Apollonian network

In combinatorial mathematics, an Apollonian network is

an undirected graph formed by a process of recursively
subdividing a triangle into three smaller triangles.
Apollonian networks may equivalently be defined as the
planar 3-trees, the maximal planar chordal graphs, the
uniquely 4-colorable planar graphs, and the graphs of
stacked polytopes. They are named after Apollonius of
Perga, who studied a related circle-packing construction.

Contents
An Apollonian network
Definition
Examples
Graph-theoretic characterizations
Chordality
Unique colorability
Treewidth
Degeneracy
Extremality
The Goldner–Harary graph, a non-
Geometric realizations
Hamiltonian Apollonian network
Construction from circle packings
Polyhedra
Triangle meshes
Properties and applications
Matching-free graphs
Power law graphs
Angle distribution
Hamiltonicity
Enumeration
History
See also
Notes
References
External links
Definition
An Apollonian network may be formed, starting from a single triangle embedded in the Euclidean
plane, by repeatedly selecting a triangular face of the embedding, adding a new vertex inside the
face, and connecting the new vertex to each vertex of the face containing it. In this way, the triangle
containing the new vertex is subdivided into three smaller triangles, which may in turn be
subdivided in the same way.

Examples
The complete graphs on three and four vertices, K3 and K4, are both Apollonian networks. K3 is
formed by starting with a triangle and not performing any subdivisions, while K4 is formed by
making a single subdivision before stopping.

The Goldner–Harary graph is an Apollonian network that forms the smallest non-Hamiltonian
maximal planar graph.[1] Another more complicated Apollonian network was used by Nishizeki
(1980) to provide an example of a 1-tough non-Hamiltonian maximal planar graph.

Graph-theoretic characterizations
As well as being defined by recursive subdivision of triangles, the Apollonian networks have several
other equivalent mathematical characterizations. They are the chordal maximal planar graphs, the
chordal polyhedral graphs, and the planar 3-trees. They are the uniquely 4-colorable planar
graphs, and the planar graphs with a unique Schnyder wood decomposition into three trees. They
are the maximal planar graphs with treewidth three, a class of graphs that can be characterized by
their forbidden minors or by their reducibility under Y-Δ transforms. They are the maximal planar
graphs with degeneracy three. They are also the planar graphs on a given number of vertices that
have the largest possible number of triangles, the largest possible number of tetrahedral
subgraphs, the largest possible number of cliques, and the largest possible number of pieces after
decomposing by separating triangles.

Chordality
Apollonian networks are examples of maximal planar graphs, graphs to which no additional edges
can be added without destroying planarity, or equivalently graphs that can be drawn in the plane
so that every face (including the outer face) is a triangle. They are also chordal graphs, graphs in
which every cycle of four or more vertices has a diagonal edge connecting two non-consecutive
cycle vertices, and the order in which vertices are added in the subdivision process that forms an
Apollonian network is an elimination ordering as a chordal graph. This forms an alternative
characterization of the Apollonian networks: they are exactly the chordal maximal planar graphs or
equivalently the chordal polyhedral graphs.[2]

In an Apollonian network, every maximal clique is a complete graph on four vertices, formed by
choosing any vertex and its three earlier neighbors. Every minimal clique separator (a clique that
partitions the graph into two disconnected subgraphs) is one of the subdivided triangles. A chordal
graph in which all maximal cliques and all minimal clique separators have the same size is a k-tree,
and Apollonian networks are examples of 3-trees. Not every 3-tree is planar, but the planar 3-trees
are exactly the Apollonian networks.

Unique colorability
Every Apollonian network is also a uniquely 4-colorable graph. Because it is a planar graph, the
four color theorem implies that it has a graph coloring with only four colors, but once the three
colors of the initial triangle are selected, there is only one possible choice for the color of each
successive vertex, so up to permutation of the set of colors it has exactly one 4-coloring. It is more
difficult to prove, but also true, that every uniquely 4-colorable planar graph is an Apollonian
network. Therefore, Apollonian networks may also be characterized as the uniquely 4-colorable
planar graphs.[3] Apollonian networks also provide examples of planar graphs having as few k-
colorings as possible for k > 4.[4]

The Apollonian networks are also exactly the maximal planar graphs that (once an exterior face is
fixed) have a unique Schnyder wood, a partition of the edges of the graph into three interleaved
trees rooted at the three vertices of the exterior face.[5]

