UNIT-I

Types of coal:

Peat
Peat is the layer of vegetable material directly underlying the growing zone of a
coal forming environment. The vegetable material shows very little alteration and
contains the roots of living plants.
Lignite
Lignite is geologically very young (upwards of around 40,000 years). It is brown
and can be soft and fibrous, containing discernible plant material. It also contains
large amounts of moisture (around 70%) and so has a low energy content: around
8 to 10 megajoules per kilogram.
Black coal
Coal that is sooty and still quite high in moisture (sub-bituminous coal), which is
sometimes termed a “black lignite.”
Coals that get more deeply buried by other rocks lose more moisture and start to
lose their oxygen and hydrogen. These coals are harder and shinier (bituminous
coal), which have energy contents around 24 to 28 megajoules per kilogram.
Anthracite
Anthracite is a hard, black, shiny form of coal that contains virtually no moisture
and very low volatile content. Because of this, it burns with little or no smoke and
is sold as a “smokeless fuel”.

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Steam Turbine Power Plant:
In coal thermal power plant, the steam is produced in high pressure in the steam
boiler due to burning of fuel (pulverized coal) in boiler furnaces. This steam is
further supper heated in a super heater. This supper heated steam then enters
into the turbine and rotates the turbine blades. The turbine is mechanically so
coupled with alternator that its rotor will rotate with the rotation of turbine
blades. After entering in turbine the steam pressure suddenly falls and
corresponding volume of the steam increases. After imparting energy to the
turbine rotor the steam passes out of the turbine blades into the condenser. In
the condenser the cold water is circulated with the help of pump which
condenses the low pressure wet steam. This condensed water is further supplied
to low pressure water heater where the low pressure steam increases the
temperature of this feed water, it is again heated in high pressure. For better
understanding we furnish every step of function of a thermal power station as
follows,
1. First the pulverized coal is burnt into the furnace of steam boiler.
2. High pressure steam is produced in the boiler.
3. This steam is then passed through the super heater, where it further heated
up.
4. This super heated steam is then entered into a turbine at high speed.
5. In turbine this steam force rotates the turbine blades that means here in the
turbine the stored potential energy of the high pressured steam is converted
into mechanical energy.
6. After rotating the turbine blades, the steam has lost its high pressure, passes
out of turbine blades and enters into a condenser.

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 7. In the condenser the cold water is circulated with help of pump which
condenses the low pressure wet steam.
8. This condensed water is then further supplied to low pressure water heater
where the low pressure steam increases the temperature of this feed water,
it is then again heated in a high pressure heater where the high pressure of
steam is used for heating.
9. The turbine in thermal power station acts as a prime mover of the alternator.

Inside the boiler there are various heat exchangers, viz. Economiser, Evaporator
(not shown in the fig above, it is basically the water tubes, i.e. downcomer riser
circuit), Super Heater (sometimes Reheater, air preheater are also present). In
Economiser the feed water is heated to considerable amount by the remaining
heat of flue gas. The Boiler Drum actually maintains a head for natural circulation
of two phase mixture (steam + water) through the water tubes. There is also
Super Heater which also takes heat from flue gas and raises the temperature of
steam as per requirement.

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Coal Delivery :
The coal from supply points is delivered by
_ ships or boats to PP if near to sea or river
_ rail or trucks to the power stations which are situated away from sea or river.
_ trucks are used if railway facilities are not available.
Unloading:
The type of equipment to be used for unloading the coal received at power
station depends on how coal is received at the power station.
_ If coal is delivered by trucks, there is no need of unloading device as the trucks
may dump the coal to the outdoor storage.
_ In case the coal is brought by railway wagons, ships or boats, the unloading may
be done by car shakes, rotary car dumpers, cranes, grab buckets and coal
accelerators. Rotary car dumpers although costly, are quite efficient for unloading
closed wagons.
Preparation:
When the coal delivered is in the form of big lumps and it is not of proper sire, the
preparation (sizing) of coal can be achieved by crushers, breakers, sizers driers
and magnetic separators.
Transfer:
_ After preparation coal is transferred to the dead
storage by means of the following systems:
1. Belt conveyors. 2. Screw conveyors.
3. Bucket elevators. 4. Grab bucket elevators.
5. Skip hoists. 6. Flight conveyor.
BELTT CONVEYOR:

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It consists of an endless belt, moving over a pair of end drums (rollers). The belt is
made, up of rubber or canvas.
Belt conveyor is suitable for the transfer of coal over long distances. It is used in
medium and large power plants. The initial cost of the system is not high and
power consumption is also low. The inclination at which coal can be successfully
elevated by belt conveyor is about 20°. Average speed of belt conveyors varies
between 200-300
R.P.M.
Advantages of belt conveyor
1. Its operation is smooth and clean.
2. It requires less power as compared to other types of systems.
3. Large quantities of coal can be discharged quickly and continuously.
4. Material can be transported on moderates inclines.

SCREW CONVEYOR:
It consists of an endless helicoids screw fitted to a shaft. The screw while rotating
in a trough transfers the coal from feeding end to the discharge end.
This system is suitable, where coal is to be transferred over shorter distance and
space limitations exist. The initial cost of the system is low. It suffers from the
drawbacks that the power consumption is high and there is considerable wear of
screw.
Rotation of screw varies between 75-125 R.P.M.

BUCKET ELEVATOR:
It consists of buckets fixed to a chain. The chain moves over two wheels. The coal
is carried by the buckets from bottom and discharged at the top.

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GRAB BUCKET ELEVATOR:
It lifts and transfers coal on a single rail or track from one point to the other. The
coal lifted by grab buckets is transferred to overhead bunker or storage.
This system requires less power for operation and requires minimum
maintenance. Although the initial cost of this system is high but operating cost is
less.
UNIT- II
Mechanical stokers:
Mechanical stokers are commonly used to feed solid fuels into the furnace in
medium and large size power plants. The various advantages of stoker firing are
as follows :
-Large quantities of fuel can be fed into the furnace. Thus greater combustion
capacity is achieved,
-Poorer grades of fuel can be burnt easily.
-Stoker save labour of handling ash and are self-cleaning.
-By using stokers better furnace conditions can be maintained by feeding coal at a
uniform rate.
-Stokers save coal and increase the efficiency of coal firing.

The main disadvantages of stokers are their more costs of operation and repairing
resulting from high furnace temperatures.

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OVER FEED STOKER
These types of stokers are used for large capacity boiler installations where the
coal is burned without pulverization. The overfeed stokers are of mainly two
types
(a) Traveling grate stoker, and
(b) Spreader stoker.

Travelling Stoker.
The travelling stoker may be chain grate type or bar grate type. These two differ
only in the details of grate construction.
-The grate surface of a chain grate stoker is made of a series of cast iron links
connected by pins to form an endless chain.
-The grate surface of a bar grate stoker is made of a series of cast iron sections
mounted on carrier bars. The carrier bar rides on two endless type drive chains.
Spreader Type or Sprinkler Stoker:
This is a overfeed type stoker. The coal burns on this stoker remains partly in
suspension and partly on the grate.

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UNDERFEED STOKERS
-In underfeed stokers, the fuel is fed from underneath the fire and moves
gradually upwards. The primary air is supplied just below the level at which
combustion takes place.
-The fuel releases the volatile matter as it passes through the initial fuel bed from
bottom. The released volatile matter mixes with fresh air and enters into the
combustion zone.
-Therefore, the entire combustion process is highly efficient and gives high rates
of heat release.
-The underfeed stokers fall into two main groups, the single retort and multiple
retort stokers.

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 Coal Storage:

Coal storage can be done in two ways:

1. Open coal storage

2. Covered coal storage

Most of the coal stockpiles in the power plant are open type. But with the
passage of time, various problems are experienced with open stockpile system
and potential need for covered coal storage system is felt. The salient features
and benefits of the covered coal storage as compared to open coal storage are as
follows:

 Reduction in spontaneous combustion of coal, by virtue of no exposure to sun.

 Minimum dust emission in the stockpile.
 No air pollution.
 Elimination of rainfall and moisture problem :
 Prevention of Loss of Gross Calorific Value (GCV) of coal

Stocking of coal in covered coal storage system not only minimizes the above
various problems that had occurred in stocking of coal in open coal storage
system, but also improves combustion, boiler efficiency and overall power
generation in thermal power plant.

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Ash Handling:

Page | 10
 UNIT-II

Gas Turbine Power Plant:

The gas turbine obtains its power by utilizing the energy of burnt gases and air,
which is at high temperature and pressure by expanding through the several
stages of fixed and moving blades (stator and rotor). To get a high pressure (of the
order of 4 to 10 bar) of working fluid, which is essential for expansion a
compressor, is required.
A simple gas turbine cycle consists of
(1) compressor,
(2) combustion chamber and
(3) turbine.
Since the compressor is coupled with the turbine shaft, it absorbs some of the
power produced by the turbine and hence lowers the efficiency. The network is
therefore the difference between the turbine work and work required by the
compressor to drive it. Gas turbines are constructed to work mainly on oil and/or
natural gas.

Classification of Gas Turbine Power Plant:

The gas turbine power plants which are used in electric power industry are
classified into two groups as per the cycle of operation
a) Open cycle gas turbine
b) Closed cycle gas turbine.

