Energy Conversion and Management 228 (2021) 113694

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Energy Conversion and Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/enconman

An experimental investigation on a portable bubble basin humidification/

dehumidification desalination unit utilizing a closed-loop pulsating
heat pipe
Latif Aref a, Rasoul Fallahzadeh b, Vahid Madadi Avargani c, *
a
Chemical Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Shomal University, Amol, Iran
b
Chemical Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran
c
Chemical Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Yasouj University, Yasouj 75918-74831, P. O. Box 353, Iran

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The present work aims to enhance the performance of a solar energy-driven HDH desalination system. An
Renewable energy experimental apparatus consisting of a novel closed-loop pulsating heat pipe (CLPHP) assisted by a bubble basin
Desalination HDH system was investigated. To evaluate the productivity of the fresh water, tests have been properly designed
Humidification/dehumidification
and conducted in outdoor and indoor modes during June and July of 2020, under local weather conditions of
Closed-loop pulsating heat pipe
Bubble basin
Mashhad, Iran. A closed air-heated configuration is introduced into the HDH desalination system, to recover the
condensation latent heat. The air leaving the dehumidifier is pre-heated and pre-humidified using CLPHP before
entering the humidifier of the desalination unit. Also, an air injection system is used to enhance the mass and
heat transfer rate by generating bubbles. In the experiments, the influence of the operating conditions such as
radiation and air mass flow rate on the performance of the desalination unit was investigated. Furthermore, a
comparison between the bubble basin and bubble column types was carried out. Based on the results, the bubble
basin type presented a higher yield compared to the bubble column type that was obtained as 0.83 and 0.70 (kg/
(hr.m2)), respectively. Besides, it was observed that by increasing the radiation and air mass flow rate, pro­
ductivity is improved. The maximum obtained yield of the proposed system was achieved as 8.7 L/(day.m2).

1. Cycle configuration: closed air-open water (CA-OW), open air-open

water (OA-OW), and open air-closed water (OA-CW) systems.
1. Introduction 2. Type of heating systems: air heated or water-heated systems.

Desalinating seawater and brackish water is becoming a necessity for
the sustainable development of many regions in the world. It is predicted
that in two decades, solar energy will become the cheapest desalination
technology with a price of 0.00045 $/L of treated water [1]. Various
methods have been studied on water desalination such as multi-effect
desalination (MED) [2], multi-stage flashing (MSF) [3], reverse
osmosis (RO) [4,5], solar stills [6,7], humidification/dehumidification
processes (HDH) [8], etc. HDH desalination system is a promising
technology to address water scarcity issues in rural regions and is known
as an appealing process for small and medium scales, and high-salinity
water desalination [9]. HDH process due to its wide range of advan­
tages such as moderate working pressure and temperature, easy system
construction using low-cost materials, and effortless system operation is
considered as the most effective method for desalination process [10].
HDH systems can be classified under two broad categories [11]:
Closed cycles of water/air improve energy recovery since the input
energy used for water/air heating is preserved in the process. CA-OW air
heated cycle usually surpasses OA-OW [9–12].
HDH units have three main sections: humidifier, dehumidifier, and
heat source. A humidifier can be a wetted wall column, packed bed
containing different packings, spray tower, or bubble column. Bubble
column humidifiers (BCH) are promising for HDH, offering higher heat
and mass transfer rates by direct mixing of air with water at low cost and
have low maintenance requirements [9,12,13].
The ultimate purpose of an HDH desalination unit is to obtain a
higher rate of fresh water. To enhance productivity, various bubble HDH
arrangements have been investigated in the literature. A summary of the
conducted works has been provided.
Fallahzadeh et al. [14] introduced a modified pyramid-shaped solar

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: v.madadi@yu.ac.ir (V. Madadi Avargani).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2020.113694
Received 7 September 2020; Received in revised form 21 November 2020; Accepted 23 November 2020
Available online 2 December 2020
0196-8904/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
L. Aref et al. Energy Conversion and Management 228 (2021) 113694

Nomenclature P Capital cost ($)

PHPDH Pulsating heat pipe dehumidifier
Abbreviations PHPSC Pulsating heat pipe solar collector
AC Annual cost ($) PVC Ploy vinyl carbonate
ACC Cost of power used in the system ($) RH1 Relative humidity of the BBH outlet air
Ag Glass cover surface area (m2) RH2 Relative humidity of the PHPDH bottom part outlet air
AMC Annual maintenance cost ($) RH3 Relative humidity of the BBH inlet air
APHPSC PHPSC surface area (m2) RO Reverse osmosis
ASV Annual salvage value ($) S Salvage value ($)
ax Accuracy of the measuring device SFF Sinking fund factor
BB Bubble basin SMCL Secondary Maximum Contaminant Level
BBH Bubble basin humidifier ST Shell and tube
BCH Bubble column humidifier Ta1 Temperature of the BBH outlet air
CA-OW Closed air-open water Ta2 Temperature of the bottom part of PHPDH outlet air
CC Current cost ($/KWh) Ta3 Temperature of the BBH inlet air
CLPHP Closed-loop pulsating heat pipe TCLPHP Temperature of the CLPHP
CPL Cost of distilled water per liter ($/L) TDS Total dissolved solids (mg/L)
CPSS Conventional pyramid-shaped solar still TEC Thermoelectric cooler
CRF Capital recovery factor Tw Temperature of the basin water
E Consumed electrical energy (KWh) ux Uncertainty
FAC Fixed annual cost ($) uy Combined uncertainty
FR Filling ratio (%) WB Blowers power (W)
G Radiation (W/m2) WHO World health organization
GUM Guide to the expression of uncertainty in measurement
HDH Humidification dehumidification Greek symbols
hfg Latent heat of water (J/kg) ηd Daily overall efficiency (%)
I Interest per year (%) ηDH Dehumidifier efficiency (%)
IR Infrared ηH Humidifier efficiency (%)
M Annual yield (L) ηi Hourly overall efficiency (%)
MED Multi-effect desalination w Specific humidity (kg water/kg dry air)
ṁev Productivity (kg/s) Subscripts
MPSS Modified pyramid-shaped solar still In,DH Inlet of dehumidifier
MSF Multi-stage flashing In,H Inlet of humidifier
n Number of life years (year) Out,H Outlet of humidifier
NTU Nephelometric Turbidity unit Out,DH Outlet of dehumidifier
OA-CW Open air-closed water sat Saturated condition
OA-OW Open air-open water

