Mechanics:

is the physical science which deals with the effects of forces on objects.
The subject of mechanics is logically divided into two parts:

- Statics:
which concerns the equilibrium of bodies under action of forces.

- Dynamics:
which concerns the motion of bodies.

Engineering Mechanics is divided into these two parts,

Vol. 1 Statics and Vol. 2 Dynamics.
1/2 Basic Concepts

Space
is the geometric region occupied by bodies whose positions are
described by linear and angular measurements relative to a coordinate
system. For three-dimensional problems, three independent
coordinates are needed. For two-dimensional problems, only two
coordinates are required.

Time
is the measure of the succession of events and is a basic quantity in
dynamics. Time is not directly involved in the analysis of statics
problems.
Mass
is a measure of the inertia of a body, which is its resistance to a change
of velocity. Mass can also be thought of as the quantity of matter in a
body. The mass of a body affects the gravitational attraction force
between it and other bodies. This force appears in many applications
in statics.

Force
is the action of one body on another. A force tends to move a
body in the direction of its action. The action of a force is characterized
by its magnitude, by the direction of its action, and by its point of
application. Thus force is a vector quantity, and its properties are
discussed in detail in Chapter 2.
Particle
is a body of negligible dimensions. In the mathematical
sense, a particle is a body whose dimensions are considered to be near
zero so that we may analyze it as a mass concentrated at a point. We
often choose a particle as a differential element of a body. We may
treat a body as a particle when its dimensions are irrelevant to the
description of its position or the action of forces applied to it.
Rigid body
A body is considered rigid when the change in distance between any
two of its points is negligible. For instance, the calculation of the
tension in the cable which supports the boom of a mobile crane under
load is essentially unaffected by the small internal deformations in the
structural members of the boom. For the purpose, then, of determining
the external forces which act on the boom, we may treat it as a rigid
body.
1/3 Scalars and Vectors
Two kinds of quantities are used in mechanics - scalars and vectors.

Scalar quantities are those with which only a magnitude is

associated.
Examples: time, volume, density, speed, energy, and mass.
Vector quantities possess direction as well as magnitude.
Examples: displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, and moment.

Speed is a scalar.
It is the magnitude of velocity, which is a vector.
Thus velocity is specified by a direction as well as a speed.
Vectors can be classified as free, sliding, or fixed.
free vector is one whose action is not confined to or associated with a unique
line in space. For example, if a body moves without rotation, then the
movement or displacement of any point in the body may be taken as a vector.
This vector describes equally well the direction and magnitude of the
displacement of every point in the body. The displacement of such a body is
represented by a free vector.
sliding vector has a unique line of action in space but not a unique point of
application. For example, when an external force acts on a rigid body, the force
can be applied at any point along its line of action without changing its effect
on the body as a whole.
fixed vector is one for which a unique point of application is specified. The
action of a force on a deformable or non rigid body must be specified by a fixed
vector at the point of application of the force. In this instance the forces and
deformations within the body depend on the point of application of the force,
as well as on its magnitude and line of action.
Conventions for Equations and Diagrams

A vector quantity V is represented by a line

segment, Fig. 1/1, having the direction of the
vector and having an arrow head to indicate the
sense.
The length of the directed line segment
represents to some convenient scale the
magnitude |V| of the vector, which is printed
with lightface italic type V.

Vector : V or V or
Magnitude : |V| or V
Vectors Summation
Vectors must obey the parallelogram law of
combination.
This law states that two vectors V1 and V2, treated
as free vectors, Fig.1/2a, may be replaced by their
equivalent vector V, which is the diagonal of the
parallelogram formed by V1 and V2 as its two sides,
as shown in Fig.1/2b.
This combination is called the vector sum, and is
represented by the vector equation:

Vector sum: V = V 1 + V2 = V2 + V1
Scalar sum: V ≠ V1 + V2
Vectors Difference or subtraction
The difference V1 - V2 between the two
vectors is easily obtained by adding - V2 to
V1 as shown in Fig. 1/3, where either the
triangle or parallelogram procedure may
be used.
The difference V’ between the two vectors
is expressed by the vector equation:

