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Well Stimulation
 
Stimulation Is a chemical or mechanical method of
increasing flow capacity to a well.
 Types of stimulation:-
Chemical treatments.
Acidizing.
Fracturing
There are three areas where a reduction in the flow
capacity may occur.

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1 – The well bore:-
Perforation, tubular goods, may become clogged up with
deposits over a period of time.
The deposit are products of corrosion, bacteria, scales
formed from insoluble salts within formation water and
Asphaltenes or tar like viscous components of oil production
remaining behind.
This reduce the flow capacity of the well stimulation is
concerned with removing this damage.

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2 – The well matrix
During drilling, cementing and production operations a skin of
damaged permeability can be formed within a few feet of the
well bore.
Lowered permeability section which will low production rates.
 3- A natural low permeable reservoir
 Stimulation could induce flow channels of high permeability,
thereby increasing the production capability.

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 Methods Used for Stimulating the Well

1- Clean up the well bore

 Use acid in conjunction with additives to remove the scale.
If there were tarry deposit use a power fuel solvent.
Job performed by spot across the interval to be cleaned, given
time to soak, then the resultant products allowed to flow back to
surface.
 

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2- Matrix Treatments
 Acid is injected into the formation at a rate below the fraction of
the reservoir, out into the damaged zone to restore its
permeability.
After the acid has reacted or spent, the well is allowed to clean
up.
Put back into production to flow the products back to surface.
In some cases, the skin damage can be caused by emulsion
blocks, formed near the well bore from oil and water mixing
together.
In this case solvent or surfactants could be injected into the
matrix to break down emulsion.
Chemical treatments such as acid are injected into the
formation, when the primary purpose is not hydraulic fracturing.
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3- Naturally low permeability
Frac this types of formation
The injection fluid is pumped at a rate above the fracture
pressure of the reservoir, to create cracks or fracture within the
rock it self.
Creating new conductive channels through which oil or gas may
flow easily to the well bore.
Formation tend to fracture in a vertical direction from the well
bore at depths greater than 2,000ft.
Once the pressure is released after the treatment, the induced
fracture will tend to close.
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So a proppant of sand or small beads will normally be
injected into fractures to keep them open after the treatment
is finished.
 Another type of Frac job is an acid Frac( Acid is injected to
fracture the formation), it is travel along the fractures, it
etches the sides and leave a channel for oil or gas.

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Porosity
 The pore space between the sand or rock grains, it is
usually expressed as a percentage of rock volume.
 
Permeability
The ease with which the gas, oil or water will flow the pore
space with the rocks.
Permeability change for a rock of given porosity, depending
on the number of phases presents, gas, oil or water with the
percentage saturation of the phases.

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Absolute permeability
Permeability of a rock sample 100% saturated with a single
fluid being used to measure the permeability.
 Effective permeability
Permeability of a fluid if more than one phase is present, this
will always be less than absolute, and will vary with saturation
changes.
 Relative permeability
Is the ratio of the effective permeability over the absolute
permeability at a given saturation.
 
 
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Darcy’s equation

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• Stimulation is concerned to increase P.I. of well by
increasing Ke ( effective permeability) or reducing the skin
damage.
• So either the well flow at the same rate with less draw
down, Or higher flow rate with the same draw down.

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 Factors that cause skin damage

1- Mud solids • During drilling, mud solids, filtrate and drill cuttings
are forced into the pores of formation, by the higher hydrostatic
pressure of the mud.

2- Clay swelling
• The water filtrate lost from the mud can contaminate, and
swell water sensitive clay.

3- Cementing process
• Filtrate or cement particles can invade the formation.
• The damage can be removed with acid.
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4- Production
• Production damage results from the very action of flowing the well.
• Formation fines are draw into the area of the well bore, where they
create an area of reduced permeability.
5- Emulsion block
• During production, as oil and water flow from the well reservoir
towards the well bore.
• Increasing the velocity can increase the shear, and mixing of oil and
water.
• Causing an emulsion to form which will affect the permeability.
6-Water block
• Water from filtrate during drilling or cementing, or from coning of
formation water, cause high water saturation near the well bore, thus
reducing effective permeability of hydrocarbons.

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 Chemical Treatments
Are defined as the treatment in which chemicals or acid
injected into formation
Types of chemical.
1- Surfactant
2- Organic solvents.
3- Clay stabilizers.
4- Bactericides
5- Scale inhibitors / removers.
6- Clay dispersants.
7- Mutual solvents.
8- Demulsifies.

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Surfactant
• Change wetability, oil wetting of a formation may be
caused by drilling, mud filtrate.
 corrosion inhibitors, bactericides, emulsion breakers or oil
based muds.

