Environmental Science and Pollution Research

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-15140-6

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Aluminum sulfate regeneration from surface water treatment waste

in Cairo, Egypt
Mahmoud M. Fouad 1 & Ahmed S. El-Gendy 2 & Mostafa M. H. Khalil 3 & Taha M. A. Razek 4

Received: 20 October 2020 / Accepted: 22 June 2021

# The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2021

Abstract
The world needs to adapt to recycling and reusing water due to limited resources. So, decision-makers and policy leaders should
use sustainable practices to improve protection and pollution remediation. Aluminum sulfate is used for surface water treatment,
which leads to waste sludge being disposed into water bodies, causing environmental pollution. Coagulants’ regeneration from
sludge improves water quality and reuse options. Organics accumulation is the primary concern regarding coagulant regenera-
tion, using acidification. Our study investigated the raw water quality, aluminum sulfate, and sludge and evaluated its influence
on coagulant recovery, using acidification, from eight water treatment plants (WTPs) in Cairo, Egypt. The significant elements in
the tested sludge were aluminum with a concentration range of 86.65–688.85 mg/g sludge in El-Rawda and Embaba and iron
with a concentration range of 9.45–7.45 mg/g in Shamal Helwan and El-Fostat. Recovery percentages of aluminum, iron,
manganese, and strontium recorded the highest values 97%, 89%, 89%, and 92% for Embaba, Rod El-Farag, Embaba, El-
Rawda, respectively. The correlation between metal concentration and recovery was insignificant in the studied matrix and
conditions for the four metals. Total organic carbon (TOC) transfer into recovered solutions was maximum in El-Fostat (82.6%)
and minimum in Embaba (36.7%). The TOC transfer percentage depends on the matrix of the sludge. The best location for
coagulant recovery is at the Embaba WTP, where there were minimum organics transfer and maximum Al recovery.

Keywords Coagulant regeneration . Inorganic sludge acidification . Sustainable coagulant recovery . Circular economy . Organic
matter transfer . Nile River

Introduction surface freshwater, followed by groundwater and seawater.

“Supplying safe drinking water for all” is a United Nations
(UN) Sustainable Development Goal (UN-SDG) (Lu et al.
2015). The primary drinking water resource in Egypt is
Responsible Editor: Ta Yeong Wu
* Mahmoud M. Fouad
mahmoudfouad82@gmail.com; mahmoud.fouad@iesr.asu.edu.eg
1
Quality and Environmental Affairs General Department, Holding
Company for Water and Wastewater, Cairo, Egypt
2
Department of Construction Engineering, School of Sciences and
Engineering, The American University in Cairo, New Cairo, Egypt
3
Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science, Ain Shams University,
11566 Abbassia, Cairo, Egypt
4
Environmental Basic Sciences, Institute for Environmental Studies
and Research, Ain Shams University, 11566 Abbassia, Cairo, Egypt
Surface water is treated using conventional treatment process-
es (coagulation/precipitation, filtration, and disinfection)
(Benjamin and Lawler 2013), producing high quantities of
safe drinking water with acceptable quality at a minimal cost
compared to many other treatment processes. However, these
processes generate large quantities of sludge that should be
managed well (Fouad et al. 2017a). In many parts of the
world, sludge can be discharged directly into the aquatic en-
vironment. Changes in water quality and stricter regulations
can result in adding more coagulant chemicals to increase
removal of contamination.
Inorganic sludge produced through conventional treatment
is a significant burden on the environment unless it is man-
aged appropriately. If financial resources are limited, such as
in developing countries, sludge disposal into waterways is
often the only option to ensure that available funds are ready
for water treatment and production. In Egypt, water demands
have increased significantly with the increasing population
and continuous industrialization. Recycling and reuse options,