still (MPSS) integrated with a heat pipe solar collector. Two different
working fluids (water and ethanol) were used at three different filling
ratios (FRs). The best amount of FR was found as 40% for both working
fluids. The MPSS offered the best possible performance and the accu­
mulated yield was achieved over 6000 mL/m2. Rajaseenivasan and
Srithar [15] investigated a bubble column HDH desalination system
powered by biomass energy. The highest distillate of 6.1 kg/hr and
3.5 kg/hr is collected for the HDH desalination system with pre-heated
air and direct air supply, respectively. Rajaseenivasan et al. [12] stud­
ied the performance of an HDH desalination system by using a bubble
column system with a solar air heater, a solar air heater with turbulators,
and a dual-purpose solar collector with turbulators. The maximum
gained output ratio and overall efficiency of 3.3 and 78% were obtained
with a dual-purpose solar collector containing turbulators and solar air
heater containing turbulators, respectively. Fallahzadeh et al. [16]
experimentally investigated an active bubble basin solar still to evaluate
the effect of a CLPHP and a bubble injection system. This study focuses
on using a CLPHP to enhance the heat transfer and minimize the heat
loss of vapor condensation. Liu and Sharqawy [17] investigated the
performance of bubble column humidifier and dehumidifier experi­
mentally under sub-atmospheric pressures. The results showed that
operating the bubble column humidifier at sub-atmospheric pressure
enhances the total heat transfer by about 35% and the effectiveness by
about 7.1%. Eder and Preißinger [18] investigated the humidification of
air in a bubble column and concluded that the system productivity is
increased by about 56% with an increase in superficial air velocity.
Furthermore, system productivity is increased by around 29% with an
increase in liquid height. Behnam and Shafii [19] experimentally
investigated the performance of an HDH solar desalination system
equipped with a heat pipe, an evacuated tube collector, and an air
bubble column humidifier. The effects of various parameters including
air flow rate into the humidifier and initial depth of water in the hu­
midifier were investigated. Khalil et al. [20] studied the effect of water
temperature, air flow rate, water height, and sieve’s hole diameter on
desalination performance using an air bubble column humidifier and an
evacuated tube solar collector. The results showed that daily produc­
tivity and efficiency are 21 kg and 63%, respectively.
The present work aims to reduce the cost and improve the perfor­
mance of an HDH system using:
1. Humidifier: Bubble basin (BB) integrated with a pulsating heat pipe
solar collector (PHPSC)
2. Dehumidifier: Dual-purpose pulsating heat pipe dehumidifier
(PHPDH), i.e. as a condenser and a heat recovery apparatus.
By using the BB, solar energy is absorbed via the PHPSC and is
directly transferred to the water. Therefore, unlike other common solar
HDH processes that use pumps to circulate water to collectors [19], by
removal of the pump, a lower desalinated water cost is predicted.
In most HDH systems, the shell and tube (ST) heat exchanger and

2
L. Aref et al. Energy Conversion and Management 228 (2021) 113694

thermoelectric cooler (TEC) are used as a dehumidifier. ST-type heat 2. Experimental

exchangers have very high maintenance cost because of scaling and
circulation of external cooling water, occupies very large space, and is All tests have been carried out in outdoor mode on three different
suitable for large capacity plants only. Hence, it is difficult to produce days (June 2nd, June 18th, and July 6th of 2020), from 9 AM to 4 PM
fresh water at a low cost with an ST-type heat exchanger. Also, the hot and indoor mode in Mashhad (latitude and longitude of 36◦ 20′ N and
ends of the TEC modules are cooled through a separate blower to avoid 59◦ 35′ E, respectively), Iran.
overheating which raises the cost and reduces the overall efficiency of
the entire system [13]. To resolve the aforementioned problems, in the
2.1. Experimental setup
current study, the PHPDH is used as a dehumidifier in the HDH system.
Distinct advantages of PHPDH are simple and reliable structure,
A laboratory-scale setup was designed and built to investigate the
economically feasible, excellent heat transfer capability, high flexibility,
performance of the HDH desalination unit. The HDH unit has three main
and noiseless [21].
sections: bubble basin humidifier (BBH), pulsating heat pipe dehumid­
According to the literature reviewed and the authors’ knowledge,
ifier (PHPDH), and pulsating heat pipe solar collector (PHPSC) which
before now, the recovery of wasted heat in the dehumidifier of an HDH
are demonstrated schematically in Fig. 1, and a photograph of the
system to enhance the productivity and performance of the HDH system
fabricated HDH unit is illustrated in Fig. 2.
has not been discussed similar to our proposed configuration. To
The water inside the BBH is being heated by the PHPSC, so, evapo­
enhance productivity, more vapors should be condensed in the dehu­
ration occurs. Besides, solar radiation that enters the BBH through the
midifier, and more latent heat of vapor must be released which leads to a
glass cover heats the basin water and basin plate. The basin plate in turn
reduction in the outlet air temperature. On the other hand, the outlet air
heats the water by convection and conduction mechanisms. Further­
with a smaller temperature has a lower capacity to gain water vapor and
more, the air is introduced to the BBH by a bubble pipe. The hot and
must be pre-heated to absorb more vapor. This pre-heating has been
humidified air leaves the BBH through a plastic duct and enters the
done by using electrical heaters or more solar collectors [22–25] which
bottom part of PHPDH where the vapor condenses. The CLPHP absorbs
increases the total cost and the size of the system and reduces the overall
the latent heat of condensation and transfers to the upper part of
efficiency of the system. Pre-heaters can be removed from the overall
PHPDH. This released heat is used by recycling the leaving air through a
structure of the system if a higher outlet air temperature is obtained
bubble pipe immersed in a water bath inside the upper part of the
from the dehumidifier. This leads to a reduction in the dehumidifier
PHPDH. Hence, the air is pre-heated and pre-humidified before entering
efficiency and lower condensation. Hence, lower productivity is ach­
the BBH.
ieved which is not desired. Overall, deciding the optimum arrangement
The next subsections describe each part of the desalination unit
of a dehumidifier is controversial between choosing enhanced produc­
separately.
tivity with high consumed energy or less productivity with low
consumed energy. The present research work attempts to fill the afore­
2.1.1. Pulsating heat pipe solar collector (PHPSC)
mentioned research gap by investigating a PHPDH desalination system
A schematic of the PHPSC and its components is depicted in Fig. 3.
experimentally. The PHPDH absorbs the latent heat of condensation at
The collector is a rectangular shaped device with a cross-section of
its bottom part and recovers it into the system by transferring it to its
0.5 m2, 0.05 m height, and a wall thickness of 0.03 m. The bottom of the
upper part. The dominant feature of the designed PHPDH system is the
collector is a polycarbonate plate with a thickness of 0.01 m. The walls
simultaneity of condensation and pre-heating processes using CLPHP.
and bottom of the collector are insulated by polyvinyl carbonate (PVC)
Finally, the effects of different parameters such as solar irradiation in­
with a thickness of 0.02 m. The top of the collector is covered by a
tensity and air mass flow rate on the performance of the entire system
transparent glass with a thickness of 0.003 m. To reduce the thermal
are investigated.
resistance of existing air between the PHPSC and the glass cover and
maximizing the solar absorption, this distance is selected as short as
possible. The CLPHP is a copper capillary tube with ID and OD of

