Introduction to MECHANICS for engineers A book in 3 parts: 1. MECHANICS TOOLSET 2. Statics 3. Dynamics Andy Ruina and Rudra Pratap In preparation for Springer (Preprint) Most recent modifications on July 12, 2019.Reference Tables: The front and back tables concisely summarize much of the text material. Summary of Mechanics ©) ‘The laws of mechanles apply to any collection of matertal or ‘body.’ This body could be the overall system of study ‘or any part of it. Inthe equations below, the forces and moments are those that show on a free body diagram. Interacting ‘bodies cause equal and opposite forces and moments on each other. 1) Linear Momentum Balance (LMB)/Force Balance equation of Motion yAai ‘The toa force on body Is equal) to its ral of change of linear tomeatim Impolse momentum f “Fara ak Neti dt = impulse equal othe changein da) (oupeing wane) [= we Conservation of momentum i2t = When theres no net fore the linear qb) (fy Fr, =0) AL=L,-L,=6 ‘mot does not change. Staves F=0 If the inertial the Gf is negligible) Drs Inertial terms are zero the (lc) net force on system Is zero, 11) Angular Momentum Balance (AMB)/Moment Balance Equation of motion Vole = He ‘The sum of moments is equa othe ll) rate of change of angular momentum, ‘The net angular impulse 1s equal ola) Impulse-momentum (angular) ” SS icat = Affe (Gntegrating in time) I x the change in angular momentum, Conservation of angular momentum nme ® [there is no net moment about point (IIb) CC then the angular momentum about point C does not change, the inertial terms are zero then the (IIc) total moment on the system is zero. Staties (Gr He Is negligible) IID) Power Balance (Ist law of thermodynamics) Equation of motion O+P = Ext Ent in Heat flow plus mechanical power (II) — Into a system is equal to its change Jn energy (Kinetic + potential + snternal for finite time ff oars [P par= ae ‘The netenergy ow going in sequal (Ila) In In to the net change in energy. Conservation of Energy E-0 + ration ° _ If no energy flows into a system, (Ib) Ua=P=0 AE=Ea~ B= 0 then its energy does not change. oe O4P aE Bue If ther is no change of kinetic energy (llc) (if Ex is negligible) thea the change of potential and {ntemal energy Is due to mechanical ‘work and heat flow, Pure Mechanles (Gthheat flow and dissipation P=Ex+fp Ina system well modeled as purely (Id) are negligible) ‘mechanical the change of kinetic ‘and potential energy Is due to mechanical work on the system.Some definitions ‘Also see the index and back tables) yoo ¥ Position 8:7) = Tijo i the poston of a point relative tothe origin, ©. v Velocity 64.0) = Tyo it the velocity of a point i relaive tO, measured ina nonrotating rele rence frame ao _ OF wie Acceleration 6,13) SG)jo isthe acceleration of apoint a we relative to 0, measuredin a Newtonian frame. F Force 8, the force ob A fom Bis Fa oma Moo Moment or Torque eg, the moment of a collection of forces aout point C 3 ‘Angular velocity ‘Armcanure of oational velocity of arigid ob ject Gig = angular velocity of rigid objet B esa Angular acceleration A measure of rotational acceleration of arigid object mi) discrete rea Linear momentum [A measure ofa system's nt translational rate Slim —coatinsous (ieighted by mass. Mea math discrete = | psa Rate of change of linear momen- | The aspect of motion that balances the net Jilin continsous tum force on a system. = Mies Drie X mj diverse = Angular momentum about point © | A measure ofthe rotational rate of «system [jc xTdm —continaoas about a point C (weighted by mass and dit tance feem C) Drive X mal; discrete = Rate ofchange of angularmomen- | The aspect of motion that balances the ne ST)¢ xii continuous | tum sboat point © torque on system about a point C SEmpP discrewe Asam continuous “| Kinetic energy Intemal enerey Power of forces and torques A scalar measure of et system motion, “The now-kinetic non-potential part of a sys- tems total energy ‘The mechanical energy flow into a system. Also, P= W, rate of work. it is ig ue] Moment of inertia matrix about center of mass (em) ‘A measure ofthe mass distribution in a rigid object.iv__Chapter 0. @© Rodra Pratap and Andy Ruina, 1994-2019, All rights reserved, No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in & retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, or otherwise, without prior written permission of the authors ‘This is a pre-release version of a book in progress. Acknowledgements. The following are amongst those who have helped wit this book as editors artists, tex programmers, advisors, eriics or suggesters and creators of content: William Adams, Alexa Barnes, Sonrita Banerjee, Pranay Bhounsule, Joseph Bums, Hye Yeon Choe, Jason Cortll, William Cottingham, Max Donelan, Thu Dong, Gail Fish, Mike Fox, John Gibson, Robert Ghrist, Vivek Gupta, Saptarsi Haldar, Wyatt Hall, Dave Heimstra, Theresa Howley, Herbert Hui, Dirk Martin (Mark) Luchlenburg, Michael Marder, Elaina McCartney, Saskya van Nouhuys, Horst Nowacki, Fim Papadopoulos, Kalpana Pratap, Dane Quinn, Richard Rand, C-V. Radaksishnan, Nidhi Rathi, Phoebus Rosakis, Les Schaffer, Steve Sentolf,Ishan Sharma, David Shipman, Jill Starzel, Bret Tallman, Tian Tang, Kim Turner and Bill Zobrist. Our on-again off-again editor Peter Gordon has been supportive throughout, Many othe fiends, colleagues, relatives, students, and anonymous reviewers have also made helpful suggestions We certify Arthur Ogawa, Ivan Dobrianov. and Stephen Hicks as TeX geniuses ‘Mike Coleman worked extensively on the text, wrote many ofthe examples and homework problems and made many figures. avid Ho, R. Manjula, Abhay and Mieke Ruina drew or improved most ofthe drawings. Credit for some of the homework problems retrieved from Cornell archives is due to various Theoretical and Applied Mechanics faculty, Harry Soodak and Martin Tietsten provided some problems from their incomplete book Software we have used to prepate this book includes ‘IXshop (for LsTX) with many custom features implemented by Stephen Hicks, Adobe Illustrator, GraphicsConverter and MATLAB. Mechn Tsint, S, rin © Antean Tost Ste, so nis © Anti Rae Pt BAISBrief Contents Front tables Brief Contents Detailed Contents Preface To the student 0 What is mechanics? Part I: Mechanics Toolset 1 Vectors: position, force and moment 2 Free-Body Diagrams 3 Computation: Algebra, ODEs, etc 4 Units and estimation Part II: Statics Statics of one object é Trusses and frames Transmissions and mechanisms Tension, shear and bending moment Hydrostaties Part III: Dynamics 10 Dynamics in ID LL Vibrations 12 Particles in space 13 Many particles in space 14 Straight line motion 15 Circular motion of a particle 16 Circular motion of a rigid object 17 Planar motion of an object 18 Time-varying basis vectors 19 Constrained particles and rigid objects 20 Fixed-axis rotation in 3D 21 Elementary introduction to 3D rigid-object dynamics Appendices A. Friction: perspectives on friction laws B Theorems for Systems Answers to some homework problems Back tables cat Tsetse Raa DAE 26 44 132 198 222, 238 238 312 378 434 458 476 476 556 602 650 678, 718 750 830 916 986 1056 1136 1174 1174 1184 1194 1207Detailed Contents Front tables i Summary of mechanies i Some basic definitions : ii Brief Contents 2 Detailed Contents 3 Preface 1B General issues about content, level, organization, style and motivation ‘Swudy advice starts on page 10. To the student 20 A brief study guide, Students who read and follow this advice tend to earn more and do better. 0 What is mechanics? 26 ‘Mechanics can predict forces and motions. The three pillars of mechanics are: 1. models of physical behavior, Il. geometry, and Ill. the basic me- chanics balance laws. The laws of mechanics are informally summarized in this introductory chapter. The extreme accuracy of Newtonian mechan- ics is emphasized. Despite relativity and quantum mechanics supposedly having ‘overthrown’ seventeenth-century physics, classical mechanics is still incredibly accurate for almost all engineering purposes. Various uses of the word ‘model’ are described. 0.1. The three pillars cee : 2 0.2. Mechanics is wrong, why study it? 33 0.3. The hierarchy of models 35 Problems for Chapter 0 4 Part I: Mechanics Toolset 44 1. Vectors: position, force and moment “4 ‘Mechanical analysis uses vectors. We develop vector skills here using the key vectors for statics, namely relative position, force, and moment. No- tational clarity is emphasized because good vector calculation demands distinguishing veetors from scalars. Vector addition is motivated by the need to add forces and relative positions. Dot products are motivated as the tool which reduces vector equations to scalar equations. And ean Tost Se, so nis © Ant i Rae Pt BAIS 3Chapter 0, Detailed Contents Detailed Contents cross products are motivated as the formula which correctly calculates the heuristically-motivated quantities of moment and moment about an 1.1 Notation and addition 46 Box 1.1 The scalars in mechanies 47 Box 1.2 The Vectors in Mechanics 48 1.2. The dot product of two vectors 66 Box 1.3 Useful basic features of the vector dot product 67 Box L4abcos@ => ayby -+ayby +azbe n 1.3 Vector eross product 76 Box 1.5 Uses of the cross product 7 Box 1.6 Cross product as a matrix multiply 3 Box 1.7 The cross product: from geometry to components . 84 14 Moment : : 93 15 Solving vector equations 102 Box 1.8 The rules of vector algebra 108 Box 1.9 Vector triangles and the laws of sines and cosines. 105 Box 1.10 Existence, uniqueness, and geometry 18 Problems for Chapter 1 123, 2. Free-Body Diagrams 132 A free-bodly diagram is a sketch of the system to which you will apply the laws of mechanics. The diagram shows all of the non-negligible external forces and couples which act on the system. The diagram tells what ma- terial is in the system and also what is known, and what is not known, about the forces. Mechanics reasoning depends on free-body diagrams. So, we give tips about how to avoid common, and often calamitous, FBD We also discuss nwo key related ideas: 1) Equivalent force systems; and: 2) Center of Gravity (or, Center of Mass) Ona free-body diagram, systems of forces are often replaced with ‘equiv- alent’ forces, a special important case of which is a weight force at the center of gravity. The center of gravity is also the Center of Mass, a key concept in Dynamics. 