energies
Article
Thermohydraulic Performance and Entropy Generation of a
Triple-Pass Solar Air Heater with Three Inlets
Nguyen Minh Phu 1, * , Ngo Thien Tu 2,3 and Nguyen Van Hap 2,3






Citation: Phu, N.M.; Tu, N.T.; Hap,
N.V. Thermohydraulic Performance
and Entropy Generation of a
Triple-Pass Solar Air Heater with
Three Inlets. Energies 2021, 14, 6399.
https://doi.org/10.3390/en14196399
Academic Editor: Efstathios
E. Michaelides
Received: 4 September 2021
Accepted: 4 October 2021
Published: 7 October 2021
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Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
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This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
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Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
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4.0/).
Energies 2021, 14, 6399. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14196399
1 Faculty of Heat and Refrigeration Engineering, Industrial University of Ho Chi Minh City (IUH), 12 Nguyen
Van Bao, Go Vap District, Ho Chi Minh City 700000, Vietnam
2 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology (HCMUT), 268 Ly Thuong
Kiet, District 10, Ho Chi Minh City 700000, Vietnam; ngothientu@hcmut.edu.vn (N.T.T.);
nguyenvanhap@hcmut.edu.vn (N.V.H.)
3 Vietnam National University, Linh Trung Ward, Thu Duc District, Ho Chi Minh City 700000, Vietnam
* Correspondence: nguyenminhphu@iuh.edu.vn; Tel.: +84-906-929-498
Abstract: In this paper, a triple-pass solar air heater with three inlets is analytically investigated. The
effects of airflow ratios of the second and third passes (ranging from 0 to 0.4), and the Reynolds
number of the third pass (ranging from 8000 to 18,000) on the thermohydraulic efficiency and entropy
generation are assessed. An absorber plate equipped with rectangular fins on both sides is used to
enhance heat transfer. The air temperature change in the passes is represented by ordinary differential
equations and solved by numerical integration. The results demonstrate that the effect of the third
pass airflow ratio on the thermohydraulic efficiency and entropy generation is more significant than
that of the second pass airflow ratio. The difference in air temperature through the collector shows
an insignificant reduction, but the air pressure loss is only 50% compared with that of a traditional
triple-pass solar air heater. Increasing the air flow ratios dramatically reduces entropy generation.
Multi-objective optimization found a Reynolds number of 11,156 for both the airflow ratio of the
second pass of 0.258 and airflow ratio of the third pass of 0.036 to be the an optimal value to achieve
maximum thermohydraulic efficiency and minimum entropy generation.
Keywords: multiple pass heat exchanger; solar air heater; thermohydraulic efficiency; Pareto front;
flow ratio
1. Introduction
Hot air is an essential source of thermal energy for industrial fields such as regard-
ing drying, pre-heating of bottles, textile production processes, painting processes, and
conditioning tobacco. For moderate-temperature heating, a solar air heater (SAH) can
be employed, which reduces fossil fuel energy consumption [1]. SAHs are the simplest
energy conversion devices, as they can be made from locally available materials. However,
SAHs reveal some limitations that arise from the heat transfer fluid of air, which cannot
be stored as hot water can, and the low convection heat transfer coefficient of air. Heat
transfer improvement between the airflow and absorption plate of a SAH is a topic of
constant interest to researchers. Inserts including rib roughness, fins, porous media, or
baffles in the SAH duct have led to increases in the heat transfer rate due to the elimination
of the laminar sub-layer close to the absorber plate and airflow reconfiguration [2,3]. The
small convection heat transfer coefficient of the air leads to a high absorber plate tem-
perature, resulting in a large top heat loss of the SAH. To reduce this heat loss, airflow
with multiple passes is structured such that the air receives heat from both sides of the
absorber plate, glass, and back plate. [4,5]. Tuncer et al. [6] used triple and quadruple-pass
SAHs to dry food. They reported that pressure losses of 3.8 and 4.5 Pa were obtained
for triple and quadruple-pass SAHs, respectively. In addition, air temperature increases
of 18.2 and 20.1 ◦ C were observed in the triple and quadruple-pass SAHs, respectively.
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies
Energies 2021, 14, 6399 2 of 19

