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PHASE SHIFTING INTERFEROMETRY (PSI)

Phase shifting interferometry is a powerful technique of analyzing interferograms to recover the

phase information.

PSI electronically records a series of interferograms while the reference phase of the interferometer
is changed with time. The wavefront phase is encoded in the variations in the intensity pattern of
the recorded interferograms and a simple point-by-point calculation recovers the phase.

Theory /Fundamental Concepts –

Consider expressions for the reference and test wavefronts in an interferometer –

𝑊𝑡 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑎𝑡 (𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑒 𝑖𝜑𝑡(𝑥,𝑦)

𝑊𝑟 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑎𝑟 (𝑥, 𝑦)𝑒 𝑖[𝜑𝑟 (𝑥,𝑦)−𝛿(𝑡)]

Where 𝑎𝑟 (𝑥, 𝑦) − Reference amplitude, 𝑎𝑡 (𝑥, 𝑦) −test wavefront amplitude,

𝜑𝑟 (𝑥, 𝑦) −rreference wavefront phase & 𝛿(𝑡) − time varying phase shift introduced into the
reference arm ≡ relative phase shift between two beams.

The resultant intensity pattern is

𝐼(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑡) = |𝑊𝑡 + 𝑊𝑟 |2
2
= |𝑎𝑡 𝑒 𝑖𝜑𝑡 + 𝑎𝑟 𝑒 𝑖[𝜑𝑟 −𝛿(𝑡)] |

= {𝑎𝑡 𝑒 𝑖𝜑𝑡 + 𝑎𝑟 𝑒 𝑖[𝜑𝑟 −𝛿(𝑡)] } {𝑎𝑡 𝑒 𝑖𝜑𝑡 + 𝑎𝑟 𝑒 𝑖[𝜑𝑟 −𝛿(𝑡)] }∗

= {𝑎𝑡 𝑒 𝑖𝜑𝑡 + 𝑎𝑟 𝑒 𝑖[𝜑𝑟 −𝛿(𝑡)] } {𝑎𝑡 𝑒 −𝑖𝜑𝑡 + 𝑎𝑟 𝑒 −𝑖[𝜑𝑟 −𝛿(𝑡)] }

= 𝑎𝑡 2 + 𝑎𝑟 2 + 𝑎𝑡 𝑒 𝑖𝜑𝑡 . 𝑎𝑟 𝑒 −𝑖[𝜑𝑟 −𝛿(𝑡)] + 𝑎𝑡 𝑒 −𝑖𝜑𝑡 . 𝑎𝑟 𝑒 𝑖[𝜑𝑟 −𝛿(𝑡)]

= 𝑎𝑡 2 + 𝑎𝑟 2 + 𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑟 𝑒 𝑖[𝜑𝑡 −𝜑𝑟+𝛿(𝑡)] + 𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑟 𝑒 −𝑖[𝜑𝑡 −𝜑𝑟+𝛿(𝑡)]

= 𝐼 ′ (𝑥, 𝑦) + 2𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑟 cos[𝜑𝑡 − 𝜑𝑟 + 𝛿(𝑡)]

= 𝐼 ′ (𝑥, 𝑦) + 2𝐼 ′′ (𝑥, 𝑦) cos[𝜑𝑡 (𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝜑𝑟 (𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝛿(𝑡)]

Where 𝐼 ′ = 𝑎𝑡 2 + 𝑎𝑟 2 = 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦,

𝐼 ′′ = 2𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑟 = 𝐹𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.

𝐼(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝐼 ′ (𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝐼 ′′ (𝑥, 𝑦)cos[𝜑(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝛿(𝑡)] - - - -- -- (A)

Where 𝜑 = 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝜑𝑡 − 𝜑𝑟 .

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Equation (A) is the fundamental eqn of PSI. The intensity at each point varies as a sinusoidal
function of the introduced phase shift 𝛿(𝑡) with a temporal offset given by the unknown wavefront
phase.

The variation of intensity of the interferogram at an individual measurement point vs phase (or
time) is shown below-

I’’(x,y)

I(x,y) I’

2𝜋 − 𝜑(𝑥, 𝑦) 2𝜋 Phase Shift 𝛿(𝑡)

From figure it is clear that

𝐼 ′ (𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝑰𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒃𝒊𝒂𝒔

𝐼 ′′ (𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝑯𝒂𝒍𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒆𝒂𝒌 𝒕𝒐 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒚 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚

Unknown 𝜑(𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑓𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Thus three unknown in equation (A) are easily identified in this signal.

Methods of Phase Shifting

Most common method to introduce time varying phase shift in a PSI is to translate one of the
mirrors with a piezoelectric transducer.

PZT (lead –zinc-titanate) or ceramic material is used to make piezoelectric transducer. It expands
or contracts with externally applied voltage.