2.1 Equivalent force sets . 135 Box 2.1 means add 138 Box 2.2 Equivalent at one point => equivalent at all points 139 Box 2.3 A “wrench” can represent any force system 140 2.2. Center of mass and gravity... 145 Box 24 Like > the symbol f also means add - 146 Box 2.5 Each subsystem is like a particle ISI Box 2.6 The COM of a triangle is at h/3 155 2.3. Interactions, forces & partial FBDs : -. 161 Vector notation for FBDs : 164 Box 2.7 Free-body diagram first, mechanics reasoning after. 72 Box 2.8 Action and reaction on partial FBD’s 174 han Tse, Sd yi © ty ins Rae Pt OKIEChapter 0. Detailed Contents Detailed Contents 2.4 Contact forces: Sliding, rolling, and collisions Problems for Chapter 2 3 Computation: Algebra, ODEs, etc. Here is a quick review of some of the important math and computation {for dynamics. These are things that engineers should just know, lke they know that the derivative of s(t) is cost) 3.1, ODEs: Ordinary Differential Equations 3.2. Numerical solution of ODEs 3.3. Computation and graphics Box: Informal computer commands Problems for Chapter 3 Problems for Chapter 3 4 Units and estimation Prachi's height is, for example, 153 em. There is a standard length, a centimeter, and how many of them stacked end to end is Prachi’s height. ‘Any quantity is the product of a number (say, 153) and a unit (say, a cen timeter). We caleulate various things with quantities. Units are part of ‘a quantity, So, one can, and should do math with units. Thus units are art of a calculation. Some simple advice follows: a) balance units, b) carry units and c) check units. Rules for changing units also follow. Simi- larly, estimating the sizes of things is done by comparison with standards. But, rather than international standards, shese ‘sindards’ are the sizes of {familiar things that you know and remember. 4.1 Units : . Box 4.1 Examples of advised and ill-advised use of units Box 4.2 Improvement to the old handbook approach Box 4.3 Force, mass, weight and the English and SI systems 4.2. Estimation Problems for Chapter 4 Part II: Statics 5 Statics of one object One object is in equilibrium if the forces and moments balance. For a particle force balance tells al. Bu fr an extended objet, moment bal tc ie also essential, There are special shortcuts for an objects that has exactly nwa or exactly thre forces acting on it If friction forces are relevant the possibility of motion needs to be taken into account. Many real-world problems are not staicaly determinate and thus yield either only partial solutions, or yield full solutions after you have made extra ssumpiions 5.1. Static equilibrium of a particle Box 5.1 Existence and uniqueness Box 5.2 The simplification of dynamics to statics 5.2 Equilibrium of one object Box 5.3 Two-force bodies bani sp Sat se Dyin Anty Ri se RPI 181 191 198 198. 208 215 218 220 221 222 222 228 230 232, 234 235 238 238 240 244 247 254 259Chapter 0, Detailed Contents Detailed Contents Box 5.4 Three-force bodies 260 Box 5.5 Moment balance about 3 points is sufficient in 2D, 261 Box 5.6 How to hold something in place statically determi- nately? 262 5.3 Equilibrium with frictional contact 267 Box 5.7 Undriven wheels and two-force bodies. . 2 5.4 Internal forces . . 281 5.5 3D statics 287 Box 5.8 Statically determinate ways to hold an object in 3D 293 Problems for Chapter 5 297 6 Trusses and frames 312 Here we consider collections of parts designed to hold something up or in place, Emphasis is on trusses, assemblies of straight bars connected by ppins at their ends. Trusses are analyzed by drawing free-body diagrams of the pins (method of joints) or of bigger parts of the truss (method of sections). Frameworks, built with other than two-force bodies are also analyzed by drawing free-body diagrams of parts. Trusses and frames can be rigid or not and redundant or not, as can be determined by the equilibrium equations 6.1, Method of joints . : 314 6.2 The method of sections 331 6.3 Solving trusses on a computer 338 64. Frames and structures 349 Box 6.1 The ‘method of bars and pins’ for trusses 352 6.5. Advanced truss concepts: determinacy 359 Box 6.2 Structural rigidity and geometric congruence 364 Box 6.3 Rigidity, redundancy, linear algebra and maps. . 365 Problems for Chapter 6 370 7 Transmissions and mechanisms 378 Sometimes sold parts are assemibled to cause force or torque in one place when a different force or torque is applied at another place. Such assem: blies include levers, gear boxes, presses, pliers, clippers, chain drives and crank-drives. Besides solid paris connected by pins, a few special- purpose parts are commonly used, including springs, strings and gears. Tricks for amplifying force are usually based on principles idealized by pulleys, levers, wedges and toggles. Force-analysis of transmissions and ‘mechanisms is done by drawing free-body diagrams of the parts, writ ing equilibrium equations for these, and solving the equations for desired unknowns, 71 Springs 380 Box 7.1 ‘Zero-length’ springs 381 Box 7.2 How stiff a spring is a solid rod 388 Box 7.3 Stiffer but weaker 388 Box 7.4 A puzzle with two springs and three ropes. 389 Box 7.5 2D geometry of spring stretch 392 7.2. Fotce amplification. 401 han Tse, Sd yi © ty ins Rae Pt OKIEChapter 0. Detailed Contents Detailed Contents 7.3. Mechanisms Box 7.6 Shears with gears Problems for Chapter 7 8 Tension, shear and bending moment The ‘internal forces’ (tension, shear and bending moment) can vary from point fo point in long narrow objects. Here we introduce the notion of graphing this variation and noting the features of these graphs. This graphing is a favorite chore of civil engineers. 8.1. Arbitrary cuts 8.2 Singularity functions: an algorithm for V and M diagrams Problems for Chapter 8 9 Hydrostatics Hydrostatics concerns the equivalent force and moment due to distributed pressure on a surface from a still fluid. Pressure increases with depth With constant pressure, the equivalent force has magnitude = pressure times area, acting at the centroid. For linearly-varying pressure on a rectangular plate the equivalent force is the average pressure times the area acting somewhere between 1/2 and 2/3 of the way down. The net {force acting on a totally submerged object in a constant density fluid is the displaced fluid’s weight, acting at the centroid, 9.1 Fluid pressure Box 9.1 Adding forces to derive Archimedes’ principle Box 9.2 Pressure depends on position but not on orientation Problems for Chapter 9 Part I: Dynamics 10 Dynamics in 1D The scalar equation F = ma introduces the concepts of motion and time derivatives to mechanics. In particular the equations of dynamics are seen to reduce to ordinary differential equations, the simplest of which have memorable analytic solutions. The harder differential equations need be solved on a computer. We explore various concepts and applica tions involving momentum, power, work, kinetic and potential energies, oscillations, collisions and multi-particle systems. 10.1 Force and motion in 1D 10.2 Energy methods in 1D Box 10.1 Particle models for the energetics of locomotion 10.3 A mass and spring: the harmonic oscillator Box 10.2 Acos(At) + B sin(At) = Reos(At 4) Box 10.3 Finding solutions to the harmonic oscillator equation 10.4 Coupled motions in 1D 105 Collisions in 1D : Box 10.4 When equal rods collide the vibrations disappear 1 tae Any nt de Pr 12018 413 a7 424 434 435 451 456 458 459 462 463 472 476 476 478 495 506 513 518 524 529 538, 543Chapter 0, Detailed Contents Detailed Contents Problems for Chapter 10 547 11 Vibrations 556 The ideal harmonic oscillator (previous chapter) oscillates with simple si- nusoidal motion forever. In the real world there is friction so oscillations decay more or less quickly, there are forces that cause the oscillations, ‘and there are multiple parts that move multiple ways. Understanding something about these realities is the topic of this chapter Some key words are damping, resonance, frequency response and normal modes 1L1 Damped vibrations 557 11.2 Forcing & resonance 572 Box 11.1 A Loudspeaker cone is a forced oscillator. S17 Box 11.2 Solution of the forced oscillator equation 581 11.3 Normal modes 589 Problems for Chapter I : 597 12 Particles in space 602 This chapter is about the vector equation F’ = nat for one particle. Concepts and applications include ballisties and planetary motion. The disferential equations of motion are set up in cartesian coordinates and integrated either numerically or for special simple cases, by hand. Con straints, forces from ropes, rods, chains, floors, rails and guides that can nly be jound once one knows the acceleration, are not considered Box 12.1 Newton’s laws in Newtonian reference frames . . 604 12.1 Dynamics of a particle in space = 605 Box 12.2 The derivative ofa vector depends on frame 612 12.2 Momentum and energy 621 Box 12.3 Conservative forces and non-conservative forces 627 Box 12.4 Particle theorems for momenta and energy 629 12.3 Central-force motion and celestial mechanics... . . 633 Problems for Chapter 12 643 13 Many particles in space 650 This more advanced chapter concerns the motion of two or more particles in space, We will use F = nia for each particle. We will use Cartesian coordinates only: The start isthe set up of “two-body” type problems which are easily generalized 193 or more particles. The first section con cems smooth motions due to forces from gravity, springs, smoothly ap plied forces and friction. The second section concerns the sudden change invelocities when impulsive forces are applied. 