Treewidth
The Apollonian networks do not form a family of graphs that is closed under the operation of
taking graph minors, as removing edges but not vertices from an Apollonian network produces a
graph that is not an Apollonian network. However, the planar partial 3-trees, subgraphs of
Apollonian networks, are minor-closed. Therefore, according to the Robertson–Seymour theorem,
they can be characterized by a finite number of forbidden minors. The minimal forbidden minors
for the planar partial 3-trees are the four minimal graphs among the forbidden minors for the
planar graphs and the partial 3-trees: the complete graph K5, the complete bipartite graph K3,3,
the graph of the octahedron, and the graph of the pentagonal prism. The Apollonian graphs are the
maximal graphs that do not have any of these four graphs as a minor.[6]

A Y-Δ transform, an operation that replaces a degree-three vertex in a graph by a triangle

connecting its neighbors, is sufficient (together with the removal of parallel edges) to reduce any
Apollonian network to a single triangle, and more generally the planar graphs that can be reduced
to a single edge by Y-Δ transforms, removal of parallel edges, removal of degree-one vertices, and
compression of degree-two vertices are exactly the planar partial 3-trees. The dual graphs of the
planar partial 3-trees form another minor-closed graph family and are exactly the planar graphs
that can be reduced to a single edge by Δ-Y transforms, removal of parallel edges, removal of
degree-one vertices, and compression of degree-two vertices.[7]

Degeneracy
In every subgraph of an Apollonian network, the most recently added vertex has degree at most
three, so Apollonian networks have degeneracy three. The order in which the vertices are added to
create the network is therefore a degeneracy ordering, and the Apollonian networks coincide with
the 3-degenerate maximal planar graphs.

Extremality
Another characterization of the Apollonian networks involves their connectivity. Any maximal
planar graph may be decomposed into 4-vertex-connected maximal planar subgraphs by splitting
it along its separating triangles (triangles that are not faces of the graph): given any non-facial
triangle: one can form two smaller maximal planar graphs, one consisting of the part inside the
triangle and the other consisting of the part outside the triangle. The maximal planar graphs
without separating triangles that may be formed by repeated splits of this type are sometimes
called blocks, although that name has also been used for the biconnected components of a graph
that is not itself biconnected. An Apollonian network is a maximal planar graph in which all of the
blocks are isomorphic to the complete graph K4.

In extremal graph theory, Apollonian networks are also exactly the n-vertex planar graphs in which
the number of blocks achieves its maximum, n − 3, and the planar graphs in which the number of
triangles achieves its maximum, 3n − 8. Since each K4 subgraph of a planar graph must be a block,
these are also the planar graphs in which the number of K4 subgraphs achieves its maximum,
n − 3, and the graphs in which the number of cliques of any type achieves its maximum,
8n − 16.[8]

Geometric realizations

Construction from circle packings

Apollonian networks are named after Apollonius of Perga, who
studied the Problem of Apollonius of constructing a circle
tangent to three other circles. One method of constructing
Apollonian networks is to start with three mutually-tangent
circles and then repeatedly inscribe another circle within the
gap formed by three previously-drawn circles. The fractal
collection of circles produced in this way is called an Apollonian
gasket.

If the process of producing an Apollonian gasket is stopped

early, with only a finite set of circles, then the graph that has
one vertex for each circle and one edge for each pair of tangent
An example of an Apollonian gasket
circles is an Apollonian network.[9] The existence of a set of
tangent circles whose tangencies represent a given Apollonian
network forms a simple instance of the Koebe–Andreev–Thurston circle-packing theorem, which
states that any planar graph can be represented by tangent circles in the same way.[10]

Polyhedra
 Apollonian networks are planar 3-
connected graphs and therefore, by
Steinitz's theorem, can always be
represented as the graphs of convex
polyhedra. The convex polyhedron
representing an Apollonian network
is a 3-dimensional stacked polytope.
Such a polytope can be obtained from
a tetrahedron by repeatedly gluing
additional tetrahedra one at a time
The triakis tetrahedron, a
onto its triangular faces. Therefore,
polyhedral realization of
Apollonian networks may also be an 8-vertex Apollonian
defined as the graphs of stacked 3d network
polytopes.[11] It is possible to find a
representation of any Apollonian
network as convex 3d polyhedron in which all of the
coordinates are integers of polynomial size, better than what is
known for other planar graphs.[12]

Construction of an Apollonian
network from a circle packing Triangle meshes
The recursive subdivision of triangles into three smaller
triangles was investigated as an image segmentation technique in computer vision by Elcock,
Gargantini & Walsh (1987); in this context, they called it the ternary scalene triangle
decomposition. They observed that, by placing each new vertex at the centroid of its enclosing
triangle, the triangulation could be chosen in such a way that all triangles have equal areas,
although they do not all have the same shape. More generally, Apollonian networks may be drawn
in the plane with any prescribed area in each face; if the areas are rational numbers, so are all of
the vertex coordinates.[13]

