Early Childhood Educ J (2013) 41:439–446
DOI 10.1007/s10643-012-0563-4
Preschool Teachers and Children’s Emergent Writing:
Supporting Diverse Learners
Lindsay R. Dennis • Nancy K. Votteler
Published online: 8 November 2012
Ó Springer Science+Business Media New York 2012
Abstract Early literacy skill development is critical
during the preschool years. Under that umbrella is emer-
gent writing, a small but important component of overall
literacy development. This article presents two writing
strategies: (1) writers’ workshop and (2) dictation within
the context of storybook reading that preschool teachers
can utilize to target emergent writing development. Mod-
ifications for diverse learners are also included throughout.
Keywords Emergent writing
Preschool
Disability

Early childhood
Mrs. Anderson teaches in a preschool classroom serving
children and families from diverse backgrounds, including
children who are learning English as a second language and
children with identified disabilities. One morning a ram-
bunctious Jose flies through the door, excited to share his
weekend activities with Mrs. Anderson. As Jose narrates,
Mrs. Anderson wonders how she could capture such a
fantastic retelling of events. She provides opportunities for
children to practice their early writing skills, but wonders if
there are some other ideas she has not yet considered.
Furthermore, she wants to ensure that she tailors her
instruction to address the individual needs and interests of
all the children in her classroom.
L. R. Dennis (&)
College of Education, Florida State University,
1114 W. Call Street, 2208D, Tallahassee, FL 32306, USA
e-mail: lrdennis@fsu.edu
N. K. Votteler
College of Education, Sam Houston State University,
PO Box 2119, Huntsville, TX 77341, USA
Emergent literacy skills are a set of foundational abili-
ties that are considered to be the developmental building
blocks to skilled and fluent reading (Whitehurst and
Lonigan 1998). These abilities are thought to develop in an
interwoven manner and include oral language, phonologi-
cal awareness, concepts about print, letter knowledge, and
emergent writing (Yopp and Yopp 2009). Young children’s
literacy skills are an important predictor of school success
in reading achievement beginning in the early elementary
grades (Denton et al. 2003) and continuing through high
school (Cunningham and Stanovich 1997). Evidence sug-
gests that writing supports children’s acquisition of pro-
cedural knowledge (conventions of reading and writing)
that is related to later reading, (Bloodgood 1999; Ukrainetz
et al. 2000), as well as reported associations between young
children’s understanding of graphemes and phonemes and
their later reading competence (Dickinson et al. 2003;
Storch and Whitehurst 2002). As such, emergent writing
skills are a small, but important, component of overall
literacy development. Particularly at the preschool age,
teachers should not assume that, simply because most
children cannot write conventionally they should not be
encouraged to experiment with the writing process as they
develop. Early childhood educators should also become
familiar with and use research on emergent writing to
become more effective, intentional teachers. Table 1 pro-
vides the developmental stages of writing for young chil-
dren, including facilitation techniques for teachers.
Figures 1, 2, and 3 provide illustrative examples of chil-
dren’s writing for each of the stages.
The purpose of this article is to provide strategies for
preschool teachers that can be used to support children’s
emergent writing skills, and ultimately enhance their
overall literacy development. The activities highlighted in
this article are the use of a writers’ workshop and dictation
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Table 1 Stages of emergent writing
Stage
Scribbling from left to right—may not have any discernible shape or
structure
Creating letter-like forms—may begin as ‘‘cursive-like’’ scribbles and
then small letter-like shapes; may wobble or have a downhill slant
across the page
Creating random strings of letters—can include letter approximations
and/or combinations of scribbles and letters (Perlmutter et al. 2009)
Fig. 1 Stage 1—scribbling from left to right
Fig. 2 Stage 2—creating letter-like forms
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Early Childhood Educ J (2013) 41:439–446
How you can facilitate
Encourage writing development through physical arrangement and
types of materials readily available to students (e.g. markers, pens,
pencils, crayons, chalk, and paint)
Make writing materials accessible for students in various parts of the
classroom and outdoors to encourage children to write at different
times (e.g. centers, signing in upon arrival, sidewalk chalk or outdoor
paints on the playground)
Encourage children to concentrate on the message and not on letter
formation or spelling.
Provide stencils and other letter manipulatives for children to explore
as they learn to form different letters
Encourage children to write their names. Children’s names are very
meaningful to them and thus, more motivating to write
Honor children’s conceptions of writing and allow them to self-select
topics of interest to write about, for example daily journaling about a
topic that is their favorite
Fig. 3 Stage 3—creating random strings of letters
during storybook reading, specifically what these activities
look like at the preschool level and how they can be
implemented. The information is presented such that
teachers can easily envision how these activities can be
embedded into their current routines. Suggestions for
modifying activities to meet the needs of diverse learners
will be included throughout.
