UNIVERSITY OF ZIMBABWE

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Design of water temperature control unit for Osbourne Reynolds

experiment set up. Case study: University of Zimbabwe

BY

TINOTENDA SAMSON MAKUVAZA

(R166194U)

Supervisor: Dr. Eng. LK GUDUKEYA & Eng. T CHIKUKU

A FOURTH YEAR PROJECT IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR A

BSC HONOURS DEGREE IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
 Declaration

I TINOTENDA SAMSON MAKUVAZA hereby declare that this dissertation submitted for
assessment is my own composition. I produced all the information presented, except where
clearly and specifically acknowledged, at the University of Zimbabwe, Department of
Mechanical Engineering. This work has not been presented in the fulfilment of a similar or
related degree(s) program.

DATE:

SIGNED:
 Abstract
The Osbourne Reynolds set up better describes the behavior of fluid when subjected to different
conditions, mainly temperature. Hence for this to happen the set up requires that a unit for
regulating the temperature be set up. This project outlines the design of a temperature
regulating system that uses of a thermo-electric device which in-cooperates the inclusion of
passive heat exchanger called a heat sink. A thermoelectric cooler (TEC) is a type of cooler that
uses the electricity between the junction of two materials to cause a temperature drop. As such
the temperature regulating unit for the set up operates using the Peltier effect. Effectively, a TEC
uses electrical energy to pump heat from one area to another. An understanding of the science of
how TECs operate as well as their design will be investigated and finally, a unique design for a
TEC with a high efficiency is presented. This report creates a design of a high efficiency
temperature regulating section that operates at a high coefficient of performance. The design
will also include phase change material that will differentiate it from its competition and allow
for superior cooling and efficiency. The design will also feature vacuum sealed chambers that
will provide very good insulation and allow fast optimal cooling mechanisms. A unique heat sink
is designed to optimally dissipate the heat that is removed by the TECs. The model can also
examine the variables that affect the thermal system that are controllable in the design of the
regulating unit. Given the new design, the regulating unit in this report was designed to cool a
volume of 15 litres of hot water for the largest temperature range (100-20) in a space of 3
minutes given a constant 12 V power supply. The theoretical analysis concludes that this design
is sufficient at creating a regulating unit with a high efficiency that can cool to the desired low
temperature for the experiment.

KEYWORDS: Heat exchanger, Osbourne, TECs, Heat Sink.

 Acknowledgement
As much as this project has experienced some challenges it has also been welcomed with support
from so many quarters. The first gratitude goes to God Almighty the beginner of this project who
saw me from the inception through the project execution and finally to the end of the project.
Special gratitude to my parents Mr. and Mrs. Makuvaza and family for the support, guidance,
sacrifices and above all concern not only during the period of this project but also from my birth.
Best of Gods plan is what I wish and pray for you.

This project has been made approved and certified executed due to the professional and
intellectual supervision of Dr. L.K Gudukeya and Eng. T Chikuku not forgetting the
unquantifiable support and assistance most especially in acquisition of materials and information
that has helped in the realization of success in this project.

Appreciation goes to my Head of Department of the department, Eng. T Chikuku for the
meaningful contribution in managerial, academic and productive criticism. It has helped to
sharpen some crooked views and attitude.
 Table of Contents
Declaration.......................................................................................................................2

Abstract............................................................................................................................3

Acknowledgement...........................................................................................................4

Table of Contents.............................................................................................................5

List of Tables...................................................................................................................8

Table of figures................................................................................................................9

Chapter 1 Introduction................................................................................................................11

1.1 General Introduction..........................................................................................................11

1.2 Background........................................................................................................................12

1.3 Case study: University of Zimbabwe................................................................................13

1.4 Problem statement.............................................................................................................13

1.5 Justification........................................................................................................................14

1.5.1 Eliminating effects of ambient temperature..............................................................14

1.5.2 Time...........................................................................................................................14

1.6 Aim....................................................................................................................................14

1.7 Objectives..........................................................................................................................14

Chapter 2 Literature Review......................................................................................................15

2.1 Classification of Heat Exchangers.....................................................................................15

2.1.1 Parallel Flow..............................................................................................................15

2.1.2 Counter Flow.............................................................................................................15

2.1.3 Cross flow..................................................................................................................16

2.1.4 Condenser and Evaporator.........................................................................................17

2.1.5 Compact heat exchanges............................................................................................17

2.2 Increasing heating exchanger performance.......................................................................17

 2.2.1 Enhanced surfaces.....................................................................................................18

2.2.2 Finning.......................................................................................................................18

2.2.3 Tube Inserts...............................................................................................................18

2.2.4 Tube Deformation......................................................................................................18

2.2.5 Baffles........................................................................................................................19

2.2.6 Enhancement of fouling.............................................................................................19

2.3 Augmentation....................................................................................................................19

2.4 Enhancement using Nano-fluids........................................................................................20

2.5 Design theory of heat exchangers......................................................................................20

2.5.1 The Heat Exchanger Design Equation.......................................................................20

2.5.2 Heat Transfer Rate, Q................................................................................................21

2.5.3 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient, U........................................................................21

2.6 Types of methods used in cooling.....................................................................................22

2.6.1 Air cooled exchangers...............................................................................................22

2.6.2 Liquid cooled exchangers..........................................................................................23

2.7 Eliminating effects of ambient temperature......................................................................23

2.7.1 Fibrous Insulation......................................................................................................24

1.1.1.1 Granular Insulation............................................................................................24

1.1.1.2 Cellular Insulation.............................................................................................24

2.8 Thermo electric cooling.....................................................................................................25

2.8.1 Operating principle....................................................................................................25

Chapter 3 Methodology..............................................................................................................27

3.1 Literature Review..............................................................................................................27

3.2 Data Collection..................................................................................................................27

3.3 Data analysis......................................................................................................................27

 3.4 Development of possible solutions....................................................................................28

3.5 Selection of optimal solution.............................................................................................28

3.6 Design and Modelling........................................................................................................28

Chapter 4 Concept Generation...................................................................................................31

Design Option 1 Double pipe heat exchanger........................................................31

4.1 Working principle..............................................................................................................31

4.1.1 Advantages................................................................................................................32

4.1.2 Disadvantages............................................................................................................32

4.1.3 Proposed layout.........................................................................................................32

Design Option 2 Plate Heat exchangers (Air cooled finned type heat exchanger).33

4.2 Working principle..............................................................................................................33

4.2.1 Proposed layout.........................................................................................................34

4.2.2 Advantages................................................................................................................34

4.2.3 Disadvantages............................................................................................................34

Design Option 3 Shell and tube heat exchanger.....................................................35

4.3 Working principle..............................................................................................................35

4.3.1 Proposed layout.........................................................................................................36

4.3.2 Advantages................................................................................................................36

4.3.3 Disadvantages............................................................................................................36

4.4 Selection of optimal solution.............................................................................................37

Chapter 5 Development of the Optimum Solution.....................................................................39

5.1 Concept description...........................................................................................................39

5.2 Developed model...............................................................................................................39

5.3 Thermal Electric Coolers (TEC)........................................................................................40

5.4 Cooling Body.....................................................................................................................41

 5.5 Heat sink Fan.....................................................................................................................42

5.6 Heat Sink design................................................................................................................42

5.7 Time required for cooling 15 litres for maximum temperature difference........................45

5.7.1 Radiative heat transfer hRAD....................................................................................46

5.8 Electrical design for temperature correction......................................................................48

5.8.1 Summary of the Components Required.....................................................................49

5.8.2 Arduino UNO............................................................................................................49

5.8.3 IC LM35 Temperature Sensor...................................................................................50

5.8.4 LCD (Liquid Crystal Display....................................................................................51

5.8.5 Relay Switch..............................................................................................................51

5.8.6 Design Implementation..............................................................................................53

Chapter 6 Result and Discussion................................................................................................54

6.1 Heat sink design testing.....................................................................................................54

6.1.1 Varying Fin Length....................................................................................................54

6.1.2 Varying Fin Height....................................................................................................56

6.1.3 Varying Fin Thickness...............................................................................................58

6.1.4 Varying Heat Transfer Coefficient............................................................................59

Chapter 7 Conclusion.................................................................................................................62

APPENDIX A SOFTWARE DESIGN...............................................................63

Appendix A1 Function code...........................................................................63

Appendix A2 Circuit diagram.........................................................................65

APPENDIX B Total Cost...................................................................................65

APPENDIX C Engineering Drawings................................................................66

