UNIT 5 FABRICATION PROCESSES

1. What is Fabrication? What are the types of fabrication process? Explain in

detail any two methods under each process.
OR
Compare and contract open and closed moulding processes.
(NOV/DEC 2013-Regulation 2008)
FABRICATION:
The process of impregning various fiber layers with resinous material to form a structural
laminate which is used to build up a structure is called as Fabrication.
There are two types of Fabrication process. i) Open mould process
ii) Closed mould process
OPEN MOLD PROCESSES:
Open Mold Processes include spray-up and open contact molding (hand lay-up) in one-sided
molds. These low cost processes are commonly used for making boat hulls and decks, RV
components, truck cabs and fenders, spas, tubs, showers, and other fiberglass composite
products.

A) WET/HAND LAY-UP:

The fibres are first put in place in the mould. The fibres can be in the form of woven, knitted,
stitched or bonded fabrics. Then the resin is impregnated. The impregnation of resin is done by
using rollers, brushes or a nip-roller type impregnator. The impregnation helps in forcing the
resin inside the fabric. The laminates fabricated by this process are then cured under standard
atmospheric conditions. The wet/hand lay-up process is depicted in Figure 5.1.

The materials that can be used have, in general, no restrictions. One can use combination of
resins like epoxy, polyester, vinylester, phenolic and any fibre material.
Advantages:
 The process results in low cost tooling with the use of room-temperature cure resins.
 The process is simple to use.
 Any combination of fibres and matrix materials are used.
 Higher fibre contents and longer fibres as compared to other processes.
Disadvantages:
 Since the process is worked by hands, there are safety and hazard considerations.
 The resin needs to be less viscous so that it can be easily worked by hands.
 The quality of the final product is highly skill dependent of the labours.
 Uniform distribution of resin inside the fabric is not possible. It leads to voids in the
laminates.
 Possibility of diluting the contents.

Applications:
The process is suitable for the fabrication of wind-turbine blades, boats and architectural
mouldings.

DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING Mr A.VISWA (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR)

 Figure 5.1: Wet or hand lay-up fabrication

B. SPRAY LAY-UP:

Fibre is chopped in a hand-held gun and fed into a spray of catalyzed resin directed at the
mould. The deposited materials are left to cure under standard atmospheric conditions. The
fabrication method is depicted in Figure 5.2.

The polyester resins can be used with glass rovings is best suited for this process.

Figure 5.2: Spray lay-up fabrication

Advantages:
 It is suitable for small to medium-volume parts.
 It is a very economical process for making small to large parts.
 It utilizes low-cost tooling as well as low-cost material systems.
 Widely used for many years.
 Low cost way of quickly depositing fibre and resin

DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING Mr.A.VISWA (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR)

 Disadvantages:
 Laminates tend to be very resin-rich and therefore excessively heavy.
 Only short fibres are incorporated which severely limits the mechanical properties of the
laminate.
 Resins need to be low in viscosity to be sprayable. This generally compromises their
mechanical/thermal properties.
 The high styrene contents of spray lay-up resins generally means that they have the potential to
be more harmful and their lower viscosity means that they have an increased tendency to
penetrate clothing etc.
 Limiting airborne styrene concentrations to legislated levels is becoming increasingly difficult.

Limitations:
The following are some of the limitations of the spray-up process:

 It is not suitable for making parts that have high structural requirements.
 It is difficult to control the fiber volume fraction as well as the thickness. These
parameters highly depend on operator skill.
 Because of its open mold nature, styrene emission is a concern.
 The process offers a good surface finish on one side and a rough surface finish on the
other side.
 The process is not suitable for parts where dimensional accuracy and process
repeatability are prime concerns. The spray-up process does not provide a good surface
finish or dimensional control on both or all the sides of the product.
 Cores, when needed, have to be inserted manually.
 Only short fibres can be used in this process.
 Since, pressurized resin is used the laminates tend to be very resin-rich.
 Similar to wet/hand lay-up process, the resins need to be of low viscosity so that it can be
sprayed.

Applications:
Simple enclosures, lightly loaded structural panels, e.g. caravan bodies, truck fairings, bathtubs,
shower trays, some small dinghies.

CLOSED MOLD PROCESSES

Closed Mold Processes such as Resin Transfer Molding (RTM), Vaccum Bagging,
Compression Molding, Injection Molding, Filament Winding and Pultrusion are being used to
manufacture composite products in a variety of industries.

RESIN TRANSFER MOLDING - RTM

The process consists of arranging the fibres or cloth fabrics in the desired configuration in a
preform. These fabrics are sometimes pre-pressed to the mould shape, and held together by a
binder. A second matching mould tool is then clamped over the first. Then pressurized resin is
injected into the cavity. Vacuum can also be applied to the mould cavity to assist resin in being
drawn into the fabrics. This is known as Vacuum Assisted Resin Transfer Molding (VARTM) or
Vacuum Assisted Resin Injection (VARI). The laminate is then cured. Both injection and cure
can take place at either ambient or elevated temperature.

DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING Mr.A.VISWA (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR)

 COMPOSITE MATERIALS AND STRUCTURES

In this process, the resins like epoxy, polyester, vinylester and phenolic can be used. Further, one
use the high temperature resins such as bismaleimides can be used at elevated process
temperatures. The fibres of any type can be used. The stitched materials work well in this process
since the gaps allow rapid resin transport. Some specially developed fabrics can assist with resin
flow.
Advantages:
 The process is very efficient.
 Suitable for complex shapes.
 High fibre volume laminates can be obtained with very low void contents.
 Good health and safety, and environmental control due to enclosure of resin.
 Possible labour reductions.
 Both sides of the component have a moulded surface. Hence, the final product gets a
superior surface finish
 Better reproducibility.
 Relatively low clamping pressure and ability to induce inserts.

Disadvantages:
 Matched tooling is expensive and heavy in order to withstand pressures.
 Generally limited to smaller components.
 Unimpregnated areas can occur resulting in very expensive scrap parts.

Applications:

The applications include the hollow cylindrical parts like motor casing, engine covers, etc.

RESIN TRANSFER MOLDING

DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING Mr.A.VISWA (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR)

 COMPOSITE MATERIALS AND STRUCTURES

VACUUM BAGGING:

This is basically an extension of the wet lay-up process described above where pressure is
applied to the laminate once laid-up in order to improve its consolidation. This is achieved by
sealing a plastic film over the wet laid-up laminate and onto the tool. The air under the bag is
extracted by a vacuum pump and thus up to one atmosphere of pressure can be applied to the
laminate to consolidate it.

Materials Options:
 Resins: Primarily epoxy and phenolic. Polyesters and vinylesters may have problems due
to excessive extraction of styrene from the resin by the vacuum pump.
 Fibres: The consolidation pressures mean that a variety of heavy fabrics can be wet-out.
 Cores: Any.
Advantages:
 Higher fibre content laminates can usually be achieved than with standard wet lay-up
techniques.
 Lower void contents are achieved than with wet lay-up.
 Better fibre wet-out due to pressure and resin flow throughout structural fibres, with
excess into bagging materials.
 Health and safety: The vacuum bag reduces the amount of volatiles emitted during cure.
Disadvantages:
 The extra process adds cost both in labour and in disposable bagging materials.
 A higher level of skill is required by the operators.
 Mixing and control of resin content still largely determined by operator skill.
Applications:

Large one-off cruising boats, race car components, core-bonding in production boats.

Figure 1.19: Vacuum Bagging

DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING Mr.A.VISWA (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR)

 COMPOSITE MATERIALS AND STRUCTURES

OTHER INFUSION PROCESSES - SCRIMP, RIFT, VARTM ETC.

Description
Fabrics are laid up as a dry stack of materials as in RTM. The fibre stack is then covered with
peel ply and a knitted type of non-structural fabric. The whole dry stack is then vacuum bagged,
and once bag leaks have been eliminated, resin is allowed to flow into the laminate. The resin
distribution over the whole laminate is aided by resin flowing easily through the non-structural
fabric, and wetting the fabric out from above.

Materials Options:
Resins: Generally epoxy, polyester and vinylester.
Fibres: Any conventional fabrics. Stitched materials work well in this process since the gaps
allow rapid resin transport.
Cores: Any except honeycombs.

Main Advantages:
i) As RTM above, except only one side of the component has a moulded finish.
ii) Much lower tooling cost due to one half of the tool being a vacuum bag, and less strength
being required in the main tool.
iii) Large components can be fabricated.
iv) Standard wet lay-up tools may be able to be modified for this process.
v) Cored structures can be produced in one operation.

Main Disadvantages:
i) Relatively complex process to perform well.
ii) Resins must be very low in viscosity, thus comprising mechanical properties.
iii) Unimpregnated areas can occur resulting in very expensive scrap parts.
iv) Some elements of this process are covered by patents (SCRIMP).

Typical Applications:
Semi-production small yachts, train and truck body panels.

DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING Mr.A.VISWA (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR)

 COMPOSITE MATERIALS AND STRUCTURES

2. Describe the methodologyof manufacturing the carbon fiber. Also discuss any
two ofits applications. ( MAY/JUN 2012-Regulation 2008)
OR
a) Explain with sketches the production of carbon fibers.
b) What are the commercial forms of fiber?
( NOV/DEC 2012-Regulation 2008)
OR
Write the description of how carbon and graphite fibers are made.
(NOV/DEC 2013-Regulation 2008)
Carbon fibers possess 93-95% carbon content and are produced at 2400o F (1316oC)
Carbon fibers are generally manufactured from three Precursor materials: polyacrylonitrile
(PAN), rayon and pitch. Carbon fiber filament yarns are used in several processing techniques:
the direct uses are for prepregging, filament winding, pultrusion, weaving, braiding, etc

Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) and pitch are the two most common raw products used to
produce carbon fibers. PAN is a synthetic fiber that is pre-manufactured and wound onto spools,
and pitch is a coal-tar petroleum product that is melted, spun, and stretched into fibers.