therefore, are essential to enable better management of avail-
able resources. Moreover, surface water quality deteriorates
by increasing sludge disposal, limiting possibilities for domes-
tic, agricultural, and industrial uses (Elarabawy et al. 2000).
Recently, research efforts have focused on improving the
conventional treatment efficiency and decreasing the draw-
backs associated with waste management. One aspect of this
research concentrates on coagulant recovery from wasted
sludge (Keeley et al. 2014; Ramadan and El Sayed 2019;
Fouad et al. 2018). This option improves sludge management
by decreasing its volume, reducing disposal into waterways,
and provides a coagulant that can be reused safely in water,
wastewater treatment, and environmental pollution remedia-
tion (Fouad et al. 2017a).
Several approaches are used for coagulant recovery
from wasted inorganic sludge, such as acidification, basi-
fication, ion exchange, membrane treatment, and electrol-
ysis (Keeley et al. 2014). One of the most widely used
methods for coagulant recovery from sludge is acidifica-
tion because of its low cost and high recovery efficiency.
In this process, metal coagulants are redissolved from the
solid sludge into an acidic solution (Ramadan and El
Sayed 2019). However, several factors influence the ef-
fectiveness of coagulant recovery, such as the concentra-
tion of organic matter and the overall quality of the
sludge. Previous work has shown that reusing coagulant
following recovery increases organic matter in treated wa-
ter, with a commensurate increase in disinfection
byproduct (DBP) formation (Fouad et al. 2018), because
along with the dissolution of trivalent metals, organic
matter (precursors for DBPs) is also redissolved into the
solution. Sludge characteristics strongly depend on man-
aging the water treatment plants (WTPs) and the treated
water quality, resulting in differences in the type and con-
centration of organic matter in the sludge, affecting the
separation of metals during the recovery process.
Organic matter accumulation is the primary reason why
coagulant recovery has seen limited application in drinking
water supply systems. Filtration, adsorption, membrane sepa-
ration (Donan dialysis), electrolysis, and ion exchange reduce
the organic matter content in the recovered coagulants (Keeley
et al. 2014; Fouad et al. 2018). However, these processes add
high costs to the recovered coagulant purification and can be
less economical than applying fresh coagulant.
Our work evaluates the effect of raw water, coagulant, and
sludge quality on coagulant recovery in eight WTPs within the
Cairo governorate. Previous research lacks a detailed study of
sludge quality and its influence on the aluminum recovery in
Greater Cairo WTPs. The novelty of our work is to fill the
knowledge gap about coagulant recovery under Egyptian con-
ditions and support professionals and decision-makers to link
the research to application and sustainability. This is the first
Environ Sci Pollut Res
initiative to investigate coagulant recovery threats, uses, appli-
cations, and sustainability in Cairo, Egypt.
Materials and methods
Study area
The research was conducted on surface water treatment sludge
obtained from eight WTPs in Cairo, a city with 19.5 million
inhabitants (October 2018). The eight WTPs are along a 40-
km stretch of the Nile River. Table 1 shows the details of the
WTPs.
All eight WTPs extract water from the Nile River, except
for Mostorod and Shoubra El-Kheima that have intakes from
the Ismailia and Sharkawia canals, respectively (Figure 1).
The applied chlorine (4.0–8.5 mg/L) and coagulant (20–41
mg/L as Al2(SO4)3) doses varied from site to site, according
to the raw water quality and site specifications.
The eight WTPs use the same surface water treatment
flowsheet (coagulation, flocculation, precipitation, filtration,
and disinfection) and, however, use diverse designs.
Aluminum recovery by acidification and filtration
Sludge samples were collected from the sludge drainage point
under the eight WTPs’ clarifiers and were dried by heating in a
container on a water bath at 102–103°C until complete drying.
Sludge samples were placed in a desiccator before digestion
using concentrated nitric acid and heated until the entire sam-
ple was digested (Hagedorn 2008) to measure the total metal
content using ICP-OES optima 8000 supplied by Agilent,
USA.
Acidification was conducted by adding 2 N sulfuric acid to
the sludge, followed by stirring at 60 rpm for 40 min. The
supernatant was abstracted and filtered using a 47-μm glass-
fiber filter paper. The recovered solution was stored in suitable
bottles until analysis. The recovery percentage was calculated
using Eq. (1).
Al ðrÞ
Recovery percentage ¼  100 ð1Þ
Alðt Þ
where Al(r) is the recovered aluminum concentration (mg Al/g
sludge) using normal procedures and Al(t) is the total alumi-
num concentration (mg Al/g sludge) in the sludge measured
after complete digestion.
Analysis was also conducted on fresh commercial coagu-
lants used at these sites, using Egyptian and El-Nasr alumi-
num sulfate.
Environ Sci Pollut Res