List of Tables
Table 4-3.6-1 1 Double Pipe Heat Exchanger Parts List...............................................................31
Table 4.1-1Finned Heat Exchanger Parts List...............................................................................33
Table 4.4-1 Binary Dominance Matrix..........................................................................................37
Table 4.4-2 The Design Solution Scoring.....................................................................................38
Table 6.1-1 Cost of electrical components....................................................................................65
Table 6.1-2 Cost of Mechanical Components...............................................................................66
Table 6.1-3 Grand total Cost.........................................................................................................66
Table of figures
Figure 1.5.1-1 The Osborne Reynolds Apparatus At the University of Zimbabwe......................12
Figure 1.5.1-2 Thermal conductivity apparatus currently being used for temperature adjustment
purposes.........................................................................................................................................13
Figure 2.1.1-1 Parallel flow heat exchange working principle (Glacial Tech, 2020)...................15
Figure 2.1.2-1 counter flow working principle (Glacial Tech, 2020)...........................................15
Figure 2.1.2-2 one-shell, two pass tube heat exchanger (BrainKart, 2020)..................................16
Figure 2.1.2-3 'Two-shell-pass, four-tube-pass' exchanger...........................................................16
Figure 2.1.3-1 Cross flow working principle (BrainKart, 2020)...................................................16
Figure 2.1.5-1 Compact heat exchangers: flat tubes, continuous plate fins and plate fin (single
pass) (Researcgate, 2020)..............................................................................................................17
Figure 2.6.1-1 Air cooled heat exchanger (Anon, 2010)...............................................................22
Figure 2.6.2-1 Modernized liquid cooling system (BV Thermal Systems, 2016).........................23
Figure 2.7.1-1 Slag Wool (Kramer, 2020).....................................................................................24
Figure 2.7.1-2 Construction on chilled water pipe (Kramer, 2020)..............................................24
Figure 2.7.1-3 Cellular(nitrile rubber) insulation sheets...............................................................24
Figure 2.8.1-1Peltier element schematic. Thermoelectric legs are thermally in parallel and
electrically in series.......................................................................................................................26
Figure 2.8.1-1 Time Response Curve............................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 2.8.1-1 Arduino Control section code................................................................................29
Figure 2.8.1-2 Designing temperature regulator using Autodesk inventor 2017..........................29
Figure 2.8.1-3 Simulation Analysis in Ansys18............................................................................30
Figure 4.1.3-1 Proposed construction layout.................................................................................32
Figure 4.1.3-2 Air cooled fin type heat exchanger........................................................................33
Figure 4.1.3-3 Detailed view of the finned heat exchanger...........................................................33
Figure 4.2.1-1 Proposed construction layout.................................................................................34
Figure 4.2.3-1 Shell and tube heat exchanger with Baffles...........................................................35
Figure 4.2.3-2 Shell and Tube heat exchanger..............................................................................35
Figure 4.3.1-1 Proposed Construction Layout...............................................................................36
Figure 4.3.3-1 Developed Model of the temperature regulation for the Osbourne Reynolds setup
.......................................................................................................................................................39
Figure 4.3.3-1 Placement of Thermal Electric Coolers.................................................................41
Figure 4.3.3-2 The cooling body...................................................................................................42
Figure 4.3.3-1 Selected Heat Sink.................................................................................................43
Figure 4.3.3-2 Temperature Distribution In a Single Fin..............................................................44
Figure 5.8.3-1 Temperature sensor................................................................................................50
Figure 5.8.4-1 LCD Crystal display..............................................................................................51
Figure 5.8.5-1 Relay switch...........................................................................................................52
Figure 5.8.5-2 Process flow...........................................................................................................52
Figure 6.1.1-1 Temperature Distribution in Fin for Varying L.....................................................55
Figure 6.1.1-2 Q vs Fin Length.....................................................................................................55
Figure 6.1.2-1 Temperature Distribution in Fin Varying length...................................................56
Figure 6.1.2-2 Fin Height effect on the heat transfer in a fin........................................................57
Figure 6.1.3-1 Temperature in fin for varying fin thickness.........................................................58
Figure 6.1.3-2 Heat Transfer due to convection for varying fin thickness....................................59
Figure 6.1.4-1 Heat Transfer coefficient effect on the temperature distribution in a fin..............60
Figure 6.1.4-2 Heat transfer coefficient on the heat transfer rate..................................................61
Figure 6.1.4-1 Circuit diagram......................................................................................................65
 Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 General Introduction
According to Course-hero (2019) Osbourne Reynolds experiment is used to investigate the
characteristic of the flow of the liquid in the pipe which is also used to determine the Reynolds
Number for each state of the flow. The design of the apparatus allowed studying the characteristic
of the flow of the fluid in the pipe, the behavior of the flow and also to calculate the range for the
laminar and turbulent flow where the calculation is used to prove the Reynolds number is
dimensionless by using the Reynolds Number formula.

The experiment is conducted mainly to study the criterion of laminar, transition and turbulent flow.
In fluid mechanics, internal flow is defined as a flow for which the fluid is confined by a surface.
The flow may be laminar or turbulent[ CITATION Mil16 \l 2057 ]. Osborne Reynolds Apparatus
consists of water resource for the system supply, fix-head water input to big and small transparent
pipes, dye input by injection unit, and water output unit to determine water flow rate. The laminar,
transition and turbulent flows can be obtained by varying the water flow rate using the water outlet
control valve. Water flow rate and hence the flow velocity is measured by the volumetric
measuring tank. The supply tank consists of glass beads to reduce flow disturbances. Flow patterns
are visualized using dye injection through a needle valve. The dye injection rate can be controlled
and adjusted to improve the quality of flow patterns[ CITATION For01 \l 2057 ].

The apparatus also consists of a separate temperature regulating free standing unit. It connects to
the water supply line to the water, varying its temperature and viscosity. Controls on the module
vary the electrical input and the flow rate, to give steady conditions over a range. The most
commonly used heating system consists of the heated system that contains the heating plant and
the control unit[ CITATION Mil16 \l 1033 ]. It forms the thermal system. If the control unit is
working automatically, we can speak about an automatically controlled thermal system.

These systems can have various configuration and structures. System configurations can include an
electric, hydraulic, hot air and/or similar system. The heating plant and its power consumption
depend on the size of the heated system, on its inner temperature and on the outer temperature. The
energy source is usually a burner (natural gas, oil, coal.) or an electric heater (heating resistor, arc
furnace, Peltier cell.)[ CITATION Gla20 \l 2057 ]
1.2 Background
The Osborne Reynolds Apparatus was brought to the University of Zimbabwe Mechanical
engineering lab so as to allow students to conduct experiments on fluid flow concepts that is how
each fluid behaves under different conditions[ CITATION GAN96 \l 2057 ]. The equipment
includes a vertical head tank that provides a constant head of water through a bell mouth entry to
the flow visualization glass pipe. Stilling media (marbles) are placed inside the tank to
tranquilize the flow of water entering the pipe. The discharge through this pipe is regulated by a
control valve and can be measured using a measuring cylinder. The flow velocity, therefore, can
be determined to calculate Reynolds number. A dye reservoir is mounted on top of the head tank,
from which a blue dye can be injected into the water to enable observation of flow conditions. In
this experiment, the dye injected into a laminar flow will form a clear well-defined line.

Figure 1.2- 1 The Osborne Reynolds Apparatus At the University of Zimbabwe

It will mix with the water only minimally, due to molecular diffusion. When the flow in the pipe
is turbulent, the dye will rapidly mix with the water, due to the substantial lateral movement and
energy exchange in the flow. There is also a transitional stage between laminar and turbulent
flows, in which the dye stream will wander about and show intermittent bursts of mixing,
followed by a more laminar behavior. Temperatures is continuously varied throughout the whole
process.

For temperature regulating purposes the thermal conductivity apparatus is sometimes used which
relies upon the basis of thermal conductivity of a metal to vary the temperature of the water until
the required value is reached[ CITATION Las01 \l 2057 ].

Figure 1.2- 2 Thermal conductivity apparatus currently being

used for temperature adjustment purposes
In most cases usually the technicians have
been relying upon taped water (at room temperature) for demonstration purposes. Usually the
experiment requires temperatures on a scale of 10-100. Hence when the required value will then
be manually to let the water out into experiment set up. However, this has not been effective
since the process takes to time to adjust the temperature of the water to the required value. This
has resulted in the need of an effective and efficient way of varying the temperature so that the
experiment can be carried out[ CITATION Cou19 \l 2057 ].

1.3 Case study: University of Zimbabwe

The Osborne Reynolds experiment has largely benefitted the students at the University of
Zimbabwe, by strengthening their basic knowledge of thermodynamics. Practically, students
have been able to simulate their projects prior to fabricating. The current obsolete equipment
being attached to the setup has made it difficult to carry out the experiment in an effective way.
Through the appreciation of basic refrigeration principles, the researcher was able to device a
mechanically operated unit to rapidly adjust the water to any desired temperature value.
1.4 Problem statement
Currently the thermal conductivity apparatus used for adjusting the temperature to a particular
value takes time to reach the required value and also the effect of ambient temperature impacting
the experiment (due to manual operation and absence of lagging). Hence the experiment results
are compromised.

1.5 Justification
1.5.1 Eliminating effects of ambient temperature
The operation of the experiment has to be separated from the outside environment. For an
individual to have a correct sets of results, temperature for that particular test has to be kept
constant. Hence one can conclude how each fluid behaves or deduce the characteristics of fluid
at that particular instance.