Open cycle gas turbine:

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Advantages
1. No warm-up time. Once the turbine is brought up to the rated speed by the
starting motor and the fuel is ignited, the gas turbine will be accelerated from
cold start to full load without warm-up time. The stipulation of a quick start and
take-up of load frequently are the points in favor of open cycle plant when the
plant is used as peak load plant.
2. Low weight and size. The weight in kg per kW developed is less.
3. Fuels. Almost any hydrocarbon fuel from high-octane gasoline to heavy diesel
oils can be used in the combustion chamber.
4. Open cycle plants occupy comparatively little space.

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5. Open-cycle gas turbine power plant, except those having an intercooler, does
not require cooling water. Therefore, the plant is independent of cooling medium
and becomes self-contained.

Disadvantages
1. The part load efficiency of the open cycle plant decreases rapidly as the
considerable percentage of power developed by the turbine is used to drive the
compressor.
2. The system is sensitive to the component efficiency; particularly that of
compressor. The open cycle plant is sensitive to changes in the atmospheric air
temperature, pressure and humidity.
3. The open-cycle gas turbine plant has high air rate compared to the other cycles,
therefore, it results in increased loss of heat in the exhaust gases and large
diameter ductwork is necessary.
4. It is essential that the dust should be prevented from entering into the
compressor in order to minimize erosion and depositions on the blades and
passages of the compressor and turbine and so impairing their profile and
efficiency. The deposition of the carbon and ash on the turbine blades is not at all
desirable as it also reduces the efficiency of the turbine. Therefore, air filters and
fuel treatment are necessary; combustion must also be handled with a lot of care.

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Closed cycle gas turbine:

Advantages
1. The inherent disadvantage of open cycle gas turbine is the atmospheric
backpressure at the turbine exhaust. With closed cycle gas turbine plants, the
backpressure can be increased, thus increasing power rating. The density of the
working medium can be maintained high by increasing internal pressure range.

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The high density of the working fluid also increases the heat transfer properties in
the heat exchanger. Therefore the machine can be smaller and cheaper than the
machine used to develop the same power using open cycle plant.
2. The closed cycle avoids erosion of the turbine blades due to the contaminated
gases and fouling of compressor blades due to dust. Therefore, it is practically
free from deterioration of efficiency in service.
3. The need for filtration of the incoming air which is a severe problem in open
cycle plant is completely eliminated.
4. Load variation is usually obtained by varying the absolute pressure and mass
flow of the circulating medium, while the pressure ratio, the temperatures and
the air velocities remain almost constant. This result in velocity ratio in the
compressor and turbine independent of the load and full load thermal efficiency
maintained over the full range of operating loads.
5. As indirect heating is used in closed cycle plant, the inferior oil or solid fuel can
be used in the furnace and these fuels can be used more economically because
these are available in abundance. Even more encouraging prospects can be
predicted with the possibility of using renewable energy sources (solar towers for
example).
6. Finally the closed cycle opens the new field for the use of working medium
(other than air as argon, CO2, helium) having more desirable properties. As we
are going to see, the ratio γ of the working fluid plays an important role in
determining the performance of the gas turbine plant.
7. The maintenance cost is low and reliability is high due to longer useful life.
8. The thermal efficiency increases as the pressure ratio (Rp) decreases.
Therefore, appreciable higher thermal efficiencies are obtainable with closed

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cycle for the same maximum and minimum temperature limits as with the open
cycle plant.
9. Starting of plane is simplified by reducing the pressure to atmospheric or even
below atmosphere so that the power required for starting purposes is reduced
considerably.

Disadvantages
1. The system is dependent on external means as considerable quantity of cooling
water is required in the precooler.
2. Higher internal pressures involve complicated design of all components and
high quality material is required which increases the cost of the plant.
3. The response to the load variations is poor compared to the open-cycle plant,
4. It requires very big heat-exchangers as the heating of workings fluid is done
indirectly. The space required for the heat exchanger is considerably large. The
full heat of the fuel is also not used in this plant. The closed cycle is only
preferable over open cycle where the inferior type of fuel or solid fuel is to be
used and ample cooling water is available at the proposed site of the plant.
However, closed cycle gas turbine plants have not been used for electricity
production, except in very limited cases.

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Differences:

S.no Criterion Closed Cycle Gas Turbine Open Cycle Gas Turbine

1 Cycle of It works on closed cycle. It works on open cycle. The

operation The working fluid is fresh charge is supplied to
recirculated again and each cycle and after
again. It is a clean cycle. combustion and expansion.
It is discharged to
atmosphere.
2 Working fluid The gases other than the Air-fuel mixture is used
air like Helium or Helium- which leads to lower
Carbon dioxide mixture thermal efficiency.
can be used, which has
more favourable
properties.
3 Type of fuel used Since heat is transferred Since combustion is an
externally, so any type of integral part of the system
fuel; solid, liquid or thus it requires high
gaseous or combination of quantity liquid or gaseous
these can be used for fuel for burning in a
generation of heat. combustion chamber.

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4 Manner of heat The heat is transferred Direct heat supply. It is
input indirectly through a heat generated in the
exchanger. combustion chamber itself
5 Quality of heat The heat can be supplied It requires high grade heat
input from any source like waste energy for generation of
heat from some process, power in a gas turbine.
nuclear heat and solar
heat using a concentrator.
6 Efficiency High thermal efficiency for Low thermal efficiency for
given lower and upper same temperature limits.
temperature liquids.
7 Part load Part load efficiency is Part load efficiency is less
efficiency better. compared to Closed cycle
gas turbine.
8 Size of plant Reduced size per MWh of Comparatively large size for
power output. same power output.

9 Blade life Since combustion Direct contact with

products do not come in combustion products, the
direct contact of turbine blades are subjected to
blade, thus there is no higher thermal stresses and
blade fouling and longer fouling and hence shorter
blade life. blade life.

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10 Control on Better control on power Poor control on power
power production. production.
production
11 Cost Closed cycle gas turbine Open cycle gas turbine plant
plant is complex and is simple and less costly.
costly.

Cyclone Furncae:

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A cyclone furnace consists of a horizontal cylindrical barrel attached through the
side of a boiler furnace. The cyclone barrel is constructed with water cooled,
tangential oriented, tube construction. Inside the cyclone barrel are short,
densely spaced, pin studs welded to the outside of the tubes. The studs are
coated with a refractory material, usually silica or aluminium based, that allows
the cyclone to operate at a high enough temperature to keep the slag in a molten
state and allow removal through the tap.
Crushed coal and a small amount of primary air enter from the front of the
cyclone into the burner. In the main cyclone burner, secondary air is introduced
tangentially, causing a circulating gas flow pattern. The products, flue gas and un-
combusted fuel, then leave the burner and pass over the boiler tubes. Tertiary air
is then released further downstream to complete combustion of the remaining
fuel, greatly reducing NOx formation. A layer of molten slag coats the burner and
flows through traps at the bottom of the burners, reducing the amount of slag
that would otherwise form on the boiler tubes.
Cyclone Furnaces can handle a wide range of fuels. Low volatile bituminous
coals, lignite coal, mineral rich anthracitic coal, wood chips, petroleum coke, and
old tires can and have all been used in cyclones.
The crushed coal is fed into the cyclone burner and fired with high rates of heat
release. Before the hot gases enter in the boiler furnace the combustion of coal is
completed. The crushed coal is fed into cyclone burners .The coal is Burned by
centrifugal action which is imparted by the primary air which enters tangentially
and secondary Air which also enters in the top tangentially at high speed and
tertiary air is admitted in the centre. Due to Whirling action of coal and air, a large
amount of heat is generated (1500-1600°c)and that covered the surface of
cyclone and ashes are transformed into molten slag .The molten slag drained
from the boiler furnace through a slag tap.

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Cooling Tower:

A special type of heat exchanger that allows water and air to come in contact
with each other to lower the temperature of the hot water. During this process,
small volumes of water evaporate, lowering the temperature of the water that’s
being circulated throughout the cooling tower. In a short summary, a cooling
tower cools down water that gets over heated by industrial equipment and
processes.
The hot water is usually caused by air conditioning condensers or other industrial
processes. That water is pumped through pipes directly into the cooling tower.
Cooling tower nozzles are used to spray the water onto to the “fill media”, which
slows the water flow down and exposes the maximum amount of water surface
area possible for the best air-water contact. The water is exposed to air as it flows
throughout the cooling tower. The air is being pulled by an motor-driven electric
“cooling tower fan”.

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When the air and water come together, a small volume of water evaporates,
creating an action of cooling. The colder water gets pumped back to the
process/equipment that absorbs heat or the condenser. It repeats the loop over
and over again to constantly cool down the heated equipment or condensers.

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 UNIT-III

Spillways are familiar hydraulic structures built across a stream to control the
water level.
This chapter emphasizes the classification of weirs and spillways as well as the
application of hydraulic formulas for designing their shape and dimensions.
Spillways are used at both large and small dams for letting flood flows pass,
thereby preventing overtopping and failure of the dam.

Necessity of Spillways
(a) The height of the dam is always fixed according to the maximum reservoir
capacity. The normal pool level indicates the maximum capacity of the reservoir.
The water is never stored in the reservoir above this level. The dam may fail by
over turning so, for the safety of the dam the spillways are essential.
(b) The top of the dam is generally utilized by making road. The surplus water is
not be allowed to over top the dam, so to stop the over topping by the surplus
water, the spillways become extremely essential.
(c) To protect the downstream base and floor of the dam from the effect of
scouring and erosion, the spillways are provided so that the excess water flows
smoothly.