Energies 2021, 14, 6399 2 of 20

Khanlari et al. [7] dried municipal sewage sludge using triple and quadruple-pass SAHs. A
Energies 2021, 14, 6399 2 of 20
V-groove
°C were absorber
observed plate in thewastripledesigned to enhance heat
and quadruple-pass SAHs, transfer. Their experimental
respectively. Khanlari et al. results [7]
proved driedthat the collector
municipal sewage efficiency
sludge using can be up and
triple to 81.7%. Potato drying
quadruple-pass SAHs.using A V-groovea triple-pass
ab-
SAH sorber
has°Cbeen plateexperimentally
were was designed
observed in the to examined
enhance
triple heatbytransfer.
and quadruple-pass Kesavan et al.
Their
SAHs, [8]. A wireresults
experimental
respectively. meshproved
Khanlari in
et the second
that
al. [7]
pass the
and collector efficiency can be up to 81.7%. Potato drying
dried municipal sewage sludge using triple and quadruple-pass SAHs. A V-groove ab- heat
sand as a thermal storage medium were adopted using a
in triple-pass
order to SAH
increase has been
the
experimentally
transfer rate and
sorber examined
plateextend
was the by
designed toKesavan
dryingenhance time. et al.
heat The[8].highest
transfer.A wireTheirmesh
thermal in the
experimental and second
exergy
results pass andthat sand of
efficiencies
proved
66% andas athethermal
collector
87%, storage
efficiency
respectively, medium can
were bewere
up toadopted
deduced.81.7%. Sopian in order
Potato etto
drying al.increase
using the heatatransfer
a triple-pass
[9] discussed SAH has
double-pass rate
been and solar
extend
collector the
experimentally drying
with porousexamined time.
media in The highest
bytheKesavan thermal
second et al. and
[8]. AThey
pass. exergy
wire mesh efficiencies
confirmed in the second of 66%
that the and and sandre-
87%,
passcollector had a
spectively,
as a thermal were deduced.
storage medium Sopian
wereetadopted
al. [9] discussed to aincrease
double-pass solar collector with
higher thermal efficiency compared to that ofina order single-pass SAH. the heat transfer rate and
porous
extend media in the time.
the drying second The pass.
highestThey confirmed
thermal that the
and exergy collector had
efficiencies of 66% a higher
and 87%, thermal
re-
Another
spectively,
modification
were deduced.
to multi-pass
Sopian
SAHs
et al. [9]SAH.
is the adjustment of the air flow in each
discussed a double-pass solar collector with
efficiency compared to that of a single-pass
channelporous by recycling
Another media flow
in the second
modification or adding
to pass. air SAHs is This
inlets.
They confirmed
multi-pass correction
thatadjustment
the the collectorof can
had improve
thea higher
air flow incollector
thermal each
performance,
efficiency as the
comparedmulti-passto that air
of a collector
single-pass has
SAH. a large
channel by recycling flow or adding air inlets. This correction can improve collector per- pressure loss and the temperature
difference
formance, between
Another the fluid and
as themodification
multi-pass to the surface
airmulti-pass
collector SAHs
has inaeachis thechannel
large adjustment
pressure differs. theTable
of and
loss air
theflow 1 summarizes
in each
temperature
studies channel
difference by
on the betweenflowrecycling the flow
patterns fluid orand
adding
changed air the
in
the surface inlets.in This
eachcorrection
multi-pass channel SAHs. can Hoimprove
differs. et al.collector
Table 1[10] per-
explored
summarizes a
double-passformance,
studies onSAH theaswith
the multi-pass
flow recycledchanged
patterns air
flow.collector
Wire
in thehas
mesh, a large
as apressure
multi-pass heat
SAHs. loss
Hoand
transfer the[10]
temperature
et enhancement
al. explored media,
a
difference between the fluid and the surface in each channel differs. Table 1 summarizes
double-pass
was inserted SAH
in the with recycled
channel between flow.theWire mesh, plate
absorber as a heat andtransfer
back plate.enhancement
They reported media, an
studies on the flow patterns changed in the multi-pass SAHs. Ho et al. [10] explored a
was inserted
optimaldouble-pass
recycle ratio in the channel between the absorber plate and back plate. They reported an
SAHofwith 1.0 recycled
to obtain flow.theWire highest
mesh, collector
as a heat transferefficiency improvement.
enhancement media, Yeh
optimal
and Howas recycle
[11]inserted
divided ratio of 1.0
thechannel to obtain
spacebetweenbetween the highest collector efficiency improvement. Yeh and
in the thethe absorber
absorber plate and plate backand back
plate. They plate into an
reported two air
Ho [11]
channels. divided the space
Longitudinal between the absorber plate and back plateininto two to airintensify
channels.
optimal recycle ratiofins of 1.0 were attached
to obtain the highestto the absorber
collector plate
efficiency order
improvement. Yeh and the
Longitudinal fins thewere attached to the
theabsorber
absorber plateandinback order to into
heat exchange.
Ho [11] divided They concluded
space that
between the collector efficiency
plate can
plate beintensify
two airthe
improved heat ex-
through
channels. an
change. They concluded that the collector efficiency can be improved through an increase
increaseLongitudinal
in the reflux fins wereSingh
ratio. attached and to Dhiman
the absorber [12]plate
added in order
wireto meshintensify
packing the heat in theex- main
in the reflux
change. ratio.
They Singh and
concluded thatDhiman
theand [12] added
collector efficiency wire can mesh packing through
be improved in the main air chan-
air channel
nelinbetween
between a glass
a glass
cover and
cover
andDhiman
absorber
absorber
plate.
plate.
The recycle
The recycle ratio of an1.8increase
yielded the
the reflux ratio. Singh [12] added wire meshratio packing of 1.8 yielded
in the main the largest
air chan-
largest thermohydraulic
thermohydraulic efficiency.
efficiency. Ho et Ho et al.
al. [13]plate. [13]
utilized utilized corrugated absorber and back
nel between a glass cover and absorber Thecorrugated
recycle ratio absorber and back
of 1.8 yielded the plates
largest to
platesimprove
tothermohydraulic
improve heatefficiency.
heat transfer transfer in aet double-pass
in a double-pass
Ho al. [13] SAH with
utilized SAH withflow.
recycled
corrugated recycled
absorber It was
andflow.
backItplates
shown was
thatto shown
the
that the thermal
thermal
improve performance
performance
heat transfer in a improved
improved with anwith
double-pass SAH an
increasingwith increasing
recycle ratio
recycled recycle
flow. and
It was ratio
decreasing
shown andthat decreasing
air the
flow
air flow
rate. rate.
thermal The
The optimum optimum
performance recycle recycle
ratio ofratio
improved with
0.5 was of increasing
an 0.5
found wasconsidering
found
recycleconsidering
ratio
the and theoftrade-off
decreasing
trade-off heat airtransfer
flow of heat
transfer rate.
improvement The optimum
improvement and pressurerecycle
and ratiopenalty.
loss
pressure of loss
0.5 was found considering
Abo-Elfadl
penalty. et al. [14]
Abo-Elfadl the trade-off
recently
et al. [14]added of heatan
recently transfer
air inlet an
added
port
air inlet improvement
in the
port insecond and
the second passpressure
ofpass loss
of apenalty.
a double-pass Abo-Elfadl
SAH.
double-pass The SAH. et al.
absorber The[14] recently
plate
absorberwas addedplatean
equipped was air
withinletpin
equipped
port in the second pass of a double-pass SAH. The absorber plate was equipped with pin
with fins
pin forfinsheat transfer
for heat augmentation.
transfer augmentation. They confirmedThey confirmed that 66.7% thatof 66.7%
the air of supply
the air at the
supply
fins for toheat transfer energy augmentation. Theyefficiencies.
confirmed that 66.7% of theAhmadkhani
air supply at the
at theport
port
port
ledled thethe
to highest
led to the highest
highest energy
energy
and and exergy exergy
and exergy efficiencies.
More
efficiencies. recently,
More
More recently,
recently,
Ahmadkhani
Ahmadkhaniet al.
et al.or
et al. [15]
[15][15]
investigated
investigated
investigated two
two flow
two flow
configurations,
configurations,
flow configurations,
including recycled
including
including recycled
recycled
flow to
flowflow
the back plate
to thetobackthe back
plate plateor or
upper glass cover. A packed bed matrix was utilized in the main air channel to perform
upper glassuppercover. A packed
glass cover. A packed bed matrix
bed matrix waswas utilized
utilized ininthe themain
mainair air channel
channel totoperform perform the
the parametric study. It was identified that the recycled flow to the back plate led to a
parametric study. It was
the parametric
higher air temperature rise.
study. identified that thethat
It was identified recycled
the recycled flow flow to the to back
the back plate plateledled totoa ahigher
higher air rise.
air temperature temperature rise.
Table 1. Summary of multi-pass SAH studies on flow pattern change.
Table 1. Summary of multi-pass SAH studies on flow pattern change.
Table 1. Summary of multi-pass SAH studies on flow pattern change.
Investigators
Investigators Heat
Heat Transfer
Transfer
Flow Pattern
Flow Pattern MainFinding
Main Finding
Investigators (Year)
(year)(year) Flow Pattern HeatEnhancement
Transfer Enhancement
Enhancement Main Finding

HoHo etHo
et al.,al.,
et2013
2013 [10][10]
[10]2013
al., Wire mesh
Wire
Wire mesh
mesh Optimal
Optimal recyclerecycle
Optimal
recycle ratioofratio
ratio of
1.01.0of 1.0

Yeh and Ho, 2013 Collector

Collectorefficiency increased
Collector efficiency
Yeh Yeh and2013
and Ho, Ho,[11]
2013 Longitudinal fin
Longitudinal fin
fin efficiency increased
[11] Longitudinal increased
with recycle with
ratiorecycle ratio
[11] with recycle ratio
Energies 2021, 14, 6399 3 of 19

Energies
Energies2021,
2021,14,
14,6399
6399 3 3ofof2020
Energies 2021, 14, 6399 3 of 20
Table 1. Cont.

Investigators (Year) Flow Pattern Heat Transfer Enhancement Main Finding

Singh
Singhand
and
Singh and Wire
Wiremesh
meshpacking
packing Optimal
Optimalrecycle
recycleratio
ratioofof1.8
1.8
Dhiman,
Singh and
Dhiman,2018
Dhiman, 2018[12]
2018 [12]
[12] Wire
Wire mesh
mesh packing
packing Optimal
Optimal recyclerecycle
ratio ratio
of 1.8of 1.8
Dhiman, 2018 [12]

Corrugated
Corrugatedabsorber
absorberand
and
Ho et al., 2018 [13]
Ho et2018
al., 2018 [13] Corrugated absorber and Optimal recycle ratio of 0.5
Optimal recycle ratioratio
of 0.5
HoHo
et al.,
et al., [13] [13]
2018 back
Corrugatedbackplates
absorber and back plates
plates Optimal
Optimal recyclerecycle
ratio of 0.5of 0.5
back plates

InIntotal,
total,66.7%
66.7%of66.7%
ofair
airsupply
supplyatat
In total, 66.7%
In total,of air supply at
of air supply
Abo-Elfadl
Abo-Elfadletetal., al., the
thesecond
second pass
at the passexhibited
exhibited
second the
the
pass exhibited
Abo-Elfadl
Abo-Elfadl et [14]
et al., 2020 al., Pin
Pinfin
Pin fin
fin the second pass exhibited the
2020
2020[14][14] Pin fin highest
highestenergy and
andexergy
the highest
energy exergyef-
energy and
ef-
2020 [14] highest energy andefficiencies
exergy exergy ef-
ficiencies
ficiencies
ficiencies