Writers’ Workshop: Definition and Procedures
Writers’ workshop has a lengthy history in elementary,
middle, and high school classrooms (Atwell 1998; Calkins
1994; Graves 1983; Jacobson 2010; Ray 2001); however
more recently, this approach is increasingly being utilized
in the early childhood classroom (Behymer 2003). At the
preschool level, emergent writing has as much to do with
Early Childhood Educ J (2013) 41:439–446
the social context in which writing takes place as the
physical markings children make on paper, and the
meaning they attribute to those markings (Clay 1975;
Rowe 2008). The purpose of the writing workshop for
young children is to create environments in which children
become authors, see themselves as writers, and begin to
learn the writers’ craft (Ray 2004; Spandel 2007). Children
become authors when they indicate they have created a
message with the intention to communicate, or at least they
understand that their marks might be meaningful to others
if their audience can interpret them (Rowe 2003). Research
suggests that children use writing to create and maintain
social connections and to position themselves and others in
their social worlds (Bomer and Lehman 2004; Cappello
2006; Rowe 2003).
It is important to remember that preschool children’s
emergent writing skills will vary from child to child and
therefore, the actual product of ‘‘writing’’ during writers’
workshop will also vary. Between 3 and 5 years of age,
children’s knowledge about writing, as well as their writ-
ing-related skills, increase and stabilize (Puranik and
Lonigan 2011); especially in environments where adults
model writing for them (Bloodgood 1999; Dyson 1993).
Writers’ Workshop in Preschool
When children self-select a topic they will be more moti-
vated to create, complete, and share their story with others
because it is more meaningful to them. Self-selecting
topics is particularly important for children, like Jose in the
opening vignette, who is learning English as a second
language. When English Language Learners (ELLs) are
able to tell and retell stories from their home lives, they are
not only learning the structure of the English language,
they are also sharing their culture-based activities with
their classmates (Cheatham and Ro 2010). Additionally,
providing opportunities for children to talk, draw, write,
and express themselves in a relaxed, non-threatening
activity is particularly important for ELLs (Martinez et al.
2010). Children with delays in expressive language or
processing may struggle to quickly come up with a topic to
write about, so teachers may hold a group discussion dur-
ing which children can share their topic ideas with others.
Young children may first draw their stories before
attempting to write. Clay (1998) suggests drawings actually
generate ideas for writing and help the child remember the
ideas when he or she attempts to use writing for self-
expression. Whether a teacher invites children to write or
draw, depending on where they are developmentally, it is
important that the teacher treat the drawings as writing,
until the children tell them otherwise (Baghban 2007). At
this point, children’s products may be ‘‘readable’’ only to
them and may include different forms of writing such as
441
drawing, scribbles (using dots, circles, and shapes), letter-
like forms, and random letters to represent meaning (Cabell
et al. 2009; Puranik and Lonigan 2011). Teachers will want
to spend time highlighting the written products children
create and engage them in meaningful conversations that
encourage learners to continue to grow and progress in
their writing skills.
Children need time to practice their writing every day.
In terms of time, teachers should focus on quantity rather
than quality. Therefore, encourage children to spend lots
and lots of time writing, and help them to do their best
rather than focus on being ‘‘perfect’’ (Ray 2001). For those
children who are in the scribbling phase, teachers can
acknowledge specific features (e.g., writing/making in a
linear/straight line fashion, using simple symbols or units
in their writing). For more advanced or older children who
are writing letters (e.g., in their own names), drawing
children’s attention to letter-sound relationships would be
appropriate (Aram and Biron 2004). The teacher may talk
about and model writing on a daily basis during a whole
group teaching, small group teaching, or while working
one-on-one with a child (Ray 2001). Puranik and Lonigan
found that many young children were able to complete a
task that involved writing to describe a picture and writing
after repeating a sentence (2011), both of which the teacher
could ask a child to do during a writers’ workshop.
Finally, writers need to publish or share their work with
other children, teachers, and parents. Most writing work-
shops function on the premise that most, but not all, of
children’s writing will be published. Publications can come
in various formats including (but not limited to) class
booklets, wall or classroom displays, and collective works
for individual children.
An Instructional Framework for Teaching Writing
Given that children should be provided with writing
opportunities every day, teachers would want to incorpo-
rate a writers’ workshop into their daily schedule. The day-
to-day structure of a writers’ workshop is comprised of the
following components: (a) a focus or mini-lesson,
(b) teacher modeling writing, (c) children share ideas about
writing, (d) independent writing time and conferencing
and, (e) children share their writing (Calkins 1994; Kissel
2008; Jacobson 2010; Ray 2001).