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 Matrix Treatments
Objective
• Is to remove the damage and restore flow capability by dissolving
or dispersing the damage.
• A matrix squeeze treatment ( pressure below fracturing pressure),
will be used to improve capability of dissolving or dispersing the
damage.

Matrix Acidizing
• This apply to both carbonate and sand stone reservoirs, for
carbonate reservoir use hydrochloric acid ( 15 – 28 %) to dissolve
the rock.
• For sand stone use a mixture of Hcl, Hf it will dissolve mud filtrate,
clay, and siliceous cementing material, holding the sand particles
together.

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Matrix Treatment are used to
1- restore natural permeability.
2- Accomplish minor stimulation
3- Leave zone barriers intact.

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 Chemical Stimulation
• Acid increase permeability in and around the well bore by
dissolving corrosion product, scale, mud and or a portion of
the formation.
• If a fracture is created during acidzing operation, and the
fracture faces are etched sufficiently to provide adequate
fracture flow capacity.
• Large increase in productivity can be expected.

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 Organic Acids

These are weaker acids, it is weaker acid than hydrochloric

acid.
This means their hydrogen ions are released more slowly
and they will react more slowly, with most materials found in
the well.

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• HFis the only acid which will react with sand, and
other siliceous minerals such as clay. 24
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 Factors Affecting Acid Reaction with Carbonates
1 – Surface area to volume ratio
• The more rock surface area exposed to a unit volume of
acid the faster the acid will spend.
• In a large wide fracture, acid will react more slowly than
acid in a thin fracture of the same volume.
• The area : volume ratio will be higher in the thin fracture
and the effective “ contact rate” will consequently be higher.
• Acid will spend much faster in a matrix job than for an acid
frac.

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2- Pressure
• Reaction rate decrease with pressure.
• The decrease in reaction rate is due to the liberation of
Co2 , which goes back into solution under pressure , and
form carbonic acid which is slow reaction rate.

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 3- Temperature
•As the temperature increases acid will react faster with
calcareous materials. The effect of temperature is not as
great as was once thought.
•As temperature increases, viscosity decreases. This
decrease in viscosity as temperature increases can affect
fracture acidizing significantly.
•Increasing temperature also causes corrosion of steel to be
more severe and more difficult to control.

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 4- Flow velocity

• Increasing flow velocity increasing kinetic energy, the

result is that the acid particles enjoy more contact with the
side.
• Thus the faster the velocity of the fluid, the higher reaction
rate is.

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 5- Acid Concentration
The ionization effect of the HCL in water causes reaction
rate to be at a maximum, when the acid concentration is
26%.
• 28% HCL starts off with a higher reaction rate than 15%
HCL.
• 2HCL + CaCo3 CaCL2 + H2O + CO2
• CaCL2 Produced acts as a retarder to the reaction and
slow the reaction rate.

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 6- Acid Types

HCL has much value than weaker acid so it will dissolve more rock
as well as reacting much more quickly.
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 7-Viscosity
Viscosity alone has little effect on the reaction rate of acid
on carbonates in static tests.
The source of the viscosity may provide some degree of
retardation. For example, thick emulsions which are oil
external with acid as the internal phase will react much
slower than regular acid.

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 Acid Additives
Surfactants
• Are chemical composed of an oil soluble group and a
water soluble group.
• These chemical lower the surface tension of a liquid by
adsorbing at the interface between the liquid and a gas.
• Lowering the interfaces between two immiscible liquids
and changing contact angles by adsorbing at interfaces
between a liquid and a solid.

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 Uses of Surfactants
1- lower surface or interfacial tension (this means that the acid
should be easier to pump into formation.
2- Reduce capillary forces.
3- Controls / changes rock wet ability.
4- A- Prevents or breaks emulsions.
B- Creates or stabilizes emulsions.
5- Disperses clay or formation fines.

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 Classifications of surfactant
Are organic molecules whose water soluble group.

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 Retarding Agents ( Oil wetting surfactants)
• These material are surfactant added to acid, to reduce the rate of
reaction of the acid on carbonate formations.
• It is desirable to control the spending time of an acid system.
• The addition of a chemical retarding agent to the acid , usually
extends the reaction times, and controls the rate of reaction of
the acid on the formation.

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 Suspending agents
• After the reaction the spent acid is removed from the formation upon
completion of a job.
• These insoluble fines may be left in the formation, and can reduce the
formation permeability.
• Therefore it is desirable to remove these fines with the spent acid.
• So using suspending agents.
1- A surfactant, adsorbs onto these fines and keep in suspension by
electrostatic repulsion. { Repulsion = the force by which bodies
drive each other away, opposite attraction}.
2- A polymer, creates a molecular bridging effect, trapping the
fines in the polymer keeps the fine suspended .
N.B. These suspending agents are effective when acid zing a
formation that contains some insoluble silicates.