Fig. 1. Schematic of the proposed HDH desalination unit. (Dimensions are not to scale).

3
L. Aref et al. Energy Conversion and Management 228 (2021) 113694

Fig. 2. Photograph of the designed and fabricated HDH desalination unit.

best angle for the collector to absorb the maximum radiation is settling
in the same latitude of the experimentation site [26]. The inclination of
the PHPSC was 35◦ to the horizon which is approximately the same as
the latitude of Mashhad.

2.1.2. Bubble basin humidifier (BBH)

As shown in Fig. 4, the enclosure of the BBH was constructed using a
0.003 m thick galvanized sheet with dimensions of 0.4 × 0.4 m2 and a
height of 0.15 m on the lower side and 0.35 m on the higher side. The
external surface of the BBH was insulated by PVC of 0.02 m thickness to
reduce the heat loss. The condensation section of the CLPHP is located at
the bottom of the BBH. A feed tank is considered to provide the water to
be desalinated during the experiments and adjust the level of the water
(0.04 m) in the BBH. A bubble pipe is located at the bottom of the BBH
immersed in the water. As air is injected into the BBH, it absorbs the

Fig. 3. Schematic of the PHPSC.

0.004 m and 0.005 m, respectively, which is put onto the bottom plate of
the collector and fastened by glue.
The CLPHP comprises 9 turns with a bending radius of 0.05 m. The
evaporation, adiabatic, and condensation sections of the CLPHP are 1 m,
0.07 m, and 0.3 m long, respectively. On the surface of the CLPHP, an
aluminum sheet with a thickness of 0.001 m is placed which is painted in
black to maximize the solar absorption. The received radiation at the
evaporation section is transferred to the condensation section, where it
is cooled by the basin water. To connect the CLPHP to the basin, 10 holes
with a diameter equal to the OD of the capillary tubes are drilled on the
wall of the basin. To prepare the CLPHP for operation, initially, the
CLPHP is evacuated to a certain low pressure and then partially filled by
distilled water with the FR of 40% using a filling/vacuum system. The Fig. 4. Schematic of the BBH.

4
L. Aref et al. Energy Conversion and Management 228 (2021) 113694

water molecules and carries them as it flows upward into the PHPDH ( 2 )0.5
through a plastic duct with a diameter of 0.1 m. However, some amount u(B,x) =
ax
(1)
of humidified air in the BBH is condensed on the glass cover owing to the 3
temperature difference between the glazed aperture and the air. A gutter
is used to collect this distilled water and direct it to a collecting jar. where, ax is the accuracy of the measuring device.
The uncertainty associated with each of the variables (x) used in
2.1.3. Pulsating heat pipe dehumidifier (PHPDH) determining the overall efficiency is given by the square root of the sum
A schematic of the detailed structure and geometry of the PHPDH is of the variances of the statistical distributions of each component (i)
shown in Fig. 5. The corresponding dimensions of the outer acrylic involved in the process, namely,
plastic enclosure are 0.5 × 0.2 m2 with a height of 0.4 m. Insulation of (
n ( ) )0.5
∑ ∂y 2 2
PVC with a thickness of 0.02 m is covered on the outer surface of the uy = uxi (2)
enclosure to minimize heat loss. A CLPHP is utilized to dehumidify the i=1
∂xi
entering air and to pre-heat the recycled air. The CLPHP is a copper Hence, the combined uncertainty of the daily overall efficiency (ηd )
capillary tube with ID and OD of 0.004 m and 0.005 m, respectively, is:
which is divided into two parts by a separating sheet. The CLPHP
⎡ ( ) ⎤0.5
comprises 23 turns with a bending radius of 0.04 m. The evaporation u2G A2PHPSC + A2g
u2v
section and condensation section of the CLPHP are 0.17 m and 0.15 m ⎣
Uηd = ηd 2 + ( ( ) )2 ⎦ (3)
v
long, respectively. To prepare the CLPHP it is filled by distilled water G APHPSC + Ag + WB
with the FR of 40% using the filling/vacuum system. The received latent
The calculated maximum combined uncertainty for daily overall
heat of vapor at the bottom part of the PHPDH is transferred to the upper
efficiency is 0.004%.
part of the PHPDH to pre-heat the recycled air.
The carried-out experiments were screened by some instrumental
devices and all of the important variables were measured and recorded
2.2. Uncertainty analysis and instruments during the experimental tests, which include:

Uncertainty of measurement implies the parameter related to the 1. Solar and IR radiation
result of a measurement characterizing the scattering of the values that 2. The temperature of the ambient air
seem sensibly be credited to the measurand. The purpose of measure­ 3. The temperature of the water basin
ment is the estimation of the true value of a measurand. If the mea­ 4. The temperature of the air
surement is perfect, the true value could be obtained which is the ideal 5. The relative humidity of the air
result. A real measurement is influenced by errors. Even, if all the errors 6. The flow rate of the circulating air
could be assessed and corrected, uncertainty about the result of the
measurement there still exists [27]. According to GUM the imprecision The corresponding devices measuring these parameters are listed in
which is derived from data sheets of the measuring device is a type B Table 1 with their accuracies and ranges. Also, three blowers with tag
standard uncertainty, which is calculated by [28]: numbers of B1, B2, and B3 were utilized to circulate the air in the system

Fig. 5. Schematic of the PHPDH.

