav we some ener (= v= of light of given wavelength means more number of photons per second crossing a given area, with each: trot na toca enn (t) Protons ee eectealy neue and ae ol detected by elec and magnate eis (8) The tl ena etl omentam re conta polo parce colin (uch as pholo-lcton collision). However, the photon may be absorbed or a new photon may be created in a collision. This fnptes ptr ey nl be concave In coon Example 1: What is the energy, in joule, associated with a photon of wavalemgth 4000 A? Solution: Energy of a photon & =" 8x10 a9 x10" -4.06<10"" J Example 2? Work function of sodium is 2.3 eV. Does sodium show photo-electrie emission for light of wavelength 6800 A? Solution: The threshold wavelength of sodium he _ 6.6x10™™ «310% oS ~~ = 5380 A 0 —- 2.3x1.6x10°" As given wavelength 4 = 6800 A > threshoki wavelength 4, = 5380 A. no photoelectric emission will take place. Example 3: The threshold frequency of » material is 2 * 10% Hz. What is its work function in eV? Given h = 6.62 * 10 J. Solution: ——@y = hv = 6.62 x 10™ x 2 = 104 5 = 1.324 104 ae J ‘Aakash Educational Services Pvt. Lid. - Regd. Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005 Ph. 011-47823456Board & Competitive Exams. Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter 189 Example 4: Find the maximum velocity of photoelectrons emitted by radiation of frequency 3 * 10" Hz from ‘@ photoelectric surface having @ work function 4.0 eV. Solution : 63 «10% x 9x 104% 1.6 « 10-1 vag, = 219.88%10-"" 6.4 10°} _ 26.9810" _ 9 96,4912 8.1510) 91x10 2 * 108 mvs, Example 5: Light of wavelength 2000 A falls on a metallic surface whose work function is 4.21 eV. Calculate ‘the stopping potential. ‘Solution + or V,=621-421=2V Example 6 : I the speed of photoelectrons is 104 m/s, what should be the frequency of the incident radiation ‘on @ potassium metal? Given : Work function of potassium = 2.3 eV. Solution: — E= Kyy + 0 1 =A? + =3rm+e = fxoet0 <0" +23.<1.6010" = 45 «10 J + 3.68 « 107 = 3.68 = 10-19 of a metal of work function 6. Example 8: Light of wavelength 2475 A is incident on barium. Photo electrons emitted describe a circle of radius 100 cm by a magnetic Meld of flux density yet tesla. Find the work function of the barium. (Given © = 1.710") ‘Aakash Educational Services Pvt. Lid. - Regd, Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Deihi-110005 Ph. 011-47623458190 Dual Nature of Radiation and Matior Board & Competitive Exams. Solution: Radius of circular path described by a charged particie in a magnetic field is given by PE = k= CEC (0) 0084 am "\mn) 2 1 xarer0 18x10 (104) x0? 2 =8x 107 =050V E=0+K, o=8-K, -(2) *Uaars Example 9: Monochromatic light of wavelength 3000 A is incident on @ surface aroa 4 cm?. If intensity of light is 150 mW/m?, find the rate at which photons strike the target. Solution = (intensity is energy crossing per unit area per unit time) DA _150%10" «4x10 x3x107 he 66x10 x 3x10" x10" per second Example 10 : if light of frequency 8.2 = 10" Hz fs incident on the metal, cut-off voltage for photoelectric ‘emission is 2.03 V. Find the threshold frequency. Given h = 6.63 x 10 Js; e = 1.6 x 10°" C. Solution: hy = hvg + (e * 2.03) 63x11 = (82 * 4.9) x 10" = 33x 10% Hz Example 11: When light of wavelength 4000 A is incident on a barium emitter, emitted photo electrons in a transvorse magnetic field strongth B ='5.2 * 10-* T moves in @ circular path. Find the radius of the circle. Given work function of barium is 2.5 eV and mass of electron is 9.1 * 10 kg, © = 1.0 * 10°C, = 66 x 10 Js, *] = 2 __[(6.6 x10") x (3x10) _ og eg gto" arto SR seen = 20.88 « 10° Vax = 4.57 * 105 mvs avn Solution = B0V mae pan _(2.1210°*) (4.57 10") _ 1 gy Be S.2x10% «1,6x10°% 2 Aakash Educational Services Pvt. Ltd. - Regd. Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005 Ph. 011-47623455Board & Competitive Exams. Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter 191 Example 12: The wavelength of a photon is 1.4 A. It collides with an electron. The energy of the scattered electron is 4.26 * 10-¥ J. Find the wavelength of photon after collision. Given h = 6.63 * 10 Js. Initial wavelength of photon 4, he _ he 18 fe - fe -4.26x10 x10 x3 x. Seen =14.21x10 a 272x101 m=20A — 426x107" Try Yourself E Find the mass of photon in motion. [An AIR station is broadcasting the waves of wavelength 300 meters. If the radiating power of the transmitter is 10 kW. Find the number of photons radiated per second. Ah Hint; P= SEE Find the frequency of 1 MeV photon. Given wavelength of a 1 keV photon is 1.24 x 10% m. Hint: E= hy Find the expression for the energy of a photon in keV. If we want to express wavelength in angstrom. vant: = PE sin Derive the relationship of number of photons and frequency of two equally energetic beams of lights. If there are n, photons of frequency v, In first beam and n, photons of frequency v2. Hint: = nhv Find the retarding potential required to stop the escape of photo electrons from the metal surface Cf work function 1.07 eV, which is irradiated with light of wavelength 332 nm. Hint: E= 0+ eV, The work function of a metal is 4.2 eV. Find the threshold wavelength with reference to Photoelectric effect. 12375 Hint: = Light of wavelength 3000 A is incident on the metal surface, having work function 1 eV. Find the maximum velocity of emitted photo electron Hint: E= 0+ Kou ‘Aakash Educational Services Pvt. Ltd. - Regd. Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005 Ph. 011-47625456192 Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter Board & Competitive Exams. ‘8. When a point source of monochromatic light is at a distance of 0.2 m from a photoelectic cell, the cut-off voltage and the saturation current are 0.6 volt and 18 mA respectively. If the same. source is placed 0.6 m away from the photoelectric ceil then find the new stopping potential ‘and saturation current. Hint: Cut-off voltage independent of intensity, tate 10. For intensity / of @ light of wavelength 5000 A the photoelectron saturation current is 0.40 yA and stopping potential is 1.96 V. Find the work function of metal. Naty B= we Yam Charge Coupled Devices and Digital Cameras ‘One of the most exciting and useful applications of the photoelectric effect is the charge-coupled devices (CCD). An array of these devices Is used Instead of fm in digital cameras to capture pictures in the form of many small group of electrons. CCD arrays are also used in digital camcorders and ‘electronic scanners, and they provide the method of choice with which astronomers capture those ‘spectacular images of the planets and the stars. For use with visible light, a CCD array consists of {2 sandwich of semiconducting silicon, insulating silicon dioxide, and a number of electrodes. The array is divided into many small sections or pixels. Each pixel captures @ small part of a picture. Incident ‘Photons of visible light strike the silicon and generate electrons via the photoelectric effect. The range of energies of the visible photons is such that one electron is released when a photon interacts with a silicon atom. The electrons are trapped within a pixel because of a positive voltage applied to the electrodes beneath the Insulating layer. Thus, the number of electrons that are released and is proportional to the number of photons striking the pixel. In this fashion, each pixel in the CCD array accumulates an accurate representation of the light intensity at that point on the picture. Color information is provided using red, green or blue filers or a system of prisms to separate the colors. Astronomers use CCD arrays not only in the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum but in other regions as well PHOTOCELL It is @ device which converts light energy into electrical energy. It consists of a semicylindrical photosensitive metal plate (Cathode) and a wire loop (Anode) supported in an evacuated glass or quartz bulb. ‘The cathode acts as an emitter and the anode acts as a collector of photoelectrons. It is connected to an extemal circuit containing a high-tension battery (B) and a microammeter (1A) as shown in figure. Incident light AnodeBoard & Competitive Exams. Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter 193 When light of suitable wavelength falls on the cathode, photoelectrons are emitted. These photo-electrons are drawn to the collector (anode) by the electric field between the cathode and the anode, The resulting photocurrent is measured by the sensitive microammeter. This current is of the order of microampere. Uses of Photocells ‘The photo current can be used to operate control systems and in light measuring devices. () Light meters in photographic cameras make use of photocells to measure the intensity of light. (i) Photocelts inserted in the street light electric circuit, are used to switch on and off automatically. (ii) Photocells help in