Table 1 Information on the eight water treatment plants

ID WTP name Intake Chlorine dose Al dose Design Design capacity Actual average capacity
(mg/L) (mg/L) (m3/day) (m3/day)

1 El-Tebeen Nile River 5.5 ± 1 26 ± 3 Circular + RSF 350,000 235,641

2 Shamal Helwan Nile River 5±1 30 ± 4 Pulsator + RSF 300,000 270,371
3 El-Fostat Nile River 5.5 ± 0.7 36 ± 2 Pulsator + RSF 1,100,000 1,010,574
4 El-Rawda Nile River 5.5 ± 2 25 ± 5 Circular + RSF 180,000 168,351
5 Shoubra El-Kheima El-Sharkawia canal 6 ± 1.3 34 ± 2 Pulsator + RSF 600,000 457,578
6 Mostorod Ismailia canal 4.5 ± 0.5 36 ± 5 Pulsator + RSF 950,000 749,572
7 Embaba Nile River 7 ± 1.5 32 ± 6 Pulsator + RSF 4,157,000 1,310,809
8 Rod El-Farag Nile River 5 ± 0.5 34 ± 5 Return Sludge + RSF 870000 677620
Total 8,507,000 4,880,516

RSF rapid sand filtration

Characterization of the recovered coagulant
Recovered coagulant solutions were analyzed for their total
organic carbon (TOC) content using the USEPA Method
415.3 (Potter and Wimsatt 2005), and metal (Al, Cd, Cr, Cu,
Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb, Sr, and Zn) concentrations were determined
based on the standard method 3120 metals by plasma emis-
sion spectroscopy (Baird et al. 2012).
Total organic carbon and dissolved organic carbon
analysis

The USEPA Method 415.3 was used to determine the TOC

concentration in the recovered solution using the Shimadzu
analyzer via the catalytic combustion method. The samples
were combusted with air in a dual-zone furnace, with individ-
ually adjustable ovens (700–1250°C) to produce CO2, which
is then measured using a nondispersive infrared (NDIR) sen-
sor. Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) was measured using the
same procedure but after filtering the samples on a pre-washed
filter (47 μm).

Table 2 Total organic carbon (TOC) and metal analysis in fresh com-
mercial aluminum sulfate coagulants

Metal Aluminum sulfate Aluminum sulfate Egyptian

(Egyptian (El-Nasr specifications for
company) (mg/L) Company) (mg/L) liquid aluminum
sulfate

Al 53602.0 51870.0 Min = 21177 mg/L

Cd ND ND Max = 100 mg/kg Al
Cr 35.1 90.6 Max = 1000 mg/kg
Al
Cu 0.2 ND NLS
Fe 1668.9 899.0 Max = 3500 mg/L
Mn 8.6 11.9 NLS
Ni 15.1 6.0 Max = 1000 mg/kg
Al
Pb ND ND Max = 800 mg/kg Al
Sr 13.8 1.6 NLS
Zn 28.0 17.0 NLS
TOC ND ND NLS
Fig. 1 Locations of the water treatment plants (WTPs) along the Nile
River ND not detected, NLS no limits are set
 Environ Sci Pollut Res

Table 3 Metal concentration (mg/g sludge) of the recovered solutions

Al Cd Cr Cu Fe Mn Ni Pb Sr Zn

El-Tebeen 93.66 ND 0.11 ND 8.81 2.75 ND ND 0.23 ND

Shamal Helwan 92.58 ND 0.10 ND 9.40 1.72 ND ND 0.25 ND
El-Fostat 103.99 ND 0.16 ND 7.45 2.18 ND ND 0.26 ND
El-Rawda 81.65 ND ND ND 7.88 1.41 ND ND 0.32 ND
Shoubra El-Kheima 172.35 ND ND ND 8.90 2.30 ND ND 0.65 ND
Mostorod 143.33 ND ND ND 8.70 1.85 ND ND 0.55 ND
Embaba 688.85 ND ND ND 8.60 2.00 ND ND 0.77 ND
Rod El-Farag 195.60 ND ND ND 8.66 2.22 ND ND 1.12 ND