Recycle
Recycle flow
flowtoflow
Recycle toback
to plate
back plate
back plate
Ahmadkhani et
Ahmadkhani et Recycle flow figure)
to backledplate
Ahmadkhani et al., 2021 et
Ahmadkhani [15] Packed
Packed
Packedbedbed
bed matrix
matrix
matrix (upper (upper
(upper figure) led tohigher
figure) led to to higher
higher
al.,
al.,2021
2021[15]
[15] Packed bed matrix (upper figure) led to higher
air temperature rise
al., 2021 [15] air
airtemperature
temperaturerise rise
air temperature rise

The
The aboveTheabove
above literature
literature
literature reviewreview
review indicatesthatthat
indicates
indicates thatmultiple
multiple
multiple passespasses
andand
passes andvarious
various various air
airflows
air flows flows
within
within The
the above
passes literature
can improvereview
the indicates that
thermohydraulic multiple
performancepasses and
of an various
SAH. air flows
However, aa
within
the passes
within cantheimprove
the passescan
passes can
theimprove thethermohydraulic
thermohydraulic
improve the thermohydraulic
performance performance
of an SAH.
performance ofofanan SAH.However,
However,
SAH. However,
a study a for
study
study for
fortriple-pass
triple-pass SAHs
SAHs with
withair
airflow
flow modification
modification was
was not
not found.
found. Furthermore,
Furthermore, stud-
stud-
triple-pass
study for SAHs with air
triple-pass flowwith
SAHs modification was not found.
air flow modification was not Furthermore, studiesstud-
found. Furthermore, focused
ies
iesfocused
focusedon onthe
theparameters
parametersrelated
relatedto tothe
thesecond
secondlaw lawof thermodynamics
thermodynamicsare arelacking.
on theies focused on the parameters related to the
ofsecond law ofofthermodynamics
are lacking.are lacking.
Inlacking.
InInparameters
this
thisstudy,
related
study,a atriple-pass
to the second
triple-passSAH SAHwith
law
withthree
thermodynamics
threeinlets
inletseach
eachatatan anair
airpass
passisisinvestigated.
this
investigated.The
study,
The
In this
a triple-pass
main study,
SAH a triple-pass
with three SAH
inlets with
each three
at an inlets
air each
pass isat an air
investigated.pass is investigated.
The main aim The
of the
mainaim aimofofthethepresent
presentstudy
studywas
wastotodetermine
determinethe theflow
flowraterateofofeach
eachpass passsuch
suchthat
thatthe
the
main
present
collectoraimefficiency
study of thetopresent
was determine
can be study was
the
augmented toand
flow determine
ratetheof thepass
each
entropy flow rate of
such
generation each
that the
lowered.pass such that
collector the
efficiency
collector efficiency can be augmented and the entropy generation lowered.
can becollector
augmentedefficiency
andcan thebe augmented
entropy and the lowered.
generation entropy generation lowered.
2.2.Model
ModelDescription
Description
2. Model
2. Model Description
Description
The schematic diagram of a three-inlet triple-pass air collector is shown in Figure 1.
Theschematic
schematicdiagram diagramofofaathree-inlet
three-inlettriple-pass
triple-passair aircollector
collectorisisshownshownininFigure Figure1.1.
The
The
In schematic
Inthis
this study,
study,the diagram
the collectorof
collector a three-inlet
dimensions
dimensions are triple-pass
arefixed,
fixed,including
including air collector
the
thecollector is shown
collector length
lengthL, in Figure
L,width
widthW, 1. In
W,
In this
and study,
depth of theair
an collector
channel dimensions
D. The are fixed,
collector including
includes two the collector
glass covers, length
one L, width
absorber W,
plate,
this study, the collector
and depth of an airdimensions
channel D. The arecollector
fixed, including
includes two the glass
collectorcovers,length L, widthplate,
one absorber W, and
and one
depth of an air channel D. Thethrough
collectorthe includes two glass forming
covers, one absorber plate,
depthand of an
and one back
air
back plate.
plate.The
channel Theair
D. Theairtravels
collector
travels includes
through thesurfaces
two glass
surfaces ininturn,covers,
turn, onethree
forming threepasses.
absorberpasses. Each
plate,
Eachand
and one
pass has backair plate. The air travels through the surfaces in turn, in forming threeThe passes. Each
one back hasan
passplate. anTheairinlet
inlet
air with
withambient
travels ambienttemperature
through the surfacesTTTaaain
temperature ,a,asasshown
turn, shownforminginthethe figure.
figure.
three Theair
passes. airflow
Eachflowpass
pass
through has an
the air
third inlet
pass withis ambient
the total temperature
flow, with the , as
mass shown
flow in
rate the𝑚 .figure.
Let y The
and air
z beflow
the
has an through
air inlet
through the
the with third
third passisisthe
ambient
pass thetotal
totalflow,
temperature flow,Twith
awith themass
, as the
shown mass flow
inflowthe raterate𝑚𝑚. .Let
figure. Letyair
The yand
and
flow
z zbe
be the
through
the
additional air fractions supplied totopasses 2 and .
the thirdadditional
pass isair
additional air
the fractions
total flow,
fractions supplied
supplied withtothe passes
mass22flow
passes and3,
and 3,respectively.
3,rate respectively.
m. Let y and
respectively.
The
Theair
The zair
air
fraction
fraction
befraction
through
through air
the additional
through
thethefirst
firstpass
pass isis(1(1− −y y− −z).z).The
The two
two sides
sides ofofthetheabsorber
absorber plate
plate was
was equipped
equipped with
with longitu-
longitu-
fractions supplied
the first pass is (1 to−passes
y − z). The 2 and two3,sides
respectively.
of the absorber The plateair fraction
was equippedthrough withthe first pass
longitu-
dinal
dinalfins
finsininorder
ordertotoenhance
enhancethe theheat
heattransfer
transferfor forthe theplate.
plate.The Themathematical
mathematicalmodel modelisis
is (1 − y
dinal − z).
fins
established The
in ordertwo tosides
enhance of the
the absorber
heat transferplate forwas the equipped
plate. The with longitudinal
mathematical model fins
is in
establishedwith withthe thefollowing
followingassumptions:
assumptions:
established
order- to enhance with the following
the heat transfer assumptions:
for the plate. The mathematical model is established
- The Theflowflowinina achannel
channelisisconsidered
consideredone-dimensional
one-dimensionalininthe thex-direction.
x-direction.
with --the
-
The flow
flow is
following
The inassumptions:
a channel
steady and isthe
considered
air fluid
The flow is steady and the air fluid is incompressible.
one-dimensional
is incompressible. in the x-direction.
- --The
- The
The thermophysical
flow
flow is steady and
in a channel isproperties
The thermophysical
the air fluid
considered
properties
is incompressible.
ofofthe
theair airand
andthe
one-dimensional theSAHSAHare inare temperature-independent;
the x-direction.
temperature-independent;
- The
and thermophysical properties of the air and the SAH are temperature-independent;
- The and
flow
and is steady and the air fluid is incompressible.
-The The
Thebottom
bottomplate and
andthe theedges ofofthe
theSAHSAHare areperfectly areinsulated
insulatedfrom fromthe thesurround-
- - - thermophysical
The bottom plateproperties
plate and the edges
of the
edges air
of the and
SAH the
are perfectly
SAH
perfectly temperature-independent;
insulated from the surround-and
surround-
ing
ing environment.
environment.
- The bottom plate and the edges of the SAH are perfectly insulated from the surround-
ing environment.
The
Theheatheatbalance
ing environment. balanceequationequationfor forthetheglass,
glass,plates,
plates,and andair airininthethethree
threechannels
channelsisisasas
follows:The heat balance equation for the glass, plates, and air in the three channels is as
follows:
follows:
 h f 3 ,b ( −T f 3 + Tb ) + hr,b, p (Tb − T p ) = 0 . (8)
Energies 2021, 14, 6399 4 of 19

Figure 1. Triple-pass
Figure 1. Triple-pass solar
solar air
air heater
heater with
withthree
threeinlets
inletsand
andnotation.
notation.