counting the persons entering an auditorium. () They are used for detection of traffic law defaulters. () Itis used for giving theft warning in banks, treasuries etc. Hence itis called an electric eye also. (W) Photocels are used in the reproduction of sound in cinema and phototelegraphy. (vi) They are used to control temperature of fumaces and chemical reactions, Thus there are a variety of uses of photocells in day-to-day life as well as in the field of science, technology and industry. ‘Note: The current produced in a vacuum type photoelectric cell is very small (of the order of ‘microampere). To increase the current, the coll is filed with a suitable inert gas, e.g., helium, neon ete. at @ pressure of 0.1 mm to 1 mm of Hg. In the gas filled type cell, the current is increased due to ionization of the gas when the potential difference betwaen the cathode and anode exceeds the ionization potential of this gas. Hence a large current may be oblained by further increasing the potential of the anode. The saturation currant varies nonlinearly to the intensity Of light. This cell is not quick in response as the movement of photoelectrons is not through the gas. A Safety Feature of Garage Door Openers ‘This application of the photoelectric effect depends on the fact that the moving photoelectrons constitute & ‘current, @ current that changes as the intensity of light changes. All automatic garage door openers have safety feature that prevents the door from closing when it encounters an obstruction (person, vehicle etc.). ‘A sending unit transmits an invisible (infra red) beam across the opening of the door. The beam is detected by @ receiving unit that contains a photodiode. A photodiode is a type of p-n junction diode. When infra red photons strike the photodiode, electrons bound to the atoms absorb the photons and become liberated. These liberated, mobile electrons cause the current in the photodiode to Increase. When a person walks through the beam, the light is momentarily blocked from reaching the receiving unit, and the current in photodiode decreases. The change in current is sensed by electronic circuitry that immediately stops the downward ‘motion of the door and then causes it to raise up. Compton Effect ‘The photon concept of Einstein was confirmed by Compton. Compton allowed a beam of monochromatic X- rays to fall on a graphite scatterer and measured the intensity of scattered X-rays for various angles of ‘scattering (¢). This experiment proved to be a great “convincer” of the reality of photons because it introduced photon momentum as welll as photon energy, into an experimental situation. It also showed that photon model applies not only to visible and ultraviolet light (as in photoelectric effect) but also to X-rays. ‘Aakash Educational Services Pvt. Lid. - Regd. Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Puss Road, New Delhi-110005 Ph. 011-47623458194 Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter Board & Competitive Exams. Incident x-rays Ts Fig. Schematic representation of Compton scattering experiment He observed the existence of the wavelength (2) of the scattered X-rays which is longer than the wavelength @,) of the incident X-rays. According to the experimental result he concluded that h -AEAA™ ie (1-608 0) AD Here 42 is called the compton shin. This phenomenon of shifting of wavelength of scattered X-rays Is known as Compton Effect. te me Explanations : If X-rays are regarded as an electromagnetic wave, the scattered X-rays should have the same wavelength as the incident X-rays. Hence the shifting of wavelength fs not in agreement with the wave character of Kaye Compton explained the change in wavelength of X-rays scattered from the graphite (scatterer) In terms of energy and momentum transfers, via photons of the incident X-ray beam and loosely bounded electrons in the certon target. According to him during elastic colleion between X-ray photon and a stallonary electron (loosely bounded), a part of energy of incident photon will be absorbed by the electron at rest and the electron wil recol, wlich meena tha fie electron hea gained some kivwtic anergy, Tha eneyy,conaervasion condi that the scattered X-ray photon has less energy than that of incident photon 1, lass frequency or large wavelength Maximum Compton Shift: From equation (A), it is clear that the maximum change in the wavelength of incident X-rays is possible if ) = 180° fe. O ~ Wax is called compton wavelength (1), where my isthe rest mass of the electron, h Of, (Apa = Gage (1 — 008 180") = 0.04852 A ‘Note: (1) Compton effect is not observable with the visible light. 