Focus or Mini-Lesson
To begin, children gather around the teacher or move to a
place where children can be in close proximity to the
teacher. The purpose of sitting together is to create a
writing community, build background knowledge, and
spark discussion and conversation as means to create a
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catalyst for writing ideas (Kissel 2008). The teacher is seen
as a facilitator, or guide, making connections that children
can use in their writing. From beginning to end, the mini-
lesson only lasts about 5 min so it is important that the
teacher make the most of this time. The teacher may need
to sit children who have attention difficulties or those who
may require additional support closer to them. The teacher
may also bring pictures, objects, or even a story to the
group meeting to be used as conversation starters for
children who need support with generating ideas. The
teacher may also consider bringing items—for example, a
toy dinosaur or dump truck—for a child with autism who
has demonstrated prior interest in these things as a way to
facilitate participation in a mini-lesson. Items that children
can feel, touch, and manipulate will be especially important
for a child with a visual impairment to help in development
of their fine motor and object manipulation skills. Families
of children who are ELLs could be encouraged to use an
audio recording device to record specific phrases or sayings
that go along with a topic to help support their child as they
progress through the stages of writing (Schwarzer et al.
2003).
Teacher Models Writing
Throughout the composing process, it is crucial for
teachers to model and think out loud about the writing
process. The teacher’s writing should mirror where chil-
dren are developmentally, in terms of what they are able to
produce. As the term suggests, emergent writing is not an
‘‘all or nothing’’ skill set, rather, children will progress
along a continuum from very basic writing in the form of
scribbling to conventional writing and spelling (Puranik
and Lonigan 2011). While children may be functioning at
different places along that continuum, the teacher will want
to scaffold the writing process such that children can see
the progression from basic to more complex forms of
writing. For example, the teacher may initially model only
drawing pictures to represent her writing. As time pro-
gresses and children begin to understand letters and letter-
sound correspondence, she will also begin to incorporate
letters and letter-like representations (e.g., labels or cap-
tions) into her drawings. Through this scaffolding process,
the teacher is concurrently exposing the children to con-
cepts about print, a critical component in children’s overall
understanding of the function of literacy in their lives
(Kissel 2008; Clay 1975, 1998). To support a child with a
visual impairment, the teacher will want to be very specific
and explicit in describing what she is doing, as this will
allow the child to form a mental picture of the teacher’s
representations. Approximately 5–7 min should be allotted
for this stage.
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Children Share Ideas
When the teacher finishes talking about and modeling her
writing, children are then encouraged to spend about
2–3 min sharing what they are going to write. While the
teacher is monitoring children’s discussions, it may be a
good idea to group children together whose writing is on
the same or similar topics. By doing this, young children
are able to scaffold each other as they socially co-construct
texts (Kissel 2008). The teacher may also want to group
specific children together to maximize their participation.
For example, pairing a child with autism or an English
language learner with a group of more competent peers, or
alternatively, encouraging children who speak similar
languages (other than English) to work together while
speaking in their native language.
Independent Writing and Conferencing
Children should be given ample time for this stage,
between 10–15 min. It is during this stage that the teacher
can introduce a variety of materials for children to use that
support their individual strengths and needs. For example,
to support fine motor development for all children, writing
implements (i.e., crayons, markers, pencils with grips,
carpenter or pyramid pencils) can be provided. Further-
more, children with physical disabilities may require an
adapted writing surface so taping the paper to the table or
providing a clipboard may be beneficial (Mayer 2007).
Other materials like notepads, Post-its, and paper of vari-
ous sizes and shapes are motivating and, above all, fun for
all children.
Conferencing is a way to get children to orally tell what
they have written. ‘‘Tell me what you wrote or tell me more
about your story’’ is an excellent way for a child and teacher
to talk about writing. ELLs and children with autism may
only be able to provide a one or two word response when
asked about their drawing. Therefore, the teacher can expand
upon what the child has said by asking follow-up questions
and then incorporating those responses into their previous
statement For example, if Jose has drawn a picture of a dog
and responds, ‘‘Dog’’ when asked about his drawing, she
could ask questions such as, ‘‘Is your dog big or small?’’ or
‘‘What color is your dog?’’ She would then add the additional
information to his sentence and read it back to him.