The heat balance

Boundary equation
conditions for for
thethe glass, plates,
ordinary and airEquations
differential in the three(2), channels is as(6)follows:
(4), and are as
-follows:
Glass 1: Solar irradiation absorbed by the glass balances the heat exchanged by
convection and radiation from the top and bottom sides of the glass [4,16]:
The temperature of theair entering  the first pass (Tf1(x = 0)) is equal to the am-
 



Iαg1 + hw Ta − Tg1 + hr,a Tskybient − Tg1temperature
+ hr,g1,g2 Tg2 (T−a):Tg1 + h f 1,g1 T f 1 − Tg1 = 0, (1)
(9a)
Tf1(x = 0) = Ta.
where the sky temperature is calculated by Tsky = 0.0552Ta 1.5 .
- The air
heatentering
gain of the
firstsecond
pass airpass
in with a flow fraction
an infinitesimal change(1 − (dx)
z) is isa equal
mixture to ofthethe air
heat
exiting theby
exchange first pass withwith
convection the flow fraction
glasses 1 and(1 − y − z) and the air from the second inlet
2 as:
with the flow fraction (y). The h mixing  temperature is calculated fromi the mass-
.
 
(1 −
weighted y − z)mc
average dT f 1 = Wh f 1,g1 Tg1 − T f 1 + Wh f 1,g2 Tg2 − T f 1 dx.
as pfollows: (2)
Tf2(x = L) = [(1 − y − z)Tf1(x = L) + yTa]/(1 – z).
Therefore, the variation in the first pass air temperature along the x-direction due(9b) to
the
- convection heat transfer of the air with the two glasses is expressed
Similarly, the temperature boundary condition for the air entering the third pass can as follows:
also be expressed as:    
dT f 1 Wh f 1,g1 T g1 − T f1 + Wh f 1,g2 T g2 − T f1
= Tf3(x = 0) = (1 − z)Tf2(x = .0) + zTa. . (3)
(9c)
dx (1 − y − z)mc p
The radiative heat transfer coefficient in the above system of equations can be evalu-
-ated Similarly,
through theforfollowing:
glass 2:
- Radiation
Iτg1 αg2from glass
+ h f 1,g2 1 Ttog2
the
Tf 1 − + hsurroundings:


f 2,g2 T f 2 − Tg2 + hr,g1,g2



Tg1 − Tg2 + hr,g2,p1 Tp1 − Tg2 = 0. (4)

hr , a = σε g 1 (Tg 1 + Tsky
2 2
) (T g1 + Tsky ) ; (10)
- Similar to the change of the first pass air temperature, the air in the second pass
- Radiation of
exchanges glasses:
heat with glass 2 and receives thermal energy by convection with the
finned absorber plate. The convection heat transfer Tg1 + of
Tg 2the air with the fins and their
2 = σ ( Tg 1 the 2 )
2 2
prime surface is calculated hr,g1,g through + Tgtemperature difference ; of the absorber plate
(11)
1 / ε g1 + 1 / ε g 2 − 1
(Tp ) and the air (Tf2 ) with the fin efficiency. Hence, the change in the second pass air
- temperature
Radiation of can
glassbe1 written
and theas: absorber plate:
Tg 2Wh+ Tp φ T − T
   
Wh (Tg 2 + Tp ) 1f 2/ ε +.1 / fε2,p− 1 ; and f 2 ,
dT f 2 hr,g 2 , p = fσ2,g2
=
2 g2 −2 T
T + p
(12)
(5)
dx (1 −gz2)mc p p
- Radiation
where φ isof
thethe absorber plate
area-weighted finand back plate:
efficiency.
- The absorber plate can be expressed as:





Iτg1 τg2 α p + h f 2,p φ T f 2 − Tp + hr,g2,p Tg2 − Tp + h f 3,p φ T f 3 − Tp1 + hr,b,p Tb − Tp = 0. (6)
Energies 2021, 14, 6399 5 of 19

- The change in the third pass air temperature can be expressed as:
   
dT f 3 Wh f 3,p φ Tp − T f 3 + Wh f 3,b Tb − T f 3
= . . (7)
dx mc p

- The back plate-received radiation heat transfer from the absorber plate and transfer
heat to the third pass air by convection is expressed as:
 

h f 3,b − T f 3 + Tb + hr,b,p Tb − Tp = 0. (8)

Boundary conditions for the ordinary differential Equations (2), (4) and (6) are as follows:
The temperature of the air entering the first pass (Tf1(x = 0) ) is equal to the ambient temperature (Ta ):
(9a)
Tf1(x = 0) = Ta .

- The air entering the second pass with a flow fraction (1 − z) is a mixture of the air
exiting the first pass with the flow fraction (1 − y − z) and the air from the second
inlet with the flow fraction (y). The mixing temperature is calculated from the mass-
weighted average as follows:

Tf2(x = L) = [(1 − y − z)Tf1(x = L) + yTa ]/(1 − z). (9b)

- Similarly, the temperature boundary condition for the air entering the third pass can
also be expressed as:
Tf3(x = 0) = (1 − z)Tf2(x = 0) + zTa . (9c)
The radiative heat transfer coefficient in the above system of equations can be evalu-
ated through the following:
- Radiation from glass 1 to the surroundings:
  
hr,a = σεg1 Tg1 2 + Tsky 2 Tg1 + Tsky ; (10)

- Radiation of glasses:
  Tg1 + Tg2
hr,g1,g2 = σ Tg1 2 + Tg2 2 ; (11)
1/εg1 + 1/εg2 − 1

- Radiation of glass 1 and the absorber plate:

  Tg2 + Tp
hr,g2,p = σ Tg2 2 + Tp 2 ; and (12)
1/εg2 + 1/ε p − 1

- Radiation of the absorber plate and back plate:

  Tb + Tp
hr,b,p = σ Tb 2 + Tp 2 . (13)
1/εb + 1/ε p − 1

The convective heat transfer coefficient of the air in the ducts can be estimated from
the empirical correlation. The correlation was developed for the rectangular solar heater
duct in the thermally developing flow [17] and has been adopted by many studies on solar
air heater ducts [18–20].

h f 1,g1 = h f 1,g2 = 0.018Re10.8 Pr0.4 k/De , (14a)

h f 2,g2 = h f 2,p = 0.018Re20.8 Pr0.4 k/De , (14b)

h f 3,p = h f 3,p = 0.018Re30.8 Pr0.4 k/De , (14c)

Energies 2021, 14, 6399 6 of 19

where Pr and De are the Prandtl number and hydraulic diameter of the air duct, respectively,
and Re1 , Re2 , and Re3 are the respective Reynolds numbers in passes 1, 2, and 3. These
quantities are defined by:
Re1 = ρDe V1 /µ, (15a)
Re2 = ρDe V2 /µ, (15b)
Re3 = ρDe V3 /µ, (15c)
Pr = µc p /k, (16)
4WD
De = . (17)
2 (W + D )
The wind loss heat transfer coefficient for glass 1 can be determined using the
McAdams formula [21]:
hw = 5.7 + 1.2Vw . (18)
The area-weighted fin efficiency can be estimated as [11,18,19]:
 