5
L. Aref et al. Energy Conversion and Management 228 (2021) 113694

Table 1 2. Bubble column humidifier type (BCH-type)

Instrumentation devices and their operational characteristics.
Row Instrument Measurand Range Accuracy Uncertainty To convert the system from BBH-type to BCH-type, the glass cover of
the basin has been insulated by PVC and covered with an aluminum
1 Solar meter Radiation 0–2000 W/ ±5 W/ ±2.888
m2 m2 sheet.
2 Digital Temperature − 50 ◦ C − ±0.5 ◦ C ±0.289
thermometer 150 ◦ C 3.1. Indoor mode
3 Kitchen probe Temperature − 50 ◦ C − ±0.1 ◦ C ±0.058
thermometer 300 ◦ C
4 Digital Temperature − 50 ◦ C − ±0.2 ◦ C ±0.115
Since environmental parameters (ambient temperature, wind ve­
thermometer 200 ◦ C locity, etc.) could not be controlled in outdoor mode, a series of indoor
5 Hygrometer Humidity 10% − 99% ±1%RH ±0.577 experiments have been implemented to eliminate the influence of the
6 Rotameter Flow rate 1–600 L/ ±6 L/ ±3.464 mentioned parameters. To evaluate the performance of the system in
flow meter min min
indoor mode, the tests have been carried out in a room with a constant
temperature of 25 ◦ C with no air conditioning. To simulate the solar
and transfer the air into and out of the BBH and PHPDH with the cor­ radiation, 4 pairs of infrared (IR) lamps with the power of 200 W for
responding powers of 4, 5, and 44 W, respectively. every single lamp, have been placed in intervals of 0.2 m on each side of
the PHPSC and the BBH. The perpendicular distance between the setup
and the lamps is 0.7 m.
2.3. Governing equations
3.1.1. Comparison of BBH-type and BCH-type
2.3.1. Overall efficiency As shown in Fig. 6, the overall efficiency of the BCH-type is higher
The performance of an HDH desalination system which also means than the BBH-type, but instead, the BBH-type has exhibited a better
the energy efficiency is calculated as latent heat of evaporation of performance in terms of the yield. In the BBH-type, the total surface area
distilled water divided by energy input to the system: is greater than the BCH-type which enables the BBH-type to receive
higher radiation and thermal energy. This fact directs the system to
ṁev hfg
ηi = ( ) (4) achieve a greater yield.
G APHPSC + Ag + WB
On the other hand, according to Eq. (4), the overall efficiency of the
HDH system depends on the yield and total surface area which receives
where ṁev is the productivity (kg/s), Ag is the glass cover surface area
the irradiance. Therefore, although higher productivity is obtained in
(m2), APHPSC is the PHPSC surface area (m2), G is the radiation falling
the BBH-type, owning to a greater total surface area, the efficiency is
upon the glass cover and PHPSC surface (W/m2), and hfg is the latent
reduced ultimately.
heat of water (J/kg). Moreover, WB (W) is the power consumed by the
The gained output ratios of the BCH-type and BBH-type are illus­
blowers.
trated in Fig. 7. It shows that the BCH-type has a higher GOR than BBH-
type. The GOR represents the effective utilization of the thermal energy
2.3.2. Humidifier efficiency
in the desalination system (Eq. (7)). Hence, the effective utilization of
Humidifier efficiency is defined as the ratio of actual change in
the glass cover in using solar radiation (to heat the water basin) is much
specific humidity to the maximum possible specific humidity difference
smaller than the PHPSC.
at the saturated condition of air [12]:
According to Fig. 8, the efficiency of the BBH is slightly lower than
ηH =
wout,H − win,H
× 100 (5) the BCH. Due to the condensation occurring inside the BBH because of
wsat,out,H − win,H the temperature difference between the vapor and the glass cover, some
of the water content is discharged through the gutter as distillate. Hence,
2.3.3. Dehumidifier effectiveness the humidity of the leaving air from the humidifier would be lower when
The Effectiveness of the dehumidifier is defined as the ratio of actual the HDH system is operating in the BBH-type. Despite the higher effi­
heat transfer to the maximum heat transfer, which takes place in the ciency of the BCH, the difference between the two mentioned humidi­
dehumidifier [12]: fiers is not noticeable. Overall, the BBH performance is satisfying
compared to the BCH because of the higher output yield and meeting the
Qactual
ηDH = × 100 (6) acceptable standards for a desalination operation in terms of efficiency.
Qmax

2.3.4. Gained output ratio

Gained output ratio (GOR) is introduced as the ratio of the total
latent heat of evaporation of the product water to the input thermal
energy. It can be formulated by the following expression [11]:
ṁev hfg
GOR = × 100 (7)
Qin,th

where, Qin,th is the input of solar radiation on the HDH.

3. Results and discussion

To evaluate the performance of the system and distinguishing the

effect of experimental parameters, tests have been carried out in outdoor
and indoor modes. Besides, the proposed setup is tested under two
configurations, namely:
Fig. 6. Comparison of the yield and overall efficiency between the BCH-type
1. Bubble basin humidifier type (BBH-type) and BBH-type.