ND not detected

Metal analysis The conditions used to manufacture aluminum sulfate include

The samples were collected in borosilicate glass bottles and
digested using microwave and nitric acid (1:1) and preserved
until analysis. Samples were injected and the subsequent spray
was transferred to the plasma torch. Element-specific emission
spectra were generated using a radio frequency inductively
coupled plasma. A grating spectrometer scatters the spectra,
and a photosensitive device evaluates the line spectrum inten-
sities at certain wavelengths. Photocurrents from the photo-
sensitive device were processed and controlled using the de-
vice’s software. A background correction was applied to com-
pensate for variable background share to determine the
analytes (Maxfield and Mindak 1985). The ICP-AES
Optima 2000 DV spectrometer (Perkin Elmer) with an AS
93 autosampler and scanning charged-coupled device detector
(25,600 px) were used to determine the mentioned metals.
Results and discussion
elevated temperature, pressure, and a highly oxidative envi-
ronment because the concentrated sulfuric acid used to dis-
solve the coagulant destroys and degrades any organic matter
(Hosseini et al. 2011).
When the metal concentrations in two fresh coagulant so-
lutions were compared, there were significantly higher levels
of aluminum and iron in the Egyptian coagulant than in the El-
Nasr product, with 53.6 g/L and 51.9 g/L of aluminum and 1.7
g/L and 0.9 g/L of iron, respectively (Table 2), reflecting the
differences in the manufacturing process and raw material
sources. Pb and Cd were not detected in both coagulants.
Trace concentrations of Cr, Mn, and Sr were higher in the
El-Nasr company. However, Ni, Zn, and Cu were higher in
the coagulant produced by the Egyptian company. In all cases,
the metal values were below the allowable limits according to
the Egyptian regulations for aluminum sulfate used in drink-
ing water production. The difference in the metal profiles for
each coagulant reflects also different sources of raw materials
used in manufacturing.

Coagulant recovery from sludge Sludge characteristics

The TOC concentration in the commercial coagulants was The most dominant metal in the sludge is aluminum; however,
below the limits of detection. The coagulants are extracted its concentration varied from one WTP sludge to another be-
from inorganic minerals, such as kaolinite (Hirsch 1960). cause of the different water treatment variables in each WTP,

Fig. 2 Aluminum, iron,

manganese, and strontium
recovery percentages
Environ Sci Pollut Res
Fig. 3 Correlation of total
aluminum concentration in sludge
(mg/g) with recovery percentage
causing observable increases in some elements over others.
Choosing the optimum dose for raw water and the efficiency
of flocculation and coagulation processes positively affect the
aluminum concentration in sludge. Inefficient water/coagulant
mixing will cause the percentage of dissolved aluminum to be
higher and lower in wasted sludge and vice versa. Also, dif-
ferent raw water qualities and site specifications are essential
in this relationship (Keeley et al. 2014;Fouad et al. 2018;
Hussein et al. 2020). Sludge is composed of aluminum hy-
droxide mixed with several minerals and organics called the
sludge matrix. This matrix determines the dissolution of alu-
minum through digestion, controlling its immobilization or
liberation into the liquor (Bertsch and Bloom 1996).
The aluminum concentration per gram of sludge was in-
consistent across the different WTPs (Table 3). For instance,
Embaba WTP had the highest aluminum concentration in
each gram of sludge (688.85 mg Al/g sludge). The flocs pri-
marily composed of aluminum hydroxide, with a lower pro-
portion of mineral turbidity and other contaminants in the
sludge.
Fig. 4 Correlation of total iron
concentrations in sludge (mg/g)
with recovery percentages
The aluminum content of the sludge from the other WTPs
was lower, ranging from 81.65 to 195 mg Al/g sludge. Cd, Cu,
Ni, Pb, and Zn were below the detection limits in all samples.
Cr was detected in sludge from El-Tebeen, Shamal Helwan,
and El-Fostat but undetected in sludge from the other WTPs,
despite all sites treating similar water sources. It could be
because the digestion conditions are not efficient enough to
extract all Cr from the sludge because of the complexity of the
sludge matrices. In addition, Cr may not have been captured
into the sludge during clarification at these sites because of the
differences in the design and operation of these processes.
Coagulant recovery
No absolute regular relationship exists between the recovered
aluminum from each gram of sludge (mg/g) and the recovery
percentage (Figure 2). The same recovery process resulted in
different percentages of aluminum extracted from the sludge.
As the sulfuric acid demand varies because of acid-consuming
materials, including organic compounds, hydroxides, carbon-
ates, and bicarbonates (Keeley et al. 2014), these materials
 Environ Sci Pollut Res