φ = 1 + A f /Ac η f , (19)

where Af is the total surface area of the fins and Ac is the collector surface area with
A f = 2nW f L and Ac = LW, in which n and Wf are the number of fins and fin
height, respectively.
The fin efficiency is defined as:
 
tanh MW f
ηf = , (20)
MW f
q
h
where M = 2 kf 1,g1 st
, in which t and ks are the fin thickness and thermal conductivity of
the fin, respectively.
.
The air mass flow rate (m) and air velocity (V) have the following relations:
- For the first pass,
.
(1 − y − z)m = WDρV1 ; (21a)
- for the second pass,
.
(1 − y)m = WDρV2 ; and (21b)
- for the third pass,
.
m = WDρV3 . (21c)
The useful heat gain is determined from the air temperature difference of the collector
as follows:
.
Q = mc p ( To − Ta ). (22)
The air pumping power can be calculated by:

. ∆P
Pf low = m , (23)
ρ

where ∆P is the air pressure difference through the collector, which sums the pressure
drops of passes, as expressed by:

L L L
∆P = 2ρ f 1 V12 + 2ρ f 2 V22 + 2ρ f 3 V32 . (24)
De De De

The friction factor of each pass is given as [17,18]:

f 1 = 0.079Re1−0.25 , (25a)
Energies 2021, 14, 6399 7 of 19

f 2 = 0.079Re2−0.25 , and (25b)

f 3 = 0.079Re3−0.25 . (25c)
Therefore, the thermohydraulic efficiency is defined as:

Q − Pf low /Co
ηe f f = , (26)
LW I
where Co is the conversion factor of the mechanical work to heat (Co = 0.2) [4,22].
Entropy generation of a SAH exists as a result of irreversibility. The irreversibility may
consist of the absorption of radiation by the absorber plate, heat transfer to the working air,
heat loss to the environment, and frictional loss of the working air. The entropy generation
can be determined using the entropy balance for a steady control volume without work
transfer [23,24]:
 
. . Pa
Sgen = (1/Ta − 1/Ts ) Qs + [ln( To /Ta ) − To /Ta + 1]mc p − mRln , (27)
Pa + ∆P

where Ts is the solar temperature (Ts = 5777 K) and Qs is the solar energy absorbed by the
absorber plate (Qs = I(τα)LW).
The parameters used as input for the mathematical model are reported in Table 2.
Most of the parameters were obtained from the study of Ramani et al. [16] for the sake of
validating numerical computation in the present study. The thermophysical parameters
of air were estimated at ambient temperature. Temperature gradient equations—that
is, Equations (3), (5) and (7)—can be solved by numerical integration in the form of
Equation (28) [25]. The code for the solution of the governing equations was implemented
in the software EES [26] using the built-in integral function. The details of the solution
procedure are presented in the textbook of Nellis and Klein [27]. Figure 2 shows a com-
parison of the air temperature distribution in a double-pass solar air collector. There is
good agreement between the results obtained in this study and the published results. Thus,
the formulation of the governing equations and solution strategy can ensure accuracy of
the results.
ZL dT
f
∆T = dx. (28)
dx
0

Table 2. Input parameters.

Parameter Value Reference

Thermal conductivity of fin ks = 50.2 Wm−1 K−1 [19]
Fin thickness t = 0.95 mm [19]
Number of fins n = 20 -
Fin height Wf = 10 mm -
Collector length L = 2.1 m [16]
Collector width W = 0.54 m [16]
Collector depth D = 0.021 m [16]
Solar radiation I = 848 W/m2 [16]
Ambient temperature Ta = 27 ◦ C [16]
Absorptivity of glass covers αγ1 = αγ2 = 0.05 [16]
Absorptivity of absorber plate απ = 0.92 [16]
Emissivity of glass covers εγ1 = εγ2 = 0.92 [16]
Emissivity of absorber plate επ = 0.92 [16]
Emissivity of back plate εβ = 0.92 -
Transmissivity of glass covers τγ1 = τγ2 = 0.84 [19]
Effective transmittance–absorptance product τα = 0.78 [28]
Wind velocity Vw = 1 m/s -
Increment in x-coordinate ∆ξ = 0.21 µ -
Stefan’s constant σ = 5.67·10− 8 Ω/(µ2 K4 ) -
 Emissivity of back plate εβ = 0.92 -
Transmissivity of glass covers τγ1 = τγ2 = 0.84 [19]
Effective transmittance–absorptance
τα = 0.78 [28]
product
Wind velocity Vw = 1 m/s -
Energies 2021, 14, 6399 8 of 19
Increment in x-coordinate Δξ = 0.21 μ -
Stefan’s constant σ = 5.67⋅10−8 Ω/(μ2Κ4) -

100

Present study

80 Ramani et al.

Temperature, °C

60 Air stream in second pass

40

Air stream in first pass

20
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Collector length, m
Figure 2.
Figure 2. Validation
Validation of
of local
local air
air temperatures
temperatures with
withthe
thepublished
publisheddata
data[16].
[16].

Table33presents
Table presentsthe therange
rangeofofkey
keyparameters
parameters that
that were
were used
used to to investigate
investigate thethe ther-
thermo-
hydraulic
mohydraulic performance
performance andand
entropy generation
entropy generationin this study.
in this It should
study. be noted
It should that that
be noted the
case with y = z = 0 is the traditional triple-pass collector. This case is considered
the case with y = z = 0 is the traditional triple-pass collector. This case is considered as theas the base
case
base for
casecomparison
for comparisonwith with
casescases
where y or yz is
where orgreater thanthan
z is greater zero.zero.
For For
the the
multi-objective
multi-objec-
optimization of maximum
tive optimization of maximum thermohydraulic
thermohydraulicefficiency and minimum
efficiency and minimum entropy generation,
entropy gener-a
genetic
ation, aalgorithm (GA) was(GA)
genetic algorithm adopted. The settings
was adopted. The of the GAofare
settings theprovided in Table 4,inwhich
GA are provided Table
were partially
4, which wereadapted
partiallytoadapted
our previous
to ourstudy [29]. The
previous studyoptimum curve
[29]. The can be displayed
optimum curve can by be
means of a Pareto front [30]. To specify the ultimate optimal solution in terms of Pareto
optimality, the TOPSIS (Technique for Order of Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution)
decision-making process was adopted. Another common decision-making technique is
LINMAP (Linear Programming Technique for Multi-dimensional Analysis of Preference).
The LINMAP method chooses the best solution by finding the shortest distance to the ideal
point. The TOPSIS is attributed to the better method because the idea of this technique is to
seek out the point that is nearest to the ideal point and the furthermost from the non-ideal
point [31]. The lengths from a point to the ideal point (li + ) and non-ideal point (li − ) are
estimated as [32]:
r
 2  2
li + = Sgen − Sgen,ideal + ηe f f − ηe f f ,ideal , (29)
r
 2  2
li − = Sgen − Sgen,non-ideal + ηe f f − ηe f f ,non-ideal . (30)

Table 3. Range of key parameters.

Key Parameter Range

Reynolds number in the third pass Re3 = 8000–18,000
Airflow ratio in the second pass y = 0–0.4
Airflow ratio in the third pass z = 0–0.4
Energies 2021, 14, 6399 9 of 19

Table 4. Parameters of the multi-objective optimization genetic algorithm.