13.1 Coupled particle motion 652 13.2 Particle collisions 660 Box 13.1 Effective mass : = + 662 Box 13.2 Energeties of collisions : 664 Box 13.3 Coefficient of generation 667 Box 13.4 A particle collision model of running 668 Problems for Chapter 13 : ons han Tse, Sd yi © ty ins Rae Pt OKIEChapter 0. Detailed Contents Detailed Contents 14 Straight line motion Here is an introduction to kinematic constraint in its simplest context, ystems that are constrained to move without rotation in a straight line. In one dimension, pulley problems provide the main example. Two- and three-dimensional problems are covered, such as finding structural sup- ort forces in accelerating vehicles and the slowing or incipient capsize ofa braking car or bicycle. Angular momentum balance is introduced as a needed tool but without the complexities of rotational kinematics. 14.1 1D motion and pulleys 142 1D motion w/ 2D & 3D forces Box 14.1 Calculation of Hye and Hy Problems for Chapter 14 15 Circular motion of a particle After movement on straight lines the next important special motion is rotation on a circular path, Polar coordinates and base vectors are intro duced in this simplest possible context. The key new idea is that not just coordinates, but base vectors, can change with time. 15.1 Circular motion kinematics Box 15.1 Summary: the motion quantities Box 15.2 d’Alembert's mechanics: beginners beware 15.2 Dynamics of particle circular motion Box 15.3 Other derivations of the pendulum equation Problems for Chapter 15 . 16 Circular motion of a rigid object Here we extend the idea of cireular motion from particles to objects. A particle can go in circles. On a rigid object in 2D, all pairs of particles 0 in circles around each other. The key theoretical idea is of rigid-object rotation. The primary applications are pendulums, gear trains, and rota tionally accelerating motors or brakes 16.1 2D rigid-object rotation Box 16.1 Rotation is uniquely defined for a rigid object (2D) 16.2 2D rigid-object angular velocity Box 16.2 The fixed Newtonian reference frame F Box 16.3 Plato on spinning in circles as motion (or not) Box 16.4 Acceleration of a point, using @ Box 16.5 Angular velocity @ and the rotation matrix [R] 16.3 Polar moment of inertia, Box 16.7 Some examples of 2-D Moment of Inertia Box 16.61 16.4 Dynamics of rigid-object planar circular motion ie perpendicular and parallel axis theorems Box 16.8 Angular momentum and power Box 16.9 Simplifying Hye using the center of mass Problems for Chapter 16 17 Planar motion of an object The main goal here is to generate equations of motion for general planar 1 tae Any nt de Pr 12018 678 680 693 695 706 18 720 724 725 732 736 743 750 751 753 759 760 761 762 765 ™ 715 m7 782 786 790 814 83010 Chapter 0, Detailed Contents Detailed Contents motion of a (planar) rigid object that may roll, slide or be in fre flight Multi-object systems are also considered so long as they do not involve other Kinematic constraints between the bodies. Features of the solution that can be obtained from analysis are discussed, as are numerical solu- 17.1 Rigid object kinematics 832 17.2 Mechanics of a rigid-object 848 Box 17.1 2-D mechanics makes sense in a 3-D world 854 Box 17.2 The center-of-mass theorems for 2-D rigid bodies 855 Box 17.3 The work of a moving force and of a couple 856 Box 17.4 The vector triple product A x(B x C) 357 17.3 Kinematics of rolling and sliding. . 363 Box 17.5 The Sturmey-Archer hub 366 17.4 Mechanics of contact 876 17.5 Collisions 894 Problems for Chapter 17 906 18 Time-varying basis vectors 916 Here is a second approach to the kinematics of particle mation. Now instead of using constant base vectors, we use time-varying base vectors, The discussion of polar coordinates started in Chapter 15 is completed here. Path coordinates, where one base vector is parallel to the veloc ity and the others orthogonal to that, are introduced. The challenging Kinematics topic of relative motion is introduced in two stages: first using rotating base vectors connected to a moving rigid object and then using the more abstract notation associated with frame-dependent differentia tion and the famous “five term acceleration formula, 18.1 Polar coordinates and path coordinates . a7 18.2 Rotating frames and their base vectors 932 Box 18.1 The @ formula 941 18.3 General formulas for’¥ and @ 946 Box 18.2 Moving frames and polar coordinates 952 18.4 Kinematics of 2-D mechanisms : 958 18.5 Advanced kinematics of planar motion 972 Box 18.3 Skates, wheels and non-holonomic constraints .. 974 Problems for Chapter 18... . 979 19 Constrained particles and rigid objects 986 The dynamics of particles and rigid objects is studied using the relative ‘motion kinematics ideas from chapter chapter 18. This is the capstone chapter for a two-dimensional dynamics course. After this chapter a good student should be able to navigate through and use most of the skills in the concept map inside the back cover 19.1 Mechanics of a constrained particle 988 Box 19.1 Some brachistochrone curiosities 994 19.2 One-degree-of-freedom 2-D mechanisms 1010 Box 19.2 Ideal constraints and workless constraints 1011 han Tse, Sd yi © ty ins Rae Pt OKIEChapter 0. Detailed Contents Detailed Contents u Box 19.3 1 DOF systems oscillate at Ep minima 19.3 Multi-degree-of-freedom 2-D mechanisms Problems for Chapter 19 20 Fixed-axis rotation in 3D The ideas of chapter 10 on 2D circular motion are extended to fixed axis rotation in 3D. The key difference here is the non-trivial use of the cross product for calculating velocities and accelerations, Fixed axis rotation is the simplest motion with which one can introduce the full moment of inertia matrix, where the diagonal terms are analogous to the scalar 2D ‘moment of inertia and the off-diagonal terms have a “centripetal” inter pretation, The main new application is dynamic balance. 20.1 3-D description of circular motion 20.2 Dynamics of fixed-axis rotation 20.3 Moment of inertia matrices [J] and [1°] Box 20.1 Discovering the moment of inertia matrix Box 20.2 3-D parallel axis theorem 20.4 Using the [J] matrix 20.5 Dynamic balance Problems for Chapter 20 21 Elementary introduction to 3D rigid-object dynamics We begin more advanced 3D dynamics here. First we discuss general motion of a rigid body in 3D. Then we discuss a special simple class of problems, instantaneous dynamics in 3D. 21.1 Band @ of points on a 3D rigid object Box 21.1 Some comments on the motions of rigid bodies Box 21.2 Finite Rotations Box 21.3 Small (Infinitesimal) Rotations 21.2 3D dynamics of a rigid body Box 21.4 H for a rigid body Problems for Chapter 21 Appendices A. Friction: perspectives on friction laws Here we include various friction topics too advanced for the main text. First, what approximations are used in Coulomb's law of friction? See cond, why is the concept of having a static friction coefficient higher than the dynamic coefficient a problematic concept? Third, we show an alter native way of writing the equations governing Coulomb friction. A. A problem with the concept of static friction A2 Acritique of Coulomb friction A3 Another expression for Coulomb friction B Theorems for Systems The center of mass allows simplifications for expressions for momentum, 1 tae Any nel de Pp 12018 1016 1025 1043 1056 1057 1068 1081 1085 1087 1090 112 1120 1136 1137 1142 1143, 1144 1156 1157 1165 1174 1174 1175 177 181 11842 Chapter 0, Detailed Contents Detailed Contents angular momentum, and kinetic energy. Furthermore, the energy equa- tions for systems of particles provide foreshadowing for the frst law of thermodynamics. B.1_ Velocity and acceleration of the center-of-mass 1184 Box B.1 Relation between $ Hye and Hye 1189 Box B.2 Using Hyy and Hy 10 find Hy. and Hye 1190 Box B.3 System momentum balance from F = mia 1192 Box BA Rigid-object simplifications 1193 Answers to some homework problems 1194 Back tables 1207 Common connections: forces and motions 1207 Momenta and energy formulas. 1210 Vand by various methods 1212 Moment of inertia: general facts 1213 Moment of inertia: example objects 1214 Concept map for Dynamics problems 1215 han Tse, Sd yi © ty Rind Rae Pt DAIChapter 0. Preface Preface B Preface General issues about content, level, organization, style and motivation. Study advice starts on page 20. This is an engineering statics and dynamics text. Itis an introduction, aimed primarily at engineering students, particularly mechanical, civil and biomed- ical engineers. ‘The book emphasizes use of vectors, free-body diagrams, and computation. But, it's not just cold recipes; the book is meant to help students build an intuition for mechanics. The first four chapters cover the basic tools used in all of mechanics: vectors, free body diagrams, matrix math and ordinary differential equations (for dynamics). Then there are 5 chapters on engineering statics and 11 on engineering dynamics. Prerequisite and co-requisite skills. ‘We assume students start with some math skills, ¢ Freshman calculus. Readers are assumed (o have facility with the basic geometry, algebra, trigonometry, differentiation and integration, used in elementary calculus. Some of these topics are briefly reviewed in this book, but not as ab initio tutorials. 