1.5.2 Time
Currently the university relies upon one set of apparatus. However huge numbers of students are
limited to getting the basic knowledge of the experiment since much time is taken to adjust one
set of temperature value. Consequently, boredom and lack of focus largely on their part is
impacted hence the need of a temperature regulating section that fast and reliable.

1.6 Aim
 To design a mechanically operated temperature regulating unit for the Osbourne
Reynolds experiment set up.

1.7 Objectives
 To adjust the temperature of water ( 15 Litres ) to any value within a short space of time on
a temperature scale of 0−100 ℃
 To automatically pump the temperature adjusted water to the experiment set up.
 To install an effective insulating system around the apparatus.
 Chapter 2 Literature Review
The design of the temperature regulating unit for the Osborne Reynolds is mainly centered on
refrigeration principles and heat exchange mechanisms.

2.1 Classification of Heat Exchangers

Heat exchangers are generally classified according to the relative directions of hot and cold
fluids.

2.1.1 Parallel Flow

The hot and cold fluids flow in the same direction. Figure 2.1-1depicts such a heat exchanger
where one fluid (say hot) flows through the pipe and the other fluid (cold) flows through the
annulus.

Figure 2.1-3 Parallel flow heat exchange working principle[ CITATION Gla20 \l 2057 ]

2.1.2 Counter Flow

The two fluids flow through the pipe but in opposite directions. A common type of such a heat
exchanger is shown in figure 2.1-2 below. By comparing the temperature distribution of the two
types of heat exchanger

Figure 2.1-4 counter flow working principle[ CITATION

Gla20 \l 2057 ]
When the two fluids flow through the heat exchanger only once, it is called one-shell-pass and
one-tube-pass. If the fluid flowing through the tube makes one pass through half of the tube,
reverses its direction of flow, and makes a second pass through the remaining half of the tube, it
is called 'one-shell-pass, two-tube-pass' heat exchanger (figure 2.1-4).

2.1.3

Figure 2.1-5 'Two-shell-pass, four-tube-pass' exchanger. Figure 2.1-6 one-shell, two pass tube heat exchanger[ CITATION
Bra20 \l 2057 ]

Cross flow
A cross-flow heat exchanger has the two fluid streams flowing at right angles to each other.
Figure 2.1-5 illustrates such an arrangement an automobile radiator is a good example of cross-
flow exchanger. These exchangers are 'mixed' or 'unmixed' depending upon the mixing or not
mixing of either fluid in the direction transverse to the direction of the flow stream and the
analysis of this type of heat exchanger is extremely complex because of the variation in the
temperature of the fluid in and normal to the direction of flow

Figure 2.1- 7 Cross flow working principle[ CITATION Bra20 \l 2057 ]

2.1.4 Condenser and Evaporator
In a condenser, the condensing fluid temperature remains almost constant throughout the
exchanger and temperature of the colder fluid gradually increases from the inlet to the exit. In an
evaporator, the temperature of the hot fluid gradually decreases from the inlet to the outlet
whereas the temperature of the colder fluid remains the same during the evaporation process.
Since the temperature of one of the fluids can be treated as constant, it is immaterial whether the
exchanger is parallel flow or counter flow[ CITATION Bra20 \l 2057 ].

2.1.5 Compact heat exchanges

These devices have close arrays of finned tubes or plates and are typically used when at least one
of the fluids is a gas. The tubes are either flat or circular as shown in the figure 2.1-6 and the fins
may be flat or circular. Such heat exchangers are used to achieve a very large 700 m2 /mJ heat
transfer surface area per unit volume. Flow passages are typically small and the flow is usually
laminar[ CITATION Kup02 \l 2057 ].

Figure 2.1- 8 Compact heat exchangers: flat tubes, continuous plate fins and plate fin (single pass)[ CITATION Res20 \l 2057 ]

2.2 Increasing heating exchanger performance

A logical analysis to increase the heat exchanger performance is given by the series of steps
namely, the first step considers if the exchanger is initially operating correctly. The second step
considers increasing pressure drop if available in exchangers with single-phase heat transfer.
Increased velocity results in higher heat transfer coefficients, which may be sufficient to improve
performance. Next, a critical evaluation of the estimated fouling factors should be considered.
Heat exchanger performance can be increased with periodic cleaning and less conservative
fouling factors. Finally, for certain conditions, it may be feasible to consider enhanced heat
transfer through the use of finned tubes, inserts, twisted tubes, or modified baffles[ CITATION
Kra20 \l 2057 ].

2.2.1 Enhanced surfaces

Heat exchanger enhancement can be divided into both passive and active methods. Passive
methods include extended surfaces, inserts, coiled or twisted tubes, surface treatments, and
additives. Active techniques include surface vibration, electrostatic fields, injection, and suction.
Figure below shows several different schematics of enhancements to heat exchanger tubes
including finning, inserts, and twisting[CITATION MLu98 \l 2057 ].

2.2.2 Finning
Tubes can be finned on both the interior and exterior. This is probably the oldest form of heat
transfer enhancement. Finning is usually desirable when the fluid has a relatively low heat
transfer film coefficient as does a gas. The fin not only increases the film coefficient with added
turbulence but also increases the heat transfer surface area. This added performance results in
higher pressure drop. However, as with any additional surface area, the fin area must be adjusted
by efficiency. This fin efficiency leads to an optimum fin height with respect to heat
transfer[CITATION GAN96 \l 2057 ].

2.2.3 Tube Inserts

Inserts, tabulators, or static mixers are inserted into the tube to promote turbulence. These
devices are most effective with high viscosity fluids in a laminar flow regime. Increases in the
heat transfer film coefficients can be as high as five times. Inserts are used most often with liquid
heat transfer and to promote boiling. Inserts are not usually effective for condensing in the tube
and almost always increase pressure drop. Because of the complex relationships between the
geometry of the insert and the resulting increase in heat transfer and pressure drop, there are no
general correlations to predict enhancements. However, through the modification of the number
of passes, a resulting heat transfer coefficient gain can be achieved at lower pressure drop in
some situations[CITATION POL11 \l 2057 ].

2.2.4 Tube Deformation

Recently, researchers describe some of the benefits of a new twisted tube technology including
the fact that tube vibration can be minimized. Furthermore, the researcher describes how baffles
may be eliminated completely. Similar to the tube inserts, these twisted tubes promote turbulence
and enhance boiling. Unfortunately, no quantitative results are provided to show the increase in
film coefficients for both the shell and tube fluids[CITATION SHI11 \l 2057 ].

2.2.5 Baffles
Baffles are designed to direct the shell side fluid across the tube bundle as efficiently as possible.
Forcing the fluid across the tube bundle ultimately results in a pressure loss. The most common
type of baffle is the single segmental or cut segmental baffle shown in figure 3 which changes
the direction of the shell side fluid to achieve cross flow. Deficiencies of the segmented baffle
include the potential for dead spots in the exchanger and excessive tube vibration. Baffle
enhancements have attempted to alleviate the problems associated with leakage and dead areas in
the conventional segmental baffles.

The baffles may result in shell reductions of approximately 10-20%. Comparison of exchanger,
with and without baffles, shows that baffles have the vital role in heat transfer rate. The results
also show that the effect of changing the number of baffles is more important than varying the
height of baffles for heat transfer rate inside the shell. Increasing Reynolds number in shell-side
causes the increase of heat transfer rate. Reynolds number can be increased by adding the
number of baffles more easily and with less cost as compared to increasing the inlet velocity of
the fluid [ CITATION Van16 \l 2057 ].

2.2.6 Enhancement of fouling

The performance of heat exchanger usually deteriorates with time as a result of accumulation of
deposits on heat transfer surface. The layer of deposits represents additional resistance to heat
transfer and causes the rate of a heat transfer in a heat exchanger to decrease. The net effect of
this accumulation on a heat transfer by a fouling factor Rf, which is a measure of the thermal
resistance introduced by fouling. The most common type of a fouling is precipitation of solid
deposits in a liquid on the heat transfer surface. The scale of such deposits comes off by
scratching and the surfaces can be cleaned of such deposits by chemical treatment[CITATION
MUK96 \l 2057 ].