Parameter Value Remark

Very large population size
Population size 260 results in long computation
time
Matlab manual and thermal
Crossover fraction 0.8 research [33] recommend the
value to obtain the best result
Pareto fraction 0.35 Default value
Sensitivity analysis revealed
Maximum number of generations 200 × number of variables that the Pareto frontier is
reached after 121 iterations
Due to bounds, used as
Mutation function Adaptive feasible
shown in Table 3
Enhances chance of selection
Selection type Tournament
for the fittest individual [33]
Crossover function Intermediate Default crossover function
The individuals owned type
Population type Double vector
double (not string)

To meet the condition of TOPSIS, the ultimate optimal solution has the biggest value
of the ratio, as given by:
li −
Cli = . (31)
li − + li +

3. Results and Discussion

The influence of key parameters on the thermohydraulic efficiency, entropy generation,
and the determination of optimal parameters is presented in this section. Figures 3–8 show
the influence of air flow ratios on the thermo-hydraulic parameters and entropy generation
at Re3 = 10,000. The effect of air flow ratios on the temperature difference through the
collector is presented in Figure 3. A general trend can be seen that as the ratio increases,
the temperature difference decreases. In the base case (y = z = 0), the air temperature
difference was the largest. This is because the reduced air flow in passes 1 or 2 decreased
the convection heat exchange coefficient, thereby reducing the heat transfer capacity. It can
be clearly seen, however, that the reduction of the temperature difference with the flow
ratios was not significant. In the case where y = z = 0.4, the air temperature difference was
about 0.15 K lower than that of the base case. This was due to the fact that radiant heat
transfer existed in the multi-pass air collector. Figure 4 shows the average radiant heat
transfer coefficients which were calculated from the average temperature of the surfaces.
It is clear that as the Reynolds number increased, the radiant heat transfer coefficient
decreased due to a decrease in the surface temperatures. However, at certain Reynolds
numbers, all radiant heat transfer coefficients of the three-inlet SAH with airflow ratios of
0.4 were greater than those of the base case. This resulted in a negligible decrease in the
air temperature difference with increasing airflow ratios. As the air flow decreased, the
temperature of the heat exchanger surfaces increased, thereby increasing the temperature
difference between the fluid and the heat transfer surface. The heat transfer rate was
proportional to the temperature difference. The temperature distributions of the air flows
and heat transfer surfaces are depicted in Figure 5 with respect to the extremes of the
airflow ratios (i.e., 0 and 0.4).

Energies 2021, 14, 6399
decreased, the temperature of the heat exchanger surfaces increased, thereby increasing
the temperature difference between the fluid and the heat transfer surface. The heat trans-
fer rate was proportional to the temperature difference. The temperature distributions of
the air flows and heat transfer surfaces are depicted in Figure 5 with respect to the ex-
tremes of the airflow ratios (i.e., 0 and 0.4). 10 of 19

12
z=0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4

11.95

Δ T (K)
11.9

11.85

Re3 = 10,000

11.8
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
y
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 22
Figure3.
Figure 3. Effect
Effect of
of airflow
airflowratios
ratioson
ontemperature
temperatureincrease.
increase.

6.2
Mean radiation heat transfer coefficient (W m-2 K-1)

y=z=0 y = z = 0.4
hra hra
hr,b,p hr,b,p
6 hr,g1,g2 hr,g1,g2
hr,g2,p hr,g2,p

5.8

5.6

5.4

5.2
8,000 10,000 12,000 14,000 16,000 18,000

Re3
Figure 4.
Figure 4. Comparison
Comparison of of
thethe
mean radiation
mean heat heat
radiation transfer coefficient
transfer for the for
coefficient basethe
case andcase
base the case
and the case
with y = z = 0.4.
with y = z = 0.4.
Energies 2021, 14, 6399 11 of 19
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 22

45 45
y=z=0 y = z = 0.4
43 43

41 41
Tf1

Temperature (°C)
Temperature (°C)

39 39
Tf2

37 Tf3 37

Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 22

35 Tg1 35
zm
33 Tg2 33
efficiency, with air flow ratios. Taking the aforementioned discussions into account, we
determined that Tp the efficiency can reach a maximum at a certain airflow ratio. Greater
31 31
efficiencies were achieved at flow ratios less than 0.1. This is because the performance of
an SAH is dominated
Tb by heat transfer compared to pumping power. The thermohydraulic
29 29 of 64.65% at z = 0 and y = 0.2. At z = 0.4, ym
efficiency reached a maximum the efficiency
dropped from 64.42 to 64.08% when increasing y from 0 to 0.4. At y = 0.4, the efficiency
27 decreased from 64.62 to 64.08% 27 as z increased from 0 to 0.4. In other words, the thermo-
hydraulic parameters were affected more strongly by the change of feed air into the third
25 pass. Figure 8 shows the entropy 25 generation with flow ratios. We observed that the en-
0 0.5 1 1.5 tropy generation
2 2.5decreases with-0.2 the increase
0.3 of0.8 1.3 This1.8
airflow ratios. behavior2.3results from
x-coordinate (m) a change in the airflow ratio, which had x-coordinate (m)
little effect on the outlet temperature but greatly
reduced the pressure loss. The effect of the irreversibility due to the frictional loss can be
(a) expressed by the last term of Equation (27). Entropy (b)generation decreased from 2.442 W/K

FigureFigure 5. Local
5. Local temperature
temperature of of
airflow to 2.384
airflowininthree W/K when
three passes,
passes, i.e., increasing
i.e.,glass covers,
glass flow ratios
absorber
covers, from 0 to
plate,plate,
absorber 0.4. plate
and back
and backatplate
Re3 = at
10,000:
Re3 =(a)10,000:
y = z = 0 (base case) and (b) y = z = 0.4.
(a) y = z = 0 (base case) and (b) y = z = 0.4.
The air temperature increased gradually through the passes. In the case of three inlets
30 5b), air temperatures entering the second and third passes were reduced com-
(Figure
pared to the airztemperatures
=0 exiting the
0.1 0.2first and0.3
second passes,
0.4 respectively. The tem-
peratures in the first and second passes were reduced due to the fact that cool ambient air
entered the collector from the additional inlets with the airflows of 𝑦𝑚 and 𝑧𝑚, respec-
tively.25It is clear that when decreasing the air flow rate of passes 1 and 2, the air tempera-
ture difference at these passes increases. The third pass had the same flow rate for both
cases in Figure 5. However, the air temperature difference of the third pass in the three-
Δ P (Pa)

inlet collector was much larger than that of the traditional triple-pass SAH: about 6 K vs.
20 is because the average temperature of the absorber plate of the base case was
4 K. This
about 41 °C, while that in the case where y = z = 0.4 was about 43 °C. In the base case
(Figure 5a), the airflow in the first pass received heat mainly from glass 2. The difference
in air temperature through the second pass was the largest, as this was the main pass (i.e.,
15exchanged heat with the absorber plate). Hence, the temperature cross occurred
the air
between the second pass air temperature (Tf2) and temperature of glass 2 (Tg2). The ab-
sorber plate temperature
Re3 = 10,000 profile was in line with the second pass air temperature. In the
case y = z = 0.4 (Figure 5b), the first pass air received heat from the upper glass until x =
0.5 m,10as the lower air flow led to higher glass temperatures. The absorber plate tempera-
ture (Tp0 ) reached its maximum0.1 0.2 of the collector
in the middle 0.3(x = 1.1 m), as the
0.4 heat ex-
change occurring at the second and thirdypasses was almost the same. However, the di-
rection of the temperature rise of these two passes was opposite, such that the absorber
Figure 6. Effect of airflow ratios on pressure difference.
plate6.temperature
Figure reached
Effect of airflow itson
ratios maximum
pressurein the middle of the collector.
difference.
The hydraulic loss with flow ratios is shown in Figure 6. It can be clearly observed
that the air pressure difference decreased notably with increasing flow ratios: 25.5 Pa in
the base case and 13 Pa at y = z = 0.4 (i.e., pressure drop by a half). Figure 7 illustrates the
variations of useful heat gain and pumping power, as assessed by thermohydraulic
 Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 22
Energies 2021, 14, 6399 12 of 19
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 22

0.647
0.647
0.646
0.646
0.645
0.645
0.644
ηeffηeff
0.644
0.643
Re3 = 10,000
0.643
Re3 = 10,000
0.642
0.642
0.641 z=0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
0.641 z=0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
0.64
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
0.64
0 0.1 y
0.2 0.3 0.4
Figure 7. Effect of airflow ratios onythermohydraulic efficiency.