1 This books shows how to set up algebraic and differential equations for computer solution. You need to know, or be simultaneously learning, a ‘computer language or package which can solve sets of linear algebraic, ‘equations, numerically integrate simple ordinary differential equations and make decent plots. Exposure to other useful subjects might be useful, but is not assumed. For example: ‘¢ Completion of freshman physics may help but is not needed # Vector topics, especially dot and cross products, are introduced here from scratch in the context of mechanics © A background in linear algebra wouldn’t hurt, but the reduction of linear equations to matrix form is taught here. A key fact from lin- ‘car algebra, also presented here, is that linear algebraic equations are usually easy to solve on a computer. ‘* A course in differential equations would also add perspective, But the basic concepts of differential equations ate presented here as needed, 1 tani Any nel de Pp 12184 Chapter 0, Preface Preface Coverage for courses. The sections have been divided so that the homework problems selected from one section are usually about half of a typical weekly homework assignment; the theory and examples from one section might be adequately covered in about one lecture, plus or minus. @ Statics. A leisurely one-semester statics course, or a mote fast-paced half-semester prelude to strength of materials should use chapters 1-9, excluding topics of less interest. ‘¢ Dynamics. A typical one-semester dynamics course will cover most of, chapters 10-19, reviewing chapters 1-4 as needed. © One-semester combined. A lower-level one-semester statics and dy- namics course can cover the less advanced parts of chapters 1-7 and 10-17. ¢ Full-year combined. An advanced full-year statics and dynamics course could cover most of the book. ‘© Upper-level dynamics. The later parts of the book can serve as a start for more advanced dynamics courses. A student who has learned the statics part of this book is well-prepared for using statics in engineering practice, for leaning Strength of Materials and for going on to Dynamics. A student who has learned the dynamics portion is well prepared to go on to learn Vibrations, Systems Dynamics or more advanced Multi-object Dynamics. Organization and formatting Each subject is covered in various ways. ¢ Every section starts with descriptive text and short examples motivat- ing and describing the theory; ‘* More detailed explanations of the theory ate in boxes interspersed in the text. For example, one box explains the common derivation of an- gular momentum balance from F = mid (page 1192), one explains the genius of the wheel (page 271), and another connects @-based kine- matics to é,- and é,-based kinematics (page 952); ‘¢ Sample problems (marked with a gray border) at the end of each sec~ tion show how to do homework-like calculations. These set an example by their consistent use of free-body diagrams, systematic application of basic principles, vector notation, units, and checks against both in- tuition and special cases; ‘¢ Homework problems at the end of each chapter give students a chance to practice mechanics calculations. The first problems for each section build a student's confidence with the basic ideas. The problems are ranked in approximate order of difficulty, with theoretical problems coming later. Problems marked with a * have an answer at the back ‘of the book; han Tse, Sd yi © ty ins Rae Pt OKIEChapter 0. Preface Preface 15 ‘ Reference tables on the inside covers and end pages concisely sum- marize much of the content in the book. These tables can save students the time of hunting for formulas and definitions, Format and notation Each subject is covered in various ways with associated formats. ¢ Every section starts with descriptive text and short examples motivat- ing and describing the theory: (¢ More detailed explanations of the theory are in boxes interspersed in the text. For example, one box explains the common derivation of an- gular momentum balance from F = mi (page 1192), one explains the genius of the wheel (page 271), and another connects @-based kine- matics to é,- and é,-based kinematics (page 952) ‘¢ Sample problems (marked with a gray border) at the end of each sec~ tion show how to do homework-like calculations. These set an example by their consistent use of free-body diagrams, systematic application of basic principles, vector notation, units, and checks against both in- tuition and special cases; ‘¢ Homework problems at the end of each chapter give students a chance to practice mechanics calculations. The first problems for each section bbuild a student’s confidence with the basic ideas. The problems are ranked in approximate order of difficulty, with theoretical problems ‘coming later. Problems marked with a * have an answer at the back of the book: ¢ Reference tables on the inside covers and end pages concisely sum- marize much of the content in the book. These tables can save students the time of hunting for formulas and definitions. ¢ Relatively harder topics, which might be skipped in quicker or less- advanced courses, are identifiable by chapter, section or subsection ti- tles with words like “three-dimensional” or “advanced”, Notation Clear vector notation helps students do problems. One common class of stu- dent errors comes from copying a textbook’s printed bold vector F’ the same way as a plain-text scalar F. We help reduce this error by use a redundant vector notation, ¢.g., a bold and harpooned F. {As for all authors and teachers concerned with motion in two and three dimensions (kinematics) we have struggled with the tradeoffs between a pre- cise notation and a simple notation. Perfectly precise notations are complex and intimidating. Simple nota- tions can be ambiguous or hide key information 1 tae Any nt de Pr 1201816 Chapter 0, Preface Preface Driere ae tee good and universally respected classics: JP Den Hartog, Mechanics, onig- inally published in 1948 bat stl available as an inexpensive reprint (well written and insightful); IAL. Synge and B.A. Grifith, Principles ‘of Mechanics, trough page 408. Orig- inally published in 1942, reprinted in 1959 (good pedagogy but dry); and EJ. Routh, Dynamics of a System of rigid bodies, Vol | (dhe “elementary’ pat through chapter 7. Originally pub- lished in 1905, but reprinted in 1960} Routh also hat five other idea-packed statics and dynamics books. Routh shared college graduation honors With the now-more-famous physicist James Clerk Maxwell (of “Maxwell's ‘equation’). For example, this expression for relative velocity, Sdfv ;/dt is probably intimidating to some, while this supposedly equivalent expression, Big, is a bit too vague for others. Our attempt at clarity without too much clutter is summarized in the box on page 48, Relation to other mechanics books Although there are a few new details and approaches in this book, we admit that most of what is here can be found in other places, including freshman physics texts, other modern engineering texts, and hundreds of classic books. Good freshman physics texts easily encompass half of this book's con- tents. However, this book isa bit deeper, is more rigorous than many elemen- tary physics texts, and is more oriented to engineering. Unfortunately, after freshman physics, too many students have only a vague notion of what me- chanics is, and how it can be used. For example, some students leave fresh- man physics with the sense that a free-body diagram (or force diagram’) is a vague conceptual picture with arrows for various forces and motions drawn on it this way and that, In the worst cases, freshman physics text illustrations sometimes do not make clear which force is acting on which object. Also, because freshman physics tends to avoid use of college math, many students leave freshman physics with little sense of how to use vectors or calculus to solve mechanics problems. In this book we try to lead students, students who may start with these fuzzy freshman-physics notions, into a world of precise, yet still intuitive, mechanics Various staties and dynamics textbooks cover much of the same ma- terial as this one. These textbooks have modern applications, ample sam- ples, lots of pictures, and lots of homework problems. Many are excellent in some ways. Most of today’s engineering professors learned from one of these books, Nonetheless we wrote this book hoping to do stil better Between about 1689 and 1980 hundreds of classic books were written with titles like Statics, Engineering mechanics, Dynamics, Machines, Mech: anisms, Kinematics, or Elementary physics. Many thoughtfully cover most of the material here and sometimes much more. But, none are good modern textbooks; they lack an appropriate pace, style and organization; they ate too roliant on geometry skills and not enough on vectors and numerics; and they don’t have enough modern applications, sample calculations, illustrations, or homework problems, There is much that can be learned from these older books®. If you are really into mechanics you can find golden nuggets in these books. This book is somewhat different in organization and approach than the others listed above, Some of our goals include @ showing the unity of the subject, while also presenting a complete description of the subject, using computers, . using clear notation in figures and equations, #-using units consistently throughout, Mechn Tsint, S, rin © AntChapter 0. Preface Preface 17 developing insights into how various things work, and -using a friendly writing style. This book also uses some important but not well-enough known concepts®. What’s in these books? The core equations in mechanics, including statics and dynamics, are bal- ances of force, momentum and energy®, All of these balances are usually best represented using vectors and free body diagrams Vectors and Free Body Diagrams are the basic tools for set- ting up the equations for most mechanics problems. Hence we have almost a whole short book (Book 1, Mechanics Toolset), on vectors and free body diagrams. There are other tools that are useful (or needed). So, we include here some tips on computer use, some things you should know about units and estimating sizes, and a brief introduction to ordinary differential equations. Organization At the highest level, there are three books (or, parts): 1) Mechanics Toolset (basic skills), 2) Statics, and 3) Dynamics. Within theses, mechanics, the combination of Statics and Dynamics, progresses from elementary to ad- vanced four general ways: 1. Number of spatial dimensions. 