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HALAMAN PERSETUJUAN
Naskah untuk Tugas Kuliah Book Review Psikogeriatri Old Age Psychiatry Chapter 54 :
Sexuality in Later Life
PENGUJI
Pembimbing Tandatangan
Sie Ilmiah
....................................................... .....................................................
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HALAMAN PENGESAHAN
Pembimbing
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OX F 0 R D T EXT 6 OOKS I N P S YC H I AT RY
Oxford Textbook of
Old Age
Psychiatry
CHAPTER 54
Sexuality in later life
Walter Pierre Bouman
When it can be done without embarrassment or evangelisation, physi- be enjoyable into the 90s and beyond. Nevertheless, myths about
cians need to support and encourage the sexuality of the old. It is a sexuality abound, adversely affecting societal views about sexual-
mental, social, and probably a physical preservative of their status as ity and older people. Myths, pertinent to sexuality in older people,
persons, which our society already attacks in so many cruel ways.
are described in both medical and fictional literature. Such com-
Alex Comfort
mon myths include the following. ‘A woman’s sex life ends with the
Sexuality is an essential part of any person, and expressing it is menopause’; ‘Having sex means having intercourse’; ‘A diagnosis
a basic human need and right of each individual regardless of age, of dementia automatically invalidates the ability to consent to be
gender, ethnicity, religion, disability, and sexual orientation. The sexual’; ‘Sex is for the young and not for the old’; ‘Older women
liberalization of society, particularly in the western devel- oped are not sexually desirable, nor sexually capable’; ‘Older people are
world, has led to more positive and less restrictive attitudes and not at risk of HIV infection’. This position has been compounded,
views in the population regarding many aspects of sexuality, over a long period of time, by media portrayal of ageist stereotypes,
including later-life sexuality. The latter is reflected in a significant sustaining the belief that old people are asexual. Myths regarding
growth of the literature in the area of sexuality and ageing, espe- sexuality may stem from transgenerational internalized social,
cially in the last few decades, as well as in the growing interest political, religious, cultural, and moral values and the media’s por-
shown in this topic by the media. Clinicians, researchers, educa- trayal of later-life sexuality. Research, particularly among young
tors, journalists, programme makers, and other interested parties people, identifies predominantly negative attitudes to sexuality in
continue to highlight the importance of sexuality and sexual health older people. However, some recent work suggests that, in general,
in the older population. However, older people do not comprise a a more positive attitude towards sexuality in later life is develop-
distinct group able to influence national policies and directives in ing. The expansion of consumer culture with new opportunities and
the UK with regards to sexuality and sexual health. This results in roles for older people may account for this attitudinal shift
this age group being effectively marginalized and clearly discrimi- (Bouman, 2005).
nated against.
This chapter gives a general overview concerning all aspects of Attitudes among health professionals
sexuality and ageing. It starts with a discussion of myths and atti- towards later-life sexuality
tudes to later-life sexuality, followed by research studies in this area, Attitudes amongst researchers and policymakers
sexual physiology, the effects of physical illness and medication on The attitudes of researchers towards later-life sexuality can lead to
sexuality, taking a sexual history, the description of the main sexual the development of flawed methodologies and unrepresentative
problems in older people, and addressing specific issues of the les- policy development purporting to be evidence-based. It is impor-
bian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) population. It further tant to consider that many research studies are cross-sectional stud-
describes the issue of sexual abuse in older people and the topic of ies. They attribute variations in attitudes exclusively to age, whilst
sexuality and dementia. The chapter concludes with a discussion of ignoring other influences such as cohort effects, sampling biases,
the management of a variety of sexual problems encountered in generational differences, and the specific historical-social milieu.
clinical practice. Interpretation of such studies must recognize their inherent meth-
Other routes into the literature are provided by textbooks (Schiavi, odological difficulties.
1999; Balon and Taylor Segraves, 2005; Kimmel, Rose and David, Ageist stereotypes commonly affect the development of health
2006; Leiblum, 2007; Bancroft, 2009) and many of the books, chap- policies, as exemplified by a number of Department of Health
ters, and articles cited elsewhere in this chapter. directives. The National Service Framework (NSF) for Older People
(DH, 2001a) and the National Sexual Health Strategy (DH, 2001b)
set out the future policy and service development agenda in their
Myths and Attitudes to Sexuality respective areas. Strikingly, neither makes any reference to sex or
The literature confirms that there is no age limit to sexual respon- sexual health in later life. There is a presumption that policy devel-
siveness. Sexual activity in action, reflection, and aspiration can opment in this area is unnecessary, probably because it is seen as
704 oXFORD TEXTB oo K of OLD AGE psyCHIATRy
irrelevant or unimportant to older people. However, there is clear Attitudes in residential and nursing homes
evidence rebutting the Department of Health’s presumption (Gott towards later-life sexuality
and Hinchliff, 2003a, 2003b). Knodel et al. (2002) found that indi- Attitudes of staff
viduals aged 50 years or older continue to account for at least 10% The burgeoning body of research on sexuality in long-term care
of AIDS cases reported annually in the UK. Further research indi- facilities focuses almost exclusively on heterosexual sexuality
cates that older adults do engage in high-risk transmission behav- (Hinrichs and Vacha-Haase, 2010). Research amongst care staff has
iours (Illa et al., 2008; Simone and Appelbaum, 2008; Schick et al., revealed attitudes that are both negative and restrictive (LaTorre
2010). and Kear, 1977; Wasow and Loeb, 1979; Glass et al., 1986; Commons
The latest National Survey of Sexual Attitudes and Lifestyles et al., 1992; Nay, 1992; Fairchild et al., 1996; Bauer, 1999) and posi-
(NATSAL) (Overy et al., 2011), which is scheduled to publish its tive or permissive (Kaas, 1978; White and Catania, 1982; Luketich,
result in autumn 2013, is regarded by the Department of Health as 1991; Damrosch and Cogliano, 1994; Livini, 1994; Holmes et al.,
providing a sound evidence base for policymaking in key areas of 1997; Walker et al., 1998; Bouman et al., 2007). Inconsistent find-
public health. For the first time, NATSAL has included older peo- ings in the research published in the last three decades should be
ple aged up to 73 years. The previous studies were typically unrep- seen in the context of the heterogeneity of the groups and the care
resentative, having only recruited participants aged up to 44 years facilities sampled, as well as the different methodologies used.
(Johnson et al., 2001). Placing older people outside the remit of There are many specific factors predictive of individuals’ attitudes
national, population-based surveys of sexuality and sexual health regarding later-life sexuality. Several researchers have indicated that
reinforces the notion that sex is not relevant to older people and a young age (Bouman et al., 2007), strong religious beliefs (Story,
ignores an important public health issue (Gott, 2005). Sexuality and 1989; Gibson et al., 1999), and experience of negative interactions
sexual health in older people appear to be domains deeply infil- with older people (Glass et al., 1986) may account for negative atti-
trated by ageism among health professionals, despite the fact that tudes among care staff. In contrast, vocational training (White and
‘rooting out age discrimination’ is an explicit policy imperative of Catania, 1982; Aja and Self, 1986; Sullivan-Miller, 1987), higher
the NSF for Older People (DH, 2001a). educational achievement, socioeconomic background (Glass et al.,
1986; Walker and Harrington, 2002), and work experience
Attitudes among doctors and nurses (Sullivan-Miller, 1987; Walker and Harrington, 2002; Bouman et
There is a dearth of research about the attitudes of doctors to lat- al., 2007) generally predict more positive attitudes among care staff.
er-life sexuality (Gott et al., 2004a; Dogan et al., 2008). Taylor and However, Hinrichs and Vacha-Haase (2010) found that knowledge
Gosney (2011) suggest that many clinicians believe that older peo- about ageing and sexuality was not related to carers’ attitudes to
ple are not sexually active, and that those who are should not be. residents’ sexual behaviours. They recommend that measures be
They identify the need for clinicians to be more self-aware, to be taken to eliminate discrimination on the grounds of sexuality in
alert to prejudicial behaviour and assumptions about sexuality in residential care. Staff need help to focus on their own biases and to
older people, and to recognize the potentially negative effects they foster more permissive attitudes towards sexual expression among
may have on this group. residents. Some researchers have reported that self-selection and
Most of the early (but sparse) literature describes rather negative response bias potentially limit the ability to generalize with regards
attitudes among nurses towards later-life sexuality (Burnside, 1976; to these findings, and that liberal attitudes do not necessarily trans-
Webb, 1988; Parke, 1991). Over the last two decades there has been late into permissive behaviour (Hillman and Stricker, 1994; Holmes
a growing recognition, within the nursing profession, for the need et al., 1997; Gibson et al., 1999; Bouman et al., 2006).