Figure 7. Effect of airflow ratios on thermohydraulic efficiency.

Figure 7. Effect of airflow ratios on thermohydraulic efficiency.

2.45
2.45 z=0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
2.44 z=0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
2.44
2.43
2.43
(W/K)

2.42
S (W/K)

2.42
2.41
gen

2.41
Sgen

2.4
2.4
2.39
Re3 = 10,000
2.39
2.38 Re3 = 10,000
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
2.38
0 0.1 y
0.2 0.3 0.4
Figureratios
Figure 8. Effect of airflow 8. Effect
onofentropy y on entropy generation.
airflow ratios
generation.
Figure 8. Effect of airflow ratios on entropy generation.
The impacts
The air temperature of the Reynolds
increased graduallynumber
through in the
thethird pass (Re
passes. ) and
In 3the the airflow
case of threeratios are
inlets
shown in Figures 9–12. As the Reynolds number increased, both heat transfer and pres-
(Figure 5b), air temperatures
The impacts ofentering the second
the Reynolds numberandin thethird
thirdpasses
pass (Rewere
3) andreduced compared
the airflow ratios are
sure loss increased. The convection heat transfer coefficient was proportional to the 0.8
to the air temperatures exiting
shown in Figures the
9–12. first
As theand second
Reynolds passes,
number respectively.
increased, both heat
power of the Reynolds number (Equation (14)) and the air pumping power was
The temperatures
transfer and pres-
in the first andsure loss increased.
second passes wereThe reduced
convection heat
due totransfer
the factcoefficient
that coolwas proportional
ambient to thethe
air entered 0.8
power of the Reynolds number (Equation (14)). and the. air pumping power was
collector from the additional inlets with the airflows of ym and zm, respectively. It is clear
that when decreasing the air flow rate of passes 1 and 2, the air temperature difference at
these passes increases. The third pass had the same flow rate for both cases in Figure 5.
However, the air temperature difference of the third pass in the three-inlet collector was
much larger than that of the traditional triple-pass SAH: about 6 K vs. 4 K. This is because
the average temperature of the absorber plate of the base case was about 41 ◦ C, while that
in the case where y = z = 0.4 was about 43 ◦ C. In the base case (Figure 5a), the airflow in the
first pass received heat mainly from glass 2. The difference in air temperature through the
second pass was the largest, as this was the main pass (i.e., the air exchanged heat with
Energies 2021, 14, 6399 13 of 19

the absorber plate). Hence, the temperature cross occurred between the second pass air
temperature (Tf2 ) and temperature of glass 2 (Tg2 ). The absorber plate temperature profile
was in line with the second pass air temperature. In the case y = z = 0.4 (Figure 5b), the
first pass air received heat from the upper glass until x = 0.5 m, as the lower air flow led to
higher glass temperatures. The absorber plate temperature (Tp ) reached its maximum in
the middle of the collector (x = 1.1 m), as the heat exchange occurring at the second and
third passes was almost the same. However, the direction of the temperature rise of these
two passes was opposite, such that the absorber plate temperature reached its maximum
in the middle of the collector.
The hydraulic loss with flow ratios is shown in Figure 6. It can be clearly observed that
the air pressure difference decreased notably with increasing flow ratios: 25.5 Pa in the base
case and 13 Pa at y = z = 0.4 (i.e., pressure drop by a half). Figure 7 illustrates the variations
of useful heat gain and pumping power, as assessed by thermohydraulic efficiency, with air
flow ratios. Taking the aforementioned discussions into account, we determined that the
efficiency can reach a maximum at a certain airflow ratio. Greater efficiencies were achieved
at flow ratios less than 0.1. This is because the performance of an SAH is dominated by heat
transfer compared to pumping power. The thermohydraulic efficiency reached a maximum
of 64.65% at z = 0 and y = 0.2. At z = 0.4, the efficiency dropped from 64.42 to 64.08% when
increasing y from 0 to 0.4. At y = 0.4, the efficiency decreased from 64.62 to 64.08% as z
increased from 0 to 0.4. In other words, the thermohydraulic parameters were affected
more strongly by the change of feed air into the third pass. Figure 8 shows the entropy
generation with flow ratios. We observed that the entropy generation decreases with the
increase of airflow ratios. This behavior results from a change in the airflow ratio, which
had little effect on the outlet temperature but greatly reduced the pressure loss. The effect
of the irreversibility due to the frictional loss can be expressed by the last term of Equation
(27). Entropy generation decreased from 2.442 W/K to 2.384 W/K when increasing flow
ratios from 0 to 0.4.
The impacts of the Reynolds number in the third pass (Re3 ) and the airflow ratios are
shown in Figures 9–12. As the Reynolds number increased, both heat transfer and pressure
loss increased. The convection heat transfer coefficient was proportional to the 0.8 power
of the Reynolds number (Equation (14)) and the air pumping power was proportional
to the 2.75 power of the Reynolds number (Equations (23)–(25)). Hence, the efficiency
peaked at some Reynolds number when the ratios were fixed, as seen in Figures 9 and 11.
It can be inferred from Figure 9 that the maximum efficiency at each z-value was roughly
the same. However, when z was larger, the optimum Re3 was also greater. At z = 0, the
optimal Re number was around 10,000, while the optimal Re number was around 13,000 at
z = 0.4. This is a promising outcome in terms of increasing the air flow through the
triple-pass collector with additional inlets. In addition, when Re3 > 11,000, the base case
performance was minimal. Entropy generation increased with an increasing Reynolds
number and with decreasing flow ratios, as can be observed from Figures 10 and 12.
The increase of the entropy generation with the Reynolds number was mainly due to
increased pressure loss penalty (∆P). It can be noticed that the effect of z on the efficiency
and entropy generation was more pronounced than that of y, as the third pass was the
main heat exchange channel and the pressure loss was the largest for the triple-pass
SAH with three inlets. From Figures 9 and 11, it can be concluded that a three-inlet air
collector should be used when the Reynolds number is greater than 11,000 in terms of the
thermohydraulic performance.
 pressure loss penalty (ΔP). It can be noticed that the effect of z on the efficiency and en-
tropy generation was more pronounced than that of y, as the third pass was the main heat
exchange channel and the pressure loss was the largest for the triple-pass SAH with three
inlets. From Figures 9 and 11, it can be concluded that a three-inlet air collector should be
used when the Reynolds number is greater than 11,000 in terms of the thermohydraulic
Energies 2021, 14, 6399 performance. 14 of 19

0.65

0.645

0.64
ηeff

z= 0
0.635 0.1
0.2
0.3
0.63 y=0 0.4

0.625
8,000 10,000 12,000 14,000 16,000 18,000
Re3
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 22
Figure Figure 9. Effect
9. Effect of airflow
of airflow ratio
ratio z and
z and Reynolds number
Reynolds number onon
thermohydraulic efficiency.
thermohydraulic efficiency.

2.9 z= 0
0.1
2.8 0.2
0.3
Sgen (W/K)

0.4
2.7

2.6
y=0

2.5

2.4

2.3
8,000 10,000 12,000 14,000 16,000 18,000
Re3
Figure of
Figure 10. Effect 10.airflow
Effect ofratio
airflow ratioReynolds
z and z and Reynolds number
number on on entropygeneration.
entropy generation.

0.65

0.645

0.64
y=0
η eff

0.1
0.635 0.2
0.3
0.63 0.4
z=0

0.625
8,000 10,000 12,000 14,000 16,000 18,000
 2.3
8,000 10,000 12,000 14,000 16,000 18,000
Re3
Energies 2021, 14, 6399 Figure 10. Effect of airflow ratio z and Reynolds number on entropy generation. 15 of 19

0.65

0.645

0.64
y=0
η eff

0.1
0.635 0.2
0.3
0.63 0.4
z=0

0.625
8,000 10,000 12,000 14,000 16,000 18,000
Re3
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 22
FigureFigure 11. Effect
11. Effect of airflow
of airflow ratio
ratio y andReynolds
y and Reynolds number
numberonon
thermohydraulic efficiency.
thermohydraulic efficiency.