2.3 Augmentation
Whenever inserts technologies are used for the heat transfer enhancement, along with the
improvement in the heat transfer rate, the pressure drop also increases, which induces the higher
pumping cost. Therefore, any augmentation device or methods utilized into the heat exchanger
should be optimized between the benefits of heat transfer coefficient and the higher pumping
cost owing to the increased frictional losses. The objective of the heat transfer augmentation can
be achieved by increasing the surface heat surface coefficient through improving the thermal
contact of the heat exchanger fluid with the wall. In general, heat transfer augmentation methods
are classified into three broad categories[ CITATION Kup02 \l 2057 ]:

i. Passive method: These techniques generally use surface or geometrical modifications to

the flow channel by incorporating inserts or additional devices. They promote higher heat
transfer coefficients by disturbing or altering the existing flow behavior (except for
extended surfaces) which also leads to increase in the pressure drop. These techniques do
not require any direct input of external power; rather they use it from the system itself
which ultimately leads to an increase in fluid pressure drop.
ii. Active method: These techniques are more complex from the use and design point of
view as the method requires some external power input to cause the desired flow
modification and improvement in the rate of heat transfer. It finds limited application
because of the need of external power in many practical applications.
iii. Compound method: A compound augmentation technique is the one where more than
one of the above mentioned techniques is used in combination with the purpose of further
improving the thermo-hydraulic performance of a heat exchanger. When any two or more
of these techniques are employed simultaneously to obtain enhancement in heat transfer
that is greater than that produced by either of them when used individually, is termed as
compound enhancement. This technique involves complex design and hence has limited
applications [ CITATION May12 \l 2057 ].

2.4 Enhancement using Nano-fluids

The higher heat transfer by Nano fluids arises from: the ability of suspended nanoparticles
enhancing thermal conductivity. The higher volume concentration of nanoparticles would
increase thermal conductivity and contact surface, thus increasing heat transfer rate[ CITATION
Saj11 \l 2057 ].
2.5 Design theory of heat exchangers
2.5.1 The Heat Exchanger Design Equation
Heat exchanger theory leads to the basic heat exchanger design equation:

Q=UA ∆T lm

Q is the rate of heat transfer between the two fluids in the heat exchange

A is the heat transfer surface area

and ∆ T lm is the log mean temperature difference calculated from the inlet and outlet
temperatures of both fluids.

2.5.2 Heat Transfer Rate, Q

Heat exchanger calculations with the heat exchanger design equation require a value for the heat
transfer rate, Q, which can be calculated from the known flow rate of one of the fluids, its heat
capacity, and the required temperature change. Following is the equation to be used:

Q=m H C pH ( T Hin −T Hout ) =m c C pC ( T Cout −T Cin )

Where

mH =mass flow rate of hot fluid

C pH =heat capacity of the hot fluid

mc =mass flow rate of cold fluid , slugs

C pC =heat capacity of the cold fluid

The required heat transfer rate can be determined from known flow rate, heat capacity and
temperature change for either the hot fluid or the cold fluid. Then either the flow rate of the other
fluid for a specified temperature change, or the outlet temperature for known flow rate and inlet

temperature can be calculated[ CITATION Kak02 \l 2057 ].

2.5.3 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient, U

The overall heat transfer coefficient, U, depends on the conductivity through the heat transfer
wall separating the two fluids, and the convection coefficients on both sides of the heat transfer
wall. For a shell and tube heat exchanger, for example, there would be an inside convective
coefficient for the tube side fluid and an outside convective coefficient for the shell side fluid.
The heat transfer coefficient for a given heat exchanger is often determined empirically by
measuring all of the other parameters in the basic heat exchanger equation and calculating
U[ CITATION Kup02 \l 2057 ].

2.6 Types of methods used in cooling

 Air cooled
 Liquid cooled

2.6.1 Air cooled exchangers

Air cooled heat exchangers, also known as fin fan heat Fin Fan heat exchangers, are typically
used in applications where water is not available or the desired process outlet temperature can be
achieved give the maximum ambient temperatures. Also air cooled equipment can be a simpler
solution against water cooled because in water cooled systems there is also need for more pumps,
piping, central chiller or cooling towers increasing the operating cost and maintenance of the
system.

Air cooled heat exchangers are used in a wide variety of applications. Common air to liquid to
liquid applications include but are not limited to lube oil coolers, water and glycol coolers, jacket
water coolers, engine radiators, hydraulic oil coolers (both stationary and mobile), and closed-
loop cooling systems. Common air to air or air to gas applications include but are not limited to
inter/after coolers on compressors, belt guard after-coolers blower coolers, biogas cooling,
landfill gas cooling, soil vapour. A schematic view of exchanger is depicted in figure 2.6-1
below.
 Figure 2.6-9 Air cooled heat exchanger[ CITATION Ano10 \l 2057 ]

2.6.2 Liquid cooled exchangers

The Liquid Heat Exchanger is designed for highly efficient heat transfer by providing closed
loop circulation of temperature controlled coolant.  Controlled temperature coolant is circulated
from an enclosed reservoir by a high reliability pump.  The heavy duty design makes it ideal for
demanding commercial and industrial applications where high performance and low maintenance
are important The Liquid Heat Exchanger removes heat from the circulating coolant (via a water
to water heat exchanger) and transfers the heat to either tap or facilities water.   The actual
temperature of the circulating coolant is controlled by a temperature controller and solenoid
valve.  Due to varying water supplies, a gate valve is also used to regulate flow/pressure of the
facility or house water supply[ CITATION BVT16 \l 2057 ].

Figure 2.6-10 Modernized liquid cooling system[ CITATION BVT16 \l 2057 ]

2.7 Eliminating effects of ambient temperature

The Osbourne Reynolds experiment requires maintaining certain temperatures values. This helps
in determining the correct behavior of fluid under study. Certain materials have been employed
in industry to determine the correct way of lagging pipes especially in chilled water supply
system. Insulation materials are generally divided into three main types:
2.7.1 Fibrous Insulation
It is composed of small diameter fibers which finely divide the air space. The fibers may be
perpendicular or parallel to the surface being insulated, and they may or may not be bonded
together. Silica, rock wool, slag wool and alumina silica fibers are used. The most widely used
insulations of this type are glass fiber and mineral wool. Glass fiber and mineral wool products
usually have their fibers bonded together with organic binders that supply the limited structural
integrity of the products.

1.1.1.1

Figure 2.7-12 Slag Wool[ CITATION Kra20 \l 2057 ] Figure 2.7-11 Construction on chilled water pipe[ CITATION
Kra20 \l 2057 ]
Granular Insulation

It is composed of small nodules which may contain voids or hollow spaces. It is not considered a
true cellular material since gas can be transferred between the individual spaces. This type may
be produced as a loose or pourable material, or combined with a binder and fibers or undergo a
chemical reaction to make a rigid insulation. Examples of these insulations are calcium silicate
and vermiculite.

1.1.1.2 Cellular Insulation

It is composed of small individual cells separated from each other. The cellular material may be
glass or foamed plastic such as cellular glass, phenolic foam or nitrile rubber.

Figure 2.7-13 Cellular(nitrile rubber) insulation sheets

2.8 Thermo electric cooling
Thermoelectric cooling uses the Peltier effect to create a heat flux at the junction of two different
types of materials. A Peltier cooler, heater, or thermoelectric heat pump is a solid-state active
heat pump which transfers heat from one side of the device to the other, with consumption of
electrical energy, depending on the direction of the current. Such an instrument is also called a
Peltier device, Peltier heat pump, solid state refrigerator, or thermoelectric cooler (TEC). It can
be used either for heating or for cooling[ CITATION Tay07 \l 2057 ], although in practice the
main application is cooling. It can also be used as a temperature controller that either heats or
cools.

This technology is far less commonly applied to refrigeration than vapor-compression

refrigeration is. The primary advantages of a Peltier cooler compared to a vapor-compression
refrigerator are its lack of moving parts or circulating liquid, very long life, invulnerability to
leaks, small size, and flexible shape. Its main disadvantages are high cost for a given cooling
capacity and poor power efficiency. Many researchers and companies are trying to develop
Peltier coolers that are cheap and efficient.

A Peltier cooler can also be used as a thermoelectric generator. When operated as a cooler, a
voltage is applied across the device, and as a result, a difference in temperature will build up
between the two sides. When operated as a generator, one side of the device is heated to a
temperature greater than the other side, and as a result, a difference in voltage will build up
between the two sides. However, a well-designed Peltier cooler will be a mediocre
thermoelectric generator and vice versa, due to different design and packaging requirements.

2.8.1 Operating principle

Thermoelectric coolers operate by the Peltier effect (which also goes by the more general name
thermoelectric effect). The device has two sides, and when a DC electric current flows through
the device, it brings heat from one side to the other, so that one side gets cooler while the other
gets hotter. The "hot" side is attached to a heat sink so that it remains at ambient temperature,
while the cool side goes below room temperature. In special applications, multiple coolers can be
cascaded together for lower temperature, but overall efficiency drops significantly.
Figure 2.8-14Peltier element schematic. Thermoelectric legs are thermally in parallel and electrically in series
 Chapter 3 Methodology
3.1 Literature Review
Following the in-depth study and analysis of literature in-line with the structure, operation and
maintenance a temperature regulating unit made in chapter 2 the researcher endeavored into
physical data collection, assessment and analysis.

