LAB MANUAL FOR STRUCTURAL

MECHANICS
Submitted to: Engr. Adeel Faisal
Submitted by:
2018-CIV-311
2018-CIV-317
2018-CIV-322

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

University of Engineering & Technology, Lahore
 LAB EXPERIMENT 1: BUCKLING OF COLUMNS

Objective:

The objectives of the laboratory experiment are as follows;

• To determine the critical buckling loads of axially loaded slender columns (e.g. wooden
dowels) of varying diameter, length, and boundary or end conditions (i.e. pin-pin, pin-
fixed, and fixed-fixed).
• To find the correlation between experimental values of the critical buckling of axially
loaded columns and the values predicted by the Euler’s buckling formula.

Apparatus:

Materials and Equipment

• Columns of various lengths made from different materials

• Column buckling machine
• Load equipment
• Dial indicators

Related Theory:

Background

There are usually two primary concerns when analyzing and designing structures:
• The ability of the structure to support a specified load without experiencing excessive
stress
• The ability of the structure to support a given load without undergoing unacceptable
deformation.
In some cases, however, stability considerations are important especially when the potential
exists for the structure to experience a sudden radical change in its configuration. These
considerations are typically made when dealing with vertical prismatic members supporting
axial loads. Such structures are called columns. A column will buckle when it is subjected to a
load greater than the critical load denoted by Pcr.
That is, instead of remaining straight, it will suddenly become sharply curved as illustrated in
Figure 1.

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 Figure 1: A column will when critical load is reached.

The critical load is given in terms of an effective length by:

Where,
• E is the elastic modulus
• I is the moment of inertia
• Le is the effective length.
The expression in Equation (4.3-1) is known as Euler's formula. The effective length depends
upon the constraints imposed on the ends of the column.

Figure 2: shows how the effective length

The critical load is computed by making I = Imin in above Equation. Thus, if buckling occurs,
it will take place in a plane perpendicular to the corresponding principal axis of inertia. The
radius of gyration, r, is often introduced into Euler’s formula. This quantity is given by

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Where A is the cross-sectional area of the column. Substituting Equation (4.3-2) into (4.3-1),
Finally:

In Above Equations, the quantity (Le / r) is called the slenderness ratio of the column. For long
columns, with a large slenderness ratio, Euler's formula is adequate for design purposes.
However, for intermediate and short columns, where failure occurs essentially as a result of
yield, empirical formulas are used to approximate test data.

Figure 3: k values for columns

Euler Buckling Formula

The following assumptions are made in deriving the formula for critical buckling load (Euler
Buckling Load).
1. The compressive loads are applied at the ends of the column without eccentricity.
2. The column is perfectly straight before the loads are applied.
3. The ends of the column are frictionless pins (or hinges), which allow the column to
buckle about any axis of the cross-sections.
4. The column is made of homogeneous and isotropic material.
5. The self-weight of the column is ignored

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The critical buckling load (Euler Buckling Load) Pcr for an ideal pin-ended column is given
by:-

Where
E = the modulus of elasticity of the material (MPa)
I = the least moment of inertia of the cross-section (mm4)
L = the length of the column from pin-end to pin-end (mm)
π = constant pi (= 3.1416)
The above formula applies to long column with both ends pinned. The Euler’s Formula gives
the buckling load for an ideal column with both ends pinned. The formula may be extended to
columns with other end conditions through the concept of an effective length.

Effective Length:

The effective length is the distance between points of inflection (contraflexure) on the deflected
shape of the column. These are points of zero bending moment. The effective length is often
expressed in terms of an effective length factor K,
where Effective Length
Le = K*L
in which,
K = effective length factor (Its value depends on the support conditions)
L = actual unbraced column length.
The critical buckling load is then given by

Radius of Gyration:

The measure of slenderness of the cross-section of the column is its radius of gyration, r,
defined as:

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Layout of Test Device

The test device mainly consists of a basic frame, the guide columns and the load cross bar. The
basic frame contains the bottom mounting for the rod specimen, consisting of a force-
measuring device for measuring the testing force and an attachment socket which can hold
different pressure pieces for realizing various storage conditions.

The height of the load cross bar can be adjusted along the guide columns and it can be
clamped in position. This allows rod specimens with different buckling lengths to be
examined. The load cross bar features a load spindle for generating the test force. Using the
load nut, the test force is applied to the rod specimen via guided thrust pieces. An axial
mounting between the load nut and the thrust piece prevents torsional stresses from being
applied to the rod specimen.