V’ = V1 - V2

where the minus sign denotes vector

subtraction.
Unit Vector

A vector V may be expressed mathematically by multiplying its

magnitude V by a vector n whose magnitude is one and whose
direction
coincides with that of V. The vector n is called a unit vector. Thus,

V = Vn
In many problems, particularly three-dimensional
ones, it is convenient to express the rectangular
components of V, Fig. 1/5, in terms of unit vectors
i, j, and k, which are vectors in the x-, y-, and z-
directions, respectively, with unit magnitudes.
Because the vector V is the vector sum of the
components in the x-, y-, and z-directions, we can
express V as follows:

V = Vxi + Vyj + Vzk

We now make use of the direction cosines l, m,
and n of V, which are defined by:

l = cos qx m = cos qy n = cos qz

Thus, we may write the magnitudes of the components of V as:

Vx = lV Vy = mV Vz = nV

where, from the Pythagorean theorem,

V2 = Vx2 + Vy2 + Vz2

Note that this relation implies that:

l2 + m2 + n2 = 1
1/4 Newton’s Laws
Law I. A particle remains at rest or continues to move with uniform
velocity (in a straight line with a constant speed) if there is no
unbalanced force acting on it.
Law II. The acceleration of a particle is proportional to the vector
sum of forces acting on it, and is in the direction of this vector sum.
Newton’s second law forms the basis for most of the analysis in
dynamics. As applied to a particle of mass m, it may be stated as:

F = ma
Law III. The forces of action and reaction between interacting bodies
are equal in magnitude, opposite in direction, and collinear
(they lie on the same line).
1/5 Units

SI Units
g = 9.81 m/s2

U.S. Units
g = 32.2 ft/s2
Unit Conversions
Applying the Parallelogram (graphical)
Example:
Example:
2/1 Introduction

- The effects of forces which act on engineering structures and

mechanisms.
- The experience gained here will help you in the study of:
- mechanics
- stress analysis
- design of structures and machines
- fluid flow
2/2 Force
A force is an action of one body on another.
A force is a vector quantity, its effect depends on:
- the direction - the magnitude of the action

The action of the cable tension on the bracket in Fig.

2/1a is represented in the side view, Fig. 2/1b, by the
force vector P of magnitude P.

The effect of this action on the bracket depends on:

- P - the angle q - the location application point of A.

Changing any one of these three specifications will

alter the effect on the bracket. (fixed vector).
External and Internal Effects
The action of a force on a body is separated into two
effects, external and internal.
For the bracket of Fig. 2/1 the effects of P external to
the bracket are the reactive forces (not shown)
exerted on the bracket by the foundation and bolts
because of the action of P. Forces external to a body
can be either applied forces or reactive forces.
The effects of P internal to the bracket are the
resulting internal forces and deformations distributed
throughout the material of the bracket. The relation
between internal forces and internal deformations
depends on the material properties of the body and is
studied in strength of materials, and elasticity.
Principle of Transmissibility
The principle of transmissibility states that a force may be applied at
any point on its given line of action without altering the resultant effects
of the force external to the rigid body on which it acts. (sliding vector)
We need specify only the magnitude, direction, and line of action of the
force, and not its point of application.

For example, the force P acting on the rigid plate in

Fig. 2/2 may be applied at A or at B or at any other
point on its line of action, and the net external
effects of P on the bracket will not change.