to address negative attitudes towards sexuality and sexual health. The attitudes and behaviours of care staff in residential and nurs-
The setting of educational standards within nurse training and the ing homes impact directly on the expression of sexuality by resi-
work of academic nurses are important sources for such changes. dents (Eddy, 1986). When dealing with residents’ issues of sexuality
Since the early 1990s, numerous publications addressing sexual- and sexual health, staff should be guided by their duty to create an
ity and nursing have emerged in the UK, with the overall aims of environment that facilitates the fulfilment of needs and desires,
developing a greater knowledge and promoting positive attitudes while maintaining dignity. The rights of competent and incompe-
towards sexuality and sexual health within the profession (Luketich, tent patients must be protected (Lichtenberg and Strzepek, 1990;
1991; Waterhouse and Metcalfe, 1991; UKCC, 1992; Matocha and Hajjar and Kamel, 2003a, 2003b) and effect must be given to auton-
Waterhouse, 1993; Van Ooijen and Charnock, 1994; Waterhouse, omous choice (Beauchamp and Childress, 2008).
1996; Peate, 1999; Bailey and Bunter, 2000; Cort et al., 2001). The
Royal College of Nursing made a clear statement and commitment
in this respect: Studies in Sexuality and Older People
The development of sexual health policy and practice guidelines is The collection of objective data on sexual behaviour began with
essential if nurses are to feel confident and supported in promoting Kinsey and colleagues (1948, 1953) and continued with Masters
sexual health and if service users are to have confidence that their and Johnson (1966, 1970), by the direct observation of volunteers
sexual health rights are not denied. in the laboratory, including information on the sexual physiology
(RCN, 1996) of aged men and women which has never yet, in its detail or objec-
tivity, been surpassed. Since then, a growing number of studies
The development of nursing theory and a more holistic approach have focused specifically on older people, of which those revealing
to care has led, inter alia, to sexuality playing an integral part in the most significant impact upon the understanding of sexuality and
interactions between nurses and patients (Koh, 1999; Peate, 1999; ageing will be addressed. However, important methodological
Kozier et al., 2008; Post et al., 2008).
CHAPTER 54 s EXUality IN LATER LIFE 705
also asked their subjects in whom the level of sexual activity had
‘artificial coition’ where female participants were penetrated by
declined to suggest why this occurred. Men tended to give as rea-
electronically powered plastic penises. Data from this research were
sons the onset of illness and the loss of a partner, whilst women
used to develop Master and Johnson’s most far-reaching legacy—
reported loss of the partner, illness of the partner, and illness in
the concept of the ‘human sexual response cycle’.
themselves. Loss of a partner is both more common and more of a
In relation to later-life sexuality, the authors investigated 34
handicap for women, in that women survive longer than men and
women and 39 men over the age of 50 over a period of 4 years. In
tend to be younger than their husbands.
view of the small sample size, they said that they were only able to
‘suggest clinical impression rather than to establish biological fact’ The Gothenburg studies (Persson, 1980; Skoog, 1996;
(Masters and Johnson, 1966). Like Kinsey, they clearly considered Beckman et al., 2008)
the essence of sexuality to lie in biology. Perhaps the most impor- Persson’s study of older people living in Gothenburg, Sweden, was
tant clinical impression they offer is that physiological ageing proc- the first to be based on a representative community sample. It
esses do not preclude sexual activity in later life, and that ageing involved 166 men and 266 women aged 70, of whom 46% and 16%
may even bring potential benefits to sexual response—an idea as respectively reported current sexual intercourse. Interestingly,
radical today as it was at the time. questions regarding masturbation were not included as this was
thought to be too provocative. For men, associations were iden-
The Duke University Center for the Study of Aging and Human tified between current sexual intercourse and better sleep, better
Development (Newman and Nichols, 1960; Pfeiffer et al., mental health, and a more positive attitude towards sex in later life.
1969; Verwoerdt et al., 1969a, 1969b; Pfeiffer and Davis, For women, associations were identified between current sexual
1972; Pfeiffer et al., 1972; George and Weiler, 1981) intercourse and having a comparatively young husband, low levels
The first longitudinal study at Duke University Medical Center con- of anxiety, better mental health, satisfaction with marriage, positive
sisted of a sample of 260 male and female community volunteers, experience of sexual intercourse, and a positive attitude towards sex
who were aged 60 years and older at the first test date in 1955. The in later life. Skoog’s study (1996) describes another representative
same studies were repeated between 1959 and 1961 and again in community sample of 321 85-year-olds without dementia living in
1964. The sample included both those who had never married or Gothenburg, Sweden. The subjects were 223 women, of whom 21
were widowed and those who had intact marriages. The authors were married, and 98 men, of whom 55 were married. Overall, 13%
focused on the frequency of sexual activity (defined as sexual of men and 1% of women reported currently engaging in sexual
intercourse), degree of sexual interest, gender differences in sexual intercourse, although in those who were married, this figure rose to
activity and interest, and patterns of sexual activity over time. They 22% of male and 10% of female participants. By contrast with the
concluded (1) that sexual activity declines gradually over time for rates for intercourse, however, a much higher rate of sexual inter-
both women and men. Approximately 60% of married subjects aged est was expressed, reported by 37% of unmarried men and 46% of
60–69, nearly the same proportion of those aged 70–74, and 25% married men, whilst 15% of unmarried women and 24% of married
of those aged 75 and over, were sexually active. Even in extreme women reported having sexual feelings. A cross-sectional survey
old age, sexual activity did not disappear: one-fifth of the men in of four samples of 1506 70-year-olds representative of the general
their 80s and 90s reported intercourse once a month or less; (2) that population in Gothenburg showed that self-reported quantity and
sexual interest declines over time, albeit more slowly than sexual quality of sexual experiences had improved over a 30-year period.
activity. In all age groups, interest was more common than activity; Attitudes to sexuality in this age group had also become more posi-
(3) that men are more sexually active than women, although the tive (Beckman et al., 2008).
gap narrows at advanced ages; and (4) that sexual activity among
women is heavily dependent on the availability of a functionally Starr and Weiner: The Starr–Weiner Report on Sex and Sexuality
capable, socially sanctioned male partner. In addition, discontinu- in the Mature Years (1981)
ation of sexual activity among both men and women is most com- The authors surveyed 800 women and men between the ages of 60
monly attributed to the man. and 91 years who were recruited from civic agencies and sen- ior
The second longitudinal study consisted of 502 men and women, centres across the US, where sessions on sexuality and ageing were
who were aged 46–71 years at the first test date. The research design presented by the authors. Attendees were given a 50-item open-
included four test dates at 2-year intervals. The results were similar ended questionnaire to complete at home and return to the
to those reported in the earlier studies, but added that (1) older researchers. Although the overall response rate was low (14%) and
persons reported lower levels of sexual interest and activity than the sample is likely to be highly self-selected, Starr and Weiner’s
younger persons; and (2) at all ages, men reported higher levels of report is worthwhile mentioning as they wanted to go beyond the
sexual activity and interest than women. In a reanalysis of the data, Kinsey model adopted up to that time, of quantifying the frequency
George and Weiler (1981) studied both aggregate and intraindi- of sexual interest and activity. They recognized that frequency of
vidual levels of sexual activity within their sample and showed that orgasm or ejaculation is not the ultimate measure of good sex.
levels of sexual intercourse among older people do not decline to Results showed that age was not related to sexual satis- faction. In
the extent that was previously believed. Rather, the identification of their sample, 97% reported that they liked sex, 75% felt that sex was
cohort differences in sexual interest and activity led the authors to the same or better than when they were younger, and 80% were
conclude that these may be more pronounced than ageing effects ‘currently sexually active’, although this term was not clearly
per se. In other words, the modal pattern is to maintain a relatively defined. Less than half (44 % of men and 47% of women) reported
stable level of sexual activity throughout a lifetime up to the age of that they masturbated. More than 80% of the respond- ents believed
around 70 or older; for some individuals, however, activity will that sex is important for both physical and mental wellbeing.