6
L. Aref et al.
Fig. 7. Comparison of the GOR between the BCH-type and BBH-type.
Fig. 8. Comparison of the BCH and BBH efficiency.
3.1.2. Effect of radiation
The effect of the radiation heat flux on temperature and relative
humidity is shown in Fig. 9. This figure indicates that the radiation has a
Fig. 9. Effect of radiation heat flux on temperature and relative humidity.
7
Energy Conversion and Management 228 (2021) 113694
direct influence on temperatures. The temperatures of the basin water
(Tw), the BBH outlet air (Ta1), the bottom part of PHPDH outlet air (Ta2),
and the BBH inlet air (Ta3) are enhanced with the increase of the
radiation.
Due to the improved received thermal energy, Tw presented an
enhancing trend with the increase of the radiation. Furthermore, Ta1 is
lower than the Tw (Ta1<Tw). The reason behind this evidence is that the
latent heat of the vapor is released by contact with air. Hence, the water
cools down leading to a reduction of the air temperature. Also, by
entering the air into the bottom part of PHPDH, the temperature of the
air is reduced (Ta2<Ta1) because of the condensation and releasing of the
latent heat of the vapor. As Tw is increased, the heat and mass transfer
rates in the BBH are raised leading to the enhancement of the relative
humidity of the air at the BBH outlet (RH1); concluding the Tw has a
great effect on the amount of extracting water.
Also, the humidity of the air in the bottom part of PHPDH is
decreased because of the condensation (RH2<RH1). Condensation in
this section occurs because of the temperature gradient existing between
the CLPHP and the entering air to the bottom part of PHPDH (Ta1 -
TCLPHP). Due to the increase of Ta1 by radiation enhancement, this
temperature difference extends, leading to more condensation. Hence,
the system encounters an inclined relative humidity of the air. As the air
leaves the bottom part to the upper part of the PHPDH, the relative
humidity and temperature of the air being enhanced because of the
absorption of the water molecules and transferred heat through the
water bath, (RH3 > RH2, Ta3 > Ta2). Due to the increased humidity of air
in the water bath, the air reaches the saturation state at the upper part of
the PHPDH outlet. Since this pre-humidified air comes into contact with
the basin water, RH1 remains approximately saturated (RH3≈RH1). On
the other hand, because of the heat transfer between the basin water and
air, Ta1 is further increased (Ta1> Ta3).
A schematic of the psychrometric chart is presented in Fig. 10 to a
superior comprehension of the ongoing HDH process. In this chart, two
experimented radiations are compared. The subscripts of 730 and 222
demonstrate the high and low radiation powers, respectively. As shown
in Fig. 10 it is concluded that higher yield leads to higher heat recovery.
This result confirms that the aim of this study has been achieved suc­
cessfully in a scientific approach.
According to Fig. 11, the yield has a direct relationship with
L. Aref et al.
Fig. 10. Schematic of the psychrometric chart (dimensions are not to scale).
Fig. 11. Effect of radiation heat flux on yield and overall efficiency.
radiation. By increasing the radiation, Tw has been raised denoting the
better performance of the PHPSC. At a higher Tw, the heat and mass
transfer rates rise from hot water to the air bubbles, so that boosted
humidity of air at the BBH exit is achieved. Consequently, the produc­
tion of fresh water gets enhanced. Besides, the overall efficiency is
improved by the amplification of the radiation. The reason behind this
fact is that, although, the enhancement of the radiation has a negative
effect on efficiency due to the improved received energy, but at the same
time increases the yield, too. So ultimately, according to Eq. (4), the sum
of these effects leads to an increase in overall efficiency.
Fig. 12 illustrates the effect of the radiation on the BBH and PHPDH
efficiency. The results revealed that the radiation has a direct relation­
ship with both parameters. It is clear that by enhancing the radiation,
the collector absorbs more thermal energy leading to increased Tw. Also,
as mentioned before the higher the Tw the greater is Ta1. Hence, as
discussed before, Ta3 would be higher. On the other hand, RH1 is very
close to saturation. So, based on Fig. 10, the corresponding specific
humidity at these temperatures would be higher providing a higher
specific humidity difference. By increasing the radiation further, the
humidifier efficiency remains constant. This is due to the PHPSC’s po­
tential in transferring the thermal energy. At certain radiation intensity,
the PHPSC reaches its maximum heat transfer efficiency. Hence, the
humidifier efficiency remains constant and reaches a steady operation.
These facts are in exact accordance with Eq. (5).
According to Fig. 12, PHPDH efficiency is increased with radiation
enhancement. As shown in Fig. 10, by raising the radiation, the humidity
8
Energy Conversion and Management 228 (2021) 113694
Fig. 12. Effect of radiation heat flux on the humidifier efficiency and dehu­
midifier effectiveness.
difference between the BBH outlet air and the bottom part of PHPDH
outlet air (w1 − w2 ) is heightened. According to Eq. (6), although a
higher humidity in the BBH outlet (w1 ) is obtained at the higher radi­
ation, the efficiency is increased.
3.1.3. Effect of air flow rate
Fig. 13 demonstrates the effect of air mass flow rate on temperature
and relative humidity. Although the temperatures of Tw, Ta1, Ta2, and
Ta3 have an increasing trend with the enhancement of air flow, their
variations are not considerable. Air flow is inserted into the BBH and
PHPDH through a bubble pipe to generate bubbles. Since increasing the
air flow rate improves the velocity of up going bubbles, the possibility
and the quantity of the bubble collisions heightens. This fact leads to the
transformation of the kinetic energy of bubbles to thermal energy to
some extent. Hence, the temperatures of the Tw, Ta1, Ta2, and Ta3 are
increased lightly. Also, by raising the air flow rate, the temperature
difference between Ta2 and Ta3 is grown. This is due to the enhanced
collision of the bubbles in the water bath.
As can be seen in Fig. 13, by increasing the air flow rate, RH1 has an
increasing trend. The air flow rate enhancement increases the mixing
rate and coalescence of the bubbles, making the system turbulent. The
turbulency of the system improves the mass transfer rate of the basin
water molecules into the air. Substantially, increasing the flow rate of
the air means that the air as a carrier is capable of transferring more
L. Aref et al. Energy Conversion and Management 228 (2021) 113694

Fig. 15. Effect of the mass flow rate of air on humidifier efficiency and
dehumidifier effectiveness.