The external effects are the force exerted on the

plate by the bearing support at O and the force
exerted on the plate by the roller support at C.
Force Classification
Forces are classified as either contact or body forces.
Contact force is produced by direct physical contact; an example is the
force exerted on a body by a supporting surface.
Body force is generated by virtue of the position of a body within a force
field such as a gravitational, electric, or magnetic field. An example of a
body force is your weight.
Action and Reaction
According to Newton’s third law, the action of a force is always
accompanied by an equal and opposite reaction.
It is essential to distinguish between the action and the reaction in a
pair of forces.
To do so, we first isolate the body in question and then identify the force
exerted on that body (not the force exerted by the body).
Concurrent Forces
Two or more forces are said to be concurrent at a point if
their lines of action intersect at that point.
The forces F1 and F2 shown in Fig. 2/3a have a common
point of application and are concurrent at the point A.
Thus, they can be added using the parallelogram law in
their common plane to obtain their sum or resultant R, as
shown in Fig. 2/3a.
We can also use the triangle law to obtain R, but we need
to move the line of action of one of the forces, as shown in
Fig. 2/3c. If we add the same two forces as shown in Fig.
2/3d, we correctly preserve the magnitude and direction of
R, but we lose the correct line of action, because R
obtained in this way does not pass through A. Therefore
this type of combination should be avoided.
Suppose the two concurrent forces lie in the
same plane but are applied at two different
points as in Fig. 2/3b. By the principle of
transmissibility, we may move them along their
lines of action and complete their vector sum R
at the point of concurrency A, as shown in Fig.
2/3b. We can replace F1 and F2 with the resultant
R without altering the external effects on the
body upon which they act.
The relationship between a force and its vector
components along given axes must not be confused with
the relationship between a force and its perpendicular
(Orthogonal) projections onto the same axes.
Figure 2/3e shows the perpendicular projections Fa and
Fb of the given force R onto axes a and b, which are
parallel to the vector components F1 and F2 of Fig. 2/3a.
Figure 2/3e shows that the components of a vector are
not necessarily equal to the projections of the vector onto
the same axes. Furthermore, the vector sum of the
projections Fa and Fb is not the vector R, because the
parallelogram law of vector addition must be used to
form the sum.
The components and projections of R are equal only
when the axes a and b are perpendicular.
SECTION A TWO-DIMENSIONAL FORCE SYSTEMS
2/3 Rectangular Components

The scalar components can be

positive or negative, depending on
the quadrant into which F points.
2/4 Moment

In addition to the tendency to move a

body in the direction of its
application, a force can also tend to
rotate a body about an axis. The axis
may be any line which neither
intersects nor is parallel to the line of
action of the force. This rotational
tendency is known as the moment M
of the force. Moment is also referred
to as torque.
Positive Dir. Negative Dir.

M=rxF M=Fxr
CROSS PRODUCT – Vector Product
IF a & b are vectors
a = a1i +a2j + a3k and b = b1i + b2j + b3k
We see that the cross product of the vectors is:

i j k
a  b  a1 a2 a3 The vector a x b is orthogonal to both a and b.
b1 b2 b3 If q is the angle between a and b
(so 0 ≤ q ≤ π), then |a x b| = |a||b| sinq

a2 a3 a1 a3 a1 a2
ab  i j k NOTE: The scalar product
b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2 If q is the angle between
a and b (0 ≤ q ≤ π), then:
b . a = a . b =|a||b|cosq
CROSS PRODUCT

Example: If a = <1, 3, 4> and b = <2, 7, –5>, then

i j k
ab  1 3 4
2 7 5
3 4 1 4 1 3
 i j k
7 5 2 5 2 7
 (15  28)i  (5  8) j  (7  6)k
 43i  13 j  k
Varignon’s Theorem

One of the most useful principles of mechanics is Varignon’s theorem,

which states that the moment of a force about any point is equal to the
sum of the moments of the components of the force about the same point.
Example
Solution
Example
Example
Solution
Solution
2/5 Couple
The moment produced by two equal, opposite, and non-
collinear forces is called a couple. Couples have important
applications in mechanics.

Vector Algebra Method

where the direction of M is normal

to the plane of the couple and the
sense of M is established by the
right-hand rule.
Equivalent Couples
Example
Solution
Example
• Determine the moment of the couple acting on the member.
Resolve each force into horizontal and vertical
components
• Fx = 4/5(150kN) = 120kN
• Fy = 3/5(150kN) = 90kN
M = 90kN(3m) + 120kN(1m)
• = 390kN (CCW)
• Or : Principle of Moment about point D,
MD = 120 (0m) – 90 (2) + 90 (5) + 120 (1)
= 390kN-m (CCW)
2/6 Resultants
The three forces in Fig. 2/15, for instance,
have a zero resultant force but have a
resultant clockwise couple M = F3 d
Example
Solution
Solution