2) In compton effect only a part of the energy of the incident photon Is absorbed by the electron but in photoelectric effect the energy of the incident photon is completely absorbed by the electron. @) If the X-ray photons are scattered by tightly bound electron, then compton shift is not observed. ‘Aakash Educational Services Pvt. Lid. - Regd. Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Deihi-110005 Ph, 011-47823456Board & Competitive Exams. Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter 195 1. The momentum of the photon of wavelength 5000 A will be (1) 1.3 * 10°77 kgam/s (2) 1.3 * 10-7 kg-m/s 2) 4 = 10% kgs (4) 4% 10° kgs 2. Aphoton in motion has @ mass oe @4 nv ©) tw Og 3. Ametal surface of work function 1.07 eV is irradiated with light of wavelength 332 nm. The retarding potential required to stop the escape of photo electron is () 48tev @) 374ev @) 2.66 ev (4) 1.07 ev 4. The work function of metal is 1 eV. Light of wavelength 3000 A is incident on this metal surface. The velocity of, emitted photo electrons will be (1) 10 mvs 2) 1 * 102 mis 8) 1* 104 mvs (4) 1* 10° ms ‘5. The work function for tungsten and sodium are 4.5 eV and 2.3 eV respectively. if the threshold wavelength 2 for sodium is £460 A, the value of 2 for tungsten is (1) 8893.4 @) 10683 A (@) 2791 (@) 528A 6. The maximum wavelength of radiation that can produce photoelectric effect in a certain metal is 200 nm. The maximum kinetic energy acquired by electron due to radiation of wavelength 100 nm will be () 1240v @ 620 (@) 100 ev @) 200 ev 7. Inan experiment on photoelectric effect the frequency v of the incident light is plotted against the stopping potential V,. The work function of the photoelectric surface is given by (e is electronic charge) y Mo aa 8 () 08x einev @ OBin volt @) OAinev (4) The slope of the tine AB 8. Fora certain metal, v is five times the v, and the maximum velocity of coming out photo electrons is 8 x 10% I = 2ve, the maximum velocity of photo electrons will be (1) 4 * 108 mis @) 6 = 10° mis (3) 8 x 10° ms @) 1% 108 mis ‘Aakash Educational Services Pvt. Ltd. - Regd. Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005 Ph. 011-47623456196 Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter Board & Competitive Exams. 9. 10. A point source of light is used in an experiment on photoelectric effect. Which of the following curves best represents the variation of photocurrent (/) with distance (d) of the source from emitter? Ma @rb @e @d From the figure describing photoelectric effect we may infer correctly that KE. Na Al 0 fo. (1) Na and Al both have the same threshold frequency (@) Maximum kinetic energy for both the metals depend linearly on the frequency () The stopping potentials are different for Na and Al for the same change in frequency (4) Alis bettor photosensitive material than Na WAVE NATURE OF MATTER ‘The wave nature of ight shows the phenomena of interference, diffraction and polarisation. On the other hand, in Photoelectric effect and Compton effect which involve energy and momentum transfer, radiation behaves, as if itis made up of a bunch of particles ~ the photons. If radiation has a dual (wave-particie) nature, so should have matter. In 1924, the French physicist Louis Victor de Broglie (1892-1987) reasoned that nature was symmetrical and that basic physical entities ~ matter and ‘energy, must have symmetrical character. De Broglie proposed that wavelength ’ associated with a particle ‘The dual aspect of matter is evident in the above de Broglie relation, where 2 is the attribute of wave while momentum p is a typical attribute of a particle 2 is small for a heavier particle (large m) or more energetic particle (large v). This is the reason why macroscopic objects in our dally life do not show wave-like properties. The wave character of particles is significant and measurable in the sub-atomic domain Matter waves associated with an electron could be verified by crystal diffraction experiments parallel to X-ray diffraction because the wavelength associated with accelerated electron is of the same order as the spacing between the atomic planes in crystal. It is interesting to see that this relation is also satisfied by a photon. That is, the de Broglie wavelength of, a photon equals the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation of which the photon is a quantum of energy and momentum. momanin x gan as ==: wae me mae of pr and ve oan h For particle having kinetic energy E. p = /2mE . then . for charged particle accelerated from rest bh Samav by potential V, E = qV, then A= ‘Aakash Educational Services Pvt. Ltd. - Regd. Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005 Ph. 011-47623455Board & Competitive Exams. Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter 197 Macroscopic objects in our dally tife do not show wave-like character. Why? h From de Broglie relation % Fav dearly 2. is smaller for a heavier particle or more energetic particle. For example, lel us consider a base-ball of 150 g traveling with a speed of 35.0 ms“ raat mw 6.63x10™, © (50x10 %kg)(35.0 ms 1.26 * 10-4 m This wavelength is too small to measure. Hence macroscopic objects, do not show wave-like character. Wave character of sub-atomic particles Is significant and measurable (1) Electron (mass m, charge @) accelerated from rest through a potential V 6.63x10 Js h Vamev © ax 0. 1A0 Mkgxt 6x10 MOV _ [50 , _ 1227 a jpn fan Sia I we take V= 120 volt, 4 = 0.112 nm = 112A This wavelength is about the size of a typical atom. This is also about the wavelength of X-rays. Hence the matter waves associated with an electron could be verified by crystal diffraction experiments analogous to X-rays diffraction. 0.286 A @) Proton 0.286 A a ah lEinev (Cee motecuin: = 7c (mamas of molcle = Bateman Conan T=Abeokta tamper os) According to the Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle, itis not possible to measure both the position and momentum of an electron (or any other particle) at the same time exactly. There is always some uncertainty in the specification of both position (Ax) and momentum (3p). Trepredictotanandaptotineonerot t= 2 a, susp any one from above is zero (x or 4p) then other must be infinite. an electron has a definite momentum p, (de., Ap = 0), from the de Broglie relation, it has @ definite wavelength 2.. A wave of definite (single) wavelength extends all over the space. In general, the matter wave associated with the electron is not extended all over ‘space. It is a wave packet extending aver some finite region of space. It is made up of wavelengths spread around some central wavelength then momentum of the electron will also have a spread from the uncertainty principle. ‘Aakash Educational Services Pvt. Ltd. - Rogd. Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005 Ph. 011-47623486198 Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter Board & Competitive Exams. A ARG (@) tb) Fig.: Shows a schematic diagram of (a) @ localised wave packet, and (0) an extended wave with fixed wavelength DAVISSON AND GERMER EXPERIMENT FOR WAVE NATURE OF ELECTRON ‘The wave nature of electrons was first experimentally verified independently by C.J.Davisson and LH.Germer in 1927 and by G.P.Thomson in 1928 while observing diffraction effects with beams of electrons scattered by crystals. Davisson and Thomson shared the Nobel prize in 1937 for same. The experimental arrangement is schematically shown in figure. Fig.: Davisson-Germer electron diffraction arrangement. thas an electron gun made up of a tungsten filament F, heated by a low voltage (L.T.) battery and the filament is coated with barium oxide. Emitted electrons from filament are accelerated to @ desired velocity by applying required potentiaiVvotage from a high-voltage power supply (H.T. or battery). C is a hollow metallic cylinder with a hole along the axis and Is kept at negative potential to get a convergent beam of electrons ‘omitted from filament. it acts as a cathode. A is a cylinder with fine hole along its axis acting as lan anode. The cathode and anode form an electron gun by which a fine beam of electrons can be obtained of different velocities by applying different accelerating potentials. MV is 2 nickel crystal cut along cubical diagonal, D is an electron detector which can be rotated on a circular scale and is connected to a sensitive galvanometer which records the current. Working : From electron gun a fine beam of accelerated electrons is made to fall normally on the surface of nickel crystal. The atoms of the crystal scatter the incident electrons in different directions. The detector detects the intensity of the electron beam scattered in particular direction by rotating the electron detector fon circular scale al different positions. The accelerating voltage varied from 44 V to 68 V and found that at accelerating voltage 54 V the variation of intensity ()) and scattering angle (0), (the angle between the incident and the scattered beam) is of the type as shown in figure. 