4) One dimensional mechanics is the easiest. All forces are in one direction, say the x direction (or the opposite), and there is no consideration of 2- or 3-dimensional geometry. Some people call this ‘scalar’ mechanics because vectors have minimal utility in 1D, b) Planar, or 2D mechanics is next easiest, 2D mechanics most ‘emphasized in simple applications. Geometry is important, but not too difficult, ©) 3D mechanies is most difficult. The geometry of three dimensions is surprisingly more difficult than 2 dimensions. ° ‘omplexity of the motion. 4) Statics assuming no motion (or, more precisely, negligible accel- eration), is easiest. b) Straight-line motion is next easiest, assuming all points move parallel to a single given line, say the x axis, 1 yaa Any nel de Pr 12018 roe example, we use angular momentum balance (appropriately expressed) with respect to any possibly sccelerating point, not just points selected from an arcane ls. ro be previse, we also pay attention to balances of torque (moment) and both linear and angular momentum,18 Chapter 0, Preface Preface ©) Circular motion concems systems are all points go in circles around a given point in a plane or, in 3D, around a given fixed axis 4) General motion, where points and objects can move any which way, is most general, and most difficult 3. Complexity of the system. In approximate order of difficulty, systems ‘one can study in particle and rigid-object mechanics can be: a) A single particle. b) A system of particles. ©) A rigid object. 4) A collection of particles and rigid objects. 4, The type of interaction, Parts of system interact with each other with forces. In Dynamics, some interactions are easier to deal with than others a) Forces determined by positions and velocities. The simplest in- teractions are when forces are from springs, dashpots and gravity. That is, when the forces can be found directly if you know the positions and velocities of all of the objects. bb) Forces and accelerations are coupled. These are systems that hhave parts that interact with constraints like hinges and sliding joints. These ‘kinematic’ constraints are used to describe mecha- Leaving aside the fourth category above (types of forces) a mechanics table of contents might have one chunk of text for each of the 2 x 3X 3 = 18 combinations: I Staties TL. Dynamics cps A. particle A. particle ee % ID, 2D, 3D % 1D,2D, 3D ANXN\ B. rigid object B. rigid object SON * 1D, 2D, 3D 1D, 2D, 3D [rat C. many objects C. many objects = * 1D, 2D, 3D * ID, 2D, 3D However, these 2x3X3 = 18 chunks vary greatly in difficulty. Simplest, the {op sub-item from each list above, the statics of one particle, is almost trivial In contrast, if one mastered the 3D multi-object dynamics of mechanisms, all of the other classifications are special, easier cases. But, 3D multi-object dynamics is generally considered an advanced graduate topic and is not part of this series of books So, in these books, we work our way partially down the lists above. After we cover the basic tools (Toolset: vectors, free body diagrams, and compu- tation), we consider the simplest motion, that is no motion. This is called Statics. Then, in Dynamics we work our way from simpler to harder cases. ean Tse, Sa, Epis © ty ind Rae Pt DAISChapter 0. Preface Preface 19 The main emphasis, in this frst course, is with 2-dimensional statics and dy- namics. 3D statics is not wildly harder than 2D Statics, so it is reasonably covered, But 3D dynamics is, for most students, genuinely harder than 2D dynamics, so is only briefly introduced at the end. What’s not in these books These introductory books only go so far. Here are some things that are in some classical mechanics books but are not in these 3 books. Relativity. To physicists, classical mechanics also includes special and gen- ‘eral relativity, To a physicist, the word ‘classical’ means ‘determinis- tic’ or ‘non-quantum’, thus relativity is still, while coming hundreds of years after Newton, still called classical. Here, classical mechan- ies means mechanics as understood by Newton and Euler. We have no discussion of relativity. Lagrange’s equations. A subset of mechanics problems are beautifully hhandled with Lagrange’s equations. Another related approach is Hamilton's equations, A related idea is Hamilton's principle, None of these are included here Multi-object formalisms. Beyond not having Lagrange equations, we do not have any formal algorithms for dealing with multi-object dynamics systems Stress and strain tensors. While we have slight discussion of stress and strain in the context of springs and bars, these books do not include 2- or 3-dimensional concepts of stress oj; nor strain é;;. There are no tensors, and no Mohr’s circle here. Beam and torsion theory. While the book does include bending moment diagrams, we do discuss the relation between curvature and moment in beams (ie., no M = EI/p) nor the relation between twist and axial torque in rods (ie, no M = JG$/0) What do you think? We have tried to make it as easy as possible for you to learn basic mechanics from this book. We present truth as we know it and as we think itis effec- tively communicated. Nonetheless we have surely made some technical and strategic errors. As you progress, please let us know your thoughts so that we can improve future editions, Rudra Pratap, pratap@iisc.ac.in Andy Ruina, andy.ruina@ google.com 1 st yaa Any nel de Pp 192018 advanced aside: Those with holo- nome constraints and conservative20___Chapter 0. To the student To the student Datso called ‘classical’ of “Newton- Buler’ mechanics @sBxams are harder than home- work.” Some struggling students say “T can do the homework problems. I just can't do the exams. The exams axe harder and ticki” These students may be fooling themselves. Actually, most exams ate not tickier than the homework. Many students get through 4 homework problem with help. And, then they think they no how to do the problema, But, often, they don't. With- ‘out hep, they somtetimes can’t even do a simplified version ofthat same problem, To the student A brief study guide. Students who read and follow this advice tend 10 learn more and do better. Nature’s rules are so strict that, to the extent that you know the rules, you can make reliable predictions about how Nature, the set of all things, behaves. In particular, most objects of concern to engineers obediently follow a subset of Nature’s rules called the laws of Newtonian mechanics. So, if you lean the laws of mechanics, as this book should help you to do, you will be able to make quantitative predictions about how things stand, move, and fall, And you will gain intuition about the mechanics part of Nature’s rules. How to use this book Here is some general guidance. Check your own understanding Most likely you want a decent grade by successfully getting through the homework assignments and exams. You will naturally get help by looking at examples and samples in the text or lecture notes, by looking up formulas in the front and back covers of this book, and by asking questions of friends, teaching assistants and professors. What good are books, notes, classmates or teachers if they don’t help you do the homework? All the examples and sample problems in this book, for example, are just for this purpose. But watch out, Too much use of help from books, notes and people can lead to self deception®. After you finish a problem using such help you should, at least sometimes, check that you have actually learned to solve the problem, To see if you have leamed to do a problem, do it again, justifying each step, without looking up even one small (‘oh, Lalmost knew that’) thing. If you find that you can’t do a problem totally alone, then good!. You now have two learning opportunities. First, you can learn the missing skill or idea, But more deeply, by getting stuck after you have been able to get through with help, you can leatn things about your leaming process. Often the real source of difficulty isn’t a key formula or fact, but something more sublle, high level or abstract (so called ‘meta-cognition’). We hope you can lean some of these useful, and more subtle, ideas from the general text discussions here. han Tse, Sd yi © ty ins Rae Pt OKIEChapter 0. To the student Tothestudent 21 Read the parts of the book that are at your level You might be science and math school-smart, mechanically inclined, and al- ready especially interested in mechanics. Or you might be reluctantly taking this class to fulfill a requirement. In either case, we've tried to write this, book for you. The sections start with generally accessible introductory mate- rial and include simple examples. The early sample problems in each section are also easy. But, for the more motivated students with better backgrounds, wwe also have discussions of the theory and other more advanced applications and asides to challenge them. If you are a nerd, please be patient with the slow introductions and the calculations that go line by line without skipping steps. On the other hand, if you are just trying to get through a course using this book, don’t get hung up by every side discussion about history or theory Stick with the earlier easier parts. Calculation strategies and skills We try to demonstrate a systematic approach to solving problems. But it’s impossible to reduce all mechanics problem solutions to one clear recipe (despite the generally applicable recipe on the inside back cover). Suppose a recipe existed to solve all statics and dynamics problems. Then someone could write a computer program that followed the recipe, The course you are taking could be cancelled, And your mind could be freed from mechanics problem solutions. Mechanics could be like long division, and you could be freed from the skills taught here with a calculator ©). There is an art to solv- ing mechanics problems and understanding their solutions. This applies to homework problems and also engineering design problems. Art and