dx = Mo/Ry
Mo= -4(1.5) -15 –8(3/5)(0.5) + 8(4/5)(4.5) = 5.4 kN-m
x = 5.4/2.4
= 2.25 m
SECTION B THREE-DIMENSIONAL FORCE SYSTEMS
2/7 Rectangular Components
(a) Specification by two points on the line of action of the force.
(b) Specification by two angles which orient the line of action of the force.
Dot Product : Scalar Product
The dot product of two vectors P and Q, Fig. 2/19a, is defined as the
product of their magnitudes times the cosine of the angle between
them. It is written as:
Angle between Two Vectors

In general, the angle between any two vectors P and Q is

Example

• A(0,0,30)
• B(12,-8,6)
Solution
2/8 Moment and Couple
In two-dimensional analyses it is often convenient to
determine a moment magnitude as:
M = Fd

In three dimensions, however, the determination of the

perpendicular distance between a point or line and the
line of action of the force can be a tedious computation.
A vector approach with cross-product multiplication
then becomes advantageous.
Mo = r x F
The order r x F of the vectors must be maintained
because F x r would produce a vector with a sense
opposite to that of Mo; that is, F x r = -Mo
 Moment about an Arbitrary Axis
We can now obtain an expression for the moment Ml of F
about any axis l through O, as shown in Fig. 2/23. If n is
a unit vector in the l-direction, then we can use the
dot-product expression for the component of a vector
Mo . n, the component of Mo in the l-direction.
Ml = (r x F . n )n
The expression (r x F) . n is known as a triple scalar product and can
be presented as:

where a, b , g are the direction cosines of the unit vector n.

Varignon’s Theorem in Three Dimensions

Couples in Three Dimensions

Couple vectors obey all of the rules which govern vector quantities.
Thus, in Fig. 2/26 the couple vector M1 due to F1 and –F1 may be
added as shown to the couple vector M2 due to F2 and –F2 to produce
the couple M, which, in turn, can be produced by F and -F.
How to replace a force by its equivalent
force–couple system.
Example
Solution
2/9 Resultants
Example
Solution
Example
Solution
3/1 Introduction

When a body is in equilibrium, the resultant of all forces acting

on it is zero. Thus, the resultant force R and the resultant
couple M are both zero, and we have the equilibrium equations:
SECTION A EQUILIBRIUM IN TWO DIMENSIONS
3/2 System Isolation and the Free-Body Diagram
free-body diagram
• a diagrammatic representation of the isolated system treated as a
single body.
• The diagram shows all forces applied to the system by mechanical
contact with other bodies, which are imagined to be removed.
• If appreciable body forces are present, such as gravitational or
magnetic attraction, then these forces must also be shown on the
free-body diagram of the isolated system.
• Only after such a diagram has been carefully drawn should the
equilibrium equations be written.
Modeling the Action of Forces
Examples of Free-Body Diagrams
3/3 Equilibrium Conditions

Categories of Equilibrium
1. Collinear
2. Concurrent at a point
3. Parallel
4. General
Two- and Three-Force Members
Alternative Equilibrium Equations
Constraints and Statical Determinacy
Adequacy of Constraints
Example
Solution
Solution
Example
Solution
Solution
Example
Solution
Solution
Example
Solution
4/2 Plane Trusses

Simple Trusses
Truss Connections and Supports
4/3 Method of Joints

Tension (such as AB): will always

be indicated by an arrow away from
the pin.

Compression (such as AF): will

always be indicated by an arrow
toward the pin.

The magnitude of AF is obtained

from the equation SFy and AB is
then found from SFx
Internal and External Redundancy

If a plane truss has more external supports than are necessary to

ensure a stable equilibrium configuration, the truss as a whole is
statically indeterminate, and the extra supports constitute external
redundancy.

If a truss has more internal members than are necessary to prevent

collapse when the truss is removed from its supports, then the extra
members constitute internal redundancy and the truss is again
statically indeterminate.

For internal statically determinate: m + 3 = 2j

If m + 3 > 2j

there are more members than independent equations, and the truss is
statically indeterminate internally with redundant members present.