Types of Spillways
1. Free Overfall (Straight Drop) Spillway
2. Overflow (Ogee) Spillway
3. Chute (Open Channel/Trough) Spillway

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4. Side Channel Spillway
5. Shaft (Drop Inlet/Morning Glory) spillway
6. Tunnel (Conduit) spillway
7. Siphon spillway

Free Overfall Spillway:

In this type of spillway, the water freely drops down from the crest, as for an arch
dam (Figure 1). It can also be provided for a decked over flow dam with a vertical
or adverse inclined downstream face (Figure 2). Flows may be free discharging, as
will be the case with a sharp-crested weir or they may be supported along a
narrow section of the crest. Occasionally, the crest is extended in the form of an
overhanging lip (Figure 3) to direct small discharges away from the face of the
overfall section. In free falling water is ventilated sufficiently to prevent a
pulsating, fluctuating jet..

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Overflow Spillway:

The overflow type spillway has a crest shaped in the form of an ogee or S-shape
(Figure 5). The upper curve of the ogee is made to conform closely to the profile
of the lower nappe of a ventilated sheet of water falling from a sharp crested weir
(Figure 6). Flow over the crest of an overflow spillway is made to adhere to the
face of the profile by preventing access of air to the underside of the sheet of
flowing water. Naturally, the shape of the overflow spillway is designed according
to the shape of the lower nappe of a free flowing weir conveying the discharge
flood. Hence, any discharge higher than the design flood passing through the
overflow spillway would try to shoot forward and get detached from the spillway
surface, which reduces the efficiency of the spillway due to the presence of

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negative pressure between the sheet of water and spillway surface. For
discharges at designed head, the spillway attains near-maximum efficiency. A
reverse curve at the bottom of the slope turns the flow in to the apron of a sliding
basis or in to the spillway discharge channel.

An ogee crest apron may comprise an entire spillway such as the overflow of a
concrete gravity dam (Figure 7), or the ogee crest may only be the control
structure for some other type of spillway (Figure 8).

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Chute Spillway:

A chute spillway, variously called as open channel or trough spillway, is one

whose discharge is conveyed from the reservoir to the downstream river level
through an open channel, placed either along a dam abutment or through a
saddle (Figure 9). The control structure for the chute spillway need not necessarily
be an overflow crest, and may be of the side-channel type as has been shown in
Figure 10. However, the name is most often applied when the spillway control is
placed normal or nearly normal to the axis of the open channel, and where the
streamlines of flow both above and below the control crest follow in the direction
of the axis. Generally, the chute spillway has been mostly used in conjunction
with embankment dams, like the Tehri dam, for example. Chute spillways are
simple to design and construct and have been constructed successfully on all
types of foundation materials, ranging from solid rock to soft clay.

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Page | 28
Side channel Spillway:

A side channel spillway is one in which the control weir is placed approximately
parallel to the upper portion of the discharge channel, as may be seen from Figure
10. When seen in plan with reference to the dam, the reservoir and the discharge
channel, the side channel spillway would look typically as in Figure 11 and its
sectional view in Figure 12. The flow over the crest falls into a narrow trough
opposite to the weir, turns an approximate right angle, and then continues into
the main discharge channel. The side channel design is concerned only with the
hydraulic action in the upstream reach of the discharge channel and is more or
less independent of the details selected for the other spillway components. Flow
from the side channel can be directed into an open discharge channel, as in Figure
10 or 11 showing a chute channel, or in to a closed conduit which may run under

pressure or inclined tunnel.

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Shaft Spillway:

A Shaft Spillway is one where water enters over a horizontally positioned lip,
drops through a vertical or sloping shaft, and then flows to the downstream river
channel through a horizontal or nearly horizontal conduit or tunnel (Figure 13).
The structure may be considered as being made up of three elements, namely, an
overflow control weir, a vertical transition, and a closed discharge channel. When
the inlet is funnel shaped, the structure is called a Morning Glory Spillway. The
name is derived from the flower by the same name, which it closely resembles
especially when fitted with antivortex piers (Figure 14). These piers or guide vanes
are often necessary to minimize vortex action in the reservoir, if air is admitted to
the shaft or bend it may cause troubles of explosive violence in the discharge
tunnel-unless it is amply designed for free flow. Discharge characteristics of the
drop inlet spillway may vary with the range of head. As the head increases, the
flow pattern would change from the initial weir flow over crest to tube flow and
then finally to pipe flow in the tunnel. This type of spillway attains maximum
discharging capacity at relatively low heads. However, there is little increase in

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capacity beyond the designed head, should a flood larger than the selected inflow
design flood occur. A drop inlet spillway can be used advantageously at dam sites
that are located in narrow gorges where the abutments rise steeply. It may also
be installed at projects where a diversion tunnel or conduit is available for use.

Tunnel Spillway:

Where a closed channel is used to convey the discharge around a dam through
the adjoining hill sides, the spillway is often called a tunnel or conduit spillway.
The closed channel may take the form of a vertical or inclined shaft, a horizontal
tunnel through earth or rock, or a conduit constructed in open cut and backfilled
with earth materials. Most forms of control structures, including overflow crests,
vertical or inclined orifice entrances, drop inlet entrances, and side channel crests,

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can be used with tunnel spillways. Two such examples have been shown in Figs.
15 and 16. When the closed channel is carried under a dam, as in Figure 13, it is
known as a conduit spillway. With the exception of those with orifice or shaft type
entrances, tunnel spillways are designed to flow partly full throughout their
length. With morning glory or orifice type control, the tunnel size is selected so
that it flows full for only a short section at the control and thence partly full for its
remaining length. Ample aeration must be provided in a tunnel spillway in order
to prevent a fluctuating siphonic action which would result if some part of
exhaution of air caused by surging of the water jet, or wave action or backwater.
Tunnel spillways are advantageous for dam sites in narrow gorges with steep
abutments or at sites where there is danger to open channels from rock slides
from the hills adjoining the reservoir. Conduit spillways are generally most suited
to dams in wide valleys as in such cases the use of this types of spillway would
enable the spillway to be located under the dam very close to the stream bed.

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siphon spillway:

siphon spillway is a closed conduit system formed in the shape of an inverted U,

positioned so that the inside of the bend of the upper passageway is at normal
reservoir storage level (Figure 17). This type of siphon is also called a Saddle
siphon spillway. The initial discharges of the spillway, as the reservoir level rises
above normal, are similar to flow over a weir. Siphonic action takes place after the
air in the bend over the crest has been exhausted. Continuous flow is maintained
by the suction effect due to the gravity pull of the water in the lower leg of the
siphon. Siphon spillways comprise usually of five components, which include an
inlet, an upper leg, a throat or control section, a lower leg and an outlet. A siphon
breaker air vent is also provided to control the siphonic action of the spillway so
that it will cease operation when the reservoir water surface is drawn down to
normal level. Otherwise the siphon would continue to operate until air entered
the inlet. The inlet is generally placed well below the Full Reservoir Level to
prevent entrance of drifting materials and to avoid the formation of vortices and
draw downs which might break siphonic action.

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HYDROLOGIC CYCLE:

The movement of water on the earth's surface and through the atmosphere is
known as the hydrologic cycle. Water is taken up by the atmosphere from the
earth's surface in vapour form through evaporation. It may then be moved from
place to place by the wind until it is condensed back to its liquid phase to form
clouds. Water then returns to the surface of the earth in the form of either liquid
(rain) or solid (snow, sleet, etc.) precipitation. Water transport can also take place
on or below the earth's surface by flow. The hydrologic cycle is used to model the
storage and movement of water between the biosphere, atmosphere, lithosphere
and hydrosphere. Water is stored in the following reservoirs: atmosphere,
oceans, lakes, rivers, glaciers, soils, snowfields, and groundwater. It moves from
one reservoir to another by processes like: evaporation, condensation,

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precipitation, deposition, runoff, infiltration, sublimation, transpiration, and
groundwater flow.

Water is stored in the atmosphere in all three states of matter. Water vapour in
the atmosphere is commonly referred to as humidity. If liquid and solid forms of
water can overcome atmospheric updrafts they can fall to the Earth's surface as
precipitation. The formation of ice crystals and water droplets occurs when the
atmosphere is cooled to a temperature that causes condensation or deposition.

Precipitation can be defined as any aqueous deposit, in liquid or solid form, that
develops in a saturated atmospheric environment and generally falls from clouds.
A number of different precipitation types have been classified by meteorologists
including rain, freezing rain, snow, ice pellets, snow pellets, and hail. Fog
represents the saturation of air near the ground surface. Classification of fog
types is accomplished by the identification of the mechanism that caused the air
to become saturated.

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Water is continually cycled between its various reservoirs. This cycling occurs
through the processes of evaporation, condensation, precipitation, deposition,
runoff, infiltration, sublimation, transpiration, melting, and groundwater flow.
Evaporation – It occurs when radiant energy from the sun heats water, causing
the water molecules to become so active that some of them rise into the
atmosphere as vapour. It is the transfer of water from bodies of surface water
into the atmosphere. This transfer entails a change in the physical nature of water
from liquid to gaseous phases. Along with evaporation can be counted
transpiration from plants. Thus, this transfer is sometimes referred to as
evapotranspiration. About 90% of atmospheric water comes from evaporation,
while the remaining 10% is from transpiration. Transpiration occurs when plants
take in water through the roots and release it through the leaves, a process that
can clean water by removing contaminants and pollution. Evapotranspiration is
water evaporating from the ground and transpiration by plants.
Evapotranspiration is also the way water vapour re-enters the atmosphere.