First, in the thermoset treatment, the fibers are stretched and heated to no more than 400°
C.This is called as Stabilization. This step cross-links carbon chains so that the fibers will not
melt in subsequent treatments.

Second, in the carbonize treatment,the fibers are heated to about 800° C in an oxygen free
environment. This step removes non-carbon impurities, and for PAN based fibers. This is called
Carbonization.

Third, the fibers are graphitized; this step stretches the fibers between 50 to 100%
elongation, and heats them to temperatures ranging from 1100° C to 3000° C. The stretching
ensures a preferred crystalline orientation which results in the desired Young‘s modulus around
300-600 GPa.

Finally, the last two treatment steps, surface treatment and epoxy sizing, are preformed to
enhance the carbon fiber / epoxy bonding strength. The fibers may also be subjected to tension in
last two heating processes to develop fibers with a higher degree of orientation. They are then
collected on a spool.

DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING Mr.A.VISWA (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR)

 COMPOSITE MATERIALS AND STRUCTURES

STAGES OF PAN AND PITCH BASED CARBON FIBER MANUFACTURING

PROCEDURE

Commercial Forms Of fiber:

Rayon Saran Spandex

Acetate Metallic Aramid
Rubber Modacylic PBI
Glass Olefin Sulfar
Nylon Acrylic Lyocell
Vinyon Polyester

DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING Mr.A.VISWA (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR)

 COMPOSITE MATERIALS AND STRUCTURES

1. Carbon and/or Graphite

2. Glass fibers
3. Alumina
4. Aramid
5. Silicon carbide
6. Sapphire
7. Boron

Glass Fibers
Based on an alumina-lime-borosilicate composition, ―E‖ glass produced fibers are
considered the predominant reinforcement for polymer matrix composites due to their high
electrical insulating properties, low susceptibility to moisture and high mechanical properties.
Other commercial compositions include ―S‖ glass, with higher strength, heat resistance and
modulus, as well as some specialized glass reinforcements with improved chemical resistance,
such as AR glass (alkali resistant).
Glass fibers used for reinforcing composites generally range in diameter from 0.00035‖ to
0.00090‖ (9 to 23 microns). Fibers are drawn at high speeds, approaching 200 miles per hour,
through small holes in electrically heated bushings. These bushings form the individual

DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING Mr.A.VISWA (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR)

 COMPOSITE MATERIALS AND STRUCTURES

filaments. The filaments are gathered into groups or bundles called ―strands.‖ The filaments are
attenuated from the bushing, water and air cooled, and then coated with a proprietary chemical
binder or sizing to protect the filaments and enhance the composite laminate properties. The
sizing also determines the processing characteristics of the glass fiber and the conditions at the
fiber-matrix interface in the composite.

Glass is generally a good impact resistant fiber but weighs more than carbon or aramid.
Glass fibers have excellent characteristics, equal to or better than steel in certain forms. The
lower modulus requires special design treatment where stiffness is critical. Composites made
from this material exhibit very good electrical and thermal insulation properties. Glass fibers are
also transparent to radio frequency radiation and are used in radar antenna applications.

Carbon Fibers

Carbon fiber is created using polyacrylonitrile (PAN), pitch or rayon fiber precursors. PAN
based fibers offer good strength and modulus values up to 85-90 Msi. They also offer excellent
compression strength for structural applications up to 1000 ksi. Pitch fibers are made from
petroleum or coal tar pitch. Pitch fibers extremely high modulus values (up to 140 Msi) and
favorable coefficient of thermal expansion make them the material used in space/satellite
applications. Carbon fibers are more expensive than glass fibers, however carbon fibers offer an
excellent combination of strength, low weight and high modulus. The tensile strength of carbon
fiber is equal to glass while its modulus is about three to four times higher than glass.

Carbon fibers are supplied in a number of different forms, from continuous filament tows to
chopped fibers and mats. The highest strength and modulus are obtained by using unidirectional
continuous reinforcement. Twist-free tows of continuous filament carbon contain 1,000 to
75,000 individual filaments, which can be woven or knitted into woven roving and hybrid
fabrics with glass fibers and aramid fibers.

Carbon fiber composites are more brittle (less strain at break) than glass or aramid. Carbon
fibers can cause galvanic corrosion when used next to metals. A barrier material such as glass
and resin is used to prevent this occurrence.