Fig. 13. Effect of the mass flow rate of air on temperature and rela­
enhancement of specific humidity of humidifier outlet air (w1). Hence,
tive humidity. based on Eq. (5) the humidifier efficiency is raised. Also, the variation of
Ta2 is almost constant and RH2 has a descending trend concluding a
reduction in specific humidity of the dehumidifier bottom part outlet air
water molecules from the BBH. As a result, the relative humidity of the
(w1). According to Eq. (6), dehumidifier’s efficiency is increased.
air leaving the BBH (RH1) rises. Moreover, RH2 has experienced a
descending trend with increasing the mass flow rate of the air. This fact
can be explained by the increased condensation in the PHPDH. When the
3.2. Outdoor mode
condensation occurs, the water content of the leaving air is reduced
leading to a reduction of the relative humidity of the leaving air.
Fig. 16 shows the measured hourly variation of solar irradiance
Additionally, RH3 is almost saturated at any air flow rate because the
received by the HDH system concerning the local time for three days
leaving air from the upper part of the PHPDH has come into contact with
(6.2.2020, 6.18.2020, and 7.6.2020). Although climate factors such as
the water bath.
clouds, humidity, dust, etc., would affect the amount of solar radiation
Fig. 14 clarifies that the yield and overall efficiency is proportional to
received by the earth’s surface day by day, the average deviation be­
the air flow rate. By increasing the air flow rate, the number of bubbles
tween the solar radiations for the tested days is within 10%. The
existing in the medium is rose leading to enhancement of the surface
maximum solar irradiance was received on the third day (July 6) among
contact area between the bubbles and the water. Also, the collisions of
the three test days followed by the second day (June 18) and the first day
the bubbles are raised. All of these events result in the improved mass
(June 2). The radiation variations range between 307 and 997 W/m2.
transfer between the water and the air. Consequently, the air carries
The observation showed that the solar radiation profile seems to be the
more water molecules and leaves the BBH with higher relative humidity.
same on the experimental days. The amount of total solar radiation
So, productivity would be increased.
incident on the system depends on the time of the day. The solar radi­
Results revealed that the HDH system exhibits a higher efficiency at
ation varies along the hours after sunrise until a maximum value at
elevated air flow rates which is illustrated in Fig. 14. This fact could be
midday then decreases in the afternoon. These solar radiation data are
interpreted according to Eq. (4); the higher the productivity, the greater
used to calculate the overall efficiency.
is the overall efficiency.
Fig. 17 shows the hourly yield of the HDH system on experimented
Based on Fig. 15, by increasing the air flow rate the efficiencies of the
days. The yield of the HDH system follows the solar radiation intensity
humidifier and dehumidifier are slightly enhanced. According to Fig. 13,
trend, except the maximum yield has occurred at 1 PM. The change in
by increasing the air mass flow rate, Ta1 remains approximately con­
water temperature lags behind the solar irradiance change for about an
stant, but there is a considerable improvement in RH1 which leads to
hour. Due to the high specific heat of water, the water temperature tends

Fig. 16. Measured hourly variation of the solar irradiance received by the HDH
Fig. 14. Effect of the mass flow rate of air on the yield and overall efficiency. system on three different days (June 2nd, June 18th, and July 6th of 2020).

9
L. Aref et al. Energy Conversion and Management 228 (2021) 113694

Table 2
Manufacturing costs of the HDH system.
Components Cost ($)

PHPSC Glass 2
Black paint 1.5
Aluminum cover 0.25
Copper tube 16
Aluminum frame 15
PVC insulation 4
Polycarbonate two-layer sheet 25
BBH Plastic duct 0.7
Inlet & outlet tubes 0.1
Galvanized sheet 6.3
Glass 1
PVC insulation 2
PHPDH PVC insulation 3
Acrylic plastic 12
Copper tube 8
Fig. 17. The hourly yield of the HDH system on three different days (June 2nd, Inlet & outlet tubes 0.1
June 18th, and July 6th of 2020). Other devices Wooden structure 10
Feed tank 0.2
Brine tank 0.2
to increase even when the solar intensity is reduced. As a result, the
Three Valves 37.5
evaporated mass tends to increase leading to enhancement of the yield. Blower #1 22
The maximum hourly yield of the HDH system for the third, second, and Blower #2 15
the first day, is 1.42, 1.34, and 1.27 kg/(hr.m2), respectively. It can be Blower #3 13
seen that the production rate is low in the morning hours due to the high Capital cost 194.85 $

thermal mass of water inside the humidifier and its lower temperature.
As the water temperature increases, the hourly production increases as
well.
Daily water productivity and overall efficiency are illustrated in
Fig. 18. The accumulated yield for the third (July 6), second (June 18),
and the first day (June 2) reached 8.7, 8.4, and 7.9 kg/(day.m2),
respectively. These deferent values on the accumulated yield are due to
the variation of climatic conditions especially the total solar radiation.
For the third day, the solar irradiance is the highest among the three test
days which led to a high accumulated freshwater yield. The HDH system
efficiency for the three test days remains approximately constant.
3.3. Economic analysis
Table 2 exhibits the cost estimation for different components used in
the fabricated HDH system. The capital cost (P) was 194.85 $. The
capital recovery factor (CRF), the fixed annual cost (FAC), the sinking
fund factor (SFF), the annual salvage value (ASV), annual maintenance
cost (AMC), current cost (CC) (0.005 $/KWh), cost of power used in the
system (ACC), the interest per year (i = 12%), the number of life-years
(n = 10) and annual cost (AC) are the main calculation parameters
used in the cost analysis of the desalination unit. Finally, the cost of
distilled water per liter (CPL) can be calculated by dividing the net
annualized cost of the system (AC) by the annual yield of the HDH
system (M). The above-mentioned calculation parameters are expressed
in Table 3.
Due to the significant decline of the performance of the HDH in the
seasons with less solar radiation, the average daily yield of the HDH
system throughout a year is considered 75% of the maximum daily yield
on a typical summer day (8.7 kg/m2). The cost of distilled water per liter
(CPL) can be calculated by dividing the net annualized cost of the system
(AC) by the annual yield of the HDH system (M = the operational time ×
the average yield). The cost of the distilled water varies depending on
operational time (Fig. 19).
3.4. Water quality analysis
To evaluate the system performance on the quality of the produced
water, the brackish water and obtained distilled water was subject to

Fig. 18. Daily water productivity and efficiency for three different days (June 2nd, June 18th, and July 6th of 2020).

10
L. Aref et al. Energy Conversion and Management 228 (2021) 113694

Table 3 are not enforced. They are guidelines for water treatment plant opera­
Economic analysis. tors and state governments attempting to provide communities with the
Parameter Value Unit best quality water possible [29]. The values of these parameters are
compared with the standard values subscribed to drinking water by
P 194.85 $
S = 0.2P 38.97 $ WHO, and the results have been tabulated in Table 4.
n 10 year Table 5 compares the performance of the presented system with the
i 12 % results of the previous studies. The distillate of this work is comparable
CRF =
i(1 + i) n
0.175 – with the previous results and gives better overall efficiency. It reveals
(1 + i)n − 1 that the proposed system provides a notable improvement in the
FAC = P × CRF 34.10 $
i
distillate of the humidification-dehumidification desalination system.
0.057 –
SFF =
(1 + i)n − 1
AMC = 0.15FAC 5.12 $ 4. Conclusion
CC 0.005 $/Kwh
( )
E = 0.001 × Wblower,1 + Wblower,2 + Wblower,3 × t 0.432 Kwh This work presents the effect of using CLPHP as an energy source and
ACC = CC × E 0.002 $ also a dual-purpose device for distillation and recovering the conden­
ASV = SFF × S 2.22 $ sation latent heat instantaneously. The air is driven into the BBH and
AC = FAC + AMC + ACC − ASV 37.002 $ PHPDH in the form of bubbles and the effects of air flow rate and ra­
M 3175.5 L diation on its performance have been investigated and the following
AC 0.012 $/L
CPL = results were concluded:
M