decrease, and for others it will increase for a while. The investigators
CHAPTER 54 s EXUality IN LATER LIFE 707
Brecher and the Editors of Consumer Reports Books: Love, Sex, Bullard-Poe, Powell, and Mulligan (1994)
and Aging (1984) This study explored intimacy and its contribution to life satisfac-
The authors conducted their research again in the US, obtaining the tion in older men living in a Veterans Affairs nursing home in the
largest sample ever assembled to this date for a later-life sexuality US. Forty-five participants with a mean age of 70 and a mean Mini-
study. Their sample involved 4226 women and men aged 50–93, Mental State Examination score of 22 (Folstein et al., 1975) rated
resulting in a total response rate of 41.6%, who were recruited via social intimacy as the most important form of intimacy and sexual-
the Consumer Union of which they were subscribers. The partici- physical intimacy as the least important, although this was still
pants completed self-administered questionnaires, which explored ranked as midway between ‘somewhat’ and ‘moderately’
a more diverse range of behaviours, attitudes, and beliefs within the important. Furthermore, despite being more cognitively and func-
context of sexual relationships than previous studies, including mar- tionally impaired, married participants consistently rated all forms
ital, nonmarital, extramarital, and postmarital relationships, both of intimacy higher in importance than did the unmarried group. In
homosexual and heterosexual. Although the authors acknowledge addition, the authors found strong associations between quality of
that their sample is self-selected and unlikely to be representative life and nonsexual physical intimacy, intellectual intimacy, and
for the population as a whole, their results render some interesting current experiences of intimacy, and they conclude that intimacy
findings, which had not been explicitly addressed previously. The makes an important contribution to the quality of life. Although
following findings were among those reported: (1) sex was rated as this study represents a highly selected population with a small sam-
more important by men than by women within marriage; (2) ple size, the authors highlight the importance of social and sexual
unmarried men and women who were sexually active after the age intimacy to a particular group of older people often forgotten and
of 50 reported greater life satisfaction than those who were not disenfranchised by society.
sexually active; (3) more men than women had been involved in a Massachusetts Male Aging Study 1987–2004 (Feldman et al.,
homosexual relationship after age 50; (4) while fewer men and 1994; Johannes et al., 2000; Araujo et al., 2004a, 2004b)
women were sexually active (including engaging in sexual inter- This is a longitudinal, community-based, random sample, obser-
course) in their 80s than younger group participants, a significant vational survey of 1709 men aged 40–70 years old conducted from
proportion were sexually active (60% of men and 40% of women in 1987–2004. Blood samples, physiological measures, sociodemo-
this sample); (5) more men than women after age 60 masturbated graphic variables, psychological indexes, and information on health
(47% of men and 36% of women in this sample); (6) approximately status, medications, smoking, and lifestyle were collected, as well as
50% of men and women engaged in fellatio and/or cunnilingus a self-administered questionnaire. Questions included the subjects’
after age 50, with the vast majority reporting to enjoy this type of satisfaction with their relationship and sex life, their partners’ satis-
sexual activity; (7) 13% of women and 15% of men reported hav- faction with them, and frequency of sexual activity. Results showed
ing used a vibrator after age 50; (8) 16% of heterosexual men and the prevalence of erectile dysfunction to be strongly related to age.
women reported that since the age of 50, they have had their anus In men aged 40, 5% suffered from complete erectile dysfunction,
stimulated during sexual activity. The authors note that they failed while 15% did so at the age of 70. Moderate erectile dysfunction
to find a single discussion of this last topic on their comment pages, occurred in 17% of 40-year-olds and 34% of 70-year-olds. The most
suggesting that anal sex, unlike masturbation, cunnilingus, fellatio, important medical and psychosocial risk factors for erectile dys-
and the use of vibrators is still taboo as a topic of discussion, even function were heart disease, hypertension, diabetes mellitus, medi-
among those who engage in it and enjoy it. cation associated with these diseases, a low level of high-density
Overall, Brecher et al. (1984) state: lipoprotein, and psychological measures of anger, depression, and
low dominance. Smoking intensified the effects of cardiovascular
The panorama of love, sex and aging here presented is far richer and
more diverse than the stereotype of life after 50, or than the view pre-
risk, whilst alcohol intake exerted a minor effect, and obesity no
sented by earlier studies of aging … Hence the question arises: if life effect.
after 50 is in fact so sexually rich and diverse for so many, why has The frequency of sexual intercourse decreased, whilst prevalence
this been kept a secret? Why haven’t older people said so before? One of androgen deficiency (defined using clinical symptoms plus total
reason is that few have ever been asked. and calculated free testosterone) increased significantly with age.
(Bretschneider and McCoy, 1988)
The Global Study of Sexual Attitudes and Behaviors (GSSAB)
This research represented a cross-sectional, volunteer study, 2001–2002 (Nicolosi et al., 2004; Laumann et al., 2005;
involving 100 men and 102 women aged 80 and over living in a res- Moreira et al., 2005a, 2005b, 2005c; Laumann et al., 2006;
Moreira et al., 2006; Nicolosi et al., 2006a, 2006b; Moreira
idential home in the US. The overall response rate was a third of the et al., 2008a, 2008b; Buvat et al., 2009)
people approached. Within this group, for both men and women,
The Global Study of Sexual Attitudes and Behaviors (GSSAB) is
the most common sexual activity was touching and caressing (82%
an international survey of attitudes, behaviours, beliefs, and satis-
of men and 64% of women at least sometimes), followed by mas-
faction with sex and relationships among 27,500 individuals aged
turbation (72% of men and 40% of women at least sometimes), fol-
40–80 years in 29 countries. Results are consistent with earlier stud-
lowed by sexual intercourse (63% of men and 30% of women at least
ies, indicating that the majority of adults are sexually active into
sometimes). In addition, 88% of men and 71% of women still fan-
their later years and that sex remains an important part of their
tasized or daydreamed about being close, affectionate, and intimate
overall life. Sexual difficulties are relatively common among mature
with the opposite sex. Of these activities, only the frequency and
adults, but few individuals seek medical help for these problems.
enjoyment of touching and caressing showed a significant decline
The predictors of subjective sexual wellbeing were found to be
from the 80s to the 90s, with further analyses revealing a significant
largely consistent across world regions.
decline in this activity for men but not for women.
708 oXFORD TEXTB oo K of OLD AGE psyCHIATRy
Gott: Sexuality, Sexual Health and Ageing (2005) (Gott Sexual Physiology and Ageing
and Hinchliff, 2003a, 2003b; Gott et al., 2004a,
2004b; Hinchliff and Gott, 2004, 2008, 2011) The human sexual response cycle
Gott’s work represents a departure from previous studies, as it The human sexual response cycle is mediated by the complex inter-
focuses in great depth on older people’s own attitudes towards the play of psychological, environmental, and physiological (hormonal,
role and value of sex in later life through a collection of qual- ity vascular, muscular, and neurological) factors. The initial phase of
of life measures, followed by semistructured interviews. She the human sexual response cycle is interest and desire, followed by
described a randomly chosen sample comprising 44 men and the four successive phases described by Masters and Johnson
women aged 50–92 years recruited from a general practice in the (1966): arousal, plateau, orgasm, and resolution, characterized by
UK. Her results particularly highlighted how older people adapt genital and extragenital changes. Basson (2000) redefined the linear
and reprioritize sex when faced with barriers to remaining sexu- progression of sexual response described by Masters and Johnson.
ally active, such as not having a sexual partner and having poor Her model postulates that the sexual cycle in women is cyclical
health status. All her participants with a current sexual partner rather than linear and that arousal and desire are interchangeable.
attributed at least some importance to sex, with many rating sex as In this model, the starting point for sexuality is the desire for inti-
very or extremely important. Her study refuted the widely held macy and closeness rather than a need for physical sexual release.
belief that if older people are not sexually active, sex is not impor- Many women are satisfied with an intimate encounter that does not
tant to them. necessarily include intercourse or orgasm.