Aramid Fibers (Polyaramids)

Aramid fiber is an aromatic polyimid that is a man-made organic fiber for composite
reinforcement. Aramid fibers offer good mechanical properties at a low density with the added
advantage of toughness or damage/impact resistance. They are characterized as having
reasonably high tensile strength, a medium modulus, and a very low density as compared to
glass and carbon. The tensile strength of aramid fibers are higher than glass fibers and the
modulus is about fifty percent higher than glass. These fibers increase the impact resistance of
composites and provide products with higher tensile strengths. Aramid fibers are insulators of
both electricity and heat. They are resistant to organic solvents, fuels and lubricants. Aramid
composites are not as good in compressive strength as glass or carbon composites. Dry aramid
fibers are tough and have been used as cables or ropes, and frequently used in ballistic
applications.

DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING Mr.A.VISWA (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR)

 COMPOSITE MATERIALS AND STRUCTURES

3) Write short notes on a) autoclave curing b) filament windingc) pultrusiond)

braiding e) centrifugal casting. Mention its advantages and disadvantages and
also list its applications.

AUTOCLAVE CURING:

The key features of this process are as follows:

 An autoclave is a closed vessel for controlling temperature and pressure is used for curing
polymeric matrix composites.
 Composites to be cured is prepared either through hand lay up or machine placement of
individual laminae in the form of fibers tape which has been impregnated with resin.
 Components is then placed in an autoclave and subjected to a controlled cycle of
temperature and pressure.
 After curing, the composite is ―solidified‖.
 One can use the fibres like carbon, glass, aramid etc. along with any resin.

Advantages:
 Large components can be fabricated.
 Since, the curing of matrix material is carried out under controlled environment the resin
distribution is better as compared to hand or spays lay-up processes.
 Less possibility of dilution with foreign particles.
 Better surface finish.

Disadvantages:
 Initial cost of tooling is high.
 Running and maintenance cost is high.
 Not suitable for small products.

Applications:
The process is suitable for aerospace, automobile parts like wing box, chassis, bumpers, etc.

FILAMENT WINDING:
This process is an automated process. This process is used in the fabrication of
components or structures made with flexible fibers. This process is primarily used for hollow,
generally circular or oval sectioned components. Fibre tows are passed through a resin bath
before being wound onto a mandrel in a variety of orientations, controlled by the fibre feeding
mechanism, and rate of rotation of the mandrel. The wound component is then cured in an oven
or autoclave.

One can use resins like epoxy, polyester, vinylester and phenolic along with any fibre. The fibre
can be directly from creel, non-woven or stitched into a fabric form.

Advantages:
 Resin content is controlled by nips or dies.

DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING Mr.A.VISWA (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR)

 COMPOSITE MATERIALS AND STRUCTURES

 The process can be very fast.

 The process is economic.
 Complex fibre patterns can be attained for better load bearing of the structure.

Disadvantages:
 Resins with low viscosity are needed.
 The process is limited to convex shaped components.
 Fibre cannot easily be laid exactly along the length of a component.
 Mandrel costs for large components can be high.
 The external surface of the component is not smoothly finished.

FILAMENT WINDING
Applications:
Pressure bottles, rocket motor casing, chemical storage tanks, pipelines, gas cylinders, fire-
fighters, breathing tanks etc.

PULTRUSION:
It is a continuous process in which composites in the form of fibers and fabrics are pulled
hrough a bath of liquid resin. Then the fibres wetted with resin are pulled through a heated die.
The die plays important roles like completing the impregnation and controlling the resin. Further,
the material is cured to its final shape. The die shape used in this process is nothing the replica of
the final product. Finally, the finished product is cut to length.

In this process, the fabrics may also be introduced into the die. The fabrics provide a fibre
direction other 0°. Further, a variant of this method to produce a profile with some variation in
the cross-section is available. This is known as pulforming.

The resins like epoxy, polyester, vinylester and phenolic can be used with any fibre.

Advantages:
 The process is suitable for mass production.
 The process is fast and economic.
DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING Mr.A.VISWA (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR)
 COMPOSITE MATERIALS AND STRUCTURES

 Resin content can be accurately controlled.

 Fibre cost is minimized as it can be taken directly from a creel.
 The surface finish of the product is good.
 Structural properties of product can be very good as the profiles have very straight fibres.
Disadvantages:
 Limited to constant or near constant cross-section components.
 Heated die costs can be high.
 Products with small cross-sections alone can be fabricated.

Applications:
Beams and girders used in roof structures, bridges, ladders, frameworks

Pultrusion
BRAIDING:
This is an automatic fabrication process. The toes are interlaced together to the final form
of the product. Further, this interlacing can be over the mandrel which has the final shape of the
product. The toes can be impregnated with the resin. Then the product is cured at room
temperature or in autoclave.