3.2 Data Collection

The design process was supplemented by a data collection method that efficiently and accurately
gathered the required information. Operational data was largely sought from the technicians at
the Mechanical Engineering Laboratory at University of Zimbabwe. The researcher learned
operational basics of the oldest equipment employed by the university which was currently used
temperature regulation process. The study on these models allowed the researcher to note down
the time frame for regulating any amount of water under test. These will then be computed for
future design purposes. Experimental data sheets for the Osborne Reynolds were revised to
denote the temperature values for carrying out the experiment. Use of direct observation was
made in the collection of necessary parameters such as the cooling gradient, voltage and current
requirements of the regulating process and the response time. Equipment used in the observation
included a digital multi-meter, thermometer and stopwatch. All data was stored in a research file
on a computer and backed on the internet.

3.3 Data analysis

The collected data was analysed using various methods such as such as excel charts (line graphs,
bar graphs and histograms were used to analyse the sequences and patterns of the cooling
process for different volumes of water. Here the temperature to time graph for the liquid under
test showed how fast the chosen cooling mechanism adjusted the temperature. Shown on the
following figure 3.3-1is the Excel analysis catalogue.
 Figure 3.3- 15 Time Response Curve

3.4 Development of possible solutions

The possible solutions were developed in line with the results obtained from data analysis. As
thoroughly explained in the upcoming chapter, each solution will be designed to be meet all
requirements of design objectives by addressing the problem pointed out in the problem
statement and those found in the collected data. The researcher came up with three solutions.

3.5 Selection of optimal solution

The Binary Dominance Matrix method will be used to determine the weight of the stove
comparison aspects. These aspects include efficiency, quality, function ability, maintainability
and cost. The solutions were given a percentage score under each category and the total was
averaged. At the end the solution with the greatest score was selected as the final design.
3.6 Design and Modelling
The Arduino Uno microchip was used in conjunction with sensors to printout temperature and
time data on the screen for analysis. On this catalogue, the Arduino code to run the test and

Figure 3.6-16 Arduino Control section code

control programs for the design was created. The code was based on the C++ computer language
under which the control and command instruction were created. The figure 3.6-1 below shows
the Arduino Catalogue Box.

Autodesk Inventor 2017 was used appropriate design dimensions.

 Figure 3.6-17 Designing temperature regulator using Autodesk inventor 2017

Thermal simulations were performed using the ANSYS platform to determine the functionality
and best performance for various condition. Figure below 3.6-3 depicts the simulation analysis of
a shell and tube exchanger

Figure 3.6-18 Simulation Analysis in Ansys18

 Chapter 4 Concept Generation
Design Option 1 Double pipe heat exchanger

Figure 3.6-19 Double pipe heat exchanger

4.1
Part Description

1 Cap

2 Reducer Tee

3 Inner tube

4 Outer tube

5 Reducer Tee

6 Cap

Figure 3.6-20 Detailed view Table 4- 3.6- 1 1 Double Pipe Heat Exchanger Parts List

Working principle
A double pipe heat exchanger (also sometimes referred to as pipe in exchanger) was chosen as
the first design option for the cooling mechanism of the temperature regulating unit for the
Osbourne Reynolds set up. As shown in the figure 4.1.1.1-1 above, the exchanger comprises of a
tube in tube out structure i.e., it consists of two pipes, one within the other. One fluid flows
through the inner pipe (analogous to the tube side in a shell and tube type exchanger whilst the
other flows through the outer pipe, which surrounds the inner pipe.
4.1.1 Advantages
 Double pipe heat exchangers are cheap for both design and maintenance, making them a
good choice for small scaled operations in this case the Osborne Reynolds.

4.1.2 Disadvantages
 low efficiency.
 The fluid has to be passed into the double pipe heat exchanger several times for
temperature adjustment, hence time consuming

4.1.3 Proposed layout

Figure 4.1-21 Proposed construction layout

Design Option 2 Plate Heat exchangers (Air cooled finned type heat exchanger)
 Figure 4.1-22 Air cooled fin type heat exchanger

Part Description

1 Casing

2 Tubes

3 Fan Mount

4 Blades

Table 4.1-2Finned Heat Exchanger Parts List

Figure 4.1- 23 Detailed view of the finned heat exchanger

4.2 Working principle

The second design option comprises the usage of an air cooled finned type heat exchanger for the
temperature regulator. As shown from figure 4.1-3 detailed view, the exchanger is comprised of
body with finned sides, cooper tubes arranged in turns and passes manner and a draft fan on the
outward. Hot process fluid enters into the exchanger through the inlet and flows through the
copper tubes, while ambient air flows through tubes. The ambient is allowed to flow through the
presence of fins surrounding the cooler body. The process heat is transferred to the air, which
cools the process fluid, and the heated air is discharged into the atmosphere(surroundings). The
transfer process is accelerated by making use of a forced draft fan mechanism located at the back
of the exchanger to increase the rate of flow of ambient air over the tubes with the process fluid.
4.2.1 Proposed layout

Figure 4.2- 24 Proposed construction layout

4.2.2 Advantages
 This method of cooling employs the cheapest means of cooling that is the surrounding
ambient air.
 Plate heat exchangers weigh less, require less, require less space and are more efficient
compared to other heat exchangers of the same size.
 Replacing and cleaning the plates is a simple task because the plate stack can be opened
easily.
 Maintenance is easy and can be easily cleaned.

4.2.3 Disadvantages
 Bonding material between the plates limits operating temperatures of the cooler.
Design Option 3 Shell and tube heat exchanger

Figure 4.2- 26 Shell and Tube heat exchanger

4.3 Working principle

This type
of
Figure 4.2- 25 Shell and tube heat exchanger with Baffles

exchanger consists of a shell (a pressure vessel) with a bundle of tubes inside it. One fluid runs
through the tubes, whilst another fluid flows over the tubes that is being guided by baffles (half
semi-circles shown in figure 4.2-2 to transfer heat between the two fluids. The set of baffles
enclosing the tube bundles as shown in figure 4.2-2 directs the fluid flowing in inlet one thus
exchanging heat between the two mediums
4.3.1 Proposed layout

Figure 4.3-27 Proposed Construction Layout

4.3.2 Advantages
 The fluid under test doesn’t necessarily require more passes for temperature adjustments
due to enhanced large surface area for heat exchange to take place
 Capable of providing a larger surface area for transfer to take place whilst having a
shorter length overall due to presence of multiple tubes
 It is easy to find and isolate leaking tubes
 Tubes can be double walled to reduce the likelihood of the shell fluid leaking into the
tube side fluid (vice versa)
 Relatively simple design and easy to maintain.

4.3.3 Disadvantages
 Less efficient as compared than plate heat exchangers
 Require more space to open and remove tubes
 Cooling capacity cannot be increased, but a plate exchange’s can be.
4.4 Selection of optimal solution.
The proposed three solutions meet the research objective in one way or another to reasonable
extents. However, among them, is one solution that will satisfy the objectives in the best way.
Selection of the optimal solution will be made basing on the following aspects of the design:

 Functionality
 Temperature adjustment response rate
 Cost
 Maintainability
 Efficiency
 Quality

These have been specifically selected in line with the design objectives set in Chapter one of the
research. However, the aspects do not carry the same weight as to the contribution of design
selection. The binary dominance matrix method of weighting will be used to allocate the
appropriate weight for each aspect.

Functionality Response Cost Maintainability Efficiency

Rate

Functionality 0 0 0 0

Temperature 1 0 0 1
Adjustment
Response Rate
Cost 1 1 0 1

Maintainability 1 1 1 1

Efficiency 1 0 0 0
Table 4.4- 3 Binary Dominance Matrix

The following equation will be used to determine the weight of each aspect.

number ofones
weight= *100
total aspect

Weight for functionality = 80

Weight for Temperature Adjustment Response Rate = 40

Weight for Cost = 20

Weight for Maintainability = 10

Weight for Efficiency = 60

With the selection aspects in place, each design solution is then rated basing on how it meets the
objective aspects put forward. The following table shows the scoring of each design

Concepts
Functionality Response Rate Cost Maintainability Total
/80 /40 /20 /10 /60
Double Pipe 40 20 15 8 83
Heat
Exchanger
Shell and Tube 60 25 10 7 102
Heat Exchanger

(Air cooled ) 70 30 5 6 111

Finned Type Heat
Exchanger
Table 4.4- 4 The Design Solution Scoring

The selection table allocates each design with its total score. The (Air cooled) Finned type heat
exchanger has the highest scoring and is therefore the optimal solution found for the available
design objectives.
 Chapter 5 Development of the Optimum Solution
5.1 Concept description
The temperature regulation unit for the Osbourne Reynolds set up involves the cooling water
from the 100 degrees’ reference point to the required temperature value. The chosen concept
uses the conventional radiator system similar to the one used in engine cooling. Equidistant fins
located around the radiator body ensures heat is dissipated to the surrounding environment. The
body houses copper pipes which have turns for heat loss purposes. A 12v draft fan attached to
the body ensures that the velocity of air flow through the cooling pipes is increased for heat loss
purposes. The process is cheaper since it can be made from existing old radiator system and air
in this cases is the coolant. However, the concept needs some improvements as it is quite generic
and huge. More time will be required to reach the required temperature value. Hence the
significance of this chapter is to develop the concept and add some special features to make sure
time is reduced as outlined in the objectives.