If m + 3 < 2j

there is a deficiency of internal members, and the truss is unstable and

will collapse under load.
Special Conditions
We can avoid simultaneous solution of the
equilibrium equations for two unknown forces
at a joint by a careful choice of reference axes.

Thus, for the joint indicated schematically in

Fig. 4/11 where L is known and F1 and F2 are
unknown:

A force summation in the x-direction eliminates

reference to F1

and a force summation in the x/-direction

eliminates reference to F2.
Example
Solution
Solution
Solution
Example: Zero force Members
Solution
Solution
Zero force Members
 Joint D: DA is a zero-force member
 Joint C: CA is a zero-force member
4/4 Method of Sections

Illustration of the Method

Example
Solution
Solution
Example
Solution
Solution
4/6 Frames and Machines
Example
Example
Example
Solution
Solution
Example
Solution
Solution
5/2 Center of Mass
Consider a three-dimensional body of any size and shape, having
a mass m. If we suspend the body, as shown in Fig. 5/3, from any
point such as A, the body will be in equilibrium under the action of
the tension in the cord and the resultant W of the gravitational forces
acting on all particles of the body.
This resultant is clearly collinear with the cord.
Determining the Center of Gravity
5/3 Centroids of Lines, Areas, and Volumes

(1) Lines.

(2) Areas.

(3) Volumes.
Example
Solution
Solution
5/4 Composite Bodies and Figures;
Approximations
Example
Solution
Solution
Example
Solution
5/6 Beams—External Effects
Beams are structural members which offer resistance to bending due
to applied loads. Most beams are long prismatic bars, and the loads
are usually applied normal to the axes of the bars.

Types of Beams
Distributed Loads
Loading intensities which are constant or which vary linearly are easily
handled. Figure 5/20 illustrates the three most common cases and the
resultants of the distributed loads in each case.
A/2 Definitions

Rectangular and Polar Moments of Inertia

A/2 Definitions
Radius of Gyration
Solution
Solution
A/3 Composite Areas
Example
Solution
Solution
Example
Solution
Solution
6/2 Types of Friction

(a) Dry Friction. (most common type of friction ) Dry friction occurs when the
unlubricated surfaces of two solids are in contact under a condition of sliding
or a tendency to slide. A friction force tangent to the surfaces of contact occurs
both during the interval leading up to impending slippage and while slippage
takes place. The direction of this friction force always opposes the motion or
impending motion. This type of friction is also called Coulomb friction.

(b) Fluid Friction. Fluid friction occurs when adjacent layers in a fluid (liquid or
gas) are moving at different velocities. This motion causes frictional forces
between fluid elements, and these forces depend on the relative velocity
between layers. When there is no relative velocity, there is no fluid friction.
Fluid friction depends not only on the velocity gradients within the fluid but
also on the viscosity of the fluid, which is a measure of its resistance to
shearing action between fluid layers. Fluid friction is treated in the study of
fluid mechanics and will not be discussed further in this book.
(c) Internal Friction. Internal friction occurs in all solid materials which are
subjected to cyclical loading. For highly elastic materials the recovery from
deformation occurs with very little loss of energy due to internal friction. For
materials which have low limits of elasticity and which undergo appreciable
plastic deformation during loading, a considerable amount of internal friction
may accompany this deformation. The mechanism of internal friction is
associated with the action of shear deformation, which is discussed in
references on materials science.
6/3 Dry Friction

Mechanism of Dry Friction

Static Friction
The region in Fig. 6/1d up to the point of slippage or impending motion is
called the range of static friction, and in this range the value of the
friction force is determined by the equations of equilibrium.

For a condition of static equilibrium when motion is not impending, the

static friction force is
Kinetic Friction
After slippage occurs, a condition of kinetic friction accompanies the
ensuing motion. Kinetic friction force is usually somewhat less than the
maximum static friction force. The kinetic friction force Fk is also
proportional to the normal force. Thus,
Example
Solution

Fmax   s N C  0.3(236)  70.8 N

F  69.3 N  70.8 N  No slipping
Example
Solution