Table 4 Annual survey for TOC concentrations (mg/L) in raw water (Hussein et al. 2020)

No. WTP name Autumn Spring Summer Winter Average Minimum Maximum Range

1 El-Tebeen 3.32 ± 0.32 4.62 ± 0.33 3.11 ± 0.30 5.45 ± 0.36 4.13 ± 0.33 2.79 5.77 2.98
2 Shamal Helwan 3.29 ± 0.31 4.05 ± 0.31 2.78 ± 0.31 5.23 ± 0.31 3.84 ± 0.31 2.47 5.54 3.07
3 El-Fostat 3.55 ± 0.41 5.01 ± 0.44 3.10 ± 0.42 6.23 ± 0.45 4.47 ± 0.43 2.69 6.64 3.95
4 El-Rawda 3.64 ± 0.52 5.62 ± 0.55 2.85 ± 0.53 6.77 ± 0.54 4.72 ± 0.54 2.33 7.29 4.96
5 Shoubra El-Kheima 3.60 ± 0.42 5.17 ± 0.43 3.30 ± 0.45 6.54 ± 0.48 4.65 ± 0.45 2.87 6.97 4.1
6 Mostorod 3.40 ± 0.28 4.54 ± 0.25 3.20 ± 0.31 5.22 ± 0.29 4.09 ± 0.28 2.92 5.50 2.58
7 Embaba 5.02 ± 0.35 6.36 ± 0.32 4.82 ± 0.34 7.42 ± 0.31 5.91 ± 0.33 4.47 7.77 3.3
8 Rod El-Farag 4.65 ± 0.33 5.63 ± 0.34 4.22 ± 0.35 7.12 ± 0.40 5.41 ± 0.36 3.85 7.49 3.64

compete with the aluminum hydroxide and consume the sul-
furic acid, allowing only limited aluminum extraction from
the sludge (Fouad et al. 2018). However, the sludge matrix
may contain components that would help and favor the reac-
tion between sulfuric acid and metals to recover aluminum
coagulants as sulfate ions and acids.
The aluminum recovery percentages for the eight WTPs
were between 79 and 97% (Figure 2). The Embaba WTP
showed the highest recovery compared to most of the other
WTPs, whereas Shamal Helwan had the lowest recovery of
aluminum, which could be attributed to the variety in the
matrix and components of the sludge. Furthermore, the re-
duced R2 value (0.2) indicates a minimum correlation between
the total aluminum concentration in the sludge and recovery
percentage, especially in different matrices (Figure 3). Fouad
et al. (2018) confirmed a decrease in aluminum in the recov-
ered solution because of acid-consuming elements and other
impurities in the sludge, rejecting the stoichiometric reaction
theory between sulfuric acid and aluminum hydroxide (the
major component in the sludge) and confirming the influence
of impurities on the acidification and recovery process.
The recovery of iron occurs alongside aluminum, with
values between 71 and 89% for sludge containing 6.2–7.8
mg/g Fe (Figure 2), which is consistent with the reported
findings (Fouad et al. 2017a, b, 2018). However, iron com-
petes with aluminum reacting with sulfuric acid and adds an-
other coagulant to the recovered solution, increasing the effi-
ciency of the recovered solution in coagulation and precipita-
tion processes. Iron recovery also did not depend primarily on
iron concentrations in the sludge (Figure 2), but the matrix’s
influence in sludge is a powerful dimension in recovery and
leaching processes.
The correlation between the total iron concentration and its
leaching in the acid medium R2 (0.5598) is higher than alumi-
num R2 (0.238), indicating a higher correlation between iron
concentrations and recovery percentages in the matrices
(Figure 4). Therefore, iron will be leached better than alumi-
num in the sludge matrix of the WTPs. However, this corre-
lation is still insignificant as the major part controlling the
process in the presence of acid-consuming materials.
Manganese in the recovered coagulant was also evaluated
(Figure 2). The manganese concentration in the sludge was
between 1.2 and 2.3 mg/g Mn (Table 4), with a recovery
percentage between 79 and 89% (Figure 2). These results
compare favorably with research on metal recovery from
Egyptian WTPs’ sludge using sulfuric and hydrochloric acids
(Fouad et al. 2017a). Mn’s R2 is extremely low (0.0171),
indicating no correlation compared to aluminum and iron,