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Precipitation:
In cold air way up in the sky, rain clouds will often form. Rising warm air carries
water vapor high into the sky where it cools, forming water droplets around tiny
bits of dust in the air. Some vapor freezes into tiny ice crystals which attract
cooled water drops. The drops freeze to the ice crystals, forming larger crystals
we call snowflakes. When the snowflakes become heavy, they fall. When the
snowflakes meet warmer air on the way down, they melt into raindrops. In
tropical climates, cloud droplets combine together around dust or sea salt
particles. They bang together and grow in size until they're heavy enough to fall.

Infiltration:
Under some circumstances precipitation actually evaporates before it reaches the
surface. More often, though, precipitation reaches the Earth's surface, adding to
the surface water in streams and lakes, or infiltrating the A portion of the
precipitation that reaches the Earth's surface seeps into the ground through the
process called infiltration. Infiltration into the ground is the transition from
surface water to groundwater. The infiltration rate will depend upon soil or rock
permeability as well as other factors. Infiltrated water may reach another
compartment known as groundwater (i.e., an aquifer). Groundwater tend to
move slowly, so the water may return as surface water after storage within an

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aquifer for a period of time that can amount to thousands of years in some cases.
Water returns to the
land surface at lower elevation than where it infiltrated, under the force of gravity
or gravity induced pressures.
Runoff:
The amount of water that infiltrates the soil varies with the degree of land slope,
the amount and type of vegetation, soil type and rock type, and whether the soil
is already saturated by water. The more openings in the surface (cracks, pores,
joints), the more infiltration occurs. Water that doesn't infiltrate the soil flows on
the surface as runoff.
Precipitation that reaches the surface of the Earth but does not infiltrate the soil
is called runoff. Runoff can also come from melted snow and ice. Also it includes
the variety of ways by which land surface water moves down slope to the oceans.
Water flowing in streams and rivers may be delayed for a time in lakes. Not all
precipitated water returns to the sea as runoff; much of it evaporates before
reaching the ocean or reaching an aquifer.
Subsurface Flow:
Surface flow incorporates movement of water within the earth, either within the
recharge zone or aquifers. After infiltrating, subsurface water may return to the
surface or eventually seep into the ocean.
Pondage:

Pondage is the water that can back-up behind larger run-of-the-river systems.
This pondage is essentially a small amount of water storage wherein water is built
up during off-peak periods and used during peak periods. In periods of low
electricity demand, or when the plant is inactive the water that would otherwise

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fall through the spillways and be "wasted" is stored and used when it is needed.
Water that is built up in this pondage can result in the elevation of the water
varying between 1-1.5 meters during operation. A significant amount of pondage
allows the plant to accomodate hourly fluctuations.

Generally speaking, since small amounts of water storage in the form of pondage
allow run-of-the-river systems to run fully even during off-peak periods, plants
with pondage tend to be more efficient than those without.

Types of Dams:

BASED ON HYDRAULIC PURPOSE

1. STORAGE DAM OR IMPOUNDING DAM

It is constructed to create a reservoir to store water during periods when there is

huge flow in the river (in excess of demand) for utilisation later during periods of
low flow (demand exceeds flow in the river). Water stored in the reservoir is used
for irrigation, power generation, water supply etc. By suitable operation, it can
also serve as a detention dam.

2. DETENTION DAM

It is primarily constructed to temporarily detain all or part of the flood water in a

river and to gradually release the stored water later at controlled rates so that the
entire region on the downstream side of the dam is protected from possible
damage due to floods. It may also be used as a storage dam.

3. DIVERSION DAM

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It is constructed to divert part of or all the water from a river into a conduit or a
channel. For diverting water from a river into an irrigation canal, mostly a
diversion weir is constructed across the river.

4. COFFER DAM

It is a temporary dam constructed to exclude water from a specific area. It is

constructed on the u/s side of the site where a dam is to be constructed so that
the site is dry. In this case, it behaves like a diversion dam.

5. DEBRIS DAM

It is constructed to catch and retain debris flowing in a river.

BASED ON HYDRAULIC DESIGN

1. OVERFLOW DAM OR OVERFALL DAM

It is constructed with a crest to permit overflow of surplus water that cannot be

retained in the reservoir. Generally dams are not designed as overflow dams for
its entire length. Diversion weirs of small height may be designed to permit
overflow over its entire length.

2. NON-OVERFLOW DAM

It is constructed such that water is not allowed to overflow over its crest.

In most cases, dams are so designed that part of its length is designed as an
overflow dam (this part is called the spillway) while the rest of its length is
designed as a non-overflow dam. In some cases, these two sections are not
combined.

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BASED ON MATERIAL OF CONSTRUCTION

1. RIGID DAM

It is constructed with rigid material such as stone, masonry, concrete, steel, or

timber. Steel dams (steel plates supported on inclined struts) and timber dams
(wooden planks supported on a wooden framework) are constructed only for
small heights (rarely).

2. NON-RIGID DAM (EMBANKMENT DAMS)

It is constructed with non-rigid material such as earth, tailings, rockfill etc.

Earthen dam – gravel, sand, silt, clay etc

Tailings dam – waste or refuse obtained from mines

Rockfill dam – rock material supporting a water tight material on the u/s face

Rockfill composite dam – Rockfill on the d/s side and earth fill on the u/s side

Earthen dams are provided with a stone masonry or concrete overflow (spillway)
section. Such dams are called composite dams.

In some cases, part of the length of the dam is constructed as earth dam and the
rest (excluding the spillway) as a masonry dam. Such dams are called masonry
cum earthen dams.

BASED ON STRUCTURAL BEHAVIOUR

GRAVITY DAM

It is a masonry or concrete dam which resists the forces acting on it by its own
weight. Its c/s is approximately triangular in shape.

Straight gravity dam – A gravity dam that is straight in plan.

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Curved gravity plan – A gravity dam that is curved in plan.

Curved gravity dam (Arch gravity dam) – It resists the forces acting on it by
combined gravity action (its own weight) and arch action.

Solid gravity dam – Its body consists of a solid mass of masonry or concrete

Hollow gravity dam – It has hollow spaces within its body.

Most gravity dams are straight solid gravity dams.

Concrete Gravity Dams-Weight holds dam in place

Lots of concrete (expensive)

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 UNIT-IV

Nuclear Energy Introduction:

A nuclear power plant is similar to a conventional steam power plant except how
that energy is evolved. The heat is produced in the nuclear power plant by fission,
whereas in steam and gas turbine plants, the heat is produced by combustion in
the furnace. The nuclear reactor acts as a furnace where nuclear energy is
evolved by splitting or fissioning of the nucleus of fissionable material like
Uranium U-235. It is claimed that 1 kg U-235 can produce as much heat energy
that can be produced by burning 4500 tones of high grade coal or 1700 tons of oil.

Fission energy:

Nuclear energy is divided from splitting (or) fissioning of the nucleus of fissionable
material like Uranium U-235. Uranium has several isotopes (Isotopes are atoms of
the same element having different atomic masses) such as U-234, U-235 and U-
238. Of the several isotopes, U-235 is the most unstable isotope, which is easily
fissionable and hence used as fuel in an atomic reactor. When a neutron enters
the nucleus of an unstable U-235, the nucleus splits into two equal fragments
(Krypton and Barium) and also releases 2.5 fast moving neutrons with a velocity
of 1.5×107 m/sec and along with this produces a large amount of energy, nearly
200 million electro- volts. This is called nuclear fission.

Fusion energy
Energy is produced in the sun and stars by continuous fusion reactions in which
four nuclei of hydrogen fuse in a series of reactions involving other particles that

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continually appear and disappear in the course of the reaction, such as He3,
nitrogen, carbon, and other nuclei, but culminating in one nucleus of helium of
two positrons.
To cause fusion, it is necessary to accelerate the positively charged unclei to high
kinetic energies, in order to overcome electrical repulsive forces, by raising their
temperature to hundreds of millions of degrees resulting in plasma. The plasma
must be prevented from contacting the walls of the container, and must be
confined for a period of time (of the order of a second) at a minimum density.
Fusion reactions are called thermonuclear because very high temperatures are
required to trigger and sustain them.

Main components of nuclear power plants:

i) Moderators
In any chain reaction, the neutrons produced are fast moving neutrons. These are
less effective in causing fission of U235 and they try to escape from the reactor. It
is thus implicit that speed of these neutrons must be reduced if their
effectiveness is carrying out fission is to be increased. This is done by making
these neutrons collide with lighter nuclei of other materials, which does not
absorb these neutrons but simply scatter them. Each collision causes loss of
energy and thus the speed of neutrons is reduced. Such a material is called a
‘Moderator’. The neutrons thus slowed down are easily captured by the fuel
element at the chain reaction proceeds slowly.
ii) Reflectors Some of the neutrons produced during fission will be partly
absorbed by the fuel elements, moderator, coolant and other materials. The

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remaining neutrons will try to escape from the reactor and will be lost. Such
losses are minimized by surrounding (lining) the reactor core with a material
called a reflector which will reflect the neutrons back to the core. They improve
the neutron economy. Economy: Graphite, Beryllium.
iii) Shielding During Nuclear fission α, β and γ particles and neutrons are also
produced. They are harmful to human life. Therefore it is necessary to shield the
reactor with thick layers of lead, or concrete to protect both the operating
personnel as well as environment from radiation hazards.
iv) Cladding In order to prevent the contamination of the coolant by fission
products, the fuel element is covered with a protective coating. This is known as
cladding. Control rods are used to control the reaction to prevent it from
becoming violent. They control the reaction by absorbing neutrons. These rods
are made of boron or cadmium. Whenever the reaction needs to be stopped, the
rods are fully inserted and placed against their seats and when the reaction is to
be started the rods are pulled out. v) Coolant The
main purpose of the coolant in the reactor is to transfer the heat produced inside
the reactor. The same heat carried by the coolant is used in the heat exchanger
for further utilization in the power generation. Some of the desirable properties
of good coolant are listed below 1. It must not absorb the neutrons. 2. It must
have high chemical and radiation stability 3. It must be non-corrosive. 4. It must
have high boiling point (if liquid) and low melting point (if solid) 5. It must be non-
oxidising and non-toxic. The above-mentioned properties are essential to keep
the reactor core in safe condition as well as for the better functioning of the
content.6. It must also have high density, low viscosity, high conductivity and high
specific heat. These properties are essential for better heat transfer and low