1Board & Competitive Exams. Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter 199 Due to constructive interference of electrons scattered from different layers of regularly spaced atoms of the crystal, peak appears in a particular direction /e., diffraction of electrons takes place. This establishes the wave nature of electron. For the scattering angle @ = 50°, the angle of glancing 0 0+ 9 +0= 180" Niiak aimee oO = 5(180"—9)= 65 For the nickel crystal the interatomic separation is d = 0.91 A According to Bragg’s law for first-order difiraction maxima (n= 1) We have, 2d sina = 1» A A= 20.91 © sin 65° = 1.65 A According to de Broglie hypothesis, the wavelength of the wave associated with electron is given by 12271227 Wee Above value is in close agreement with the estimated value of de Broglie wavelength and the experimental ‘aluo determined by Dawazon and Germ The development of modem quantum mechanics, whose basis isthe de Grog hypothesis, soled to the field of electron optics. In the design of electron microscope, having higher resolution over the optical microscope, wave properties of electrons have been ulllised a 66 A ‘The Electron Microscope ‘A practical device that relies on the wave characteristics of electrons is the electron microscope. A ‘transmission electron microscope is used for viewing flat, thin samples. In many respects It \s similar to an ‘optical microscope but the electron microscope doesn't use any optical lens. Rather magnetic field is used to concentrate electron beam. To see an object of size 1 A, you require waves of wavelength 1 A or less. Matter waves associated with electrons have wavelength of this order that is why electron microscopes have ‘@ much greater resolving power than optical microscopes which use light (of wavelength 3800 A — 7800 A). ‘The electron beam in an electron microscope is controlled by electrostatic or magnetic deflection, which acts ‘on the electron to focus the beam to an image. Rather than examining the image through an eye-piece as in an optical microscope, the viewer looks at an image formed on a fluorescent screen. The viewing screen must be fluorescent because otherwise the image produced would not be visible, de Broglie Wave Relation to Bohr Model h a gs as ve A a ks a i i at. Lemur = 1.2, where n= 1,2, 3, « The method is analogous to determining the normal-mode frequencies of standing waves. The electrons in Bohr-orbits radiate no energy, just as a standing wave on a string transmits no energy. So think of an electron standing wave fitted around a circle in one of the Bohr orbits. ‘Aakash Educational Services Pvt. Ltd. - Regd. Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005 Ph. 011-47623456200 Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter Board & Competitive Exams. For the wave to join onto itself smoothly, the circumference of this circle must include some whole number of wavelengths as suggested by figure. For an orbit with radius r, we must have, 2: @ 20 nea naa = ma, where n= 1, 2,3, 0. According to de Broglie, the wavelength A, of a particle with rest mass m, moving with nonrelativistic speed v, is ” @ @ ® © © Non-metals as well show photoelectric effect. Also liquids and gases show this effect but to a limited extent only. Since E = ht'= m2, the mass (m) of a moving photon is m= "f= = B vere p=! = moment of te photon, Cesium is the best photosensitive material because il has least work function. ‘The photoelectrons emitted from a metal surface have different kinetic energies even though the incident photons have same energy. This is so because all the electrons are not emitted from the outer surface of the metal. Those electrons emitted from below the surface of metal require more energy for making them free. Elements of higher atomic numbers will have lower work function. (On increasing the temperature, the work function will decrease. Ifa photon and an electron have got same de Broglie wavelength, then the total energy of ‘electron is more than that of photon. The total energy of photon Ey = "& ‘The total energy of electron, E, = me? = he? ‘Aakash Educational Services Pvt. Ltd, - Regd. Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Deint-110005 Ph, 011-47623456Board & Competitive Exams. Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter 201 =>, (8) According to de Broglie, the frequency f of the matter-wave is related to the particle's energy Ein the same way as for a photon, namely, ean But unlike a photon, electrons or protons do not travel at speed c, so neither equation ¢ == nor E = pe applicable to them. (9) The de Broglie wavelength particle. (10) The de-Broglie wave is neither an electromagnetic (e.m.) wave nor a mechanical wave. It is not em. wave because e.m. waves are produced only by accelerated charged particles. de Broglie wave is not a mechanical wave because it can travel even in vacuum, (11) If the material particle is moving with velocity comparable to the velocity of light, Is independent of the nature and the charge on the material hence de Broglie wavelength 4 = | Where m, = rest mass of the particle. (12) For studying the photoelectric effect with non-alkali metals, quartz window is used for transmitting ultraviolet light because glass window transmits only visible and infrared lights. (13) Infra-red radiation cannot eject photoelectrons, while the X-rays will always do it. It is due to large (infrared) and small (X-rays) wavelengths respectively. (14) In compton effect the electron with which the photon collides is assumed to be free whereas in photoelectric effect electron are assumed to be bound, (15) The maximum energy that a photon can lose in compton effect is 1 myc? which is hal the mass-energy of an electron, (16) The de Brogile wavelength of a gas molecule of mass m at the absolute temperature T is given h by & 3 Since the average kinetic eneray of the gas molecule = > AT. Here k is mkt 2 Boltzmann constant. (17) The number of de Broglie waves associated with nth orbital electron = 28. 2a 20 hhh mw202 Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter Board & Competitive Exams. Example 13 : if the energy of the photon is (18) de Broglie wavelength associated with the orbital electron in the n™ orbit of hydrogen atom is h 13.6 gwen by = ae where K =(“82 ev 12.27 yp _ 9 12.27 yee Frag A= @.3n)A (19) de Broglie wavelength of the neutron having kinetic eneray E (eV) is given by 1 A 2hgme times the kinetic energy of the electron then show that the wavelength 4 of photon and the de Broglie wavelength of an electron have the same value. (Where m, ¢ and h have their usual meanings.) Energy of photon, & = ME Ero ot acronym a AMEE AH. | ne (Pome), a ip lh)" Zima apathy Example 14: if de Broglie wavelongth of an oloctron Is 0.5467 A, find the Kinetic energy of electron in eV. Given f= 6.6 * 10% Js, 0 = 1.6 * 10-7 C, m, = 9.11 = 10° kg. eet 1 66x10"? 2m? ~ 2” 9.41% 10-" «(0.5467 x10 PF E, inev 3 {e910 500 eV 2* WATKAT) (1.6 x10") x (0.5467 x10 YF Example 15 : Find the ratio of momentum of an electron and an u-particle, which are accelerated from rest by Solution = 2 potential difference of 100 V. Momentum, p = mv and y= [22¥ p= 20m = p= om Pe _ [oxm,Board & Competitive Exams. Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter 203 Example 16 : Find the ratio of velocities of proton and a-particle if the de Broglie wavelengths of both Particles is same. Solution: = -_* mye, ve m8 s ™ 4 Example 17 : Find the de Broglie wavelength of revolving electron for the Bohr's first orbit of circumference 2nr. Solution : According to Bohr’ thoory mur = Mt im onal em tenes Find out the energy thal should be added to an eleciron in terms of inal energy To reduoa Re de Broglie wavelengths from 10-'° m to 0.5 * 10-19 m. A Solution; = 4= po 1 te ve Des [Ex a VE; 10 05x10 YE, = a4 Hence, added energy = E, ~ E, = 3E; Example 19 : Find the ratio of kinetic energy of the partici to the energy of the photon, if the de Broglie wavelength of @ partcte moving with a velocity 2.25 » 10° m/s i¢ equal to the wavelength of photon. A 1 gin? also A= Koanicte = 4(-h),2_vh = Kemet) ee ‘panic 33) 2h he Konoton = Koanele Vv _ 225x108 3 Kenton 26 2x3x10° 8 Example 20: When the momentum of a proton is changed by an amount p. the corresponding change in the de Broglie wavelength is found to be 0.25%, Find the original momentum of the photon. soution: xt 3P5A , 025 5 400, po pk P ‘Aakash Educational Services Pvt. Lid. - Regd. Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005 Ph. 011-47623456