Advantages:
 Cost effective automated technique for interlacing fibers into complex shapes.
 Final product is obtained.
 Structural properties obtained are good.
Disadvantages:
 The initial tooling cost is high.

Applications:
Rope, tubes, narrow flat strips, contoured shapes, solid 3-D shape including I-beams and T-
beams

DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING Mr.A.VISWA (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR)

 COMPOSITE MATERIALS AND STRUCTURES

CENTRIFUGAL CASTING:

In this process the chopped fibres and the resin is sent under pressure to the cylindrical
moulding. The moulding is rotating. Due to centrifugal action, the mixture of resin and chopped
fibres get deposited on wall of the moulding. Thus, the mixture gets the final form of the product.

Advantages:

1. Suitable for small hollow cylindrical products.

2. Economic for small production.

Disadvantages:

1. Complex shape can not be made.

2. Resin with low viscosity is needed.
3. The finish of the inner side of the product is not good.
4. The structural properties may not be good as the chopped fibres are used.

CENTRIFUGAL CASTING

Applications:
The applications include the hollow cylindrical parts like motor casing, engine covers, etc.

4. Explain essential properties and functions of a good resin used in

laminated composites.
(NOV/DEC 2012-Regulation 2008)
OR

Explain the properties and applications of resins.

(NOV/DEC 2013-Regulation 2008)

DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING Mr.A.VISWA (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR)

 COMPOSITE MATERIALS AND STRUCTURES

The primary functions of the resin are to transfer stress between the reinforcing fibers, act
as a glue to hold the fibers together, and protect the fibers from mechanical and environmental
damage.

Properties of Resins

1. Adhesive Properties
2. Mechanical Properties
3. Micro-Cracking resistance
4. Fatigue Resistance
5. Degradation from Water Ingress
ADHESIVE PROPERTIES
It must be understood that the adhesive properties of a resin system is important in achieving the
full mechanical properties of a composite. The adhesion of the resin matrix to the fibre
reinforcement or to a core material in a sandwich construction is important. Polyester resins
generally have the lowest adhesive properties of the three systems. Vinyl ester resin shows
improved adhesive properties over polyester but epoxy systems offer the best performance of all,
and are therefore frequently found in many high-strength adhesives.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Two important mechanical properties of any resin system are its tensile strength and
stiffness.

MICRO-CRACKING
The strength of a laminate is usually thought of in terms of how much load it can withstand
before it suffers complete failure. This ultimate or breaking strength is the point at which the
resin exhibits catastrophic breakdown and the fibre reinforcements break.
FATIGUE RESISTANCE
Generally composites show excellent fatigue resistance when compared with most metals.
However, since fatigue failure tends to result from the gradual accumulation of small amounts of
damage, the fatigue behaviour of any composite will be influenced by the toughness of the resin,
its resistance to micro cracking, and the quantity of voids and other defects, which occur during
manufacture.
DEGRADATION FROM WATER INGRESS
An important property of any resin, particularly in a marine environment, is its ability to
withstand degradation from water ingress. All resins will absorb some moisture, adding to a
laminate‘s weight, but what is more significant is how the absorbed water affects the resin and
resin/fibre bond in a laminate, leading to a gradual and long term loss in mechanical properties.

RESIN Application
Internal lubricant
External lubricant
Internal & external
lubricant
PVC Anti-fogging agent

DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING Mr.A.VISWA (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR)

JEPPIAAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE AE 2451 COMPOSITE MATERIALS AND STRUCTURES

Anti-static agent
Coating anti-
fogging & anti-
static agent
Plasticizer
Anti-static agent
Anti-static
agent/Master batch
Releasing agent
PP Anti-oxidant
LDPE
& Anti-fogging agent
L-LDPE Anti-static agent
Anti-fogging
agent/Master batch
Anti-static
agent/Master batch

Anti-fogging agent
EVA Plasticizer
Anti-static agent
Anti-static
HDPE agent/Master batch
Lubricant/Releasing
agent
Coating anti-
fogging & anti-
static agent
PS Dispersing agent

Properties such as strength and durability are used to describe various types of resins' physical
and chemical characteristics. Resins are generally known for having superior strength and
exceptional durability under various laboratory and environmental conditions. In addition, some
types of resin can have variable adhesive and mechanical properties. Synthetic resin has
properties similar to those of natural resin, but they are chemically different.

Engineering applications use chemical resin to produce a product that is resistant to both impact
and fatigue. Other important resin properties for engineering and chemistry purposes include
insolubility and fire resistance. Resin products are designed to encompass all of these
properties, because the products undergo extreme conditions in terms of water abrasion,
temperature changes or direct impact. Some common chemical resins include polyoxymethylene,
also known as Acetal; polycarbonate; and tetrafluoroethylene, also known as Teflon TFE.

DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING Mr.A.VISWA (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR)

 COMPOSITE MATERIALS AND STRUCTURES

Products made with chemical resins can include centrifuge ware, safety shields and filter ware.
These products are designed to withstand extreme temperatures and aqueous chemical
environments. Acetal is especially resistant to organic solvents and may be reinforced with
glass fibers. Polycarbonate is a type of clear thermo-plastic that is non-toxic and extremely rigid.
Tetrafluoroethylene products have superior chemical resistance.

For composite materials, the adhesive and mechanical resin properties are considerably
beneficial. The adhesive property relates to the binding strength and the mechanical property
relates to tensile strength and stiffness, and both properties are directly related.

Role of Resins (Matrices) in Composites

1. Transfer stresses between the fibers.
2. Provide a barrier against an adverse environment.
3. Protect the surface of the fibers from mechanical abrasion.
4. Determine inter-laminar shear strength.
5. Determine damage tolerance of composites.
6. Determine in-plane shear strength.
7. Determine the processibility of composites.
8. Determine heat resistance of composites

Functions of Resin Matrix

In a composite material, the matrix material serves the following functions:
1. Holds the fibres together.
2. Protects the fibres from environment.
3. Distributes the loads evenly between fibres so that all fibres are subjected to the same amount
ofstrain.
4. Enhances transverse properties of a laminate.
5. Improves impact and fracture resistance of a component.
6. Helps to avoid propagation of crack growth through the fibres by providing alternate failure
path along the interface between the fibres and the matrix.
7. Carry interlaminar shear.

5.Write short notes on netting analysis. (MAY/JUN 2013-Regulation 2008)

NETTING ANALYSIS

The analysis of filament-wound structures which assumes (1) that the stresses induced in the
structure are carried entirely by the filaments, and the strength of the resin is neglected; and (2)
that the filaments possess no bending or shearing stiffness, and carry only the axial tensile loads.

The basic assumption in netting analysis is that the fibers provide all the longitudinal stiffness
and the matrix provides all the transverse and shear stiffness.

DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING Mr.A.VISWA (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR)

 COMPOSITE MATERIALS AND STRUCTURES

NETTING ANALYSIS OF COMPOSITE PRESSURE VESSELS

In the cylindrical section of a closed-end pressure vessel, the hoop or the circumferential stress is
twice that of the axial stress. If a homogeneous material with isotropic properties is used to
fabricatea pressure vessel, the material properties are effectively wasted in the axial direction.
The filament winding process alleviates this problem by allowing the designer to optimize the
structure of composite pressure vessels by placing enough fibers along the hoop direction to
withstand the higher stress in this direction. The netting analysis is a simple analytical technique
used in designing composite pressure vessels, particularlyfilament-wound composite pressure
vessels. The analysis establishes the relationship between the stresses resulting in the composite
plies of the pressure vessel and the internal pressure, material properties and
processing parameters. It assumes that all loads are supported by the fibers only and
neglects any contribution from the matrix material and the interaction between fibers. These
assumptions do not causeany significant error in the analysis, as long as the fibers are primarily
loaded in tension and the transverse and shear stresses in the composite plies are low compared
to the ultimate tensile strength of the fibers, It is also assumed that the load sharingcontribution
from the liner is minimal or non-existent

6. Write notes on closed moulding manufacturing process of composites.

(NOV/DEC 2012-Regulation 2008)

CLOSED MOLD PROCESSES

Closed Mold Processes such as Resin Transfer Molding (RTM), Vaccum Bagging,
Compression Molding, Injection Molding, Filament Winding and Pultrusion are being used to
manufacture composite products in a variety of industries.

RESIN TRANSFER MOLDING - RTM

The process consists of arranging the fibres or cloth fabrics in the desired configuration in a
preform. These fabrics are sometimes pre-pressed to the mould shape, and held together by a
binder. A second matching mould tool is then clamped over the first. Then pressurized resin is
injected into the cavity. Vacuum can also be applied to the mould cavity to assist resin in being
drawn into the fabrics. This is known as Vacuum Assisted Resin Transfer Molding (VARTM) or
Vacuum Assisted Resin Injection (VARI). The laminate is then cured. Both injection and cure
can take place at either ambient or elevated temperature.

In this process, the resins like epoxy, polyester, vinylester and phenolic can be used. Further, one
use the high temperature resins such as bismaleimides can be used at elevated process
temperatures. The fibres of any type can be used. The stitched materials work well in this process
since the gaps allow rapid resin transport. Some specially developed fabrics can assist with resin
flow.
Advantages:
 The process is very efficient.
 Suitable for complex shapes.
 High fibre volume laminates can be obtained with very low void contents.
 Good health and safety, and environmental control due to enclosure of resin.
 Possible labour reductions.