The desire phase of the sexual response cycle is characterized by
The National Social Life, Health and Aging Project (NSHAP) sexual fantasies and the desire to have sexual activity. It is a sub-
2005–2006 (Lindau et al., 2007; Laumann et al., jective state, which may be triggered by both internal and exter- nal
2008; Waite et al., 2009a, 2009b; Lindau and
Gavrilova, 2010; Lindau et al., 2010) sexual cues and is dependent on adequate neuroendocrine
functioning.
The NSHAP examines the interactions between physical health, ill-
The arousal or excitement phase is mediated by the parasympa-
ness, medication use, cognitive function, emotional health, sensory
thetic nervous system and is characterized by a subjective sense of
function, health behaviours, and social connectedness. This study
is the most comprehensive study of sexual attitudes, behaviours, pleasure and the appearance of vaginal lubrication in women and
penile tumescence leading to erection in men. Testosterone plays a
and problems in a nationally representative sample of 3005 adults
aged 57–85 years-old in the US. It was designed to study the effect major role in desire and arousal in both men and women.
of close personal relationships and social ties on health. Results The orgasm phase is a myotonic response mediated by the sym-
showed that regular sexual activity, a good quality sex life, and pathetic nervous system. It consists of a peaking of sexual pleasure,
interest in sex are positively associated with health in midlife and with the release of sexual tension and the rhythmic contraction of
later life, with the gender gap in sexual interest increasing with age. the perineal muscles and the pelvic reproductive organs. In women,
Women are less likely than men to have a spousal or other intimate orgasm is characterized by 3–15 involuntary contractions of the
relationship and to be sexually active. Sexual problems are frequent lower third of the vagina and by strong sustained contractions of
among older adults, but these problems are infrequently discussed the uterus, flowing from the fundus downward to the cervix. In
with clinicians. men, a subjective sense of ejaculatory inevitability triggers orgasm
with emission of semen. It is also associated with 4–5 rhythmic
Many surveys have complemented the findings discussed here.
spasms of the prostate, seminal vesicles, vas, and urethra. Both
Some are based on samples from the general (aged) population (e.g.
women and men have involuntary contractions of the internal and
Marsiglio and Donnelly, 1991; Rosen et al., 2004a; Fugl-Meyer et
external sphincters.
al., 2006; Howard et al., 2006; Gades et al., 2009). Other stud- ies
have targeted specific groups (e.g. Dello Buono et al,. 1998; Bortz The resolution phase consists of the disgorgement of blood from
and Wallace, 1999; Smith et al., 2009; Dourado et al., 2010; the genitalia (detumescence) and the body returns to a resting state.
Heiman et al., 2011). Many of the findings from these studies echo It is further characterized by a subjective sense of wellbeing and a
those of earlier ones. Many older people continue to engage in and feeling of relaxation. After orgasm, men have a refractory period,
enjoy a wide range of sexual activities, whilst others do not for a which may last from several minutes to many hours; in this period
variety of reasons. Age, gender, the availability of a partner, living they cannot be stimulated to further orgasm. Many women do not
conditions, social context, and physical as well as mental health are have a refractory period and are thus capable of multiple and suc-
important factors in influencing sexual interest and activity (Hayes cessive orgasms. There is wide variability in the way people respond
and Dennerstein, 2005; Lindau et al., 2007; Waite et al., 2009a; sexually, and each phase can be affected by ageing, illness, medica-
Herbenick et al., 2010; Hyde et al., 2010; Lindau and Gavrilova, tion, alcohol, illicit drugs, as well as psychological and relationship
2010). factors. The diagnostic classification, of sexual disorders both in the
ICD-10 (WHO, 1992) and DSM-IV (APA, 1994) are based on the
Finally, it is worthwhile mentioning a number of books that offer
sexual response cycle.
a wealth of information and education. They describe later-life
sexuality issues including single-case accounts of older men and
women, whose individual and intimate stories reflect the broad
Hormonal changes and ageing
spectrum and diversity of the findings discussed before (Hite, 1976; In women, the most salient biochemical markers of sexual matu-
Hite, 1981; Greengross and Greengross, 1989; Blank, 2000; Gross, ration and senescence are the age-related changes in the level of
2000; Butler and Lewis, 2002; Goldman, 2006; Seiden and Bilett, oestrogen and testosterone. The structural integrity of the female
2008). genitalia is predominantly maintained by oestrogen. Vaginal
CHAPTER 54 s EXUality IN LATER LIFE 709
Sexual response and ageing Erection takes longer to develop and may require more direct
tactile stimulation
In both sexes, as one ages, the speed and intensity of the various
vasocongestive responses to sexual stimulation tend to be reduced Period of sustaining an erection gets shorter
(Masters and Johnson, 1966). Table 54.1 reflects the main changes Nocturnal erections and emissions are less frequent
in sexual response with age in women and Table 54.2 describes
Less marked scrotal and testicular changes associated with
these changes in ageing men. arousal
Whilst the overall decline of the sexual responses may seem stark Production of less pre-ejaculatory mucus
and dreary, it is important to remember that this process tends to
develop extremely gradually, allowing a couple or an individual to Ejaculation becomes less powerful with fewer contractions and seminal
fluid volume is reduced
adjust to a less intense, but not necessarily less enjoyable, form of
sexual activity. In fact, several cross-sectional studies have shown The point of ejaculatory inevitability becomes more difficult to recognIZe
that sexual satisfaction does not decline with age, despite decre- Resolution is more rapid
ments in sexual function and behaviour (McKinlay and Feldman,
The refractory period is markedly longer
1994; Schiavi et al., 1994; Laumann et al., 1999; Avis et al., 2000;
Mykletun et al., 2006; Ferenidou et al., 2008; Thompson et al., (Based on Bancroft, J. (2009) Human sexuality and its problems. 3rd Edition. pp. 303–
2011). 342. Churchill Livingstone, Edinburgh, with permission.)
Effects of Physical drugs that can interfere with sexual function is very long; among
them should be noted antidepressants and antipsychotics, ben-
Illness and Medication zodiazepines, antihypertensive medication, thiazide diuretics,
on Sexuality statins, and anticonvulsants (Thomas, 2003; Golomb and Evans,
One of the commonest reasons given by older people for ending sex- 2008; Gutierrez et al., 2008; Bhuvaneswar et al., 2009; Schweitzer
ual activity is the onset of physical illness, which may have a number et al., 2009; Karavitakis et al., 2011; Taylor et al., 2012). Where
of different effects. Physical illness may generate unfounded anxie- drug-induced sexual dysfunction is suspected, discontinuing the
ties about the risks of sexual activity (as in heart disease or stroke); suspected medication or substituting with a different agent can
it may make intercourse difficult, exhausting, or painful—as in res- usually resolve the question. Much less commonly, medication can
piratory disease, arthritis, and (sexually transmitted) infection; or it enhance (or overstimulate) sexual function, which has been
may impair responsiveness of the sexual organs (as in diabetes described with L-dopa (Uitti et al., 1989; Weinman and Ruskin,
mellitus or peripheral vascular disease). Physical illness may fur- 1995), lamotrigine (Grabowska-Grzyb et al., 2006), and trazodone
ther undermine self-confidence and the feeling of attractiveness (as (Garbell, 1986; Sullivan, 1988).
in mutilating operations such as mastectomy and colostomy), and it
may have a direct effect in reducing sexual desire (as in depression, Taking a Sexual History
chronic renal and hepatic failure, and Parkinson’s disease).