The phase shift configuration for TG and MZ interferometer is shown below:

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Reference Motion PZT Transducer

Reference surface

Beam Splitter
Laser SF
Testing surface

Lens

CCD

Mirror Motion
PZT Transducer Beam Splitter

CCD
𝜃

Lens
Laser

SF
Beam Splitter
Transmission test sample

In both the interferometer, phase shift is achieved by translating one of the mirrors in the
reference arm. In TGI, a phase shift of a full wavelength occurs for each half wavelength of
translation.

In MGI, since angles are non-normal (not normal), induced phase shift is reduced by a cosine of
factor of the cosine angle of incidence.
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(b) A continuous phase shift can be produced between reference and test beam by introducing an
optical frequency difference between the two beams.

Expressions for test and reference wavefronts using two optical frequencies ν and ν+∆ν can be
rewritten as

𝑊𝑡 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑡) = 𝑎𝑡 (𝑥, 𝑦)𝑒 𝑖[𝜑𝑡(𝑥,𝑦)−2𝜋𝜗𝑡]

𝑊𝑟 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑡) = 𝑎𝑟 (𝑥, 𝑦)𝑒 𝑖[𝜑𝑟 (𝑥,𝑦)−2𝜋(𝜗+∆𝜗)𝑡]

The resulting interferogram intensity pattern is

𝐼(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑡) = |𝑊𝑡 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑡) + 𝑊𝑟 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑡)|2

2
= |𝑎𝑡 (𝑥, 𝑦)𝑒 𝑖[𝜑𝑡 (𝑥,𝑦)−2𝜋𝜗𝑡] + 𝑎𝑟 (𝑥, 𝑦)𝑒 𝑖[𝜑𝑟(𝑥,𝑦)−2𝜋(𝜗+∆𝜗)𝑡] |

= 𝑎𝑡 2 + 𝑎𝑟 2 + 2𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑟 cos[𝜑𝑡 − 𝜑𝑟 + 2𝜋∆𝜗𝑡]

= 𝐼 ′ + 2𝐼′′cos[𝜑(𝑥, 𝑦) + 2𝜋∆𝜗𝑡]

Thus the frequency difference gives rise to a linear phase shift between test and reference beams

𝛿(𝑡) = 2𝜋∆𝜗𝑡

And the intensity at a given location varies cosinusoidally at the difference frequency ∆𝜗. As
before the wavefront phase 𝜑(𝑥, 𝑦) is a spatially varying delay between signals at various
measurement points. Since even a small frequency (optical) shift can result in a large difference
frequency#, this phase shift method is useful for situations where dynamic measurements are
required. In these situations the phase shift must occur faster than the changes that are being
monitored.
Aliter- Alternative method for producing phase shifts are –
i) Using a plane parallel plate in reference beam (TGI) and moving it mechanically.
ii) Two methods for producing frequency shifts are Zeeman split laser and Doppler shift
introduced by moving grating.
#as ∆𝜗 decreases, cos (2𝜋∆𝜗𝑡) increases.
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Detection of wavefront phase

Four-Step Algorithm

It requires four separate interferograms of part under test are recorded and digitized. A 90o optical
phase shift is introduced into the reference beam between each of the sequentially recorded
interferograms. The function 𝛿(𝑡) can be written as
𝜋 3𝜋
𝛿𝑖 = 0, 2 , 𝜋, ; 𝑖 = 1, 2, 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 4
2

Substituting these four values into equation (A), we get

𝐼1 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝐼 ′ (𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝐼 ′′ (𝑥, 𝑦)cos[𝜑(𝑥, 𝑦)] (i)

𝜋
𝐼2 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝐼 ′ (𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝐼 ′′ (𝑥, 𝑦)cos[𝜑 + 2 ]

𝐼2 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝐼 ′ (𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝐼 ′′ (𝑥, 𝑦)sin[𝜑(𝑥, 𝑦)] (ii)

𝐼3 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝐼 ′ (𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝐼 ′′ (𝑥, 𝑦)cos[𝜑(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝜋]

𝐼3 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝐼 ′ (𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝐼 ′′ (𝑥, 𝑦)cos[𝜑(𝑥, 𝑦)] (iii)

3𝜋
And 𝐼4 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝐼 ′ (𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝐼 ′′ (𝑥, 𝑦)cos[𝜑 + ]
2

𝐼4 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝐼 ′ (𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝐼′′sin[𝜑(𝑥, 𝑦)] (iv)

The four equations [(i) to (iv)] in three unknowns [𝐼 ′ , 𝐼 ′′ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜑] can be solved for the value of
𝜑(x,y). We know that only three equations are required to solve the wavefront phase, the fourth is
included for computational ease.