insight, as opposed to application of a fixed precise algorithm, is what makes engi- neering require humans and not just computers. We hope you learn some of this art. For starters, here are some tips. Understand the question It is tempting to start writing equations and quoting principles when you first see a problem, However, itis usually worth a few minutes (and sometimes a few hours) (0 try to Get an intuitive sense of a problem before jumping to equations, Before you draw any sketches or write equations, think: does the problem make sense? What information has been given? What are you trying to find? Is what you are trying to find determined by what is given? What physical laws make the problem solvable? What extra information do you think you need? What information have you been given that you don’t need? You should first get a general sense of the problem to steer you through the technical details, pS et Drs (Ant Ri se RP 1308 actually, computers can do me- chanics. This book presents some meth- fds which computers can handle well. Once a problem has been reduced to a precise mechanical model, « computer code could take over, Such might be called a ‘finite-element’ program or a rigid-body’ dynamics program, ®analogy with long division. Since the mid 1970s, division by a3 (or more) digit number is not done by pencil-and- paper long-ivision but with a calculator or computer. Nonetheless, understand ing division (hat, for example, itis in- verse multiplication, or that division by eto is bad, of which number to divide bby which in real problems) is necessary such knowledge comes better by practice manipulating numbers in one’s head and on paper. Similarly, tis use- ful to know mechanics solution meth- ‘ods well, even for problems that can be solved by a computer package,22__ Chapter 0. To the student To the student twee analogy. Say you a ner encdin how enegy get ere wee ‘he encgy low te rot from he tank The tances feed he rn the twig fed the ranches and the lest feo te twigr ener frm he eh, Bette few pour th opposite way, rms the ewes on down oe tos Buti You ey to invent ee by surg at the Ieee wih no knowledge of he Foot yon cid eatly oe snd cone Teves to elo wae ox eu pipet — ect the Tens to aye us you hive ses of the lee om he reo tp Some students find they can read every line of sample problems yet can- not do test problems, or, Iter on, cannot do applied design work effectively This failing may come from following details without spending time, think- ing and gaining an overall sense of the problems Think through your solution strategy For problem solutions you read, like those in this book, someone had to think about the order of work. You also have to think about the order of your work. ‘You will find some tips in the text and samples. But it is your job to own the material, to learn how to think about it your own way, to become an expert in your own style, and to do the work in the way that makes things most clear to you, ‘The order of calculation is often backwards from the order of thinking When working out how to solve a problem, you often start ‘backwards’, with general principles, then look at terms you need to know. If these are not given, then you think how to figure those from other terms, and so on, On the other hand, when you go to calculate an answer you have to start with the information given and work your way ‘forwards’ into the equation which has your answer from the information given®. To find the net worth of a corporation you add the value of the various divisions. To get the value of a division you add up the values of the factories, For each factory you add up the value of the pieces of machinery. But to get an actual corporate value you have to start by evaluating the pieces of machinery in each factory and ‘working from the known towards the answer. Beware that ‘A polished calculation, especially an algorithmic recipe or computer program, is often written in the inverse order of the thinking that went into making it. Real problem-solving goes both ways. You think about what you need in order to calculate what you want. But you also think about what you can calculate easily from what is plainly given to you. You reach from the un- known towards the known details. And you work with known details towards answers of any kind, wanted or not. And you thus hunt out, building from details and simultaneously reaching back from the goal, a route leading all the way from the known details to the goal. Look for equations containing unknowns. Don’t look for formulas that evaluate unknowns. In elementary science and math we often lea formulas like _ bt VP mae = V=LWH d= far, and x Mechn Tsint, S, rin © AntChapter 0. To the student Tothestudent 23 to find Vid, or X. So, it is common wishful thinking for beginners to hope for a formula that generates the sought unknown in terms of given quantities. Rather, you should Find relations that contain variables of interest; don't worry about whether they are on the right or left side of an equation. Don’t worry about whether the variables are packed with others or are isolated. Most often, you will not know a formula that has the thing you want on the left and every known quantity is on the right. You will have, say, V = LWH when you want to find W from V,L, and H, d jar when you want to find f from a and d, and C+oxte = 0 when you want to find x from a,b, and c. Once you get enough equations for the number of unknowns you have, the only problem left is math. Here are ways of thinking that may help. L) Pretend you know a math and computer genius. She is helpful but doesn’t know any mechanics. Your first, and main, task is to write things down so she could finish up for you. She doesn’t want to help? ‘Then realize that finishing up without her is a separate job for you. You will do this later when you take off your mechanics hat and put on your ‘math-genius hat, 2) Be an egotist. Pretend you are omniscient and know everything. Then write down true statements about those things; equations that contain terms that omniscient-you already know: “If I knew x,y and Z the following equation would be true.” Then relax your ego a bit. Count ‘equations and unknowns to see if you, or at least your math genius friend, could solve for some of the things you previously pretended to know. Thinking outside the books It is fun to puzzle out how things work, It’s satisfying to do calculations that make realistic predictions. Mechanics is interesting in its own right and, interesting or not, it feels good to take pride in new skills. We wrote this, book because we want to help you leam the subject if you are interested, and get through it if you must. But we don’t know the sure path through your resources (say a path with 4 straight segments, see fig. 0.1) that will get you to deeper understanding, We do know that to learn deeply you need to Sa se Drs (Ant Ri se RPI 308 ror this and other courses, you should be good at solving math probe Teas with your pencil and with a come puter, But you should distinguish be- ‘ween the tasko setting up a math prob- sm and the tsk of solving it. Solving often takes mast of the tite and miost ofthe apace on your paper, bats not where your thoughts should sat, The iraportant new material for you in this book concemsseting up the math prob- lems that aie in mechanics, OF course you should develop your skills at sol ing equations too, but that's not the main now conteat here. Figure 0.1: Thinking outside of the books. A famous puzzle asks: using four contiguous straightline segments connect all nine dots that are ima square 3X 3 aray. The only solution has seg- rents extending outside the “box” of 9 points. Hence the expression “thinking outside of the box’24 Chapter 0. To the student To the student think outside of the confines of your usual study resources. Thats, think when you are relaxed, away from the pressures of books, notes, pencils or paper, say when you are walking, showering or lying down, These are the places where you naturally work out life problems, but they are good places to work out mechanics problems too. Having an animated mechanics discussion with friends is also good. You should enjoy your inner nerd socially. Are your friends turned off by tech- talk? There are billions of people out there, you should be able to find one or (wo who would like to talk shop with you. Math skills, We assume you start with the normal skills of, say, a typical successful engineering student. There are some things we assume you know, and some things that we teach here as needed. Success in mechanics depends especially on your being comfortable with some computations. # Vectors especially dot and cross products, are introduced here from scratch in the context of mechanics. So, if you already have these down pat, fine. If, like most students, you don't, this book is for you. ¢ Elementary linear algebra. This books shows how to set up alg braic equations in matrix form for computer solution. The key fact we use is this: once you have rewritten a problem as a set of linear alge- braic equations, itis generally easy (almost trivial) to solve them on a computer, A previous or concurrent course in linear algebra would add perspective, but previous mastery of linear algebra is not needed. © Differential Equations. Concepts for differential equations are pre~ sented here, as needed, A previous or con-current course in ordinary differential equations (ODEs) would add re-inforcement and perspec- tive, but is not needed. But you have to get solid on some ODE basics © Computers. For some examples and homework problems we assume you have access to, and basic facility with, computation, Nowadays, useful mechanics calculations often depend on your ability to plot, to solve matrix equations and to solve differential equations numerically. As of this writing, the most popular choice for such seems to be Matlab, followed by Python, C+, Mathematica, Julia (up and coming), Octave, and Maple, With more or less effort, one can get by with any program that is good at repetitive arithmetic calculations, for example, Excel, But, one way or another, in this millenium, if you want to do mechanics well you need to know how to use a computer to help you. You should indulge in getting as comfortable as you can with these things as you learn mechanics. They are useful for mechanics and they are use- ful in their own right. You will not regret time you spend mastering these computation skills. han Tse, Sd yi © ty Rind Rae Pt DAI26 CHAPTER What is mechanics? Mechanics can predict forces and motions. The three pillars of mechanics are: 1 models of physical behavior, Il. geometry, and IIL. the basic me- chanics balance laws. The laws of mechanics are informally summarized in this introductory chapter. The extreme accuracy of Newtonian mechanics is emphasized. Despite relativity and quantum mechanics supposedly having ‘overthrown’ seventeenth-century physics, classical mechanics is still incred- ibly accurate for almost all engineering purposes. Various uses of the word ‘model’ are described. Contents ‘OL The three pillars : 27 0.2. Mechanics is wrong, why study it? 3 03. The hierarchy of models 35 Problems for Chapter 0 : : an 4L anes Tse Sat sl pein in sl Rae P1218Mechanics is the study of force, deformation and motion. And also of the relations between force, deformation and motion. We care about forces be- cause we want to know how hard to push something to make it move or whether it will break when we push, We care about deformation and mo- tion because we want things to move or not move in certain ways. Towards these ends, our goals are to solve special versions of this general mechanics problem: The general mechanics problem: Given some (possibly idealized) information about the properties, forces, deformations, and motions of a mechanical system, make useful predictions about other aspects of its properties, forces, deformations, and motions. By system, we mean a tangible thing such as a wheel, a gear, a car, a bridge, a human finger, a butterfly, a skateboard and rider, a quartz-wateh timing crystal, a building in an earthquake, a rocket, or the piston in an engine, Will wheel slip? a gear tooth break? a car ip over? What is the biggest truck that can cross a given bridge? Which muscles are used when you hit a key oon your computer? How do people balance on skateboards? How does size affect the frequency of crystal vibration? Which buildings are more likely to {all in what kinds of earthquakes? What is the relation between gas-cjection rate and thrust in a rocket? What forces are on the connecting rod in an engine? For each special case of the general mechanics problem we need to identify the system(s) of interest, idealize the system(s), use classical (high school, Euclidean) geometry to describe the layout, deformation and mo- tion, and finally use the laws of Newtonian mechanics. Those who want to Know how machines, structures, plants, animals and planets hold together and move about need to know Newtonian mechanics, As best we can ex- trapolate, in another two or three hundred years people who want to design robots, buildings, airplanes, boats, prosthetic devices, and large or micro- scopic machines will likely still use the equations and principles we now call Newtonian mechanics. 0.1 The three pillars ‘Any mechanics problem can be divided into three parts, which we think of as the three major pillars that hold up the subject 27 Dre laws of classical mechanics, however expressed, are named for Isaac Newton because his theory of the world, the Principia published in 1689, con- tains much of the stilkused theory Newton used his theory to explain the motions of planets, the trajectory of a cannon ball, why there are tides, and many other things28 Chapter 0, What is mechanics? 0.1, The three pillars 1. Constitutive laws: the mechanical behavior of objects and materi- als; 2. Kinematics: the geometry of motion and distortion; and 3. Kinetics: the laws of mechanics (F = mi, etc.). Let's discuss each of these ideas (these pillars) a little more. This overview should shape your thinking when working out details in later chapters. Pillar 1: Mechanical behavior, constitutive laws The first pillar of mechanics is mechanical behavior. The mechanical behav- ior of something is the description of how loads cause deformation (or vice versa). When something carries a force, it stretches, shortens, shears, bends, or breaks. Your finger tip squishes when you poke something, Too large a force on a gear in an engine causes it to break. The force of air on an insect wing makes it bend. Various geologic forces bend, compress and break rock. This relation between force and deformation can be viewed in a few ways. Definition of force. First, the relation between force and deformation gives us a definition of force, Force can be defined by the amount of spring stretch it causes on a particular known spring. Thus, most modern devices for mea- suring force do so indirectly. They measure the deformation that the force causes in a calibrated spring of some kind, One justification for calling ‘me- chanical behavior’ the first pillar is that force can be defined in terms of deformation of a known elastic object, ‘The first pillar gives us a notion of force, even before we introduce the laws of mechanics. Steel vs chewing gum. Second, a piece of steel distorts under a given load differently than a same-sized piece of chewing gum. This observation, that different objects deform differently with the same loads, implies that an ob- ject’s properties affect its mechanics. The relations of an object's deforma- tions to the forces that are applied are called the mechanical properties of han Tost, Sa, Epis © ty Rind Rae Pt OKIEChapter 0. What is mechanics? 0.1, The three pillars 29 the object. Mechanical properties are sometimes called constitutive law's be- cause the mechanical properties describe how an object is constituted (mean- ing ‘what it is made from’), at least from a mechanics point of view. ‘The classic example of a constitutive law is that of a linear spring which you remember from your elementary physics classes: F x (spring tension is proportional to stretch). To do mechanics, we have to make assumptions and idealizations about the constitutive laws applicable to the parts of a system, How stretchy (elastic) or gooey (viscous) or otherwise de- formable is an object? The set of assumptions about the mechanical behavior of the system is sometimes called the constitutive model, Deformation is often hard to see. Distortion in the presence of forces is easy to see or imagine in the flesh of squeezed fingertips, in chewing gum between teeth or when a piece of paper bends. But pieces of rock or metal have deformation that is essentially invisible and sometimes hard to imagine. With the exceptions of things like rubber, flesh, or objects that are very small in one or two directions (thin sheets and wires), solid objects that are not in the process of breaking typically change their sizes much less than 1% when loaded. Most structural materials deform less than one part per thousand with working loads. These small deformations, even though essentially invisible, are important. These deformations are enough to break bones and collapse bridges. Rigid-object mechanics. Part of good engineering is to idealize-away things that are not important. Unimportant features unnecessarily clutter the mind and also make calculations harder. When deformations are not of much consequence, engineers usually wish them away. Mechanics calculations in which deformation has been neglected are called rigid-object (or rigid: bodyD) mechanics because a rigid (infinitely stiff) solid would not deform at all, Rigidity, the assumption of infinite stiffness, is an extreme constitutive assumption, However, assuming rigidity greatly simplifies many calculations while still generating adequate predictions for many practical problems. The assumption of rigidity also simplifies the introduction of more general me- chanics concepts. Thus, for understanding the steering dynamics of a car we might treat the car as a rigid object, whereas for crash analysis where rigidity is clearly @ poor approximation, we might treat @ car as highly deformable. Contact behavior. Most constitutive models describe the material inside an object. But to solve a mechanics problem involving friction or collisions one also has to have a constitutive model for the contact interactions, The standard friction model (or idealization) “F< jxN’ is an example of a con- {act constitutive model, as is the elementary ‘Testitution’ model for collisions vtee” pS et Drs (Ant Ri se RP 1308 Dspigid body’ means ‘rigid ob- ject’. The oliefashioned word for igid-object’ was ‘igid-body" because in the old days physical things were abstractly called “bodies Think of guy with a robe and beard squinting through a brass telescope ‘and deeply pondering “celestial bod ies’. Nowadays, Newton's laws are applied to biological things lie people s0 the word "body" can be confusing For example, one could mis-inger that ‘rigid-body’ biomechanics is the study of people with rigid rigor mortis bod ies, so called ‘stiffs’, Then, there is the problem of distinguishing a whole organism from its parts, In moder biomechanics modeling of hurman mo- tion people usually model each of the limb segments as a rigid object. It is confusing to say thatthe human body is ‘collection of rigid bodies. It is clearer to say the human body is modeled as a collection of rigid objects. ‘re, we will usually adopt the ordinary [English language, rather than the clas- sical mechanics language. Things are objects (not bodies), and things whose deformation we neglect ae rigid objects (not rigid bodies),30___ Chapter 0. What is mechanics? 