Children’s actual written products appear to vary
according to the complexity of the task presented. For
example, children may use more advanced writing features
(invented spelling and letter-sound correspondence) for
easier writing tasks such as name writing, and resort to
basic writing features (scribbles and random letters) and
even drawing when the task is more challenging, such as
sentence writing (Tolchinsky 2003; Puranik and Lonigan
Early Childhood Educ J (2013) 41:439–446
2011). It will be important for the teacher to keep in mind
that children may combine both basic and more advanced
forms of writing in the same composition, especially when
writing stories (Bus et al. 2001).
Sharing Writing with Classmates and Teacher
Writing workshop ends with ‘‘publishing’’ or sharing the
writing, lasting about 5 min. Perhaps one of the best ways
for children to share their writing is by creating an
‘‘author’s chair’’ (Graves and Hansen 1983). The authors
are able to sit in this chair and read their writing to an
authentic audience. It may be helpful to have children who
are confident in this role share first, as a way to model
appropriate behavior and delivery of their writing. The
teacher may consider using a rocking chair or other adapted
seating for children, for example a child with autism, who
may require additional sensory input while reading. Shar-
ing written work is very powerful because it not only
increases motivate to share written work but also may
improve the quality of written pieces (Graves and Hansen
1983).
Using Storybook Reading to Enhance Writing
An early learning environment that provides high-quality
early childhood education in general, and access to literacy
resources in particular, appears to be crucial in laying a
strong foundation for literacy in the years prior to entering
formal schooling (Makin 2003). Many activities within
preschool classrooms support early literacy development;
however, reading books to children is a particularly pow-
erful platform for introducing and enhancing literacy skills
(Bus et al. 1995; Lonigan 2004; Scarborough and Dobrich
1994; Whitehurst and Lonigan 1998). Books are a great
learning tool for young children, are pleasurable, and
experiences with books build a positive attitude toward
future reading (Dickinson and Tabors 2001). Opportunities
to engage in shared book reading can encourage children to
pretend to read, respond to books that have been read to
them, use print, and finally scribble and write (Saracho
2002). The following sections will describe: (a) how
teachers can use questioning to generate dialogue amongst
children, and (b) how dictation can be incorporated both
into book reading sessions and into other extension activ-
ities as a way to encourage.
Asking Questions
While teachers may ask questions of children during a
typical storybook reading session, the types of questions
that are asked can actually elevate the book reading
443
session, while simultaneously stimulating writing oppor-
tunities. A set of question prompts, designated by the
acronym CROWD, can be incorporated into book reading
sessions if carefully planned for. CROWD stands for
completion, recall, open-ended, wh (who, what, when,
where, and why questions), and distancing (Whitehurst
et al. 1994). Table 2 provides specific definitions and
examples of these prompts that encourage dialogue
between teachers and children, and invite children to
become interactive partners in a communicative exchange.
Furthermore, engaging children in this type of book ‘‘talk’’
allows children to share their ideas and interests and
expand their vocabulary, knowledge base, and under-
standing (Kalmar 2008).
Transforming Dialogue to Written Language
As children are sharing their thoughts, ideas, and questions,
teachers can capitalize by writing, i.e. dictating for them.
Listening to and writing down children’s words allows
them to become aware that spoken language can also be
written down, and helps them to begin to understand con-
ventions of print such as capitalization and punctuation
(Tunks and Giles 2009). Dictation can be planned or hap-
pen spontaneously, as with Jose in the opening vignette, so
teachers need to be prepared. Teachers can plan a specific
time to take dictation, in this case during storybook
reading.
For example, while reading the book Pie in the Sky by
Ehlert (2004), the teacher could ask the children to predict
what they think will happen next in the story, thus utilizing
a ‘‘wh’’ prompt. As the children are speaking, she can write
down their words, clarifying as needed and expanding with
further questions or comments as necessary. Research
suggests that shared reading experiences may indepen-
dently contribute to subsequent conventional reading,
writing, and spelling development (Cunningham and
Zibulsky 2011). Teachers may consider using large paper
on an easel to allow the children to see her as she models
correct letter formation, directionality, spacing, and text
placement (Mayer 2007). It may also be helpful to write the
children’s statements next to their printed names (written
either by teacher or the child) to help them in identifying
their own words. The sheet(s) of paper with children’s
ideas can be saved for use the next time the story is read as
a way to help children recall information or facilitate dis-
cussion. Children will enjoy reading back their contribu-
tions to group writing activities. The teacher can further
encourage children to re-read by allowing them to point to
each word as they read it using fun and enticing items such
as a feather or wooden spoon. Children with autism or
ELLs may need to substitute pictures in place of words, or
be provided with a prompt to help them generate a more
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Table 2 Dialogic reading prompts and examples
Prompt
Completion—completing a sentence with familiar word(s)
Recall–remembering some aspect of the story (e.g. words, pictures,
character, plot)
Open-ended—requires more than just a one or two word response
Wh-prompts–who, what, when, where, why
Distancing—connecting the story with children’s background knowledge
complete response. These are all strategies teachers can use
to ensure that each child can make a contribution to the
group.