Older people in general are more likely to suffer from a vari- ety The effects of mental illness on sexual functioning, the psychologi-
of chronic diseases that may impact on their sexual function. They cal impact of sexual dysfunction on mental health, and the effects of
also commonly undergo surgery, which may influence sexual psychotropic medication on sexuality all suggest that high rates of
function, either because of psychological sequelae or as a result of sexual dysfunction will be found among psychiatric patients (Smith
organic damage (Table 54.3). et al., 2002; Wylie et al., 2002; Macdonald et al., 2003; Knegtering
In addition, a significant proportion of older people take medi- et al., 2006; Bancroft, 2009; Taylor et al., 2012). Given the effects
cation, and often there is considerable polypharmacy. The list of of ageing and physical illness on sexual response as well as the
710 oXFORD TEXTB oo K of OLD AGE psyCHIATRy
his reasons for avoiding intercourse, the greater the risk of chronic
problem is followed by time and encouragement for the couple to
impotence and potential relationship problems.
ask questions, through which the doctor assures him-/herself that
Similarly, if illness has reduced the capacity to respond to sexual
they have both understood what he/she has said.
stimulation, and this is something the couple cannot understand or
There are numerous pencil and papers tests to assess aspects of
discuss, then they cannot resolve this difficulty. In a relation- ship
sexuality. In general, these have been developed for research pur-
where the assumption was that the man always takes the active role
poses. Their validation has been mostly based on demonstrating
in lovemaking, his partner may be quite unused to stroking his
differences between clinical and nonclinical samples. The clinical
penis as part of their preparation for intercourse, and so cannot help
value of these validated sexual questionnaires in distinguishing
him if this is what he requires.
between sexual dysfunctions with different aetiologies is limited
(e.g. Blander et al., 1999). More detailed reviews on sexual ques- Another, often more dramatic scenario occurs when there is a
transition from an equal partnership to one of caregiver and patient
tionnaires are available elsewhere (Daker-White, 2002; Meston and
due to severe illness. The ill partner may lose the self-esteem that
Derogatis, 2002; Rosen et al., 2004b; Corona et al., 2006; Giraldi
reassures him that he is still contributing to the relationship; or the
et al., 2011).
caring partner may think it unkind and selfish to make demands on
the sexual responsiveness of the one who is ill. Particularly if there
Sexual Problems and Ageing is a lack of communication around sexual issues, sexual rela-
Having considered the various research findings in the area of sex- tionship changes may never be adequately worked out. But even
uality and ageing and the clinical assessment, what are the main simple actions can have far-reaching effects, such as when a couple
sexual problems described by older people? decide they should sleep apart so as to give the ill partner a bet- ter
In many respects, the complaints differ little from younger peo- night’s rest, resulting in a potential reduction of closeness and
ple who seek help for their sexual or relationship problems, which intimacy.
may have emotional or physical origins, or both. Fear of poor per- Despite prevailing preconceptions, many older people are willing
formance, lack of or diminished sexual desire, difficulty becom- and open to address their sexual difficulties. In fact, many indicate
ing sexually aroused either physically or psychologically, difficulty they would enjoy greater sexual experimentation in their relation-
maintaining an erection, difficulty achieving orgasm, and pain or ship (Brecher et al., 1984; Leiblum and Taylor Seagraves, 2000).
discomfort with sexual exchange, especially during intercourse, as Research suggests that if sex was a source of pleasure and gratifica-
well as a lack of opportunities for sexual encounters are among the tion during early and middle adulthood, it will probably continue
most common of the complaints that older people present with to be an important source of life satisfaction as one grows older
(Bretschneider and McCoy, 1988; Feldman et al., 1994; Leiblum (George and Weiler 1981). On the other hand, it must be acknowl-
and Taylor Seagraves, 2000; Araujo et al., 2004a; Nicolosi et al., edged that there remain many older people who grew up in tra-
2004; Laumann et al., 2006, 2008; Lindau et al., 2007; Kontula and ditional households with sexually proscriptive values and beliefs
Haavio-Mannila, 2009; Hyde et al., 2010). that may persist. For these individuals, sex is sanctioned primarily
Sexual dysfunction may also arise simply from a lack of infor- for procreation; sexual behaviours other than intercourse, such as
mation about the normal age-related changes in sexual physiology. oral-genital sex, are considered unnatural; sexual relations outside
A slower onset of erectile function, or a reduced need to ejaculate, marriage are forbidden; and masturbation is sinful. For such indi-
may be interpreted by the man as the onset of impotence, or by the viduals, the opportunity to ‘retire’ from an active sexual life may be
woman as a sign of declining interest in her; and their fearful or ardently anticipated and easily accepted.
offended reactions can then aggravate the difficulty. Similarly, a
reduced vaginal lubrication response may cause pain and discom- Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and
fort during intercourse, leading the woman to avoid further sexual Transgender (LGBT) Issues and
intimacy, which may be interpreted by the man as a rejection of the
love he wants to express. In addition to these problems, older
Ageing
people may mourn or regret changes in their body—its size, shape, Research on older LGBT individuals has been slow to accumulate
and firmness may differ significantly from the past. They may in the literature, which has undoubtedly been compounded by
complain about the changing body of their partner; the reduction in methodological difficulties in this largely invisible group. While
or loss of passion; attention given to emotional and sexual inti- research in the area of ageing and LGBT is limited, studies in the
macy; sexual boredom; jealousy of younger potential rivals; and area of ageing transgender individuals are virtually nonexistent.
changes in sexual urgency or intensity. Menopause, surgery, and The characteristics of the current older LGBT generation is typi-
various losses, both psychological and physical, can exacerbate cally defined by the historical and societal events that occurred
these complaints. during their developmental periods—a time when LGBT people
Frequently, physical and psychological factors will interact in were socially defined as mentally ill within a medical framework,
bringing about sexual dysfunction. In a man who already feels inse- and faced considerable discrimination both in health and social
cure and pessimistic about his sexual function, one experience of service systems, and in society as a whole. This has resulted in feel-
difficulty attaining or maintaining an erection may be sufficient to ings of great stigma and shame, which continue to shape their lives,
precipitate psychogenic impotence, with performance anxiety cre- often requiring them, as a vital coping mechanism, to keep their
ating a self-fulfilling prophecy. Convinced that he will fail in inter- sexual or gender orientation hidden for fear of discrimination. In a
course, he may avoid occasions for making love, and for showing recent Australian study, a majority of lesbian and gay older people
physical affection in any other way, for fear of being expected to go were concerned that their sexual orientation may affect access to
further. The less he is able to talk to his partner about his fear and and quality of social, health, and housing services received. Many
also expected to be discriminated against and were concerned that
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722 oXFORD TEXTB oo K of OLD AGE psyCHIATRy
Ketika hal itu dapat dilakukan tanpa rasa malu atau kenaifan, dokter harus mendukung dan
mendorong aspek seksualitas pada orang tua. Hal ini merupakan persefatif mental, sosial, dan
mungkin fisik dari status mereka sebagai sebagai seorang pribadi, yang telah diserang oleh
masyarakat kita dengan begitu banyak cara yang kejam.
Alex Comfort
Sikap di rumah tinggal dan panti jompo terkait seksualitas pada usia lanjut
Sikap staf
Tajuk utama penelitian yang berkembang terkait seksualitas di fasilitas perawatan
jangka panjang berfokus hampir secara eksklusif pada seksualitas heteroseksual (Hinrichs
dan Vacha-Haase, 2010). Penelitian di antara staf perawatan telah mengungkapkan sikap
yang negatif dan restriktif (LaTorre dan Kear, 1977; Wasow dan Loeb, 1979; Kaca et al.,
1986; Commons dkk., 1992; Nay 1992; Fairchild dkk., 1996; Bauer, 1999) serta positif atau
permisif (Kaas, 1978; White dan Catania, 1982; Luketich, 1991; Damrosch dan Cogliano,
1994; Livini, 1994; Holmes et al., 1997; Walker et al., 1998; Bouman et al. ., 2007).
Inkonsisten temuan pada penelitian yang diterbitkan dalam kurun waktu tiga dekade
terakhir harus dilihat dalam konteks heterogenitas kelompok dan fasilitas perawatan yang
dijadikan sampel, serta perbedaan metodologi yang digunakan. Ada banyak faktor spesifik
yang memprediksi sikap individu mengenai seksualitas pada usia lanjut. Beberapa peneliti
telah menunjukkan bahwa usia muda (Bouman et al., 2007), keyakinan agama yang kuat
(Story,1989; Gibson et al., 1999), dan pengalaman interaksi negatif dengan orang yang lebih
tua (Glass et al., 1986) dapat menjelaskan sikap negatif yang muncul di antara staf
perawatan. Sebaliknya, pelatihan kejuruan (White dan Catania, 1982; Aja dan Self, 1986;
Sullivan-Miller, 1987), prestasi pendidikan yang lebih tinggi, latar belakang sosio-ekonomi
(Glass et al., 1986; Walker dan Harrington, 2002), dan pengalaman kerja ( Sullivan-Miller,
1987; Walker dan Harrington, 2002; Bouman et al., 2007) umumnya memprediksi sikap
yang lebih positif di antara staf perawatan. Namun, Hinrichs dan Vacha-Haase (2010)
menemukan bahwa tingkat pengetahuan tentang penuaan dan seksualitas tidak berhubungan
dengan sikap pengasuh terhadap perilaku seksual penghuninya. Mereka merekomendasikan
agar diambil tindakan untuk menghapus diskriminasi atas dasar seksualitas di rumah
perawatan. Staf membutuhkan bantuan untuk fokus pada bias mereka sendiri dan
mendorong sikap yang lebih permisif terhadap ekspresi seksual di antara penghuninya.