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pumping power. The water, heavy water, gas (He, CO2), a metal in liquid form
(Na) and an organic liquid are used as coolants. The coolant not only carries large
amounts of heat from the core but also keeps the fuel assemblies at a safe
temperature to avoid their melting and destruction.
vi) Nuclear reactor
A nuclear reactor may be regarded as a substitute for the boiler fire box of a
steam power plant. Heat is produced in the reactor due to nuclear fission of the
fuel U235
The heat liberated in the reactor is taken up by the coolant circulating through
the core. Hot coolant leaves the reactor at top and flows into the steam generator
(boiler).
vii) Steam generator
The steam generator is fed with feed water which is converted into steam by the
heat of the hot coolant. The purpose of the coolant is to transfer the heat
generated in the reactor core and use it for steam generation. Ordinary water or
heavy water is a common coolant.
viii) Turbine
The steam produced in the steam generator is passed to the turbine and work is
done by the expansion of steam in the turbine.
ix) Coolant pump and Feed pump
The steam from the turbine flows to the condenser where cooling water is
circulated. Coolant pump and feed pump are provided to maintain the flow of
coolant and feed water respectively.

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Advantages of nuclear power plant
1. It can be easily adopted where water and coal resources are not available.
2. The nuclear power plant requires very small quantity of fuel. Hence fuel
transportation cost is less.
3. Space requirement is less compared to other power plants of equal capacity.
4. It is not affected by adverse weather conditions.
5. Fuel storage facilities are not needed as in the case of the thermal power plant.
6. Nuclear power plants will converse the fossils fuels (coal, petroleum) for other
energy needs.
7. Number of workmen required at nuclear plant is far less than thermal plant.
8. It does not require large quantity of water.

Disadvantages
1. Radioactive wastes, if not disposed of carefully, have adverse effect on the
health of workmen and the population surrounding the plant.
2. It is not suitable for varying load condition.
3. It requires well-trained personnel.
4. It requires high initial cost compared to hydro or thermal power plants.

construction and working principle of Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)

Light water, which acts as the coolant and moderator, passes through the core
where boiling takes place in the upper part of the core. The wet steam then
passes through a bank of moisture separators and steam dryers in the upper part
of the pressure vessel. The water that is not vaporized to steam is recirculated

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through the core with the entering feed water using two recirculation pumps
coupled to jet pumps (usually 10 to 12 per recirculation pump). The steam leaving
the top of the pressure vessel is at sa

The steam then expands through a turbine coupled to an electrical generator.

After condensing to liquid in the condenser, the liquid is returned to the reactors
as feedwater. Prior to entering the reactor, the feedwater is preheated in several
stages of feedwater heaters. The balance of plant systems (Example: Turbine
generator, feedwater heaters) are similar for both PWR and BWRs.

The BWR reactor core, like that in a PWR, consists of a large number of fuel rods
housed in fuel assemblies in a nearly cylindrical arrangement. Each fuel assembly
contains an 8×8 or 9×9 square array of 64 or 81 fuel rods (typically two of the fuel
rods contain water rather than fuel) surrounded by a square Zircaloy channel box
to ensure no coolant crossflow in the core. The fuell rods are similar to the PWR
rods, although larger in diameter. Each fuel rod is a zirconium alloy- clad tube
containing pellets of slightly enriched uranium dioxide (2% to 5% U-235) stacked
end-to- end. The reactor is controlled by control rods housed in a cross-shaped, or
cruciform, arrangement called a control element. The control elements enter
from the bottom of the reactor and move in spaces between the fuel assemblies.
The BWR reactor core is housed in a pressure vessel that is larger than that of a
PWR. A typical BWR pressure vessel, which also houses the reactor core, moisture
separators, and steam dryers, has a diameter of 6.4 m, with a height of 22 m.
Since a BWR operators at a nominal pressure of 6.9 MPa, its pressure vessel is
thinner that that of a PWR.

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construction and working principle of Heavy Water Cooled Reactor (HWR) (or)
CANDU Type Reactor (CANDU – Canadium, Deutrium, Uranium):

These reactors are more economically to those nations which do not produce
enriched
uranium as the enrichment of uranium is very costly. In this type of reactors, the
natural uranium (0.7% U235) is used as fuel and heavy water as moderator. This
type of reactor was first designed and developed in Canada. The first heavy water
reactor in Canada using heavy water as coolant and moderator of 200 MW
capacity with 29.1% thermal efficiency was established at Douglas (Ontario known
as Douglas power station. The arrangement of the different components of
CANDU type reactor is shown in figure.
The coolant heavy water is passed through the fuel pressure tubes and heat-
exchanger. The heavy water is circulated in the primary circuit in the same way as
with a PWR and the steam is raised in the secondary circuit transferring the heat
in the heat exchanger to the ordinary water. The control of the reactor is achieved
by varying the moderator level in the reactor and, therefore, control rods are not
required. For rapid shutdown purpose, the moderator can be dumped through a
very large area into a tank provided below the reactor.
Advantages
1. The major advantage of this reactor is that the fuel need not be enriched.
2. The reactor vessel may be built to withstand low pressure, therefore, the cost
of the vessel is less.

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3. No control rods are required, therefore, control is much easier than other
types.
4. The moderator can be kept at low temperature which increases its
effectiveness in slowing- down neutrons.
5. Heavy water being a very good moderator, this type of reactor has higher
multiplication factor and low fuel consumption.
6. A shorter period is required for the site construction compared with PWR and
BWR.
Disadvantages
1. The cost of heavy water is extremely high (Rs. 300/kg).
2. The leakage is a major problem as there are two mechanically sealed closures
per fuel channel. Canadian designs generally are based or recovering high
proportion of heavy water leakages as absolute leak-tightness cannot be assured.
3. Very high standard of design, manufacture inspection and maintenance are
required.
4. The power density is considerably low (9.7 kW/litre) compared with PWR and
BWR, therefore, the reactor size is extremely large.

Sodium Graphite Reactor (SGA) Sodium Graphite:

Liquid sodium (Na) serves as the primary coolant and an alloy of sodium

moderate pressure nearly atmospheric which can be utilized in producing steam

of high temperature, thereby increasing the efficiency of the plant. Steam at

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by using liquid sodium as coolant more electrical power can be generated for a
given quantity of the fuel burn up. Secondly low pressure in the primary and
secondary coolant circuits, permits the use of less expensive pressure vessel and
pipes etc. Further sodium can transfer its heat very easily. The only disadvantage
in this system is that sodium becomes radioactive while passing through the core
and reacts chemically with water. So it is not used directly to transfer its heat to
the feed water, but a secondary coolant is used. Primary coolant while passing
through the tubes of intermediate heat exchanges (I.H.X) transfers its heat to the
secondary coolant. The secondary coolant then flows through the tubes of steam
generator and passes on its heat to the feed water. Graphite is used as heat
transfer media have certain advantages of using liquids used for heat transfer
purposes. The various advantages of using liquid metals as heat transfer media
are that they have relatively low melting points and combine high densities with
low vapour pressure at high temperatures as well as with large thermal
conductivities.

Fast Breeder Reactor:

In this reactor the core containing U235 in surrounded by a blanket (a layer of

fertile material placed outside the core) of fertile material U238. In this reactor no
moderator is used. The fast moving neutrons liberated due to fission of U235 are
absorbed by U238 which gets converted into fissionable material Pu239 which is
capable of sustaining chain reaction. Thus this reactor is important because it
breeds fissionable material from fertile material U238 available in large

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quantities. Like sodium graphite nuclear reactor this reactor also uses two liquid
metal coolant circuits. Liquid sodium is used as primary coolant when circulated
through the tubes of intermediate heat exchange transfers its heat to secondary
coolant sodium potassium alloy. The secondary coolant while flowing through the
tubes of steam generator transfers its heat to feed water. Fast breeder reactors
are better than conventional reactors both from the point of view of safety and
thermal efficiency. For India which already is fast advancing towards self reliance
in the field of nuclear power technology, the fast breeder reactor becomes
inescapable in view of the massive reserves of thorium and the finite limits of its
uranium resources. The research and development efforts in the fast breeder
reactor technology will have to be stepped up considerably if nuclear power
generation is to make any impact on the country’s total energy needs in the not
too distant future.

The commonly used coolants for fast breeder reactors are as follows:
i) Liquid metal (Na or NaK).
ii) Helium (He)
iii) carbon dioxide.

Sodium has the following advantages:

i) It has very low absorption cross-sectional area.
ii) It possesses good heat transfer properties at high temperature and
low pressure.
iii) It does not react on any of the structural materials used in primary
circuits.

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Safety Measures Carried Out In Nuclear Power Plant Safety For Nuclear Power
Plants:
Nuclear power plants should be located far away from the populated area to
avoid the radioactive hazard. A nuclear reactor pro
- quanta which can disturb the normal functioning of living
organisms. Nuclear power plants involve radiation leaks, health hazard to workers
and community, and negative effect on surrounding forests.