With regards to storybook reading, teachers can create
an atmosphere of multiliteracy and further support ELLs by
incorporating the following into her classroom environ-
ment: encouraging a parent or sibling to read a story in
their families’ native language, make books available in all
the languages spoken in the classroom, learn and teach
familiar words or phrases from books in a child’s first
language, and create a library of audio and/or video tapes
of parents telling a story in another language (Schwarzer
et al. 2003). To support children with visual impairments,
the teacher can provide books with Braille overlays so that
the child can feel the Braille while the nondisabled peers
look at the pictures (Dennis et al. 2012). Children with low
vision who will read print need high contrast print, bold
font, adequate spacing between lines, and plenty of white
space on the page (Heward 2009). They also benefit from
clear, realistic pictures on a light background.
Extension Activities
Teachers could also use dictation during extension activi-
ties that occur after children have become familiar with the
content of the book through repeated readings over the
course of a few days. Repeated readings allow children to
become familiar with the characters and aspects of the
book, while also allowing opportunities for activities which
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Example
Gingerbread Friends by Brett (2008)
‘‘I’m the gingerbread baby,
Peppy as can be,
I’ll be __________,
If you’ll be ________.’’
(Complete with the words ‘‘friends with you,’’ and ‘‘friends with
me.’’)
The Artist Who Painted a Blue Horse by Carle (2011)
‘‘Can you remember the names and/or colors of the animals?’’
The Three Pigs by Wiesner (2001)
‘‘What was your favorite part of the book?’’
‘‘How could the story have ended differently?’’
Rosie’s Walk by Hutchins (1971)
‘‘Who was Rosie trying to get away from?’’
‘‘Why do you think she was trying to get away from the fox?’’
‘‘Where were some of the places that she walked?’’
Llama llama mad at mama by Dewdney (2007)
‘‘Tell me about a time when you were angry or frustrated.’’
‘‘What happened to make you feel better?’’
can be expanded and enriched over time (Fowler et al.
2007). For example, Pie in the Sky ends with a recipe for
making cherry pie from which the teacher could build an
activity, such as making their own original recipe for pie.
The children can provide their ideas for the ingredients and
directions for how to make the pie, while the teacher
scribes. Again, pictures or objects could be introduced to
help children with autism or any other child who may need
additional support recalling the information. The recipe
may even be transcribed into a classroom newsletter to
share with parents. Additionally, the dramatic play center
may be stocked with all of the items necessary to bake a pie
(i.e. pots, pants, spoons, bowls, ingredients, hat, apron etc),
including writing utensils and paper so that children can
practice ‘‘writing’’ while engaging in free play with their
peers.
Finally, teachers can encourage the children to illustrate
their favorite part of the story, an alternate ending, or
simply what they remember. Once children have completed
their drawings, she could dictate the words that go along
with the pictures and perhaps combine the pages into a
classroom book. Children can be encouraged to write or
scribble their own words, as they are able and willing. In
this way, the teacher is honoring the child’s attempt to
write while still putting their words into written form. To
further support children with disabilities, the teacher may
also consider using a computer as an interesting and
motivating means by which to encourage to children to
draw and/or write. An array of pictures can be provided to
Early Childhood Educ J (2013) 41:439–446
help a child with autism create a drawing and type letters or
words, with assistance from an adult or peer as needed, to
his or her drawing. The word processing program could be
set-up to capitalize all letters and increase the font to
24-point or larger to support a child with a visual impair-
ment (Koppenhaver and Erickson 2003).
Reading books is an enjoyable activity that many pre-
school teachers utilize within their classrooms. Incorpo-
rating dictation into actual book reading sessions, as well
as extension activities, is a great way to promote the
development of children’s emergent writing skills.
Conclusion
Emergent writing at the preschool age is a dynamic and
fluid process. Writers’ workshop and dictation are pre-
sented here as two strategies that teachers can utilize as a
means to support children as they move through the writing
process. Children’s written work will vary depending on
age and skill level; therefore, it is important to recognize
strengths in children’s writing and encourage them to
transition to the next level. Children with disabilities and
who are ELLs can also be fully supported in their writing
development when provided with intentional and thought-
ful modifications on the part of the teacher.
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