It is also possible to carry out the process of subdividing a triangle to form an Apollonian network
in such a way that, at every step, the edge lengths are rational numbers; it is an open problem
whether every planar graph has a drawing with this property.[14] It is possible in polynomial time
to find a drawing of a planar 3-tree with integer coordinates minimizing the area of the bounding
box of the drawing, and to test whether a given planar 3-tree may be drawn with its vertices on a
given set of points.[15]

Properties and applications

Matching-free graphs
Plummer (1992) used Apollonian networks to construct an infinite family of maximal planar
graphs with an even number of vertices but with no perfect matching. Plummer's graphs are
formed in two stages. In the first stage, starting from a triangle abc, one repeatedly subdivides the
triangular face of the subdivision that contains edge bc: the result is a graph consisting of a path
from a to the final subdivision vertex together with an edge from each path vertex to each of b and
c. In the second stage, each of the triangular faces of the resulting planar graph is subdivided one
more time. If the path from a to the final subdivision vertex of the first stage has even length, then
the number of vertices in the overall graph is also even. However, approximately 2/3 of the vertices
are the ones inserted in the second stage; these form an independent set, and cannot be matched to
each other, nor are there enough vertices outside the independent set to find matches for all of
them.

Although Apollonian networks themselves may not have perfect matchings, the planar dual graphs
of Apollonian networks are 3-regular graphs with no cut edges, so by a theorem of Petersen (1891)
they are guaranteed to have at least one perfect matching. However, in this case more is known: the
duals of Apollonian networks always have an exponential number of perfect matchings.[16] László
Lovász and Michael D. Plummer conjectured that a similar exponential lower bound holds more
generally for every 3-regular graph without cut edges, a result that was later proven.

Power law graphs

Andrade et al. (2005) studied power laws in the degree sequences of a special case of networks of
this type, formed by subdividing all triangles the same number of times. They used these networks
to model packings of space by particles of varying sizes. Based on their work, other authors
introduced random Apollonian networks, formed by repeatedly choosing a random face to
subdivide, and they showed that these also obey power laws in their degree distribution [17] and
have small average distances.[18] Alan M. Frieze and Charalampos E. Tsourakakis analyzed the
highest degrees and the eigenvalues of random Apollonian networks.[19] Andrade et al. also
observed that their networks satisfy the small world effect, that all vertices are within a small
distance of each other. Based on numerical evidence they estimated the average distance between
randomly selected pairs of vertices in an n-vertex network of this type to be proportional to
(log n)3/4, but later researchers showed that the average distance is actually proportional to
log n.[20]

Angle distribution
Butler & Graham (2010) observed that if each new vertex is placed at the incenter of its triangle, so
that the edges to the new vertex bisect the angles of the triangle, then the set of triples of angles of
triangles in the subdivision, when reinterpreted as triples of barycentric coordinates of points in an
equilateral triangle, converges in shape to the Sierpinski triangle as the number of levels of
subdivision grows.

Hamiltonicity
Takeo (1960) claimed erroneously that all Apollonian networks have Hamiltonian cycles; however,
the Goldner–Harary graph provides a counterexample. If an Apollonian network has toughness
greater than one (meaning that removing any set of vertices from the graph leaves a smaller
number of connected components than the number of removed vertices) then it necessarily has a
Hamiltonian cycle, but there exist non-Hamiltonian Apollonian networks whose toughness is equal
to one.[21]

Enumeration
The combinatorial enumeration problem of counting Apollonian triangulations was studied by
Takeo (1960), who showed that they have the simple generating function f(x) described by the
equation f(x) = 1 + x(f(x))3. In this generating function, the term of degree n counts the number of
Apollonian networks with a fixed outer triangle and n + 3 vertices. Thus, the numbers of
Apollonian networks (with a fixed outer triangle) on 3, 4, 5, ... vertices are:

1, 1, 3, 12, 55, 273, 1428, 7752, 43263, 246675, ... (sequence A001764 in the OEIS),

a sequence that also counts ternary trees and dissections of convex polygons into odd-sided
polygons. For instance, there are 12 6-vertex Apollonian networks: three formed by subdividing the
outer triangle once and then subdividing two of the resulting triangles, and nine formed by
subdividing the outer triangle once, subdividing one of its triangles, and then subdividing one of
the resulting smaller triangles.

History
Birkhoff (1930) is an early paper that uses a dual form of Apollonian networks, the planar maps
formed by repeatedly placing new regions at the vertices of simpler maps, as a class of examples of
planar maps with few colorings.

Geometric structures closely related to Apollonian networks have been studied in polyhedral
combinatorics since at least the early 1960s, when they were used by Grünbaum (1963) to describe
graphs that can be realized as the graph of a polytope in only one way, without dimensional or
combinatorial ambiguities, and by Moon & Moser (1963) to find simplicial polytopes with no long
paths. In graph theory, the close connection between planarity and treewidth goes back to
Robertson & Seymour (1984), who showed that every minor-closed family of graphs either has
bounded treewidth or contains all of the planar graphs. Planar 3-trees, as a class of graphs, were
explicitly considered by Hakimi & Schmeichel (1979), Alon & Caro (1984), Patil (1986), and many
authors since them.