0.1, The three pillars In summary, we need a model of a system's mechanical behavior before wwe can make useful predictions, Useful constitutive models can sound ab- surdly extreme, as in the assumption that a piece of a human body is rigid Pillar 2: The geometry of motion and deformation, kinematics In classical mechanics we use classical Greek (Euclidean) geometry to de- scribe the layout, deformation and large-motions of objects. Deformation is, defined by changes of lengths and angles between various pairs and triplets of points. Motion is defined by the changes of the position of points in time. Length, angle, similar triangles, the curves that particles follow and so on can be studied and understood without Newton's laws and thus make up the second independent pillar: geometry and kinematics. Large motions. Many machines and machine parts are designed to move something relatively far. Bicycles, planes, elevators, and hearses are designed to move people; a clockwork, to move clock hands; insect wings, to move insect bodies; and forks, to move potatoes. A connecting rod is designed to move a crankshaft; a crankshaft, to move a transmission; and a transmission, to move a wheel. And wheels are designed to move skateboards, bicycles and cars of various kinds. The description of the motion of these things, of how the positions of the pieces change with time, of how the connections between pieces restrict the motions, of the curves traversed by the parts of a machine, and of the relations of these curves to each other is called kinematics. Kinematics is the study of the geometry of motion (or, of geometry in motion), Motion versus deformation. The idea behind the word deformation is co rectly conveyed by the misspelling, ‘deform-motion’. Deformations usually involve small changes of distance between points on one object, whereas net motion (see the paragraph above) involves large changes of distance between points on different objects. We often need to understand deformation of in- dividual parts to predict when they will break. Sometimes the motion asso- ciated with deformation is important in itself, ike when designing a building to not sway too much in the wind. And sometimes the larger, net transport kind of motion is of interest; for example we would like all points on a plane to travel about the same large distance from New York to Bangalore. Re- ally, deformation and motion are not distinct topics; both involve keeping. track of the positions of points. ‘The distinction we make is for simplicity Trying to simultaneously describe deformations and large motions is just too complicated for beginners to understand, and also too complicated for most. engineering practice, So the ideas are kept (somewhat artificially) separate in elementary mechanics courses such as this one. As separate topics, the geometry needed to understand small deformations (called ‘strains’) and the geometry needed to understand large motions of rigid objects (called “par Mechn Tsint, S, rin © AntChapter 0. What is mechanics? 0.1, The three pillars 31 ticle and rigid-object kinematics’) are both basic parts of mechanics. (This book, however, limits discussion of deformation to that of linear springs.) Pillar 3: Relation of force to motion, the laws of mechanics, kinetics The same intuitive ‘force’ that causes deformation also causes motion, or more precisely, acceleration of mass. The relation between force and eration of mass makes up the third pillar holding up the subject of mechanics. We loosely call this Newton's laws; synonyms include the laws of mechanics, momentum and energy balance and kinetics. Force is related to deforma- tion by material properties (elasticity, viscosity, etc.) and force is related to motion by the laws of mechanics summarized in the front cover. In words and informally, these are: © 0} The laws of mechanics apply to any system (rigid or not) a) Force and moment are the measures of mechanical interaction; and b) Action = minus reaction applies to all interactions, (every action has an equal and opposite reaction’); 1) The net force on a system causes a net linear acceleration (linear momentum balance), T1) The net turning effect of forces on a system causes it to rotationally accelerate (angular momentum balance), and IMD) The change of energy of a system is due to the energy flow into the system (energy balance). A non-minimal set of assumptions. The principles of action and reaction, linear momentum balance, angular momentum balance, and energy balance, are actually redundant in various ways. Linear momentum balance can be derived from angular momentum balance and sometimes vice-versa (as dis- cussed in the Statics and Dynamics books). Energy balance equations can often be derived from the momentum balance equations. And the principle of action and reaction can be derived from the momentum balance equi tions. In engineering practice, however, we worry little about which idea could be logically derived from the others for the problem under considera tion, Rather, we take them all as operationally true. The four assumptions in OAM above are not a mathematically minimal set, but they are all accepted truths by practitioners of mechanics. A lot follows from the laws of Newtonian mechanics, including the con- tents of this book. When these ideas are supplemented with idealizations of the mechanical behavior of particular systems (¢.g., of machines, buildings pS et Drs (Ant Ri se RP 1308 kinetics and kinematics. Its easy to confuse these similar looking and sounding words. Kinematics concerns geometry with no mention of free, and Kinetice concems the relation of force to motion. The following (backwards) antismmemonic device might belp you Adding ‘ma’ to the middle of the word Kinetics gives the word “kinemat whereas adding the concept mit (as in mass times acceleration) tothe concept of kinematics gives the concept called kinetics @ewton’s laws vs the modern ap- proach. Isaac Newton's original three laws are 1) an abject in motion tends to stay 2» F 5) the principle of action and reac fora particle, and These three Newton laws could be used as a starting point for the study of me- chanics. The more modern approach here leads te the same ends. Why not just do it fewton’s way? One confusion in using ‘Newton's original statements is eying to understand how the fest law isnot just 8 special case of the second law, One ‘thought of modem historians of science is that Newton’s fits law is implicitly (by describing what happens when there is no force) defining force. In this view Newton's fist law is somewt equiva lent to what we call law (0a). Another advantage to the more modem approach is that we can think of angular momen- tum and energy as fundamental quanti- ties with general import, not just quanti= lies relevant to the particular models or systems for which we can make deriva- tions based on Newton's paaticle me- chanics32___Chapter 0. What is mechanics? 0.1, The three pillars or human bodies), they lead to predictions about motions and forces. There isan endless stream of results about the mechanics of one or another special system, Some of these results are classified into entire fields of research such as ‘fluid mechanics, ‘vibrations, ‘seismology, ‘granular flow,’ “biomechan- ics, or ‘celestial mechanics’ The four basic ideas also lead to mathematically advanced formulations of mechanics with names like “Lagrange’s equations’ “Hamilton’s equa- tions’ ‘virtual work’, and ‘variational principles.’ If you go on in mechanics, you may learn some of these things in more advanced courses. Statics, dynamics, and strength of materials Elementary mechanics is sometimes partitioned into three courses named ‘statics’, ‘dynamics’, and ‘strength of materials’, These subjects all use, but vary in how much they emphasize, material properties, geometry, and New- ton’s laws Statics is mechanics with the idealization that the acceleration of mass is, negligible in Newton’ laws. The second book in this series provides a thor ough introduction to statics. Things need not be standing exactly still to be well idealized with statics. Actually, nothing is exactly still anyway. But, as the name implies, statics is generally about things that don’t move much, In statics, the first pillar of mechanics, constitutive laws, is generally intro- duced without fanfare by the (implicit) assumption of rigidity. Other consti- tutive assumptions used in statics include inextensible ropes, linear springs, and frictional contact, The material properties used as examples in elemen- tary statics are generally simple, Also, because things don't move or deform much in statics, the geometry of deformation and motion are all but ignored. Despite these commonly applied vast simplifications, statics is useful for the analysis of natural and engineered structures, of slow machines or the light parts of fast machines, and of other things (say, the stability of boats) Dynamics concems the non-negligible acceleration of mass. Chapters 9 and on of this book introduce dynamics. As with statics, the first pillar of me- chanics, constitutive laws, is given a relatively minor role in the elementary dynamics presented here. For the most part, the same library of elementary properties are used with little fanfare (rigidity, in-extensibility, linear clastic- ity, and friction), Dynamics thus primarily concerns kinematics and kinetics. Once one has mastered statics, the hard part of dynamics is the kinematics. Dynamics is useful for the analysis of, for example, fast machines, vibra tions, and ballistics Strength of Materials expands statics to include material properties and also pays more attention to distributed forces (e.g., ‘traction’ and ‘stress’) This book only occasionally touches lightly on strength-of-materials top- ies like stress (loosely, force per unit area), strain (a way to measure defor- mation), and linear elasticity (a commonly used constitutive idealization of han Tse, Sd yi © ty Rind Rae Pt DAI