Fig. 5 Correlation of total

manganese concentration in
sludge (mg/g) with recovery
percentages
Environ Sci Pollut Res
Fig. 6 Correlation of total
strontium concentration in sludge
(mg/g) with recovery percentages
indicating that manganese leaching in the recovery process is
independent of its concentration. Furthermore, no risk exists
from Mn accumulation in the recovered solution; however, its
presence would help increase the coagulation process efficien-
cy because it functions as a catalyst and additional coagulant.
In the study area, no significant correlation exists between
manganese concentrations in the used sludge and recovery
percentages under the used technique and factors (R2 =
0.0171) (Figure 5). The presence or accumulation of strontium
in the recovered coagulant would threaten humans. Strontium
causes abnormal skeletal developments in infants, children,
and adolescents (O’Donnell 2014). Strontium was found in
the sludge at concentrations of ~1 mg/g sludge, with recovery
percentages in the coagulant between 74 and 92% (Figure 2).
The detected concentration and recovery percentage show
minimum risk from strontium accumulation or presence in
drinking water treated with the recovered coagulant.
Figure 6 shows no significant correlation between stron-
tium concentrations in the used sludge and recovery percent-
ages under the used technique and factors (R2 = 0.1213).
Fig. 7 Correlation between total
organic carbon (TOC) in sludge
and leached amount
Evaluation of total organic carbon transfer
to recovered solutions
Coagulant recovery was conducted three times for 12 months
in 2018 (Table 4). The TOC concentration in the recovered
coagulant was directly proportional to its content in the sludge
with R2 = 0.8271 (Figure 7). Recovered coagulants in winter
contained the highest TOC. The minimum TOC was recorded
in summer, as the deteriorating water quality in winter because
of the Egyptian water resources management measures limits
the surface water quantity and flow between December and
February. Also, the increased water reuse cycles in winter are
critical for TOC increase (Elarabawy et al. 2000).
Consequently, more TOC is absorbed and adsorbed into the
sludge during treatment than those leached during recovery
using acidification.
The findings are consistent with Geriesh et al. (2008), who
reported that pollutants increased in the Ismailia canal during
winter when the high dam gates were closed between January
and February. In contrast, pollutants decreased in summer
 Environ Sci Pollut Res

Table 5 Annual survey for TOC (mg/g) in wasted aluminum sludge (Hussein et al. 2020)

No. WTP name Autumn Spring Summer Winter Average Minimum Maximum Range

1 El-Tebeen 77.2 ± 0.89 80.32 ± 0.85 82.20 ± 0.87 84.50 ± 0.84 81.06 ± 0.86 76.34 85.39 7.27
2 Shamal Helwan 87.23 ± 0.79 88.21 ± 0.82 91.36 ± 0.75 93.16 ± 0.76 89.99 ± 0.78 86.44 93.95 5.93
3 El-Fostat 89.36 ± 0.92 92.23 ± 0.98 94.30 ± 0.95 96.86 ± 0.94 93.19 ± 0.95 88.44 97.78 7.50
4 El-Rawda 95.23 ± 1.06 96.63 ± 0.98 101.46 ± 0.96 102.84 ± 1.1 99.04 ± 1.03 94.17 103.90 7.61
5 Shoubra El-Kheima 158.22 ± 0.93 159.32 ± 0.92 162.15 ± 0.94 165.45 ± 0.95 161.29 ± 0.94 157.29 166.38 7.23
6 Mostorod 198.99 ± 1.05 200.30 ± 0.97 203.20 ± 0.94 207.22 ± 0.99 202.43 ± 0.99 197.94 208.27 8.23
7 Embaba 336.45 ± 0.91 340.12 ± 0.94 342.40 ± 0.93 343.65 ± 0.94 340.65 ± 0.93 335.53 344.56 7.20
8 Rod El-Farag 349.77 ± 1.11 351.33 ± 1.13 355.65 ± 1.12 358.10 ± 1.08 353.71 ± 1.11 348.66 359.21 8.33