5.2 Developed model

Figure 5.1-28 Developed Model of the temperature regulation for the Osbourne Reynolds setup

Figure 5.1-1 shows a temperature regulating system with the capability of cooling 15 litres of
water as required by the experiment. The model consists of a tank with heater element installed.
Water is tapped from supply into the tank where it is heated until it reaches the 100-degree
Celsius point which is the references point for the experiment. Water at 100 degrees is then piped
at varying flow rates into cooler body which has turns and passes. A passive heat exchanger
called a heat sink is placed on top of the cooler body for cooling purposes. A temperature sensor
placed inside the body denotes if the corrected temperature is reached and automatically opens
the electrical outlet valve (not shown in diagram). The water is then quickly pumped to the
experiment set up. The piping system will feature a vacuum sealed around the pipes to provide
very strong insulation.

The key features of this cooling model are listed below:

 Heat sink
 Thermal electric cooling module (Peltier module)
 Phase change material

Mounted on top of the cooler body are thermal electric coolers (TECs). A heat sink which is a
key aspect of the Peltier module, will be attached on top of each TECs to allow heat to be
continually drawn from the cooler and dissipated into the ambient room. In between the module
and heat sink is a Phase Change Material(PCM) or sometimes referred to as thermal paste
thermal paste. PCM has a very high latent heat of fusion which means its enthalpy changes easily
when subjected to a change in energy. For the application in this cooling system, it is beneficial
to use them since they help the TECs to cool the inside of the cooler body. As the module is
turned off and no longer supplied power, the layer of PCM will continue to keep the interior of
the cooler at a low temperature for a duration. The heat that is removed by the thermoelectric
coolers will then be dissipated by a heat sink located at the top of the cooler. A centrally located
fan will be located on the heat sink and force air through the heat sink to aid in the heat
dissipation. The key feature will be discussed more in detail in the design process.

5.3 Thermal Electric Coolers (TEC)

The design will in-cooperate 4 giant thermal heat sinks and 4 TECs to remove heat from the
cooler. The dimensions of the thermoelectric coolers that are chosen are 200mm x 200mm x 15
mm and remove about 120W from the cold side of the TEC and with a COP of about 0.5. 60 W
of heat is generated from the hot side. The design places each TECs between the layer of PCM
and the heat
sink. The idea of this design is that the thermoelectric coolers will remove heat from the inside of
the body of the cooler and be able to dissipate the heat to the heat sink. The thermoelectric
coolers are the white squares located at the top of the cooler box right below the heat sink. The
arrangement is clearly shown in the following figure.

Figure 5.3- 29 Placement of Thermal Electric Coolers

5.4 Cooling Body

Given the design objective is cooling the 15 litres of hot water, the volume of the experiment
water was the driving factor in the dimensioning of the cooler. The height of the inside of the
cooler needed to be at least as tall of 600mm was chosen. The pipe is turned into passes inside
the cooler for delaying the cooling process. The body of the cooler will be made of 304 stainless
steel and will be formed into a hollow chamber. Stainless steel will be chosen as the material due
to its high strength and toughness, its high corrosion resistance, its relatively low price, and its
ease of manufacturing. The figure 5.4-2 below where the TECs are placed and shape of hot
water pipe inside the cooling body.
 Figure 5.4- 30 The cooling body

5.5 Heat sink Fan

Given the overall initial design, it is better to use a centrally located fan which would be used for
the design. The fan must run from the input 12 V supply. The fan design was very important as it
also played a large part in the design of the heat sink. The velocity of the air flowing from the fan
affects the heat transfer coefficient which in turn affects the performance of the heat sink.
Because of this, it is desired the fan to pull up air out through the heat sink channels as fast as
possible. However, fans are not rated based on the velocity of the air they expel but rather by the
volumetric flow rate of the air they expel. For this reason, the geometry of the channels of the
heat sink were important to determining the fan that would be ideal for the design. It was
determined that any air velocity moving through the channels greater than 2 m/s would be too
loud. Air velocity traveling at 2 m/s creates 35 dB of noise which is too much. Therefore, the fan
was determined by finding the maximum amount of cfm that would not create an air velocity
over 2 m/s.

5.6 Heat Sink design

As stated above, using the known desired dimensions of the cooler, an initial heat sink was
designed. The design requires that four heat sinks will be placed on top of the cooler. Given that
a rectangular like array of fins would be used, with the length of each fin being near half of the
total length of the cooler itself, the length of a single fin was determined to be 85mm. Using
standard dimensions for typical heat sinks of this nature a fin thickness of 1 mm was chosen.
Considering the desired 120 fin heat sink as described previously, a fin height of 31.5 cm was
found to be appropriate for approximately dissipating the desired amount of heat. Once the initial
dimensions were set for a single fin, next, the heat transfer coefficient of the air flowing through
the channel was found.

Figure 5.6- 31 Selected Heat Sink

To begin, the velocity of the air moving through the channels was determined.

Q
v=
Cp ρ∆T

120
v= =20.748 CFM
kJ Kg
( 1
kgK)( )
× 1.225 3 ×(10 K )
m

Using this value and the known diameter of the rectangular channel that the air will be flowing
through it can be found that air moves through individual channel is 6.81 m/s. Using this value
and the Reynolds and Nusselt correlations the heat transfer coefficient was found as

W
h=
( 0.02624
mk ) 1
2
1
8
× 0.664 ×36909 × 0.707 =35.823Wm −2
K−1
0.085 m

With the dimensions of the fin and the heat transfer coefficient of the air flowing through the
channel and considering, it can be found that,

At =NA f + A b=0.00557 m2
A f =2 w Lc =0.00544 m 2

t
Lc =L+ =0.032 m
2

n f =tanh m Lc = ¿ =0.944 ¿
m Lc

hP
m=
√ k Ac
=13.305

P=2 w +2t=0.172m

θb =T b −T ∞=5 ℃

Using all of these values it is possible to find the temperature distribution throughout the fin.
Figure 5.6-2describes the temperature distribution from a fin. This temperature distribution is the
temperature of the fin at a given distance, x, from the base of the fin. This distribution helps to
display how well the heat is being dissipated by the fin. As shown, the temperature of the fin
drops as the point of interest is moved further away from the base of the fin.
 Figure 5.6-32 Temperature Distribution In a Single Fin

Using the data described in the figure above, the total rate of heat transfers due to convection,
can be found for this fin design. The total rate of heat transfer due to convection from one fin can
be found as 0.924 W. The number of fins required for the heat sink to dissipate the desired 120
W of heat can then be found by

120 W
number of fins needed =
qt

¿ 129.8 ≈ 130 fins per heat sink

It is found that this fin design would require 130 fins to dissipate the heat removed by the TECs
so this design must be altered.

5.7 Time required for cooling 15 litres for maximum temperature difference
In order to obtain a better understanding of the cooling process of the TEC, a thermal model is
useful to understand the many different thermal effects taking place on the Cooler. While the
TECs remove heat from the inside of the cooler to cool the beverages, there are other factors
acting against the TEC cooling to heat the interior of the cooler. The factors that will be
examined in this model are the cooling of the TECs, the heat transferring to the cooler from
conduction and radiation, the heat that is absorbed by the water due to its latent heat, and the
sensible heat causing transfer to the cooler. For the steady state process, the cooling, 𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔,
produced by the cooler is equal to the sum of the heat, 𝑄𝐻, transferred to the cooler through
conduction and radiation, is the heat, 𝑄𝐿𝐻, absorbed by the water due to its latent heat, and the
heat, Q s , l and Qs , m transferred to the cooler due to the sensible heat, which can be expressed as

Q LH +Q s ,l +Q s , m
Q cooling=Q H +
t

Where Q cooling is the heat transfer rate removed by the TECs;

Q H is the heat transfer rate transferred to the cooler through conduction and radiation;

Q LH is the heat transfer rate absorbed by the water due to its latent heat;

Q s , land Qs , mare the heat transfer rate transferred to the cooler due to the sensible heat

The energy equation was used to determine the amount of time required for the cooler to reach
the desired temperature. As done in the heat sink sizing, the value of the amount of heat removed
by the TECs was assumed. Therefore, it is assumed that the TECs remove heat at a rate of 120 W
or 120 J/s. This assumption provides a value of 120 W for Q cooling

The heat transfer rate to the cooler through conduction and radiation(Q¿¿ h)¿ can be expressed
as;

T h−T c
Q h=
RCOND , i+ R COND ,0 + R RAD

5.7.1 Radiative heat transfer h RAD

The emissivity of the stainless steel walls is assumed to be 0.1. Using the given values of the
Stefan-Boltzmann constant, T h∧T c, and the emissivity, the radiative heat transfer is found as

