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(1)
Here V(r) is the potential energy per unit mass such that
(1a)
Since , (1b)
(2)
These conservation equations are a convenient starting point for investigating the general nature of orbital
motion.
Eliminating from these two equations we obtain the following ordinary differential equation for the radial
distance :
(3)
We call this the radial motion equation for the particle P. Equation (3) (together with the initial
conditions) is sufficient to determine the variation of with , and the angular momentum equation (2) then
determines the variation of with . Unfortunately, for most laws of force, this procedure cannot be carried
through analytically. However, it is still possible to make important deductions about the general nature of the
motion.
. (4)
. (5)
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The Path Equation (Polar Form) : (6)
Its solutions are the polar equations of the paths that the body can take when it moves under the force field
per unit mass.
Applying (4) and (5) in (3) we have an equivalent form of the path equation as
(7)
Despite the appearance of the left side of equation (6), the path equation is not linear in general. This is
because the right side is a function of , the dependent variable. Only for the inverse square and inverse cube
laws does the path equation become linear. It is a remarkable piece of good luck that the inverse square law (the
most important case by far) is one of only two cases that can be solved easily.
Initial conditions for the path equation Suitable initial conditions for the path equation are provided by
specifying the values of and when , say. Since , the initial value of is given
directly by the initial data. The value of is not given directly but can be deduced from equation (5) in the
form
(8)
Let be the length of the perpendicular from the fixed centre of force upon the tangent to the path at P whose
polar coordinates are (see second figure below).
Then we have
, where , (9)
, from (6)
2
Therefore, (11)
This is the pedal form of the differential equation of the central orbit.
The points at which an orbit touches its bounding circles are important and are given a special name:
A point of an orbit at which the distance OP achieves its maximum or minimum value is called an apse of the
orbit. These maximum and minimum distances are called the apsidal distances and the angular displacement
between successive apses (the angle α in Figure below (left)) is called the apsidal angle.
In the special case of orbits around the Sun, the point of closest approach is called the perihelion and the point
of maximum distance the aphelion. The corresponding terms for orbits around the Earth are perigee and apogee.
An apse is also defined as a point in a central orbit at which the normal to the curve passes through the
centre of force.
The apsidal distances, the maximum and minimum distances of P from O, are easily found from the
radial motion equation (3).
Since at an apse the tangent to the curve must be at right angles to the radius vector, i.e.
But, ; therefore .
Also changes sign as increases through the value that indicates the position of an apse.
This is an equation to determine the values of at the apses, supposing the constants and known.
(i) Any central orbit has only two apsidal distances. The orbit is a curve touching two concentric circles,
the radii of which are the two apsidal distances.
(ii) Once the orbit between two consecutive apse is known, the whole of the orbit may be constructed by
operations of folding over apsidal radii, as a central orbit is symmetric with respect to the line drawn
from the force centre to an apse.
(iii) The angle subtended at the centre by the arc joining consecutive apses is a constant. It is called the
apsidal angle.
In some cases (i) may be violated. The radius of the inner circle may be zero, or that of the outer circle may
be infinite. But these are to be regarded as exceptional cases.
, (13)
where, . (14)
Thus, ;
and so, if and are the reciprocals of the apsidal distances ( with ), the apsidal angle is
; (15)
Areal Velocity
Now, let be the length of the perpendicular from on the straight line and let be the velocity of the
particle at .
4
(17)
Thus the linear velocity of the particle varies inversely as the perpendicular drawn from the centre of force
upon the tangent to the path.
Determination of time
. (20)
or, .
5
If .
The three figures refer to the polar, pedal and Cartesian terms respectively, of which the first two are preferable.
The problems of central orbits are treated most concisely by means of the principle of angular momentum and
the equation of energy and using pedal form of the differential equation.
There are two fundamental problems. We shall use equation, i.e. pedal form.
6
Also ; therefore
(21)
where C is a constant.
This determines the shape and size of the orbit, when C is given, but not its orientation about the centre
of force.
(22)
They can also be discussed using polar form, for which we use the path equation in polar form given by (6) and
the results (9) and (10).
Let us consider a particle of mass attracted towards a fixed point by a force . Let us consider the law of
direct distance, meaning thereby that is proportional to . Let us confine our attention to an attractive force,
putting
, (23)
where is a constant.
where .
Since ,
(24) reduces to
. (25)
(26)
we get,
. (27)
This is a central conic and necessarily an ellipse since remain finite, as we see from (26).
Thus the orbit described under a central attractive force varying directly as the distance is an ellipse having its
centre at the centre of force. This motion is called elliptic harmonic .
To illustrate the significance of the constants in (26), let us suppose that at time the particle is at
, moving with velocity in the direction of the y-axis, so that . Putting this
information into the equations (26), first as they stand and then in the form obtained by differentiation , we get
. (28)
Now let us find the apse and apsidal angle of this orbit.
Since ,
8
. (30)
This quadratic equation in yields roots , which will be squares of the reciprocals of the semiaxes of
the elliptical orbit.
To evaluate the apsidal angle, we note that in this case (14) reduces to
where and are constants. But at an apse; hence are roots of , and so
Thus, by (15)
, (31)
as we already know from the fact that the orbit is a central ellipse.
Let us consider the law of inverse square, meaning thereby that is inversely proportional to . Let us confine
our attention to an attractive force, putting
, (32)
where is a constant.
(33)
, (34)
We see that the orbit is an ellipse, parabola or hyperbola according as is negative, zero or positive.
If a particle is projected with velocity from a point at a distance c from the centre of force, then from (33) we
have
9
and therefore is negative, zero or positive, i.e. the orbit is an ellipse, parabola or hyperbola according as
The engines of a spaceship have failed and the ship is moving in a straight line with speed V. The crew
calculate that their present course will miss the planet B by a distance p. However, B is known to exert the force
(32)
. (33)
Show that the crew of the spaceship will get a free tour around B before continuing along their original path.
What is the distance of closest approach and what is the speed of the spaceship at that instant?
Solution
(34)
which simplifies to
,
(35)
(36)
The constants and can now be determined from the initial conditions. Take the initial line as shown
in figure below:
10
Figure: The path of the spaceship around the planet B
Then:
(i) The initial condition when implies that when . It follows that .
(ii) The initial condition on is given by (8) to be
(37)
(38)
That is
. (39)
This is the polar equation of the path of the spaceship, as shown in Figure above. The spaceship recedes to
infinity when again, that is when . Thus the spaceship makes one circuit of B before
continuing on as before. The distance of closest approach is and is achieved when . By angular
momentum conservation, the speed of the spaceship at that instant is .
Evidently
11
Differentiating, we get
where or .
Differentiating, we get
Also .
or
Differentiating, we get
12
Comparing with , we find that
Also .
Differentiating, we get
Also .
Note: Thus we see that if the orbit be a conic, the law of force is inverse square of the distance.
Again comparing with Example 2 above, we see that according as the orbit is
ellipse, parabola or hyperbola.
Example 9. A particle moves with a central acceleration , being projected from an apse at distance
with a velocity ; show that it describes the curve .
Solution
Again,
13
or, .
Put ,
or, .
It is projected from an apse at a distance with a velocity . Show that the path is .
Solution
i.e. and .
Again,
or,
or, ,
.
14
Also, when ,
so that , or, .
or,
i.e. .
15