• The BBH and BCH humidifiers showed an efficiency of 97% and

100%, respectively. But, the BBH-type had a greater yield (0.83 kg/
(hr.m2)), because of using the glass cover which leads to higher
surface area and higher received radiation consequently.
• By increasing the radiation from 222 to 730 W/m2, the yield raised
from 0.26 to 0.83 kg/(hr.m2), respectively. Moreover, by enhancing
the air mass flow rate from 0.002 to 0.005 kg/s, the yield improved
from 0.22 to 0.52 kg/(hr.m2).
• Increasing the radiation and air mass flow rate, slightly enhanced the
efficiency of BBH and PHPDH. Therefore, the overall efficiency of
HDH experienced the same trend.
• On typical summer days, the overall efficiency and maximum ach­
ieved yield in the outdoor mode were approximately 60% and
8.7 kg/(day.m2), respectively.
• The higher the productivity the greater is the heat recovery (as
shown in Fig. 10).
• The calculated cost per liter of proposed HDH is 0.012 $/L.

Fig. 19. Changes of the CPL with operational time.
various tests for determining the Secondary Standards, and physical
quantities like pH, electrical conductivity, TDS, hardness, turbidity,
Iron, Manganese, Aluminum, and Free residual chlorine. Secondary
Standards regulate contaminants that cause offensive taste, odor, color,
corrosivity, foaming, and staining. The concentration limit is called the
Secondary Maximum Contaminant Level (SMCL). Secondary Standards
5. Future work
This research is focused on the PHPDH-assisted bubble basin of the
HDH desalination system. In future work, the dispersion of nano-sized
particles in the working fluid could be the better choice for enhancing
the heat transfer capability of PHPDH. Moreover, it could be recom­
mended to use a combination of the HDH system and solar air heater for
improving productivity.

Table 4
Water quality analysis.
Parameter Secondary Maximum Contaminant Level (SMCL)* Brackish water Distilled water

pH @ 25 ◦ C 8.2–8.8 11.2 7.2

Color Not exceeding 5 Hazen units 150 1
Taste and odor Unobjectionable Objectionable Unobjectionable
TDS (mg/L) < 600 mg/L 5612 26
Turbidity (NTU) Not exceeding 1.0 NTU 420 0.5
Hardness (mg/L) < 60 mg/L soft 460 50
60–120 mg/L Moderately hard
120–180 mg/L Hard
> 180 mg/L Very hard
Iron as Fe (mg/L) Not exceeding 0.1 mg/L 980 0.006
Manganese as Mn (mg/L) Not exceeding 0.05 mg/L 1230 0.003
Aluminum as Al Not exceeding 0.1 mg/L 590 0.04
Free residual chlorine 0.5–1.5 mg/L 1570 0.8
Electrical conductivity (μs/cm) Not exceeding 400 μs/cm 9265 32
*
Guidelines for drinking-water quality: the fourth edition incorporating the first addendum, Geneva: World Health Organization; 2017. License: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
IGO.

11
L. Aref et al. Energy Conversion and Management 228 (2021) 113694

Table 5
The comparison of different HDHs and the present study.
Author System Overall efficiency Productivity

Mahmoud et al. [30] Still + HDH + Photovoltaic + Concentrator – 9 kg/(m2.day)

Farshchi Tabrizi et al. [31] Cascade Still + HDH 39% 5.4 kg/(m2.day)
Sharshir et al. [32] Wick still (using rejected water from HDH) – 6.85 L/(m2.day)
9.8 L/ (m2.night)
Mahmoud et al. [33] Still + HDH – 11 L/ (m2.day)
Present work Integrated still/HDH/PHP 59% 8.7 L/ (m2.day)