At nuclear power plants there are three main sources of radioactive

contamination of air.

1. Fission of nuclei of nuclear fuels.

2. The second source is due to the effect of neutron fluxes on the heat carrier
in the primary cooling system and on the ambient air.
3. Third source of air contamination is damage of shells of fuel elements.
This calls for special safety measures for a nuclear power plant. Some of the
safety measures are as follows.
1. Nuclear power plant should be located away from human habitation.
2. Quality of construction should be of required standards.
3. Waste water from nuclear power plant should be purified. The water
purification plants must have efficiency of water purification and satisfy rigid
requirements as regards the volume of radioactive wastes disposed to burial.

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 4. An atomic power plant should have an extensive ventilation system. The
main purpose of this ventilation system is to maintain the concentration of all
radioactive impurities in the air below the permissible concentrations.
5. An exclusion zone of 1.6 km radius around the plant should be provided
where no public habitation is permitted.
6. The safety system of the plant should be such as to enable safe shut
down of the reactor whenever required.

wastes are disposed from nuclear power plant Waste Disposal:

Waste disposal problem is common in every industry. Wastes from atomic energy
installations are radioactive, create radioactive hazard and require strong control
to ensure that radioactivity is not released into the atmosphere to avoid
atmospheric pollution. The wastes produced in a nuclear power plant may be in
the form of liquid, gas or solid and each is treated in a different manner.

Types of radioactive waste

Radioactive waste includes any material that is either intrinsically radioactive, or

has been contaminated by radioactivity, and that is deemed to have no further
use. Government policy dictates whether certain materials – such as used nuclear
fuel and plutonium – are categorised as waste.

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Every radionuclide has a half-life – the time taken for half of its atoms to decay,
and thus for it to lose half of its radioactivity. Radionuclides with long half-lives
tend to be alpha and beta emitters – making their handling easier – while those
with short half-lives tend to emit the more penetrating gamma rays. Eventually all
radioactive waste decays into non-radioactive elements. The more radioactive an
isotope is, the faster it decays. Radioactive waste is typically classified as either
low-level (LLW), intermediate-level (ILW), or high-level (HLW), dependent,
primarily, on its level of radioactivity.

Low-level waste

Low-level waste (LLW) has a radioactive content not exceeding four giga-
becquerels per tonne (GBq/t) of alpha activity or 12 GBq/t beta-gamma activity.
LLW does not require shielding during handling and transport, and is suitable for
disposal in near surface facilities.

LLW is generated from hospitals and industry, as well as the nuclear fuel cycle. It
comprises paper, rags, tools, clothing, filters, etc., which contain small amounts of
mostly short-lived radioactivity. To reduce its volume, LLW is often compacted or
incinerated before disposal. LLW comprises some 90% of the volume but only 1%
of the radioactivity of all radioactive waste.

Intermediate-level waste

Intermediate-level waste (ILW) is more radioactive than LLW, but the heat it
generates (<2 kW/m3) is not sufficient to be taken into account in the design or
selection of storage and disposal facilities. Due to its higher levels of radioactivity,
ILW requires some shielding.

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ILW typically comprises resins, chemical sludges, and metal fuel cladding, as well
as contaminated materials from reactor decommissioning. Smaller items and any
non-solids may be solidified in concrete or bitumen for disposal. It makes up some
7% of the volume and has 4% of the radioactivity of all radioactive waste.

High-level waste

High-level waste (HLW) is sufficiently radioactive for its decay heat (>2kW/m3) to
increase its temperature, and the temperature of its surroundings, significantly.
As a result, HLW requires cooling and shielding.

HLW arises from the 'burning' of uranium fuel in a nuclear reactor. HLW contains
the fission products and transuranic elements generated in the reactor core. HLW
accounts for just 3% of the volume, but 95% of the total radioactivity of produced
waste. There are two distinct kinds of HLW:

 Used fuel that has been designated as waste.

 Separated waste from reprocessing of used fuel.

HLW has both long-lived and short-lived components, depending on the length of
time it will take for the radioactivity of particular radionuclides to decrease to
levels that are considered non-hazardous for people and the surrounding
environment. If generally short-lived fission products can be separated from long-
lived actinides, this distinction becomes important in management and disposal of
HLW.

HLW is the focus of significant attention regarding nuclear power, and is managed
accordingly.

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Very low-level waste

Exempt waste and very low-level waste (VLLW) contains radioactive materials at a
level which is not considered harmful to people or the surrounding environment.
It consists mainly of demolished material (such as concrete, plaster, bricks, metal,
valves, piping, etc.) produced during rehabilitation or dismantling operations on
nuclear industrial sites. Other industries, such as food processing, chemical,
steel, etc., also produce VLLW as a result of the concentration of natural
radioactivity present in certain minerals used in their manufacturing processes
(see also information page on Naturally-Occurring Radioactive Materials). The
waste is therefore disposed of with domestic refuse, although countries such as
France are currently developing specifically designed VLLW disposal facilities.

Disposal of Radioactive Waste

Near-surface disposal

 Near-surface disposal facilities at ground level. These facilities are on or

below the surface where the protective covering is of the order of a few
metres thick. Waste containers are placed in constructed vaults and when
full the vaults are backfilled. Eventually they will be covered and capped
with an impermeable membrane and topsoil. These facilities may
incorporate some form of drainage and possibly a gas venting system.
 Near-surface disposal facilities in caverns below ground level. Unlike near-
surface disposal at ground level, where the excavations are conducted from
the surface, shallow disposal requires underground excavation of caverns.

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 The facility is at a depth of several tens of metres below the Earth's surface
and accessed through a drift.
 The term near-surface disposal replaces the terms 'shallow land' and
'ground disposal', but these older terms are still sometimes used when
referring to this option.
 These facilities will be affected by long-term climate changes (such as
glaciation) and this effect must be taken into account when considering
safety, as such changes could disrupt these facilities. This type of facility is
therefore typically used for LLW and short-lived ILW with half-lives of up to
30 years.

Deep geological disposal

The long timescales over which some waste remains radioactive has led to the
idea of deep disposal in underground repositories in stable geological formations.
Isolation is provided by a combination of engineered and natural barriers (rock,
salt, clay) and no obligation to actively maintain the facility is passed on to future
generations. This is often termed a 'multi-barrier' concept, with the waste
packaging, the engineered repository, and the geology all providing barriers to
prevent the radionuclides from reaching humans and the environment. In
addition, deep groundwater is generally devoid of oxygen, minimising the
possibility of chemical mobilisation of waste.

Mined repositories

The most widely proposed deep geological disposal concept is for a mined
repository comprising tunnels or caverns into which packaged waste would be

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placed. In some cases (e.g. wet rock) the waste containers are then surrounded by
a material such as cement or clay (usually bentonite) to provide another barrier
(called buffer and/or backfill). The choice of waste container materials and design,
as well as the buffer/backfill material varies depending on the type of waste to be
contained and the nature of the host rock-type available.

Excavation of a deep underground repository using standard mining or civil

engineering technology is limited to accessible locations (e.g. under land or
nearshore), to rock units that are reasonably stable and without major
groundwater flow, and to depths of between 250m and 1000m. The contents of
the repository would be retrievable in the short term, and if desired, longer-term.

Deep boreholes

As well as mined repositories, which have been the focus of most international
efforts so far, deep borehole disposal has been considered as an option for
geological isolation for many years, including original evaluations by the US
National Academy of Sciences in 1957 and more recent conceptual evaluations. In
contrast to recent thinking on mined repositories, the contents would not be
retrievable.

The concept consists of drilling a borehole into basement rock to a depth of up to

about 5000 metres, emplacing waste canisters containing used nuclear fuel or
vitrified radioactive waste from reprocessing in the lower 2000 metres of the
borehole, and sealing the upper 3000 metres of the borehole with materials such
as bentonite, asphalt or concrete. The disposal zone of a single borehole could
thus contain 400 steel canisters each 5 metres long and one-third to half a metre

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in diameter. The waste containers would be separated from each other by a layer
of bentonite or cement.

Boreholes can be readily drilled offshore (as described in the section below on sub
seabed disposal) as well as onshore in both crystalline and sedimentary host
rocks. This capability significantly expands the range of locations that can be
considered for the disposal of radioactive waste.

Deep borehole concepts have been developed (but not implemented) in several
countries, including Denmark, Sweden, Switzerland, and the USA. Compared with
deep geological disposal in a mined underground repository, placement in deep
boreholes is considered to be more expensive for large volumes of waste. This
option was abandoned in countries such as Sweden, Finland, and the USA, largely
on economic grounds. The borehole concept remains an attractive proposition for
the disposal of smaller waste forms including sealed radioactive sources from
medical and industrial applications.

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Page | 61
 UNIT-V

Introduction to Economics of Power Generation:

The function of a power station is to deliver power at the lowest possible cost per
kilo watt hour. This total cost is made up of fixed charges consisting of interest on
the capital, taxes, insurance, depreciation and salary of managerial staff, the
operating expenses such as cost of fuels, water, oil, labor, repairs and
maintenance etc.

The cost of power generation can be minimized by :

1. Choosing equipment that is available for operation during the largest possible
% of time in a year.
2. Reducing the amount of investment in the plant.
3. Operation through fewer men.
4. Having uniform design
5. Selecting the station as to reduce cost of fuel, labor, etc.