Beberapa peneliti telah melaporkan bahwa seleksi diri dan bias respons berpotensi
membatasi kemampuan untuk menggeneralisasi sehubungan dengan temuan ini, dan bahwa
sikap liberal tidak selalu diterjemahkan ke dalam perilaku permisif (Hillman dan Stricker,
1994; Holmes et al., 1997; Gibson et al., 1999; Bouman dkk., 2006).
Sikap dan perilaku staf perawatan di rumah tinggal dan panti jompo berdampak
langsung pada ekspresi seksualitas penghuni (Eddy, 1986). Ketika menangani masalah
seksualitas dan kesehatan seksual penghuni, staf harus dipandu oleh atasan mereka untuk
menciptakan lingkungan yang memfasilitasi pemenuhan kebutuhan dan keinginan
seksualitas dengan tetap menjaga martabat. Hak-hak pasien yang kompeten dan tidak
kompeten harus dilindungi (Lichtenberg dan Strzepek, 1990; Hajjar dan Kamel, 2003a,
2003b) dan efeknya mereka harus diberikan otonomi untuk menentukan pilihan otonom
(Beauchamp dan Childress, 2008).
Kinsey et al.: Perilaku Seksual pada Manusia Pria dan Wanita (1948, 1953)
Kinsey menggunakan metode taksonomi yang telah membantunya dengan baik
sebagai ahli zoologi dalam studinya tentang serangga, karena pendekatan ilmiah diperlukan
untuk pemberian nama, pendeskripsian, dan pengklasifikasian perilaku seksual manusia
sedemikian rupa sehingga dapat ditetapkan norma perilaku untuk seluruh populasi.
Wawancara panjang dilakukan pada 5300 pria berusia 10-80 tahun dan 5.940 wanita berusia
hingga 90 tahun. Kedua buku yang dihasilkan menggambarkan temuan penelitian menurut
jenis, frekuensi, sumber, dan korelasi sosiodemografis dari 'outlet seksual', yang
didefinisikan sebagai orgasme yang dihasilkan dari masturbasi, emisi nokturnal, petting to
climaks, hubungan pranikah, hubungan suami istri, dan outlet homoseksual. Berkenaan
dengan seksualitas pada pria usia lanjut, Kinsey et al. (1948) melaporkan bahwa tidak ada
kejadian kehilangan kapasitas seksual secara tiba-tiba, melainkan penurunan kapasitas
seksual terjadi secara bertahap dalam semua ukuran 'outlet seksual'. Peneliti menyimpulkan
bahwa mereka tidak memiliki cukup bukti untuk mengisolasi faktor-faktor yang terkait
dengan penurunan ini, tetapi mendalilkan bahwa penurunan kemampuan seksual ini dapat
dikaitkan dengan faktor fisiologis, faktor psikologis, berkurangnya ketersediaan mitra
seksual, atau kesibukan mereka dengan 'fungsi sosial atau bisnis'. Lima tahun kemudian,
dalam buku keduanya mereka melaporkan bahwa 'kapasitas seksual wanita meningkat
secara bertahap ke titik maksimumnya dan kemudian akan semakin berkurang mulai usia
lima puluh lima atau enam puluh tahun'. Potensi untuk menyelidiki apa yang terjadi pada
wanita setelah titik itu sangat terbatas karena ukuran sampel yang kecil pada subjek
penetilian berusia > 60 tahun, meskipun penulis yakin untuk dapat menyimpulkan bahwa
'individu yang telah mencapai usia tua tidak lagi mampu merespons rangsangan [secara
seksual] seperti saat mereka berada di usia yang lebih muda' (Kinsey et al., 1953).
Kritik terhadap karya Kinsey dalam kaitannya dengan seksualitas pada usia lanjut
dengan fokus utama pada sejumlah kecil orang tua di atas usia 60 yang termasuk dalam
kelompok pria (sekitar 3% dari sampel) dan kelompok wanita (sekitar 1% dari sampel).
Penulis kemudian juga berpendapat bahwa penarikan kesimpulan mengenai interaksi antara
penuaan dan seksualitas dari data cross-sectional adalah sebuah masalah, karena tidak
memungkinkan sifat perancu dari efek kohort untuk dapat dikontrol dan dieksplorasi
(George dan Weiler, 1981). Dalam konteks spesifik seksualitas pada usia lanjut, Gott (2005)
menantang keyakinan penulis bahwa: (1) seksualitas adalah 'esensi' biologis; (2) seks
terutama terdiri dari tindakan-tindakan yang berhubungan dengan persetubuhan; (3)
orgasme, terutama untuk pria, adalah 'indikator paling tepat dan ilmiah dari pengalaman
seksual'; (4) perbedaan gender dalam perilaku seksual adalah 'alami'; (5)adanya anggapan
bahwa seks itu sehat; dan (6) adanya gagasan bahwa cara terbaik untuk memahami
seksualitas adalah dengan mengklasifikasikan perilaku seksual tertentu. Namun demikian,
kerangka metodologis dan keyakinan Kinsey mengenai seksualitas telah menjadi preseden
yang mendasari sebagian besar penelitian-penelitian seksualitas berikutnya hingga hari ini.
Masters and Johnson: Respons Seksual Pada Manusia (1966) dan Inadekuasi Seksual
Pada Manusia (1970)
Proyek penelitian penting ini memiliki dampak signifikan terhadap keyakinan terkait
seksualitas dan penuaan, meskipun ukuran sampelnya kecil. Para penulis bertujuan untuk
mengeksplorasi karakteristik dan kemungkinan penyebab terjadinya disfungsi seksual pada
semua usia dengan menjawab pertanyaan penelitian berikut: 'Reaksi fisik apa yang
berkembang saat manusia berjenis kelamin pria dan wanita merespons adanya rangsangan
seksual yang efektif?' Sampel penelitian ini adalah 382 partisipan wanita dan 312 partisipan
pria berusia 18-89 tahun yang direkrut dan menjalani serangkaian tes laboratorium,
termasuk koisi buatan di mana peserta wanita dipenetrasi oleh penis plastik bertenaga
elektronik. Data dari penelitian ini digunakan untuk mengembangkan warisan Master dan
Johnson yang paling luas cakupannya - konsep 'siklus respons seksual manusia'.
Sehubungan dengan seksualitas pada usia lanjut, penulis menyelidiki 34 wanita dan
39 pria yang berusia di atas usia 50 selama periode 4 tahun. Mengingat ukuran sampel yang
kecil, penulis berpendapat bahwa mereka hanya mampu 'menyarankan kesan klinis daripada
membangun sebuah fakta biologis' (Masters dan Johnson, 1966). Seperti Kinsey, mereka
dengan jelas menganggap esensi seksualitas terletak pada aspek biologi. Mungkin kesan
klinis paling penting yang mereka coba tunjukkan adalah bahwa proses penuaan fisiologis
tidak menghalangi aktivitas seksual pada usia lanjut dan penuaan bahkan dapat membawa
manfaat potensial untuk sebuah respons seksual—sebuah gagasan yang saat ini dirasa sama
radikalnya seperti gagasan terdahulu.
Penelitian ini merepresentasikan sebuah studi yang sifatnya studi sukarela, cross-
sectional dan melibatkan 100 pria dan 102 wanita berusia 80 tahun ke atas yang tinggal di
rumah hunian di AS. Tingkat respons keseluruhan adalah sepertiga dari sampel tersebut.