Procedure:

The number of columns tested will be different sizes, with different end conditions would be
tested. The most critical factor in this lab is to ensure that the columns are loaded in a perfectly
horizontal and secured position. Any angular rotation (especially in the case when both ends
are fixed) will result in erroneous results.
Care should also be taken in adjusting the collar on the post for each column. It is important to
stop the loading of the column as soon as the critical load has been reached to avoid permanent
damage to the column.

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For each column tested:
1. Measure and record the dimensions of the column on the worksheet.
2. Calculate the expected buckling load for the end conditions at hand.
3. Orient the satin chrome blocks on the loading frame for the end conditions chosen. V-
notches should face away from the mounting surface (towards the column) for pinned
ends and towards the mounting surface (away from the column) for fixed ends.
4. With the end conditions selected, adjust the capstan nut. Gradually apply increment of
load, and must be rechecked each time the column is changed. 5. The loading beam
should then be adjusted to the desired column as follows: The stop for the loading beam
when the column starts to change mode of bucking. After the column is in position, the
dial indicator is installed in the brackets and fastened to the center post.
5. The indicator bracket should be moved up or down the post so that the indicator point
contacts the column at its midpoint. The indicator may then be zeroed by loosening the
black plastic knob that holds the indicator on the frame and then moving it gently toward
the column until the needle on the small scale is zero. The large scale is zeroed by rotating
the outside bezel until the large needle is on zero.
6. One revolution on the large scale is 0.100 in. (2.54 mm) and is equal to 1 on the small
scale. Each graduation of the large scale is 0.001 in. (0.025 mm). Extreme care should
be exercised in handling the dial indicator.
7. After each increment of load, record the load and deflection on the data sheet. Suitable
increments for the loading of the column may be obtained by rotating the hand wheel.

Testing:

1. Set up the test device in vertical or horizontal position. The force gauge can be turned
90o for this purpose.

2. Insert thrust piece with V notch into attachment socket and fasten with clamping screw
3. Insert long thrust piece with V notch into the guide bush of the load cross-bar and hold
it firmly
4. Insert the S2 rod specimen with edges in the V notch

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5. The load cross-bar must be clamped on the guide column in such a manner that there is
still approx. 5 mm for the top thrust piece to move.
6. Align the rod specimen in such a manner that its buckling direction points in the direction
of the lateral guide columns. Here, the edges must be perpendicular to the load cross-bar.
7. Pre tighten the rod specimen with low, non-measurable force.
8. Align the measuring gauge to the middle of the rod specimen using the support clamps.
The measuring gauge must be set at a right angle to the direction of buckling.

9. Pre tighten the measuring gauge to 10-mm deflection with the adjustable support.
10. Slowly subject the rod specimen load using the load nut.

11. Read the deflection from the measuring gauge. Read and record the deflection every
0.25-mm up to 1 mm.
12. Above 1-mm deflection, it suffices to record the deflection and force every 0.5-mm.
13. The test can be concluded when the force does not change, despite an increasing load (in
the case of rod specimen S2 this as at approx. 4 mm).
14. Slowly remove the tension from the rod specimen.
15. Table the result
16. Repeat the experiment with two other specimen

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Observation & Calculations:

Test # 07
Specimen size = 12.1x22.25x700 mm
Area = 139 mm2
Material = Triangular Aluminum
End Condition = pinned-pinned
Observations & Calculations

Sr. No Deflection Gauge Reading Deflection (mm) Load (N)

1 0 0 0
2 50 0.5 470
3 100 1 586
4 200 2 657
5 300 3 685
6 400 4 698
7 500 5 703

800

700

600

500
Load (N)

400

300

200

100

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Deflection (mm)

Deflection (mm) Load (N)

Figure 4: Graph between deflection(mm) and load(N)

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Precautions:

• The load cross arm can drop of the clamping screws are loosened.
• A drop could damage parts of the testing machine located underneath the cross arm.
• Carefully support the cross arm by hand when loosening the clamping screws
• Before removing a rod, specimen make sure that the clamping screws are tightened
securely.
• Pay attention to the top thrust piece when removing the rod specimen.
• The hazards mentioned do not apply when the test device is set up horizontally.
• Caution when working with brittle materials.
• The rod specimen could break suddenly in this case.
• Pieces of specimen could fly around and cause injuries.

Recommendation:

The maximum testing force is 20 000 N. Overloads can occur if attempts are made to force a
loaded rod specimen in the direction opposite that of deflection. Never deflect more than max.
6 mm, since there is a risk or plastic deformation and damage to the rod specimen.