All the electrical energy generated in a power station must be consumed

immediately as it cannot be stored. So the electrical energy generated in a power
station must be regulated according to the demand. The demand of electrical
energy or load will also vary with the time and a power station must be capable of
meeting the maximum load at any time. Certain definitions related to power
station practice are given below:

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Load curve :
Load curve is plot of load in kilowatts versus time usually for a day or a year.

Load duration curve :

Load duration curve is the plot of load in kilowatts versus time duration for which
it occurs.

Maximum demand :
Maximum demand is the greatest of all demands which have occurred during a
given period of time.

Average load :
Average load is is the average load on the power station in a given period
(day/month or year)

Base load :
Base load is the minimum load over a given period of time.

Connected load :
Connected load of a system is the sum of the continuous ratings of the load
consuming apparatus connected to the system.

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Peak load :
Peak load is the maximum load consumed or produced by a unit or group of units
in a stated period of time. It may be the maximum instantaneous load or the
maximum average load over a designated interval of time.

Demand factor :
Demand factor is the ratio of maximum demand to the connected load of a
consumer.

Diversity factor :
Diversity factor is the ratio of sum of individual maximum demands to the
combined maximum demand on power stations

Load factor :
Load factor is the ratio of average load during a specified period to the maximum
load occurring during the period.

Load factor = Average Load / Maximum demand

Station load factor :

Station load factor is the ratio of net power generated to the net maximum
demand on a power station.

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Plant factor :
Plant factor is the ratio of the average load on the plant for the period of time
considered, to the aggregate rating of the generating equipment installed in the
plant.

Capacity factor :
Capacity factor is the ratio of the average load on the machine for a period of
time considered, to the rating of the machine.

Demand factor :
Demand factor is the ratio of maximum demand of system or part of system, to
the total connected load of the system, or part of system, under consideration.

Costing, Estimation of power production:

Fuels are primarily derived from fossilized plant material and consist mainly
of carbon and/or its compounds. The household sector is the largest
consumer of energy in India, accounting for 40-50% of the total energy
consumption.
As per a report of Planning Commission the share of the household sector in
the final use of energy declined although retaining its dominant share at
58.9% in 1987. The most abundantly used fossil fuel for cooking is the
wood, which is almost 61% of the total fuel demand for cooking. Burning
of traditional fuels introduces large quantities of CO2 when the combustion
is complete, but if there is incomplete combustion and oxidation then
Carbon monoxide (CO) is produced, in addition to hydrocarbons.
Incomplete combustion of coal produces smoke consisting of particles of
soot or carbon, tarry droplets of unburnt hydrocarbons and CO. Fossil fuels
also contain 0.5-4.0% of sulphur which is oxidized to SO2 during
combustion.
The environmental effects of various fuels namely coal; oil, nuclear, etc. are
of growing concern owing to increasing consumption levels. The

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combustion of these fuels in industries and vehicles has been a major source
of pollution. Coal production through opencast mining; its supply to and
consumption in power stations; and industrial boilers leads to particulate
and gaseous pollution, which can cause pneumoconiosis, bronchitis, and
respiratory diseases. The function of a power station is to deliver power at
the lowest possible cost per kilo watt hour. This total cost is made up of
fixed charges consisting of interest on the capital, taxes, insurance,
depreciation and salary of managerial staff, the operating expenses such as
cost of fuels, water, oil, labor, repairs and maintenance etc.
The cost of power generation can be minimized by :

1. Choosing equipment that is available for operation during the largest

possible % of time in a year.
2. Reducing the amount of investment in the plant.
3. Operation through fewer men.
4. Having uniform design
5. Selecting the station as to reduce cost of fuel, labor, etc.

All the electrical energy generated in a power station must be consumed

immediately as it cannot be stored. So the electrical energy generated in a
power station must be regulated according to the demand. The demand of
electrical energy or load will also vary with the time and a power station
must be capable of meeting the maximum load at any time. Certain
definitions related to power station practice are given below:
either pumped
The cost of a power plant depends upon, when a new power plant is to set
up or an existing plant
is to be replaced or plant to be extended. The cost analysis includes

1. Fixed Cost
It includes Initial cost of the plant, Rate of interest, Depreciation cost, Taxes,
and Insurance.

2. Operational Cost
It includes Fuel cost, Operating labour cost, Maintenance cost, Supplies,
Supervision, Operating taxes.

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INITIAL COST
The initial cost of a power station includes the following:
1. Land cost
2. Building cost
3. Equipment cost
4. Installation cost
5. Overhead charges, which will include the transportation cost, stores and
storekeeping charges, interest during construction etc.

DEPRECIATION
Depreciation accounts for the deterioration of the equipment and decrease
in its value due to corrosion, weathering and wear and tear with use. It also
covers the decrease in value of equipment due to obsolescence. With rapid
improvements in design and construction of plants, obsolescence factor is of
enormous importance. Availability of better models with lesser overall cost
of generation makes it imperative to replace the old equipment earlier than
its useful life is spent. The actual life span of the plant has, therefore, to be
taken as shorter than what would be normally expected out of it.
The following methods are used to calculate the depreciation cost:
(1) Straight line method
(2) Percentage method
(3) Sinking fund method
(4) Unit method.

Straight Line Method:

It is the simplest and commonly used method. The life of the equipment or
the enterprise is first assessed as also the residual or salvage value of the
same after the estimated life span. This salvage value is deducted from the
initial capital cost and the balance is divided by the life as assessed in years.
Thus, the annual value of decrease in cost of equipment is found and is set
aside as depreciation annually from the income. Thus, the rate of
depreciation is uniform throughout the life of the equipment. By the time
the equipment has lived out its useful life, an amount equivalent to its net
cost is accumulated which can be utilized for replacement of the plant.

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Percentage Method:
In this method the deterioration in value of equipment from year to year is
taken into account and the amount of depreciation calculated upon actual
residual value for each year. It thus, reduces for successive years.

Sinking Fund Method:

This method is based on the conception that the annual uniform deduction
from income for depreciation will accumulate to the capital value of the
plant at the end of life of the plant or equipment. In this method, the
amount set aside per year consists of annual installments and the interest
earned on all the installments.
Let,
A = Amount set aside at the end of each year for n years.
n = Life of plant in years.
S = Salvage value at the end of plant life.
i = Annual rate of compound interest on the invested capital.
P = Initial investment to install the plant.
Then, amount set aside at the end of first year = A
Amount at the end of second year
= A + interest on A = A + Ai = A(1 + i)
Amount at the end of third year
= A(1 + i) + interest on A(1 + i)
= A(1 + i) +A(1 + i)i
= A(1 + i)2
Amount at the end of nth year = A(1 + i)n – 1
Total amount accumulated in n years (say x)
= sum of the amounts accumulated in n years
i.e., x = A + A(1 + i) + A(1 + i)2 + ...... + A(1 + i)n – 1
= A[1 + (1 + i) + (1 + i)2 +...... + (1 + i)n – 1] ...(1)
Multiplying the above equation by (1 + i), we get
x(1 + i) = A [(1 + i) + (1 + i)2 + (1 + i)3 + ...... + (1 + i)n] ...(2)
Subtracting equation (1) from (2), we get
x.i = [(1 + i)n – 1] A
x = [{(1 + i)n – 1}/i]A, where x = (P – S)
P – S = [{(1 + i)n – 1}/i]A
A = (P – S)[i/{(1 + i)n – 1}]A

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Unit Method:
In this method some factor is taken as a standard one and, depreciation is
measured by that standard. In place of years equipment will last, the
number of hours that equipment will last is calculated. This total number of
hours is then divided by the capital value of the equipment. This constant is
then multiplied by the number of actual working hours each year to get the
value of depreciation for that year. In place of number of hours, the number
of units of production is taken as the measuring standard.

OPERATIONAL COSTS
The elements that make up the operating expenditure of a power plant
include the following
(1) Cost of fuels.
(2) Labour cost.
(3) Cost of maintenance and repairs.
(4) Cost of stores (other than fuel).
(5) Supervision.
(6) Taxes.

COST OF FUELS
In a thermal station fuel is the heaviest item of operating cost. The selection
of the fuel and the maximum economy in its use are, therefore, very
important considerations in thermal plant design. It is desirable to achieve
the highest thermal efficiency for the plant so that fuel charges are reduced.
The cost of fuel includes not only its price at the site of purchase but its
transportation and handling costs also. In the hydro plants the absence of
fuel factor in cost is responsible for lowering the operating cost. Plant heat
rate can be improved by the use of better quality of fuel or by employing
better thermodynamic conditions in the plant design.
The cost of fuel varies with the following:
(1) Unit price of the fuel.
(2) Amount of energy produced.
(3) Efficiency of the plant.

LABOUR COST
For plant operation labour cost is another item of operating cost. Maximum
labour is needed in a thermal power plant using. Coal as a fuel. A hydraulic
power plant or a diesel power plant of equal capacity requires a lesser

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number of persons. In case of automatic power station the cost of labour is
reduced to a great extent. However labour cost cannot be completely
eliminated even with fully automatic station, as they will still require some
manpower for periodic inspection etc.

COST OF MAINTENANCE AND REPAIRS

In order to avoid plant breakdowns maintenance is necessary. Maintenance
includes periodic cleaning, greasing, adjustments and overhauling of
equipment. The material used for maintenance is also charged under this
head. Sometimes an arbitrary percentage is assumed as maintenance cost. A
good plan of maintenance would keep the sets in dependable condition and
avoid the necessity of too many stand-by plants.
Repairs are necessitated when the plant breaks down or stops due to faults
developing in the mechanism. The repairs may be minor, major or periodic
overhauls and are charged to the depreciation fund of the equipment. This
item of cost is higher for thermal plants than for hydro-plants due to
complex nature of principal equipment and auxiliaries in the former.