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 Anti sludging agents

When acid is pumped into a well, and contacts crude oil

containing a high percentage of asphaltens, sludge may be
formed at the acid oil interface.
• The material can accumulate in the formation and result in
a decrease in permeability.
• To combat the formation of sludge, surfactant that will
adsorb a continuous mono layer at the acid oil interface, and
help to solubilize the sludge are added to the acid.
• These materials help prevent the precipitations of sludge
during acid treatment.
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 Penetrating agents
• Use in acidizing tight gas well formation, and in scale
removal treatments.
• The main function is to lower the surface tension of the acid,
this allows the acid to more easily wet the formation.
• Lower the film strength of acid.
• Result in a faster and more efficient clean up, after
completion of an acidizing treatment.
• Most of penetrating agents are nonionic surfactants.

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 Corrosion inhibitors
• When un inhibited acid is pumped into a well the acid will
react with the tubing or casing .
• To prevent this, corrosion inhibitors added and effectively
retard the rate of reaction of acid on steel.
• Corrosion inhibitors does not stop corrosion, but they will
decrease the rate of the reaction of the acid on steel.

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 Non emulsifiers
• The major problems encountered in acid treatment is
emulsions of crude oil and acid, or emulsion of crude oil and
spent acid.
• Adding specific surfactant to the acid before pumping,
emulsion can be prevented from forming during acid
treatment.

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 Corrosion
• Corrosion is defined as the deterioration of a substance (usually a metal
due to a reaction with its environment).
To prevent this, corrosion inhibitors have been developed that will effectively
retard the rate of reaction of acid on steel.
Some factors that influence the rate of reaction of acid on steel
are:
1. temperature
2 . time of contact
3. type of acid
4. pressure
5. type of steel
6. concentration of acid
7. ratio of volume of acid to exposed steel
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 Pitting due to inhibitor
• All corrosion inhibitors will “ break down”, or cease to
furnish corrosion protection after some period of time
depending on temperature, acid strength, metal type.
• When this is reached, these areas are readily attacked by
the acid solution and pitting can result.

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 Pitting due to insufficient inhibitors
• Small particles of slag may become trapped within the steel
during the forming operation.
• Slight discontinuities in the grain structure of the steel may
be present due to improper heat treating and quenching
procedures.
• These impurities and discontinuities may in turn become
anodic to the rest of the surrounding steel structure.

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 Hydrogen embrittlement
• Oxidation and dissolution of iron occurs at the anodic sites on
metal surface, when steel is corroded by acid
• The reduction of hydrogen ions and formation of hydrogen
takes place at the Cathodic sites.

H + + 1 e = H Atomic hydrogen
H + H = H2 Molecular hydrogen
• Atomic hydrogen that has penetrated the metal structure
comes in contact with another atomic hydrogen atom – forming
molecular hydrogen with structure.
• This combination results in the development of extremely high
pressure in the void spaces that literally split the metal.
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 Effect of metallurgy on acid corrosion
• Acid corrosion is strongly influenced by the chemical
composition of the steel.
• Therefore metal chemistry is an important factor, when
considering acid corrosion of steel.

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 Mutual solvents
• Advantages
1- Improve the solubility and compatibility of the corrosion inhibitor,
emulsion breakers and other additives used in the acid
solutions.
2- Decrease the adsorption of these materials on sand stone, and
clay and improve their action in the returning spent acid solution.
3- Clean the formation and reduce water saturation around the well
bore, this results in higher permeability in the formation adjacent
to the well bore.

N.B. Use in a diesel oil after flush behind the HCL , also use in the
pre flush acid to reduce the adsorption of additives from this
fluid.
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 Alcohol
• Is used to aid in cleaning up water blocked gas wells.
• Provide quick return of permeability to undamaged state.
• Methyl alcohol is considered to be more effective than
isopropyl alcohol, because it is more volatile and has a
higher vapor pressure.
• Isopropyl alcohol lower surface tension more effectively
but is more expensive than methyl alcohol.
• Methyl alcohol is used in conjunction with acid at 10 to
20% concentration to stimulate low permeability gas sands

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• Speed the cleaning up process.
• Improve stimulation.
• Decrease in surface tension and not adsorbed by the
formation.
• Increase the viscosity of aqueous fluids.
• Alcohol will react with HCL acid forming organic chlorides
above 165 F, this reaction fairly rapidly.
• This reaction is a serious problem in carbonate rock.

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 Damage Evaluation
1- To what extent.
2- Knowledge of the mud properties.
3- Losses while drilling through the pay zone.
4- Types of formation rock.
5- Kind of fluid present during build up tests, provide more quantitative
data, regarding to the existence and extent of formation damage.