CRediT authorship contribution statement [15] Rajaseenivasan T, Srithar K. An investigation into a laboratory scale bubble column
humidification dehumidification desalination system powered by biomass energy.
Energy Convers Manage 2017;139:232–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Latif Aref: Conceptualization, Methodology, Validation, Formal enconman.2017.02.043.
analysis, Investigation, Writing - original draft, Writing - review & [16] Fallahzadeh R, Aref L, Madadi Avargani V, Gholamiarjenaki N. An experimental
editing, Visualization, Funding acquisition. Rasoul Fallahzadeh: investigation on the performance of a new portable active bubble basin solar still.
Appl Therm Eng 2020;181:115918. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Conceptualization, Methodology, Validation, Formal analysis, Investi­ applthermaleng.2020.115918.
gation, Writing - review & editing, Visualization, Funding acquisition. [17] Liu H, Sharqawy MH. Experimental performance of bubble column humidifier and
Vahid Madadi Avargani: Supervision, Conceptualization, Methodol­ dehumidifier under varying pressure. Int J Heat Mass Transf 2016;93:934–44.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2015.10.040.
ogy, Writing - review & editing. [18] Eder E, Preißinger M. Experimental analysis of the humidification of air in bubble
columns for thermal water treatment systems. Exp Therm Fluid Sci 2020;115:
Declaration of Competing Interest 110063. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.expthermflusci.2020.110063.
[19] Behnam P, Shafii MB. Examination of a solar desalination system equipped with an
air bubble column humidifier, evacuated tube collectors and thermosyphon heat
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial pipes. Desalination 2016;397:30–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2016.06.016.
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence [20] Khalil A, El-Agouz SA, El-Samadony YAF, Abdo A. Solar water desalination using
an air bubble column humidifier. Desalination 2015;372:7–16. https://doi.org/
the work reported in this paper. 10.1016/j.desal.2015.06.010.
[21] Han X, Wang X, Zheng H, Xu X, Chen G. Review of the development of pulsating
References heat pipe for heat dissipation. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2016;59:692–709.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.12.350.
[22] Ghofrani I, Moosavi A. Energy, exergy, exergoeconomics, and
[1] Kasaeian A, Babaei S, Jahanpanah M, Sarrafha H, Sulaiman Alsagri A, Ghaffarian S,
exergoenvironmental assessment of three brine recycle humidification-
Yan W-M. Solar humidification-dehumidification desalination systems: a critical
dehumidification desalination systems applicable for industrial wastewater
review. Energy Convers Manage 2019;201:112129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
treatment. Energy Convers Manage 2020;205:112349. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
enconman.2019.112129.
enconman.2019.112349.
[2] Shahzad MW, Ng KC, Thu K, Saha BB, Chun WG. Multi effect desalination and
[23] Bahrami M, Madadi Avargani V, Bonyadi M. Comprehensive experimental and
adsorption desalination (MEDAD): A hybrid desalination method. Appl Therm Eng
theoretical study of a novel still coupled to a solar dish concentrator. Appl Therm
2014. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2014.03.064.
Eng 2019;151:77–89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2019.01.103.
[3] El-Dessouky HT, Ettouney HM, Al-Roumi Y. Multi-stage flash desalination: present
[24] He WF, Han D, Zhu WP, Ji C. Thermo-economic analysis of a water-heated
and future outlook. Chem Eng J 1999;73(2):173–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/
humidification-dehumidification desalination system with waste heat recovery.
S1385-8947(99)00035-2.
Energy Convers Manage 2018;160:182–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
[4] Dababneh AJ, Al-Nimr MA. A reverse osmosis desalination unit. Desalination 2003;
enconman.2018.01.048.
153(1-3):265–72. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0011-9164(02)01145-1.
[25] Rafiei A, Alsagri AS, Mahadzir S, Loni R, Najafi G, Kasaeian A. Thermal analysis of
[5] Fritzmann C, Löwenberg J, Wintgens T, Melin T. State-of-the-art of reverse osmosis
a hybrid solar desalination system using various shapes of cavity receiver: cubical,
desalination. Desalination 2007;216(1-3):1–76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
cylindrical, and hemispherical. Energy Convers Manage 2019;198:111861. https://
desal.2006.12.009.
doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2019.111861.
[6] Haddad OM, Al-Nimr MA, Maqableh A. Enhanced solar still performance using a
[26] Kargarsharifabad H, Mamouri SJ, Shafii MB, Rahni MT. Experimental investigation
radiative cooling system. Renewable Energy 2000;21(3-4):459–69. https://doi.
of the effect of using closed-loop pulsating heat pipe on the performance of a flat
org/10.1016/S0960-1481(00)00079-3.
plate solar collector. J Renewable Sustainable Energy 2013;5(1):013106. https://
[7] Xiao G, Wang X, Ni M, Wang F, Zhu W, Luo Z, Cen K. A review on solar stills for
doi.org/10.1063/1.4780996.
brine desalination. Appl Energy 2013;103:642–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
[27] Sabatelli V, Marano D, Braccio G, Sharma VK. Efficiency test of solar collectors:
apenergy.2012.10.029.
uncertainty in the estimation of regression parameters and sensitivity analysis.
[8] Lawal DU, Qasem NAA. Humidification-dehumidification desalination systems
Energy Convers Manage 2002;43(17):2287–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0196-
driven by thermal-based renewable and low-grade energy sources: a critical
8904(01)00180-7.
review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2020;125:109817. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
[28] Zirkel-Hofer A, Perry S, Fahr S, Kramer K, Heimsath A, Scholl S, Platzer W.
rser.2020.109817.
Improved in situ performance testing of line-concentrating solar collectors:
[9] Rahimi-Ahar Z, Hatamipour MS, Ahar LR. Air humidification-dehumidification
Comprehensive uncertainty analysis for the selection of measurement
process for desalination: a review. Prog Energy Combust Sci 2020;80:100850.
instrumentation. Appl Energy 2016;184:298–312. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pecs.2020.100850.
apenergy.2016.09.089.
[10] Santosh R, Arunkumar T, Velraj R, Kumaresan G. Technological advancements in
[29] Hassinger E, Watson J. Drinking Water Standards 1998.
solar energy driven humidification-dehumidification desalination systems - a
[30] Mahmoud Amir, Fath Hassan, Ahmed Mahmoud. Enhancing the performance of a
review. J Cleaner Prod 2019;207:826–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
solar driven hybrid solar still/humidification-dehumidification desalination system
jclepro.2018.09.247.
integrated with solar concentrator and photovoltaic panels. Desalination 2018;430:
[11] Kabeel AE, Hamed MH, Omara ZM, Sharshir SW. Water desalination using a
165–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2017.12.052.
humidification-dehumidification technique—a detailed review. Nat Resour 2013;
[31] Farshchi Tabrizi Farshad, Khosravi Meisam, Shirzaei Sani Iman. Experimental
04(03):286–305. https://doi.org/10.4236/nr.2013.43036.
study of a cascade solar still coupled with a humidification–dehumidification
[12] Rajaseenivasan T, Shanmugam RK, Hareesh VM, Srithar K. Combined probation of
system. Energy Convers Manage 2016;115:80–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
bubble column humidification dehumidification desalination system using solar
enconman.2016.02.006.
collectors. Energy 2016;116:459–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
[32] Sharshir SW, El-Samadony MOA, Peng Guilong, Yang Nuo, Essa FA, Hamed Mofreh
energy.2016.09.127.
H, Kabeel AE. Performance enhancement of wick solar still using rejected water
[13] Patel V, Patel R, Patel J. Theoretical and experimental investigation of bubble
from humidification-dehumidification unit and film cooling. Appl Therm Eng
column humidification and thermoelectric cooler dehumidification water
2016;108:1268–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2016.07.179.
desalination system. Int J Energy Res 2020;44(2):890–901. https://doi.org/
[33] Mahmoud Amir, Fath Hassan, Ookwara Shinichi, Ahmed Mahmoud. Influence of
10.1002/er.4931.
partial solar energy storage and solar concentration ratio on the productivity of
[14] Fallahzadeh R, Aref L, Gholamiarjenaki N, Nonejad Z, Saghi M. Experimental
integrated solar still/humidification-dehumidification desalination systems.
investigation of the effect of using water and ethanol as working fluid on the
Desalination 2019;467:29–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2019.04.033.
performance of pyramid-shaped solar still integrated with heat pipe solar collector.
Sol Energy 2020;207:10–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2020.06.032.

12