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 COMPOSITE MATERIALS AND STRUCTURES

 Both sides of the component have a moulded surface. Hence, the final product gets a
superior surface finish
 Better reproducibility.
 Relatively low clamping pressure and ability to induce inserts.

Disadvantages:
 Matched tooling is expensive and heavy in order to withstand pressures.
 Generally limited to smaller components.
 Unimpregnated areas can occur resulting in very expensive scrap parts.

Applications:

The applications include the hollow cylindrical parts like motor casing, engine covers, etc.

RESIN TRANSFER MOLDING

VACUUM BAGGING:

This is basically an extension of the wet lay-up process described above where pressure is
applied to the laminate once laid-up in order to improve its consolidation. This is achieved by
sealing a plastic film over the wet laid-up laminate and onto the tool. The air under the bag is
extracted by a vacuum pump and thus up to one atmosphere of pressure can be applied to the
laminate to consolidate it.

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Materials Options:
 Resins: Primarily epoxy and phenolic. Polyesters and vinylesters may have problems due
to excessive extraction of styrene from the resin by the vacuum pump.
 Fibres: The consolidation pressures mean that a variety of heavy fabrics can be wet-out.
 Cores: Any.
Advantages:
 Higher fibre content laminates can usually be achieved than with standard wet lay-up
techniques.
 Lower void contents are achieved than with wet lay-up.
 Better fibre wet-out due to pressure and resin flow throughout structural fibres, with
excess into bagging materials.
 Health and safety: The vacuum bag reduces the amount of volatiles emitted during cure.
Disadvantages:
 The extra process adds cost both in labour and in disposable bagging materials.
 A higher level of skill is required by the operators.
 Mixing and control of resin content still largely determined by operator skill.
Applications:

Large one-off cruising boats, race car components, core-bonding in production boats.

Figure 1.19: Vacuum Bagging

OTHER INFUSION PROCESSES - SCRIMP, RIFT, VARTM ETC.

Description
Fabrics are laid up as a dry stack of materials as in RTM. The fibre stack is then covered with
peel ply and a knitted type of non-structural fabric. The whole dry stack is then vacuum bagged,
and once bag leaks have been eliminated, resin is allowed to flow into the laminate. The resin
distribution over the whole laminate is aided by resin flowing easily through the non-structural
fabric, and wetting the fabric out from above.

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 COMPOSITE MATERIALS AND STRUCTURES

Materials Options:
Resins: Generally epoxy, polyester and vinylester.
Fibres: Any conventional fabrics. Stitched materials work well in this process since the gaps
allow rapid resin transport.
Cores: Any except honeycombs.

Main Advantages:
i) As RTM above, except only one side of the component has a moulded finish.
ii) Much lower tooling cost due to one half of the tool being a vacuum bag, and less strength
being required in the main tool.
iii) Large components can be fabricated.
iv) Standard wet lay-up tools may be able to be modified for this process.
v) Cored structures can be produced in one operation.

Main Disadvantages:
i) Relatively complex process to perform well.
ii) Resins must be very low in viscosity, thus comprising mechanical properties.
iii) Unimpregnated areas can occur resulting in very expensive scrap parts.
iv) Some elements of this process are covered by patents (SCRIMP).

Typical Applications:
Semi-production small yachts, train and truck body panels.

DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING Mr.VISWA (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR)

 COMPOSITE MATERIALS AND STRUCTURES

7. Describe the methodology ofmanufacture the glass fiber. Mention any two
ofits applications. (MAY/JUN 2012-Regulation 2008)

Glass is the most common fiber used in polymer matrix composites. Its
advantagesincludeitshighstrength,lowcost,highchemicalresistance and
goodinsulatingproperties.Thedrawbacksincludelowelasticmodulus,
pooradhesiontopolymers,highspecificgravity,sensitivitytoabrasion
(reducestensilestrength),andlowfatiguestrength.

Types& Applications:
ThemaintypesareE-glass(alsocalled―fiberglass‖)andS-glass.

 The―E‖inE-glassstandsforelectricalbecauseitwasdesignedforelectrical
applications.However,itisusedformanyotherpurposesnow,suchas
decorationsandstructuralapplications.
 The―S‖inS-glassstandsforhigher
contentofsilica.ItretainsitsstrengthathightemperaturescomparedtoE-
glassandhashigherfatiguestrength.Itisusedmainlyforaerospaceapplications.
 OthertypesavailablecommerciallyareC-glass(―C‖standsforcorrosion)
usedinchemicalenvironments,suchasstoragetanks;
 R-glassusedinstructuralapplicationssuchasconstruction;
 D-glass(dielectric)usedforapplications requiring low dielectric constants, such as
radomes; and
 A-glass(appearance)usedtoimprovesurfaceappearance