• Either stable emulsions (formation oil + mud).

• Or examinations of cores can indicate whether sensitive clay are
present.
• Flow tests can simulate damage and show the ability of various
treating agents to remove the damage and restore permeability.

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 Treating solutions
Depend on
1- Formation type
2- Formation condition.
3- Source of damage.
4- Treating technique employed.

• Solution of HCL acid are most commonly used for clean out purpose.
• Acid can react with carbonates and can shrink swollen clays.
• In sand stone rocks HCL acid can be helpful( due to presence of
drilling mud soluble solids).
• Organic acid such as formic and acetic acid are used in place of HCL,
when corrosion of tubing is concern, in case of high bottom hole
temperature are recommended . It may be necessary to leave acid
down hole for long periods of time.

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• Mixture of HCL + HF acid are used to dissolve clay and
silica.
• In case where large amount of drilling mud have been lost
in a naturally fractured carbonate reservoir, acid solution
may not give adequate clean out.
• Such condition using water base + mud dispersants.
• Thinners inject deep within the formation.

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 Treatment Design

• According to the clean out, treatment condition, it is

necessary to
1- Select type of treatment solution
2- Volume to be used.
3- Injection rate.
4- Treating technique • When there is little damage, treating
solution designed to cover as many as possible is used
commonly 5 – 10% of HCL + general purpose surfactant.

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 Volume of treatment

• Treatment volume is based on length of interval, or

number of perforations, clean out treatments are intended to
remove restrictions.
• Volume will range between 20 – 50 gal / ft. of perforated
interval or open hole fig 5.1 , penetrate 2 – 3 ft. radial
around the well bore.

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 Rate of treatment:

Injection rate should be in most cases low.

• Treating pressure should be maintained below fracture
pressure, while injecting.

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 Treating Acids
• Acids used in stimulating sand stone is
1- HF + HCL ( liquid HF + Liquid HCL); mixed to obtain
desired concentration.
2- Solid ammonium bifluoride ( NH4F.HF) : can be mixed
with HCL liquid to obtain desired concentration of HF +
HCL.
• HF + organic acid ( formic HCOOH), or acetic CH3COOH.
• Organic acids are used to retard the reaction of acid on
sand, and clay, and to reduce corrosiveness of the acid
blend, lead slight deeper penetration.

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 Preparation

• All solution should be prepared with fresh water.

• Sea water or brines should never be used in preparing
fluid by HF acid + organic acid at temperature 200º F or
above.

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 HF Acid Placement Techniques

1 – Pre flush fluids:

• This fluid provide a physical barrier between the mixture
and spent HF acid , reduce possibility of Na SIF6
Or Na A LF6

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Preflush fluids used such as
1- HCL preferable.
2- Ammonium Chloride ( NH4CL).
3- Diesel oil.
4- Kerosene.
5- Lease crude oil.

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Determination of preflush fluids
• Volume should be large enough to accomplish two goals.
1- Dissolve the calcium carbonate contained in the
zone contacted with un reacted HF acid.
2- Provide sufficient fluid at least 8 feet From the
well bore to serve as adequate barrier between
the reacted HF acid and the formation brine.
* Usually a volume of 100 gal. / foot of zone , 5% HCL acid is
used for preflushing.

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2- Treating Fluid
• Is designed to dissolve and remove clay damage.
• The most commonly used is 3% HF + 12 % HCL .
3 – After flush fluids
• To displace acid out of tubing.
• To ensure that the most of HF acid will react in the formation.
Common Fluids used as an after flush:-
1- Ammonium Chloride.
2- HCL acid.
3- Diesel.
4- Kerosene.
5- Lease crude oil.

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Determination of after flush volume
• Volume should be sufficient to assure that, HF displaced into
formation for enough (2 feet well bore) 50 gal / foot, of the
interested zone.
Shut in time:-
HF acid react very rapidly on clay.
• A long shut in time is not recommended.
• Return of spent stimulation fluid should begin as soon as
possible.

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Flow rate of stimulated well
• After an Acidizing treatment, gradually bring the well up to its
desired producing rate over a long period of time.
• If a well is immediately brought up to maximum production, it is
possible that some additional fines may be dislodged by sudden
pressure surge with a high density aqueous fluid.

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Treatment design
It is important to know as much about.
• Formation composition and properties as possible.
The following information is needed
1- Bottom hole temperature ( acid reaction)
2- Injection rate (maximum rate).
3- Silicate ( clay content) from Lab. test on formation sample 10%
can be used.
4- Well bore radius ( Ref to fig. 5.18, 5.19, 5.20,and 5.21) Example
1,2

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