σ ( T h4 −T c 4 )
h RAD=
1 1
+
ε1 ε2

5.68 ×10−8 ¿ ¿
With the value of ℎ𝑅𝐴𝐷, using the surface area of the outer layer of the steel body and the
radiation thermal resistance can be found as

1
R RAD =
hRAD Ao

1
¿ =0.865 K W −1
(3.851)(0.3)

solutions must be found for the heat lost in conduction for the inner and outer layers of the cooler
walls. The conductive thermal resistances for the outer and inner walls can be found by

r2 0.1106
ln ln
r1 0.11 −1
RCOND , i= = =0.000167 K W
2 πLk 2 π × 0.32× 16.2

r2 0.0125
ln ln
r1 0.0119 −1
RCOND , 0= = =0.000167 K W
2 πLk 2 π ×0.32 ×16.2

With all three thermal resistances, it is possible Q h

T h−T c
Q h=
RCOND , i+ R COND ,0 + R RAD

100−12
Q H= =14.99
0.000167+0.0015+0.865

Next is to determine the heat absorbed by the phase change material during its phase change.
Q LH can be found by solving

Q LH =m Lf =1.307× 200000=261440 J

The value of the mass was found by using the geometry of the phase change material layer of the
cooler to determine the volume and multiplying it by the known value of the density of the phase
change material. The latent heat of fusion is a known value for the phase change material and is
the amount of heat consumed by the phase change material to complete a solid-liquid phase
change. The last values that need to be determined are the sensible heats caused by the steel
body and the contents of the cooler. For this the masses of both the steel body and the water that
is inside the cooler box must be found as well as determining the specific heat of both materials.
The solutions for both Q s , l and Q s , m=¿ can be found below

Qs , l=m C p ( T H −T C )=4.96 × 4180× ( 25−12 ) =270171.2 J

Q s , m=m C p ( T H −T C ) =2.096 ×500 ( 25−12 ) =13624 J

Hence the time taken to cool to the required temperature can then be determined

261440+270171.2+13624
120 W =14.99 W +
∆t

∆ t=150 seconds

It is important to note that 𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 is the heat that is being removed by the thermoelectric
coolers and that 𝑄𝐻 is the heat that is being added due to conduction and radiation from outside
the cooler. It is shown that because 𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 is so much larger, the cooler will have a net of
105.01 W being removed by the thermoelectric coolers. This shows that it would take
approximately ∆ t=150 seconds∨3 minutes

The amount of power that will be consumed by the thermoelectric coolers, can be found by

Q out =Q¿ +W

where Q out is the heat transfer rate removed by the thermoelectric coolers, W is the power
consumed by the thermoelectric cooler, and Q ¿ can be found by

Q ¿ =COP ×W =0.5 W

Q out =0.5W +W =1.5 W

Q out 120
W= = =80 W by each Peltier module
1.5 1.5

where COP is the coefficient of performance. As shown in the equations above the higher the
coefficient of performance is, the less power will be consumed by the thermoelectric coolers.
The power consumed by thermoelectric for each heat sink TEC can be found by

W =IV
where I is the current drawn and V is the input voltage

It is then possible to determine the current drawn by the thermoelectric coolers by using the
known

80
I= =6.667 A
12

5.8 Electrical design for temperature correction

This section describes the control mechanism regarding the temperature regulation inside the
cooler body to attain the actual temperature required. An advanced microcontroller called
Arduino (ATmega328) is used. It has in built with many components like analog to digital
converter, clock of 16 MHz, shift registers. In this system we use temperature sensor IC LM35,
to use to detect temperature into appropriate voltage. This voltage is given to Arduino.
According to program it process the analog signal into digital and forms a particular voltage
level for a particular temperature.16x2 LCD is used to display the output (i.e. surrounding
temperature of LM35) in both degree centigrade and Fahrenheit units. At the same time, it also
sends the data to Relay, if the temperature becomes maximum from set point relay becomes
activate and it switches on the cooling device that is the heat sink. In this manner it monitors and
controls the temperature.

5.8.1 Summary of the Components Required

1. Arduino Uno
2. 16×2 LCD Display
3. keys
4. Relay
5. 1K Resistors Qty. 3
6. BC548
7. LEDs
8. LM35 Temperature Sensor
5.8.2 Arduino UNO
The micro controller for the design is the Arduino Uno board. The Arduino Uno board is based
on the AtMega328p microchip for computations and command running. The board has fourteen
analogue pins by which voltages of maximum 5 can be input or output from or to the various
available circuit components. The board also has seven analogue pins. It is through use of these
analogue pins that the data from sensors is able to be read along the varying physical quantity.
The board also has a USB port by which the running design code can be uploaded to the
microchip. The code for Arduino Uno, as mentioned in chapter three, is based on C++ computer
language which can be developed on the Arduino Genuine/Uno Integrated Development
Environment. It is by this code that the instructions to follow regarding voltage signal input and
output are executed. The micro controller board has a 5V limit at a current of 100mA. On its
own, the board has a 5V power supply pin by which it can supply any component that does not
draw more than 100mA of current. The following figure shows the labeled solution Arduino
micro controller.

5.8.3 IC LM35 Temperature Sensor

The LM35 is a popular and inexpensive temperature sensor. It is dipped inside the cooler body to
not down the temperature differences taking pace. It provides an output voltage of 10.0mV for
each degree Centigrade of temperature from a reference voltage. The output of this device can be
fed to any microcontroller can be interfaced with any A/D Converter for reading and displaying
the output of LM35. The circuit should be designed, so that output should be at 0V when the
temperature is 0 degrees Centigrade and would rise to 1000mV or 1.0V at 100 degrees
Centigrade. To get the temperature value accurately, output voltage must be multiplied with 100.
The LM35 series are precision integrated-circuit temperature devices with an output voltage
linearly proportional to the Centigrade temperature. The LM35 device has an advantage over
linear temperature sensors calibrated in Kelvin, as the user is not required to subtract a large
constant voltage from the output to obtain convenient Centigrade scaling.

Figure 5.8- 33 Temperature sensor

5.8.4 LCD (Liquid Crystal Display

LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) screen is an electronic display module and find a wide range of
applications. A 16x2 LCD display is very basic module and is very commonly used in various
devices and circuits. The reasons being: LCDs are economical; easily programmable; have no
limitation of displaying special & even custom characters (unlike in seven segments), animations
and so on. A 16x2 LCD was used in this design since it can display 16 characters per line and
there are 2 such lines.

Figure 5.8- 34 LCD Crystal display

5.8.5 Relay Switch

A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to mechanically
operate a switch, but other operating principles are also used, such as solid-state relays. Relays
are used where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low-power signal (with complete electrical
isolation between control and controlled circuits), or where several circuits must be controlled by
one signal. When electrical relays used to allow low power electronic computer type circuits to
switch relatively high voltage and current both on and off some form of relay switching circuitry
is required to control it. In this design an NPN relay switch was used.

Figure 5.8-35 Relay switch

The flow chart below summarizes the connection of these components in regard to temperature
correction.
 Figure 5.8- 36 Process flow

5.8.6 Design Implementation.

LM35 generates a small voltage corresponds to the temperature across IC. This generated
voltage is in the continuous, analog form. This voltage is fed to the controller unit. This voltage
is given to the Analog port 0 (A0) of the Arduino UNO. Arduino UNO reads analog input.
Consequently, Arduino Uno sends out data for displaying on 16x2 LCD. LCD displays
temperature in both unit’s degree Celsius and also in degree Fahrenheit. At the same time
Arduino sends control bit 0 or 1 on the digital port 6. This bit is used for controlling part. For bit
0 Arduino sends 0V and for bit 1 it sends 5V at the output. A relay is connected with relay circuit
to digital port 6. If the temperature is less than desired or set temperature Arduino gives logic
low level to the pin 6. But when current temperature goes just or more above the set level it
sends logic high level to the digital pin 6. According to the logic level of digital pin 6 relay
circuit gets input. According this relay circuit switches ON/OFF the relay. Consequently, the
heat sink connected to relay also turns ON/OFF respectively. Once, temperature goes below the
set point, relay switches off. This triggers whether the electrical valve opens or not
 Chapter 6 Result and Discussion
6.1 Heat sink design testing
With the results of the initial design providing a good baseline for altering the design to find the
ideal design, next the process was to determine which of the design variables most impacted the
total heat sink performance and how they impacted the performance. The four variables that
were determined to be tested were fin length, fin height, fin thickness, and heat transfer
coefficient of the air flowing through each heat sink. For each variable tested, all other variables
were held constant to see how a change in the tested variable would affect the results. With each
variable tested, the temperature distribution and the heat transfer rate due to convection will be
evaluated.