Dalam kelompok ini, baik untuk pria maupun wanita, aktivitas seksual yang paling umum
adalah menyentuh dan membelai (82% pria dan 64% wanita setidaknya kadang-kadang
melakukan hal tersebut), diikuti dengan masturbasi (72% pria dan 40% wanita setidaknya
kadang-kadang melakukan hal tersebut), diikuti oleh hubungan seksual (63% pria dan 30%
wanita setidaknya kadang-kadang melakukan hal tersebut). Selain itu, 88% pria dan 71%
wanita masih berfantasi atau melamun tentang kedekatan, kasih sayang, dan keintiman
dengan lawan jenis. Dari aktivitas ini, hanya frekuensi dan kenikmatan sentuhan dan belaian
yang menunjukkan penurunan yang signifikan pada usia 80-an hingga usia 90-an, dengan
analisis lebih lanjut mengungkapkan adanya penurunan yang signifikan dalam aktivitas ini
pada pria tetapi tidak terjadi pada wanita.
Studi Penuaan Pria Massachusetts 1987–2004 (Feldman et al., 1994; Johannes et al.,
2000; Araujo et al., 2004a, 2004b)
Studi ini merupakan studi dengan desain survei observasional longitudinal, berbasis
komunitas, sampel observasional mencakup 1.709 pria berusia 40–70 tahun yang dilakukan
dari tahun 1987–2004. Sampel darah, ukuran fisiologis, variabel sosiodemografi, indeks
psikologis, dan informasi tentang status kesehatan, obat-obatan, merokok, dan gaya hidup
dikumpulkan dimana kuesioner ini diisi dan dikelola sendiri. Pertanyaan yang diajukan
antara lain mengenai kepuasan subjek terhadap hubungan dan kehidupan seks mereka,
kepuasan pasangan mereka dengan mereka, dan frekuensi aktivitas seksual. Hasil penelitian
menunjukkan prevalensi disfungsi ereksi berhubungan erat dengan usia. Pada pria usia 40
tahun terdapat sekitar 5% yang mengalami disfungsi ereksi total, sedangkan 15%-nya pada
usia 70 tahun. Disfungsi ereksi sedang terjadi pada sekitar 17% pria usia 40 tahun dan 34%
terjadi pada usia 70 tahun. Faktor risiko medis dan psikososial yang paling penting untuk
disfungsi ereksi adalah penyakit jantung, hipertensi, diabetes mellitus, obat-obatan yang
terkait dengan penyakit ini, tingkat HDL yang rendah, dan ukuran psikologis kemarahan,
depresi, dan dominasi rendah. Merokok meningkatkan efek risiko kardiovaskular, sementara
asupan alkohol memberikan efek kecil, sedangkan obesitas tidak berpengaruh.
Frekuensi hubungan seksual menurun, sementara prevalensi defisiensi androgen
(didefinisikan menggunakan gejala klinis ditambah kadar testosteron bebas total dan
terhitung) meningkat secara signifikan seiring bertambahnya usia.
Studi Global tentang Sikap dan Perilaku Seksual (GSSAB) 2001-2002 (Nicolosi et al.,
2004; Laumann et al., 2005; Moreira et al., 2005a, 2005b, 2005c; Laumann et al., 2006;
Moreira et al. ., 2006; Nicolosi dkk., 2006a, 2006b; Moreira dkk., 2008a, 2008b; Buvat
dkk., 2009).
The Global Study of Sexual Attitudes and Behaviors (GSSAB) adalah sebuah survei
internasional tentang sikap, perilaku, keyakinan, dan kepuasan terhadap seks dan kepuasan
terhadap sebuah hubungan yang dilakukan pada 27.500 individu berusia 40-80 tahun di 29
negara. Hasilnya konsisten dengan penelitian sebelumnya, yang menunjukkan bahwa
mayoritas orang dewasa aktif secara seksual hingga usia lanjut dan bahwa seks tetap menjadi
bagian penting dari kehidupan mereka secara keseluruhan. Kesulitan seksual relatif umum
terjadi di antara orang dewasa yang matang, tetapi hanya sedikit orang yang mencari bantuan
medis untuk masalah ini. Prediktor kesejahteraan seksual subjektif kebanyakan ditemukan
konsisten di seluruh wilayah dunia.
Gott: Seksualitas, Kesehatan Seksual and Penuaan (2005) (Gott dan Hinchliff, 2003a,
2003b; Gott et al., 2004a, 2004b; Hinchliff dan Gott, 2004, 2008, 2011)
Karya Gott merupakan penyimpangan dari penelitian sebelumnya, karena berfokus
secara mendalam pada sikap orang lanjut usia sendiri terhadap peran dan nilai seks di usia
lanjut melalui kumpulan berbagai ukuran kualitas hidup, kemudian diikuti dengan
wawancara semi terstruktur. Dia menggambarkan sampel yang dipilih secara acak yang
terdiri dari 44 pria dan wanita berusia 50-92 tahun yang direkrut dari FKTP di Inggris. Hasil
penelitiannya secara khusus menyoroti bagaimana orang lanjut usia beradaptasi dan
memprioritaskan seks ketika dihadapkan dengan hambatan agar mereka tetap bisa aktif
secara seksual, seperti tidak memiliki pasangan seksual dan memiliki status kesehatan yang
buruk. Semua pesertanya dengan pasangan seksual saat ini mengkaitkan setidaknya
beberapa kepentingan dengan seks, dengan banyak dari mereka menilai bahwa seks sebagai
sesuatu yang sangat atau amat sangat penting. Studinya membantah kepercayaan yang luas
bahwa jika orang lanjut usia tidak aktif secara seksual, seks tidak penting bagi mereka.
Proyek Naional terkait Kehidupan Sosial, Kesehatan dan Penuaan (NSHAP) 2005–
2006 (Lindau et al., 2007; Laumann et al., 2008; Waite et al., 2009a, 2009b; Lindau dan
Gavrilova, 2010; Lindau et al., 2010)
NSHAP meneliti interaksi antara kesehatan fisik, penyakit, penggunaan obat, fungsi
kognitif, kesehatan emosional, fungsi sensorik, perilaku kesehatan, dan keterhubungan
sosial. Studi ini adalah studi yang paling komprehensif tentang sikap, perilaku, dan masalah
seksual dalam sampel yang mewakili 3005 orang dewasa berusia 57-85 tahun secara
nasional di AS. Studi ini dirancang untuk mempelajari pengaruh antara hubungan personal
yang dekat dan ikatan sosial dengan kesehatan. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa
aktivitas seksual yang teratur, kualitas kehidupan seks yang baik, dan minat pada seks yang
tinggi akan berhubungan positif dengan kesehatan di usia paruh baya dan kehidupan lanjut
usia, dengan kesenjangan gender dalam minat seksual meningkat seiring bertambahnya usia.
Wanita lebih kecil kemungkinannya memiliki pasangan atau hubungan intim lainnya dan
aktif secara seksual dibandingkan dengan pria. Masalah seksual sering terjadi pada orang
dewasa yang lebih tua, tetapi masalah ini jarang didiskusikan dengan dokter.
Banyak survei telah melengkapi temuan yang dibahas di sini. Beberapa didasarkan
pada sampel dari populasi umum (dewasa) (misalnya Marsiglio dan Donnelly, 1991; Rosen
et al., 2004a; Fugl-Meyer et al., 2006; Howard et al., 2006; Gades et al., 2009). Studi lain
telah menargetkan kelompok tertentu (misalnya Dello Buono et al, 1998;. Bortz dan
Wallace, 1999; Smith et al., 2009; Dourado et al., 2010; Heiman et al., 2011). Banyak
temuan dari studi ini lebih menggaungkan studi yang sebelumnya. Banyak orang lanjut usia
terus terlibat dan menikmati berbagai aktivitas seksual, sementara yang lain tidak karena
berbagai alasan. Usia, jenis kelamin, ketersediaan pasangan, kondisi kehidupan, konteks
sosial, dan kesehatan fisik serta mental merupakan faktor penting yang dapat mempengaruhi
minat dan aktivitas seksual (Hayes dan Dennerstein, 2005; Lindau et al., 2007; Waite et al.
, 2009a; Herbenick et al., 2010; Hyde et al., 2010; Lindau dan Gavrilova, 2010).