Manufacturing:
GlassfibersaremadegenerallybydrawingfromameltasshowninFigure.Themeltisformedina
refractoryfurnaceatabout2550°F(1400°C)from a mixture that includes sand, limestone, and
alumina.
Themeltisstirredandmaintainedataconstanttemperature.Itpasses
throughasmanyas250heatedplatinumalloynozzlesofabout394μin.(10μm)diameter,whereitisdrawn
intofilamentsofneededsizeathighspeedsof about 361 mi/h(25 m/s).
These fibers are sprayed with an organic sizing solution before they are drawn. The
sizing solution is a mixture of binders,
lubricants,andcouplingandantistaticagents;bindersallowfilamentsto
bepackedinstrands,lubricantspreventabrasionoffilaments,andcoupling agents give better
adhesion between the inorganic glass fiber and the organicmatrix.

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 COMPOSITE MATERIALS AND STRUCTURES

Fibers are then drawn into strands and wound on a forming tube. Strands are groups of
more than 204 filaments. The wound array of strands is then removed and dried in an oven to
remove any water or sizing solutions. The
glassstrandcanthenbeconvertedintoseveralformsasshown in Figure.

Schematicofmanufacturingglassfibersandavailableglassforms

DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING Mr.A.VISWA (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR)

 COMPOSITE MATERIALS AND STRUCTURES

8. Write short notes on:

(i) Metal Matrix composites
(ii) Production of high strength carbon fibers with suitable sketches
(iii) Discuss the properties and applications of any two resins used in polymer
matrix composites (MAY/JUN 2013-Regulation 2008)

(i)METAL MATRIX COMPOSITES

Metal matrix composites (MMCs), as the name implies, have a metal matrix. Examples of
matrices in such composites include aluminum, magnesium, and titanium. Typical fibers include
carbon and silicon carbide. Metals are mainly reinforced to increase or decrease their properties
to suit the needs of design.
For example, the elastic stiffness and strength of metals can be increased and large coefficients of
thermal expansion and thermal and electric conductivities of metals can be reduced, by the
addition of fibers such as silicon carbide.

ADVANTAGES:

Metalmatrixcompositesaremainlyusedtoprovideadvantagesover
monolithicmetalssuchassteelandaluminum.Theseadvantagesinclude
higherspecificstrengthandmodulusbyreinforcinglow-densitymetals,
suchasaluminumandtitanium;lowercoefficientsofthermalexpansionby
reinforcingwithfiberswithlowcoefficientsofthermalexpansion,suchas
graphite;andmaintainingpropertiessuchasstrengthathightemperatures.

MMCs have several advantages over polymer matrix composites. These include higher
elastic properties; higher service temperature; insensitivity to moisture; higher electric and
thermal conductivities; and better wear, fatigue, and flaw resistances. The drawbacks of MMCs
over PMCs include higherprocessing temperatures and higher densities.

APPLICATIONS:

 Space: The space shuttle uses boron/aluminum tubes to support its fuselage frame.
 Military: Precision components of missile guidance systems demand dimensional
stability — that is, the geometries of the components cannot change during use.
 Transportation: Metal matrix composites are finding use now in auto- motive engines
that are lighter than their metal counterparts. Also, because of their high strength and low
weight, metal matrix composites are the material of choice for gas turbine engines.

DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING Mr.A.VISWA (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR)

 COMPOSITE MATERIALS AND STRUCTURES

(ii) PRODUCTION OF HIGH STRENGTH CARBON FIBERS :

High Strength Carbon fibers are Carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer, carbon-fiber-reinforced

plastic or carbon-fiber reinforced thermoplastic (CFRP, CRP, CFRTP or often simply carbon
fiber, or even carbon), which is an extremely strong and light fiber-reinforced polymer which
contains carbon fibers.
The binding polymer is often a thermoset resin such as epoxy, but other thermoset
or thermoplastic polymers, such as polyester, vinyl ester or nylon, are sometimes used.
The composite may contain other fibers, such as aramid e.g. Kevlar, Twaron, aluminium, or glass
fibers, as well as carbon fibe.

iii) VARIOUS POLYMERS USED IN ADVANCED POLYMER COMPOSITES.

Thesepolymersincludeepoxy,phenolics,acrylic,urethane,andpolyamide.

 Polyesters: The advantages are low cost and the ability to be made translucent;
drawbacks include service temperatures below 170°F (77°C),brittleness, and high
shrinkage of as much as 8% during curing.

 Phenolics:The advantages are low cost and high mechanical

strength;drawbacksincludehighvoidcontent.

DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING Mr.A.VISWA (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR)

 COMPOSITE MATERIALS AND STRUCTURES

 Epoxies:Theadvantagesarehighmechanicalstrengthandgood adherence to metals and

glasses; drawbacks are high cost and difficultyinprocessing.

DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING Mr.A.VISWA (ASSISTANT PROFESSOR)