because of the high quantity and flow of water. These results
are consistent with other research on organic matter occur-
rence in the recovered coagulants as they dissolved alongside
the metal coagulant (Keeley et al. 2014; Fouad et al. 2018).
Sludge from the Embaba and Rod El-Farag WTPs recorded
the highest TOC concentrations in raw water and recovered
solutions (Figures 8 and 9), which is attributed to the condi-
tions and site specifications of these two WTPs, as mentioned
by Hussein et al. (2020), causing elevated TOC levels
(Table 5).
As the sludge quality and TOC concentration increased, the
amount of DOC leaching into the recovered solutions in-
creased (Figure 9). However, not all DOCs were fully trans-
ferred into the recovered solutions, showing that TOC cannot
be completely leached using acidification for coagulant recov-
ery. The TOC transfer percentage was the lowest for the
sludge from Embaba WTP. It was the highest for the El-
Fostat and El-Rawda WTPs, showing that sludge quality
and TOC content influenced the recovered coagulant using
acidification (Figure 9). This could be attributed to the ele-
ments in the sludge matrix that inhibit TOC dissolution in
the recovered solution. Moreover, the organic matter nature
could be less susceptible to be solubilized under the used
conditions in recovery.
Future direction and available policy
In Egypt, the water supply uses primarily the conventional
treatment of surface water including coagulation, disinfection,
and rapid sand filtration (Shamrukh and Abdel-Wahab 2008)
which is the most suitable technique for massive production,
minimum cost, and desired quality. Waste sludge treatment is
not available in every WTP, and disposal to waterways is the
standard handling option in Egypt which deteriorates the sur-
face water quality (Fouad et al. 2017b; Shamrukh and Abdel-
Wahab 2008). On the other hand, treatment chemicals con-
sumption and price increase with time. Coagulants’ recovery
has significantly influenced cost and pollution reduction with
promising results (Keeley et al. 2014). In conclusion, coagu-
lants recovery and use in water treatment in the Egyptian
environment is a favorable option for the policy leaders and
decision-makers.
Conclusion
This study conducted aluminum sulfate coagulant recovery
from eight WTPs in Cairo, Egypt, and organic matter transfer
in the recovered solutions. TOC concentrations in recovered

Fig. 8 TOC concentrations in

recovered solutions from sludge
samples of WTPs during four
seasons (mg/g)
Environ Sci Pollut Res
Fig. 9 Average TOC (mg/g
sludge) in sludge and recovered
solutions and DOC transfer
percentage (%)
coagulants recorded a maximum in winter and a minimum in
summer. The maximum TOC concentration in the recovered
coagulants was noted in Rod El-Farag WTP, and the least
value was obtained in El-Tebeen WTP. The TOC transfer
percentage of the recovered solutions was the highest in El-
Fostat WTP sludge and the lowest for Embaba WTP.
In conclusion, the coagulant recovery is most favorable and
sustainable for Embaba WTP among the WTPs because of the
high aluminum content in sludge (688.85 mg/g sludge), re-
covery percentage (97%), and minimum TOC transfer per-
centage (36.7%). Finally, coagulant recovery from sludge is
feasible in Cairo by considering the treatment operational con-
ditions, raw water potential pollution, recovery percentage,
and TOC transfer percentage. Further studies are required in
the scope of sludge organic matter nature, structure identifica-
tion, and response to acidification.
Acknowledgements The authors proudly acknowledge the reference lab
for water and the reference lab for wastewater and the general department
for quality and environmental affairs in the holding company for water
and wastewater, Egypt, and Professor Peter Jarvis, Professor of Water
Science & Technology Cranfield Water Science Institute, the UK, for
their thankful support and efforts introduced to our research to reach its
final form.
Author contribution ASE, TMAR, and MMHK formulated the research
idea and initialized the first steps to start. ASE and MMF provided the
research plan and allocated available resources. MMF performed the
practical part of sampling, sludge analysis, coagulant recovery, and anal-
ysis. ASE and MMF reviewed the generated raw data and started writing
the manuscript. TMAR, ASE, and MMHK reviewed the research article
several times to ensure the best quality. MMF applied the required mod-
ification for the research article. Finally, all authors read and approved the
final manuscript.
Data availability The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current
study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
Declarations
Ethics approval and consent to participate Not applicable
Consent for publication Not applicable
Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests.
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