Eliminating 𝐼 ′ from equations (i) and (iii) and also by subtracting equation (ii) from (iv), we get

𝐼1 − 𝐼3 = 2𝐼 ′′ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 (v)

And 𝐼4 − 𝐼2 = 2 𝐼′′ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑 (vi)

Solving the above two equations we get

(𝐼4 − 𝐼2 )
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜑
(𝐼1 − 𝐼3 )
(𝐼 −𝐼 )
𝜑(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 [(𝐼4 −𝐼2 )] (𝐵).
1 3

This simple equation (B) is evaluated at each measurement point to obtain a map of measured
wavefront.
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The wavefront phase can be easily related to the surface variation or optical path difference as

2𝜋
𝑂𝑃𝐷 = 𝜑(𝑥, 𝑦)
𝜆
Difference between PSI and conventional Interference

(a) PSI calculates wavefront phase 𝜑 at every measurement location and

-there is no need to find fringe centres or order of fringes.
-there is no requirement of the minimum number of fringes or shape of fringes.
But traditional interferograms are analysed by noting the straightness of fringes or by identifying
the fringe centres and assigning a constant surface height along each fringe. Adjacent fringes
represent a height change of a half wave. Finding fringe centres and or precisely locating maxima
or minima of the fringe intensity pattern has been inherent difficulty and limitation to the precision
of the technique and has also restricted the amount of data processing that can be done to the
results. Additional advantage of PSI is i) Insensitive to spatial variation of intensity, ii) Insensitive
to detector sensitivity and iii) Insensitive to fixed pattern noise.

If detector sensitivity and fixed pattern noise are denoted by s(x,y) and n(x,y) respectively then
resulting output from the detector is

𝜗(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑡) = 𝑠(𝑥, 𝑦){𝐼 ′ (𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝐼 ′′ (𝑥, 𝑦) cos[𝜑(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝛿(𝑡)]} + 𝑛(𝑥, 𝑦)

[Where spatial intensity variations are already included in (x,y) dependence of

𝐼 ′ (𝑥, 𝑦)𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼 ′′ (𝑥, 𝑦).]

𝜗(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑡) = [𝑠(𝑥, 𝑦)𝐼 ′ (𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑛(𝑥, 𝑦)] + [𝑠(𝑥, 𝑦)𝐼 ′′ (𝑥, 𝑦)] cos[𝜑(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝛿(𝑡)].

Thus we see that these additional terms have changed the intensity bias and intensity modulation
but have little effect on the measured temporal delay. Since the unknown wavefront phase is
encoded entirely in this delay, precision of PSI is not degraded by these types of spatial variations.

Sources of errors in PSI (Disadvantages of PSI)-

(i) Errors or variations in (correct) phase shifts (between data frames).

(ii) Common sources of error-vibration and turbulence.
(iii) Another possible error- temporal intensity variation (fluctuation) but this is usually
not a problem as a warm up laser is fairly stable over typical measurement time and
stabilized lasers are also available.
(iv) Detector non linearity.
(v) Stray reflection, frequency stabilization quantization error.
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Data Modulation- The intensity equations in four step algorithm can be used to determine data
modulation 𝛾(𝑥, 𝑦) across the interferogram i.e.
𝐼 ′′ (𝑥, 𝑦)
𝛾(𝑥, 𝑦) = ′
𝐼 (𝑥, 𝑦)
Adding equations (i) ,(ii), (iii) and (iv) we get
𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 + 𝐼4 = 4𝐼 ′ (𝑣𝑖𝑖)
Squaring and adding equations (v) and (vi) yields
2
(𝐼1 − 𝐼3 )2 + (𝐼4 − 𝐼2 )2 = 4𝐼 ′′ (𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜑 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜑)
[(𝐼1 − 𝐼3 )2 + (𝐼4 − 𝐼2 )2 ]1/2 = 2𝐼 ′′ (𝑣𝑖𝑖𝑖)
Dividing equation (viii) by equation (vii) and solving, we get
𝐼′′ 2[(𝐼1 − 𝐼3 )2 + (𝐼4 − 𝐼2 )2 ]1/2
𝛾= = (𝑐)
𝐼′ 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 + 𝐼4

The numerator is intensity modulation and denominator is average intensity or the intensity bias.
It should be noted that all of the detector characteristics such as sensitivity and bias are included
in as a part of 𝐼′ and 𝐼 ′′ .

This is useful for evaluation quality of data that has been collected. If 𝛾=1, the data is good and if
𝛾 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑡𝑜 0, the data is bad. Data points with 𝛾 < 𝛾𝑡 (threshold) will have insufficient signal to
noise ratio and 𝜑 (wavefront phase) cannot be reliably calculated at that point. These points are
excluded from the analysis. A typic𝑎𝑙 value of 𝛾𝑡 ~5 − 10%.

Further reading suggested-

2. Three step algorithms

3. 2+1 Algorithm-counter the vibration problem.