6.1.1 Varying Fin Length

The initial heat sink design used a fin length of 0.0315 m. In this model, all other variables will
be held constant from the initial design but the fin length will be tested from a variety of lengths
ranging from 0.024 m to 0.0375 m. Using this range of values for fin length, the length effect on
the temperature distribution and heat transfer rate can be found. As shown in Fig. 6.1.1-1, the
longer the fin is, the more the heat is distributed along the fin. This is because as the fin grows in
length, it has more mass and surface are to evenly dissipate the heat, and therefore, as the fin gets
longer, it progressively is at a lower temperature than its shorter fin counterparts. Figure 6.1.1-2
shows how increasing the fin length also increases the rate of heat transfer due to convection.
This is important because the goal of the fin is to dissipate as much heat as possible. A fin design
that dissipates the heat at a higher rate, will allow the heat sink to cool faster as well as allow for
the heat sink design to require fewer fins. Given these results, the ideal design will incorporate a
longer fin.
Figure 6.1-37 Temperature Distribution in Fin for Varying L

Figure 6.1- 38 Q vs Fin Length

6.1.2 Varying Fin Height
The initial heat sink design used a fin height of 0.085 m. In this model, fin heights ranging from
0.06 m to 0.105 m will be evaluated for their effect on the heat transfer rate due to convection
and the temperature distribution in the fin. Figure 6.1.2-1 shows that fin height does not affect
the temperature distribution because the distance of all parts of the fin from the base remains
constant even with varying fin heights. More importantly, Fig. 6.1.2-2 shows that the fin height
does play a role in heat transfer rate due to convection. As the fin height increases, the heat
transfer rate due to convection also increases. This is because as the fin height increases, it
provides more surface area for the fin to dissipate heat. The final heat sink design will
incorporate a greater fin height to aide in heat dissipation.

Figure 6.1- 39 Temperature Distribution in Fin Varying length

Figure 6.1- 40 Fin Height effect on the heat transfer in a fin
6.1.3 Varying Fin Thickness
The initial heat sink design used a fin thickness of 0.001 m. In this model, fin thicknesses will
range from 0.0005 m to 0.002 m. This range of fin thickness will be evaluated on how it effects
the temperature distribution in the fin and the rate of heat transfer due to conduction in the fin.

Figure 6.1-41 Temperature in fin for varying fin thickness

 Figure 6.1- 42 Heat Transfer due to convection for varying fin thickness

Fig. 6.1-6 shows that the temperature distribution is better for the smaller thickness values. This
is true in that the further away from the base of the fin the temperature is lower, but this does not
mean that the thinner fin is better for dissipating heat. From Fig. 6.1-7, it is clear that heat will be
dissipated at a faster rate for a thicker fin. This is interesting because although a thicker fin can
dissipate heat at a faster rate, the end of the fin from the base is cooler for a thin fin. This
phenomenon is explained because a thicker fin allows for a more uniform dissipation of the heat.
Because the fin is thicker, more heat is able to travel to the end of the fin causing it to be warmer
than the thin fins that do not dissipate the heat as evenly. It is important to note that the
difference in the fin design that dissipates the most heat and the fin design that dissipates the
most heat is not as large for varying thicknesses as it is for other variables. A fin with a thickness
of 0.0005 operates at a rate of heat transfer due to convection of 1.72 W, where the fin with the
thickness of 0.002 operates at a rate of heat transfer due to convection of 1.90 W. Even
increasing the thickness by a magnitude of 4 does not very strongly affect the performance of the
fin. With this in mind, the other variables will be of more importance in the final design than fin
thickness.
6.1.4 Varying Heat Transfer Coefficient
The initial design utilized a heat transfer coefficient of 35.08𝑊 𝑚2𝐾. This value was found
using the air properties and velocity found from calculating the necessary volumetric flow rate
needed to dissipate the desired heat in ideal conditions. In this model, the heat transfer
coefficient values will range from 20𝑊 𝑚2𝐾 to 47𝑊 𝑚2𝐾. Figure 6.1-7 shows that as the heat
transfer coefficient increases, the temperature distribution in the fin increases. This is correct in
that as the heat transfer coefficient increases, it allows for heat to be dissipated at a faster rate
causing the ends of the fins to be cooler. Fig. 6.1-8 displays how the heat transfer rate due to
convection is very affected by the heat transfer coefficient of the air flowing through the
channels. Of all of the four variables that were tested, the heat transfer coefficient of the air had
the greatest impact of determining the rate of heat transfer due to convection.

This is expected as the heat transfer coefficient describes the ability for the heat to be transferred
over the area that it is flowing through. In this application, heat transfer coefficient is largely
dependent on the velocity of the air flowing through the channels.

Figure 6.1- 43 Heat Transfer coefficient effect on the temperature distribution in a fin
Figure 6.1- 44 Heat transfer coefficient on the heat transfer rate
Chapter 7 Conclusion
 APPENDIX A SOFTWARE DESIGN
Appendix A1 Function code
Temperature Controller Arduino Code

Program is constructed using one library “LiquidCrystal”. Program have different modules,
Setup, Loop. In setup we initialize all the IO connections and LCD, Keypad. In main loop we are
taking set point inputs and constantly measure current temperature and compare it with set
points. If it is more than set point turn off heater, else turn on heater.

/*
   circuits4you.com
   Digital Temperature Controller
*/
#include <LiquidCrystal.h>
 
// initialize the library with the numbers of the interface pins
LiquidCrystal lcd(9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4);
 
const int LED_RED=10; //Red LED
const int LED_GREEN=11; //Green LED
const int RELAY=12; //Lock Relay or motor
 
//Key connections with arduino
const int up_key=3;
const int down_key=2;
 
int SetPoint=30;
//=================================================================
//                  SETUP
//=================================================================
void setup(){
  pinMode(LED_RED,OUTPUT);
  pinMode(LED_GREEN,OUTPUT);  
  pinMode(RELAY,OUTPUT);  
  pinMode(up_key,INPUT);
  pinMode(down_key,INPUT);
  
  //Pull up for setpoint keys
  digitalWrite(up_key,HIGH);
  digitalWrite(down_key,HIGH);
  
   // set up the LCD's number of columns and rows:
  lcd.begin(16, 2);
  // Print a message to the LCD.
  lcd.print("circuits4you.com");  
  lcd.setCursor(0,1); //Move coursor to second Line
  lcd.print("Temp. Controller");
  digitalWrite(LED_GREEN,HIGH);  //Green LED Off
  digitalWrite(LED_RED,LOW);     //Red LED On
  digitalWrite(RELAY,LOW);       //Turn off Relay
  delay(2000);
}
//=================================================================
//                  LOOP
//=================================================================  
void loop(){
  double Temperature = ((5.0/1024.0) * analogRead(A0)) * 100;  //10mV per degree 0.01V/C. Scalling
 
  lcd.setCursor(0,0);
  lcd.print("Temperature:");    //Do not display entered keys
  lcd.print(Temperature);
  
//Get user input for setpoints  
  if(digitalRead(down_key)==LOW)
  {
    if(SetPoint>0)
    {
      SetPoint--;    
    }
  }
  if(digitalRead(up_key)==LOW)
  {
    if(SetPoint<150)
    {
      SetPoint++;
    }
  }
 
//Display Set point on LCD
  lcd.setCursor(0,1);
  lcd.print("Set Point:");
  lcd.print(SetPoint);
  lcd.print("C   ");
 
//Check Temperature is in limit
if(Temperature > SetPoint)
{
   digitalWrite(RELAY,LOW);    //Turn off heater
   digitalWrite(LED_RED,LOW);
   digitalWrite(LED_GREEN,HIGH);  //Turn on Green LED
}
else
{
  digitalWrite(RELAY,HIGH);    //Turn on heater
  digitalWrite(LED_GREEN,LOW);
  digitalWrite(LED_RED,HIGH);  //Turn on RED LED  
}
 
  delay(100); //Update at every 100mSeconds
}
//==========================================
 Appendix A2 Circuit diagram

Figure 6.1- 45 Circuit diagram

APPENDIX B Total Cost

Electrical components

Table 6.1- 5 Cost of electrical components

Component Cost per unit Quantity Total Cost( $

(USD) USD)
Arduino UNO 15 1 15
16 x 2 LCD Display 15 1 15
Relay 10 1 10
Keys 4 4 16
LM35 Temperature 9 1 9
Sensor
LEDs 4 6 24
 1K Resistor 2 3 6
40mm x 40mm x 1mm 3 4 12
Peltier module
BC548 2 2 4
TOTAL $ 111
Mechanical components

Table 6.1- 6 Cost of Mechanical Components

Component Cost per unit Quantity Total Cost( USD)

(USD)
Giant Heat sink 15 4 60
A 0.25 Hp pump 100 1 100
Single phase
Butterfly valves 15 2 30
Pipework 25 3 75
A 2m x 2m base board 15 1 15
straps 1 10 10
Insulation material 5 2 10
20 litre small 20 1 20
Total $ 320
Grand total

Table 6.1- 7 Grand total Cost

Electrical components $ 111

Mechanical Components $320
Total $431 USD

APPENDIX C Engineering Drawings

The dimension of the parts has been put in millimetres.
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