Jadi ada baiknya menyebutkan sejumlah buku yang menawarkan banyak informasi
dan pendidikan. Mereka menggambarkan masalah seksualitas pada usia lanjut termasuk
laporan kasus tunggal pada pria lanjut usia saja dan/atau pada wanita lanjut usia saja, yang
kisah individu dan keintimanya mencerminkan spektrum yang luas dan keragaman temuan
yang dibahas sebelumnya (Hite, 1976; Hite, 1981; Greengross dan Greengross, 1989; Blank
, 2000; Gross, 2000; Butler dan Lewis, 2002; Goldman, 2006; Seiden dan Bilett, 2008).
Pelecehan seksual
Sejak dekade terakhir, penelitian yang diterbitkan tentang pelecehan seksual pada
orang tua mulai muncul dalam literatur. Konsensus umum bahwa jenis pelecehan ini terjadi
lebih sering daripada yang diketahui secara umum (Burgess dan Phillips, 2006; Ramsey-
Klawsnik, 2008; Biggs et al., 2009). Isolasi sosial, kebutuhan bantuan untuk aktivitas hidup
sehari-hari, dan demensia dikaitkan dengan risiko terjadinya pelecehan seksual yang lebih
tinggi (Burgess dan Phillips, 2006; Amstadter et al., 2011). Akibatnya, sebagian besar
pelecehan seksual pada orang tua terjadi di fasilitas perawatan jangka panjang (Ramsey-
Klawsnik et al., 2008; Rosen et al., 2010). Teaster dan Roberto (2004) mengembangkan
profil kasus pelecehan seksual di antara individu berusia lebih dari 60 tahun yang menerima
perhatian dari layanan perlindungan orang dewasa di Virginia, AS, selama periode 5 tahun.
Mereka mengidentifikasi 82 orang mengalami pelecehan seksual. Sebagian besar korban
adalah wanita berusia antara 70 hingga 89 tahun yang tinggal di panti jompo. Biasanya,
pelecehan seksual melibatkan berbagai adegan seperti ciuman dan cumbuan seksual serta
sentuhan yang tidak pantas. Mayoritas pelakunya adalah penghuni panti jompo dan dalam
kebanyakan situasi, saksi pelecehan seksual tersebtu juga merupakan penghuni panti jompo
tersebut. Sebuah studi nasional selanjutnya yang lebih besar tentang pelecehan seksual di
fasilitas perawatan berfokus pada pelaku pelecehan. Dikonfirmasi bahwa sebagian besar
korbannya adalah perempuan (77%) dan sebagian besar pelakunya adalah laki-laki (76%),
serta ditemukan bahwa ada sedikit lebih banyak karyawan (43%) daripada penghuni panti
jompo (40%) sebagai pelaku yang diduga dan dikonfirmasi (Ramsey- Klawsnik et al., 2008).
Dalam konteks ini, penulis lebih lanjut menekankan bahwa manajemen fasilitas perawatan
jangka panjang tidak pernah dapat berasumsi bahwa penghuni yang dirawat secara eksklusif
oleh staf wanita akan terlindungi dari pelecehan seksual; dan demikian pula, orang tidak
dapat berasumsi bahwa penduduk laki-laki tidak rentan terhadap pelecehan seksual. Yang
mengkhawatirkan adalah pelecehan dan penyerangan seksual di fasilitas perawatan jarang
dilaporkan atau dituntut (Bledsoe, 2006; Schofield, 2006). Hal ini membuat perlu adanya
kebijakan dan prosedur yang jelas untuk memantau, melaporkan, dan melindungi orang tua
yang rentan di fasilitas perawatan. Umumnya, pelecehan seksual dapat terjadi pada setiap
orang tua dan terjadi dalam setting apapun, baik itu di rumah, di bangsal medis, atau di panti
jompo, yang dapat dilakukan oleh pasangan, pengasuh atau staf formal atau informal,
penghuni lain atau orang asing (Ramsey-Klawsnik, 2003; Burgess et al., 2005; Jeary, 2005;
Roberto dan Teaster, 2005; Morgenbesser et al., 2006; Roberto et al., 2007). Haddad dan
Benbow (1993) membahas risiko pelecehan seksual pada individu dengan demensia.
Mereka mendefinisikan pelecehan seksual sebagai kondisi yang terjadi ketika seseorang
memulai hubungan seksual dengan orang dengan demensia tanpa persetujuan orang
tersebut. Orang dengan demensia mungkin secara fisik lemah dan tidak dapat menolak
dorongan seksual, dan mungkin tidak dapat melaporkan pelecehan ketika itu terjadi. Tanpa
indeks kecurigaan yang tinggi dan tanpa mengatasi masalah secara eksplisit, pelecehan
seksual akan mudah terlewatkan (Warner, 2005).
Masalah lesbian, gay, biseksual, dan transgender (LGBT) pada kasus demensia
Tidak ada penelitian yang meneliti kebutuhan perawatan kesehatan dan sosial individu
LGBT dengan demensia. Beberapa penulis membahas kebutuhan khusus kelompok ini
dalam kaitannya dengan orientasi seksual atau gender mereka, terutama ketika mereka
membutuhkan perawatan institusional, sementara yang lain menyoroti kesulitan yang
dihadapi kelompok ini yang meliputi kurangnya pemahaman dan toleransi serta diskriminasi
oleh anggota keluarga lainnya, staf perawatan kesehatan dan sosial, atau warga masyarakat
lainnya (Brotman et al., 2003; Pachankis dan Goldfried, 2004; Johnson et al., 2005; Willis
et al., 2011). Jika demensia ini ada kaitannya dengan HIV, maka pasien dan perawat harus
menerima status HIV-positif tersebut sebagaimana mereka dapat menerima diagnosis
demensia. Banyak lansia LGBT mengungkapkan berbagai kekhawatiran mereka tentang
diskriminasi dalam layanan kesehatan dan perawatan sosial, termasuk tempat tinggal dan
panti jompo, sementara sebagian besar lebih memilih untuk tinggal di fasilitas khusus
LGBT, yang dipandang lebih sensitif terhadap kebutuhan mereka (Quam dan Whitford,
1992; Hughes, 2009).
Di Inggris, Alzheimer's Society Lesbian and Gay Network mendukung kebutuhan
orang-orang dengan demensia dan pengasuh yang mengidentifikasi diri mereka sebagai
LGBT, melalui layanan saluran bantuan telepon dan situs web
(<www.alzheimers.org.uk/Gay_Carers>) yang menawarkan banyak informasi yang
berkaitan dengan kelompok khusus ini.
Pencegahan
Kesulitan seksual yang dapat terjadi setelah menderita penyakit atau menerima
tindakan pembedahan, atau sebagai akibat dari pengobatan, dapat dikurangi atau dicegah
jika profesional kesehatan yang berpengetahuan lebih baik mau mendiskusikan dengan
pasien mereka sebelumnya tentang implikasi seksual dari kondisi atau perawatan mereka.
Lawton dan Hacker (1989) melaporkan bahwa di antara wanita yang dirujuk ke klinik
mereka untuk kasus kanker ginekologi, setidaknya terdapat sepertiga dari wanita yang
berusia di atas 70 tahun yang menjalani operasi radikal masih aktif secara seksual, dan
mereka menekankan pentingnya konseling praoperasi yang meliputi topik seksualitas pasien
usia lanjut. Thorpe dkk. (1994) menemukan bahwa hanya 30% dari sampel pria yang
menjalani prostatektomi memiliki catatan konseling praoperasi tentang kemungkinan
ejakulasi retrograde setelah operasi. Selain itu, pria yang berusia di atas 70 tahun secara
signifikan lebih kecil kemungkinannya untuk diberi tahu tentang konsekuensi seksual dari
operasi yang mereka jalani dibandingkan pria yang berusia lebih muda dalam penelitian ini.
Berbagai penulis membahas pentingnya konseling setelah stroke (Rees et al., 2002), juga
pada penyakit jantung (Hardin, 2007), dan arthritis (Newman, 2007). Akhirnya, sangat
penting untuk mendidik dan menginformasikan pada para lansia tentang praktik seks yang
aman (Orel et al., 2010). Banyak lansia yang melanjutkan berkencan di kemudian hari,
sampai sekarang menjadi monogami secara seksual dan mungkin tidak menyadari atau naif
tentang infeksi menular seksual, termasuk HIV/AIDS (Eldred dan West, 2005).