COST OF STORES
The items of consumable stores other than fuel include such articles as
lubricating oil and greases, cotton waste, small tools, chemicals, paints and
such other things. The incidence of this cost is also higher in thermal stations
than in hydro-electric power stations

Pollution control methods for coal fired power plants

Coal is an organic sedimentary rock with terrestrial origin. Because it is
derived from lignin, a plant material, it contains sulfur and nitrogen
impurities along with metals.

Coal is abundant and supplies about half of the electricity . We've already
discussed the clean coal technology. We have the means to produce
electricity from coal without introducing pollutants into the troposphere. It
is more expensive and nearly all coal-fired power plants use the older,
dirtier technology.

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Coal is second only to automobiles in the production of NOx. Nitric oxide
catalyzes the production of ground level ozone in the presence of sunlight
and organic compounds. Smog is a threat to the health of humans and
reduces agricultural productivity.

Particulate matter or soot is released when coal is burned. Fine particles,

with a diameter of 2.5 micrometers or less, and coarse particles, with a
diameter of 10 micrometers or less is produced. The irregular surfaces of
these aerosols provide locations for SO2 and NOx to bind. Their high
concentration on the particle surfaces promotes reactions that would have a
much lower rate in the atmosphere and many of the surface reactions yield
toxic or irritating chemical substances.

 Burning of coal releases SO2 and NOx.

 Oxidation of SO2 and NOx in air forms H2SO4 and HNO3, strong
mineral acids.
 These acids then dissolve in water droplets in clouds and acidic rain
results
 This "wet deposition" reduces the concentration of sulfur and nitrogen
oxides in the atmosphere but causes many problems on land and
surface water.
Mercury is a metallic pollutant released from coal combustion. Coal-burning
power plants are the largest human-caused source of mercury emissions to
the air, responsible for more than 40 % of mercury emissions.

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When the mercury vapor finds its way into bodies of water, it is converted
by bacteria into the more toxic compound, methyl mercury. This is a known
neurotoxin. It causes mental retardation, seizures, cerebral palsy and death.
Burning coal in a power plant is less efficient than burning other fossil fuels
and it makes more carbon dioxide per unit of electricity produced. As
we've discussed, increasing CO2 levels in the atmosphere are responsible for
global climate change.
Pollution Control
We have methods that allow us to remove many of the solids, liquids, and
gases emitted from coal and other fossil fuel fired power plants but adding
these pollution control devices costs money. Governments and other
organizations can enforce limits on effluents or encourage/require the use of
pollution control technology.
Pollution Reduction Technology:
Control Devices for Particulate Contaminants:
Gravitational Settling Chamber:
For removal of particles exceeding 50 µm in size from polluted gas streams,
gravitational settling chambers are put to use.

This device consists of huge rectangular chambers. The gas stream polluted
with particulates is allowed to enter from one end. The horizontal velocity
of the gas stream is kept low (less than 0.3 m/s) in order to give sufficient
time for the particles to settle by gravity.
The particulates having higher density obey Stoke’s law and settle at the
bottom of the chamber from where they are removed ultimately. The
several horizontal shelves or trays improve the collection efficiency by
shortening the settling path of the particles.

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Cyclone Separators (Reverse flow Cyclone):
Instead of gravitational force, centrifugal force is utilized by cyclone
separators, to separate the particulate matter from the polluted gas.
Centrifugal force, several times greater than gravitational force, can be
generated by a spinning gas stream and this quality makes cyclone
separators more effective in removing much smaller particulates than can
possibly be removed by gravitational settling chambers.

A simple cyclone separator consists of a cylinder with a conical base. A

tangential inlet discharging near the top and an outlet for discharging the
particulates is present at the base of the cone.

The dust laden gas enters tangentially, receives a rotating motion and
generates a centrifugal force due to which the particulates are thrown to the
cyclone walls as the gas spirals upwards inside the cone (i.e. flow reverses to
form an inner vortex which leaves flow through the outlet). The
particulates slide down the .walls of the cone and are discharged from the
outlet.
Fabric Filters (Baghouse Filters):
In a fabric filter system, a stream of the polluted gas is made to pass through
a fabric that filters out the particulate pollutant and allows the clear gas to
pass through. The particulate matter is left in the form of a thin dust mat on
the insides of the bag. This dust mat acts as a filtering medium for further

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removal of particulates increasing the efficiency of the filter bag to sieve
more sub micron particles (0.5 µm).
A typical filter is a tubular bag which is closed at the upper end and has a
hopper attached at the lower end to collect the particles when they are
dislodged from the fabric. Many such bags are hung in a baghouse. For
efficient filtration and a longer life the filter bags must be cleaned
occasionally by a mechanical shaker to prevent too many particulate layers
from building up on the inside surfaces of the bag.

Electrostatic Precipitators:
The electrostatic precipitator works on the principle of electrostatic
precipitation i.e. electrically charged particulates present in the polluted gas
are separated from the gas stream under the influence of the electrical field.
A typical wire and pipe precipitator consists of:
(a) A positively charged collecting surface (grounded).
(b) A high voltage (50 KV) discharge electrode wire.
(c) Insulator to suspend the electrode wire from the top.
(d) A weight at the bottom of the electrode wire to keep the wire in
position.

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The polluted gas enters from the bottom, flows upwards (i.e. between the
high voltage wire and grounded collecting surface). The high voltage in the
wire ionises the gas. The negative ions migrate towards the grounded
surface and pass on their negative charge to the dust particles also. Then
these negatively charged dust particles are electrostatically drawn towards
the positively charged collector surface, where they finally get deposited.
The collecting surface is rapped or vibrated to periodically remove the
collected dust-particles so that the thickness of the dust layer deposited does
not exceed 6 mm, otherwise the electrical attraction becomes weak and
efficiency of the electrostatic precipitator gets reduced.
As the electrostatic precipitation has 99 + percent efficiency and can be
operated at high temperatures (600°C) and pressure at less power
requirement, therefore, it is economical and simple to operate compared to
other devices.
Wet Collectors (Scrubbers):
In wet collectors or scrubbers, the particulate contaminants are removed
from the polluted gas stream by incorporating the particulates into liquid
droplets.
Common wet scrubbers are:
(i) Spray Tower
(ii) Venturi Scrubber
(iii) Cyclone Scrubber
(i) Spray Tower:

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Water is introduced into a spray tower by means of a spray nozzle (i.e.
there is downward flow of water). As the polluted gas flows upwards, the
particulates (size exceeding 10 µm) present collide with the water droplets
being sprayed downward from the spray nozzles. Under the influence of
gravitational force, the liquid droplets containing the particulates settle to
the bottom of the spray tower.

Venturi Scrubber:
Submicron particulates (size 0.5 to 5 µn) associated with smoke and fumes
are very effectively removed by the highly efficient Venturi Scrubbers. As
shown in figurea Venturi Scrubber has a Venturi shaped throat section. The
polluted gas passes downwards through the throat at the velocity of 60 to
180 m/sec.
A coarse water stream is injected upwards into the throat where it gets
atomised (i.e. breaks the water into droplets) due to the impact of high
velocity of the gas. The liquid droplets collide with the particulates in the
polluted gas stream.
The particles get entrained in the droplets and fall down to be removed
later on. Venturi Scrubbers can also remove soluble gaseous contaminants.
Due to the atomisation of water there is proper contact between the liquid
and the gas increasing the efficiency of the Venturi Scrubber (their power
cost is high because of the high inlet gas velocity).

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To separate the droplets carrying the particulate matter from the gas
stream, this gas-liquid mixture in the Venturi Scrubber is then directed into a
separation device such as a cyclone separator.
Cyclone Scrubber:
The dry cyclone chamber can be converted into a wet cyclone scrubber by
inserting high pressure spray nozzles at various places within the dry
chamber

The high pressure spray nozzles generate a fine spray that intercepts the
small particles in the polluted gas. The centrifugal force throws these
particles towards the wall from where they are drained downwards to the
bottom of the scrubber.
Pollution Standards:
The emission standards for thermal power plants in India are being
enforced based on Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 of Government of
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India and its amendments from time to time. A summary of emission norms
for coal- and gas-based thermal power plants is given in tables.
Environmental standards for coal- and gas-based power plants

The norm for 500 MW and above coal-based power plant being practised
is 40 to 50 mg/N⋅m and space is provided in the plant layout for super
thermal power stations for installation of flue gas desulfurisation (FGD)
system. But FGD is not installed, as it is not required for low sulphur Indian
coals while considering SOx emission from individual chimney.
In addition to the above emission standards, the selection of a site for a
new power plant has to maintain the local ambient air quality as given in
table
Ambient air quality standard

However the norms for SOx are even stricter for selection of sites for World
Bank funded projects. For example, if SOx level is higher than 100 μg/m3,
no project with further SOx emission can be set up; if SOx level is 100
μg/m3, it is called polluted area and maximum emission from a project
should not exceed 100 t/day; and if SOx is less than 50 μg/m3, it is called
unpolluted area, but the SOx emission from a project should not exceed

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500 t/day. The stipulation for NOx emission is that its emission should not
exceed 260 g of NOx/GJ of heat input.
World Bank norms for new projects

In view of the above, it may be seen that improved environment norms are
linked to financing and are being enforced by international financial
institutions and not by the policies/laws of land.

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