The name "Apollonian network" was given by Andrade et al. (2005) to the networks they studied in
which the level of subdivision of triangles is uniform across the network; these networks
correspond geometrically to a type of stacked polyhedron called a Kleetope.[22] Other authors
applied the same name more broadly to planar 3-trees in their work generalizing the model of
Andrade et al. to random Apollonian networks.[18] The triangulations generated in this way have
also been named "stacked triangulations"[23] or "stack-triangulations".[24]

See also
Barycentric subdivision, a different method of subdividing triangles into smaller triangles
 Loop subdivision surface, yet another method of subdividing triangles into smaller triangles

Notes
1. This graph is named after the work of Goldner & Harary (1975); however, it appears earlier in
the literature, for instance in Grünbaum (1967), p. 357.
2. The equivalence of planar 3-trees and chordal maximal planar graphs was stated without proof
by Patil (1986). For a proof, see Markenzon, Justel & Paciornik (2006). For a more general
characterization of chordal planar graphs, and an efficient recognition algorithm for these
graphs, see Kumar & Madhavan (1989). The observation that every chordal polyhedral graph
is maximal planar was stated explicitly by Gerlach (2004).
3. Fowler (1998).
4. The fact that Apollonian networks minimize the number of colorings with more than four of
colors was shown in a dual form for colorings of maps by Birkhoff (1930).
5. Felsner & Zickfeld (2008); Bernardi & Bonichon (2009).
6. The two forbidden minors for planar graphs are given by Wagner's theorem. For the forbidden
minors for partial 3-trees (which include also the nonplanar Wagner graph) see Arnborg,
Proskurowski & Corniel (1986) and Bodlaender (1998). For direct proofs that the octahedral
graph and the pentagonal-prism graph are the only two planar forbidden minors, see Dai &
Sato (1990) and El-Mallah & Colbourn (1990).
7. Politof (1983) introduced the Δ-Y reducible planar graphs and characterized them in terms of
forbidden homeomorphic subgraphs. The duality between the Δ-Y and Y-Δ reducible graphs,
the forbidden minor characterizations of both classes, and the connection to planar partial 3-
trees are all from El-Mallah & Colbourn (1990).
8. For the characterization in terms of the maximum number of triangles in a planar graph, see
Hakimi & Schmeichel (1979). Alon & Caro (1984) quote this result and provide the
characterizations in terms of the isomorphism classes of blocks and numbers of blocks. The
bound on the total number of cliques follows easily from the bounds on triangles and K4
subgraphs, and is also stated explicitly by Wood (2007), who provides an Apollonian network
as an example showing that this bound is tight. For generalizations of these bounds to
nonplanar surfaces, see Dujmović et al. (2009).
9. Andrade et al. (2005).
10. Thurston (1978–1981).
11. See, e.g., Below, De Loera & Richter-Gebert (2000).
12. Demaine & Schulz (2011).
13. Biedl & Ruiz Velázquez (2010).
14. For subdividing a triangle with rational side lengths so that the smaller triangles also have
rational side lengths, see Almering (1963). For progress on the general problem of finding
planar drawings with rational edge lengths, see Geelen, Guo & McKinnon (2008).
15. For the drawings with integer coordinates, see Mondal et al. (2010), and for the drawings on a
given vertex set, see Nishat, Mondal & Rahman (2011).
16. Jiménez & Kiwi (2010).
17. Tsourakakis (2011)
18. Zhou et al. (2004); Zhou, Yan & Wang (2005).
19. Frieze & Tsourakakis (2011)
20. Albenque & Marckert (2008);Zhang et al. (2008).
20. Albenque & Marckert (2008);Zhang et al. (2008).
21. See Nishizeki (1980) for a 1-tough non-Hamiltonian example, Böhme, Harant & Tkáč (1999) for
the proof that Apollonian networks with greater toughness are Hamiltonian, and Gerlach (2004)
for an extension of this result to a wider class of planar graphs.
22. Grünbaum (1963); Grünbaum (1967).
23. Alon & Caro (1984); Zickfeld & Ziegler (2006); Badent et al. (2007); Felsner & Zickfeld (2008).
24. Albenque & Marckert (2008); Bernardi & Bonichon (2009); Jiménez & Kiwi (2010).

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External links
Weisstein, Eric W. "Apollonian Network" (https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ApollonianNetwork.ht
ml). MathWorld.
Matlab Simulation Code (http://www.math.cmu.edu/~ctsourak/ran.html)

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