2.9
y=0
2.8 0.1
0.2
Sgen (W/K)

2.7
0.3
0.4
2.6

z=0
2.5

2.4

2.3
8,000 10,000 12,000 14,000 16,000 18,000
Re3
Figureof
Figure 12. Effect 12.airflow
Effect ofratio
airflow ratioReynolds
y and y and Reynolds number
number on on entropygeneration.
entropy generation.

From the aboveFrom the above parametric study, it can be seen that the Reynolds number and air-
parametric study, it can be seen that the Reynolds number and airflow
flow ratios had opposite effects on collector efficiency and entropy generation. The maxi-
ratios had opposite effects on collector efficiency and entropy generation. The maximum
mum efficiency was achieved at a certain Reynolds number and at certain airflow ratios
efficiency was achieved at a certain Reynolds
in the surveyed range. Meanwhile, entropy numbergeneration
and at certain
increasedairflow ratios
with the in the
increase of Re
surveyed range.and Meanwhile, entropy generation increased with the increase
decrease of flow ratios. Therefore, to assign optimal values of independent parame- of Re and
decrease of flowters,
ratios. Therefore,
a Pareto front was toconstructed,
assign optimal values
as shown of independent
in Figure 13. The Pareto parameters,
front curve awas
Pareto front wasestablished
constructed,usingasthe genetic
shown inalgorithm
Figure 13. with
ThethePareto
settings shown
front in Table
curve was4.established
The curve was
using the genetica series of optimal
algorithm with solutions that yielded
the settings shown a large efficiency
in Table 4. Theandcurve
small was
entropy generation.
a series of
Ideal and non-ideal points located at the vertices of the rectangle formed by the Pareto
optimal solutions that yielded a large efficiency and small entropy generation. Ideal and
curve were found. To determine the final solution, the TOPSIS decision-making technique
non-ideal pointswaslocated
applied,atwhich
the vertices
found Sgenof=the rectangle
2.4691 W/K andformed by the
ηeff = 65.38%, Paretoincurve
as shown were
the graph. This
found. To determine the final solution, the TOPSIS decision-making technique was
is the point that was closest to the ideal point (bottom-right corner) and furthest from theapplied,
which found Sgen = 2.4691
non-ideal W/K
point and ηcorner).
(top-left eff = 65.38%, as shown
The optimal in the
parameters at graph. Thispoint
the selected is the point
were found
that was closesttotobethe
Re3 ideal point
= 11,156, (bottom-right
y = 0.258, corner)
and z = 0.036. and Figure
In addition, furthest from
13 also the non-ideal
shows the maximum
efficiency The
point (top-left corner). valueoptimal
corresponding to the maximum
parameters entropy generation
at the selected point were andfound
vice versa.
to be
Re3 = 11,156, y = 0.258, and z = 0.036. In addition, Figure 13 also shows the maximum
efficiency value corresponding to the maximum entropy generation and vice versa.
 Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 22
Energies 2021, 14, 6399 16 of 19

Figure13.13.
Figure Pareto
Pareto front
front and and ultimate
ultimate optimum
optimum solutionsolution selected
selected by TOPSISby TOPSIS decision-making
decision-making process. process.

4. Conclusions
4. Conclusions
A one-dimensional analytical analytical
A one-dimensional model was formed
model to evaluate
was formed the temperature
to evaluate the temperature distribu-
distri-
tion in a three-inlet
bution intriple-pass
a three-inlet solar air heater.
triple-pass solar air Thermohydraulic
heater. Thermohydraulic efficiency and
efficiency andentropy
entropy
generation
generation served served
as the as the
criteria tocriteria to estimate
estimate its performance
its performance when when changing
changing theReynolds
the Reynolds
number of the air in the third pass and in the airflow ratio of the
number of the air in the third pass and in the airflow ratio of the inlets. The thermohy- inlets. The thermohy-
draulic performance and entropy generation were significantly improved by adding inlets
draulic performance and entropy generation were significantly improved by adding inlets
when the collector operated with a high airflow. The main findings of the present research
when the collector operated with a high airflow. The main findings of the present research
study are as follows:
study are as follows:
1. The air temperature difference showed little change with the airflow ratios. However,
1. The air temperature
the pressuredifference
loss of theshowed little
three-inlet changeSAH
triple-pass withwas
thereduced
airflowtoratios.
half of However,
that of the
the pressuretraditional
loss of the three-inlet
triple-pass SAH.triple-pass SAH was reduced to half of that of the
2. triple-pass
traditional ThermohydraulicSAH.efficiency reached high values when the airflow ratios were less
2. than 0.1.efficiency reached high values when the airflow ratios were less
Thermohydraulic
3. Increasing the airflow ratio increased the optimal Reynolds number for maximum
than 0.1.
thermohydraulic efficiency.
3. Increasing
4. the
Whenairflow ratio increased
the Reynolds number was the optimal
greater thanReynolds
11,000, the number
performancefor of
maximum
the three-
thermohydraulic efficiency.
inlet triple-pass SAH was greater than that of the traditional triple-pass SAH.
4. When the5. Reynolds
Increasing number was greater
the Reynolds number than 11,000, the
and decreasing theperformance
airflow ratios of the three-inlet
increased entropy
generation.
triple-pass SAH was greater than that of the traditional triple-pass SAH.
5. Increasing the Reynolds number and decreasing the airflow ratios increased en-
tropy generation.
6. The influence of the third pass airflow ratio on the thermal–hydraulic parameters
and entropy generation was more pronounced than that of the airflow ratio of the
second pass.
7. Re3 = 11,156, y = 0.258, and z = 0.036 are the optimal values for maximum thermohy-
draulic efficiency and minimum entropy generation.
Energies 2021, 14, 6399 17 of 19

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, N.M.P.; investigation, N.T.T., N.V.H. and N.M.P.; method-
ology, N.M.P.; software, N.T.T. and N.M.P.; supervision, N.M.P.; validation, N.T.T.; visualization,
N.V.H.; writing—original draft preparation, N.T.T. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: Not applicable.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: We would like to thank the Industrial University of Ho Chi Minh City (IUH)
and Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology (HCMUT), VNU-HCM, for their time, support, and
facilities for this study.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Nomenclature

Ac area of absorber plate (m2 )

cp specific heat at a constant pressure (Jkg−1 K−1 )
D channel depth (m)
De hydraulic diameter (m)
f friction factor
h heat transfer coefficient (Wm−2 K−1 )
I solar radiation (W/m2 )
k thermal conductivity (Wm−1 K−1 )
L collector length (m)
.
m air mass flow rate (kg/s)
n number of fins
P pressure (Pa)
Pr Prandtl number
Q heat transfer rate (W)
Re Reynolds number
Sgen entropy generation (W/K)
t fin thickness (m)
T temperature (K)
V velocity (m/s)
W collector width (m)
Wf fin height (m)
x coordinator (m)
y airflow ratio of the second pass, 0 ≤ y < 1
z airflow ratio of the third pass, 0 ≤ z < 1
Greek symbols
α absorptivity
∆ difference
ε emissivity
η efficiency
µ dynamic viscosity (Pa.s)
φ area-weighted fin efficiency
ρ air density (kg/m3 )
σ Stefan constant
τ transmissivity
Subscripts
a ambient
b back plate
c convection
Eff thermohydraulic
f fluid (Air), fin
Energies 2021, 14, 6399 18 of 19

g glass cover
o outlet
p absorber plate
r radiation
s sun
w wind

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