Ellipsometry in

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Ann. Rev. Mater. Sci. 1981. 11:97-122
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ELLIPSOMETRY IN +8659
THIN FILM ANALYSIS

Annu. Rev. Mater. Sci. 1981.11:97-122. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
J. B. Theeten
Laboratoires d'Electronique et de Physique Appliquee, 3 avenue Descartes,
94450 Limeil Brevannes, France
-
by Duke University on 06/13/12. For personal use only.
D. E. Aspnes
Bell Laboratories, Murray Hill, New Jersey 07974
INTRODUCTION
This is not meant to be another review of ellipsometry, since a number of

detailed works (1-5) have been published in recent years, including a
very complete book by Azzam & Bashara (I). Rather we discuss why this
technique, nearly a century old, has received so much recent attention
(about 500 references for the period 1976-1979) and will probably
continue to develop even faster. The method consists of measuring and
interpreting th� change of polarization state that occurs when a polarized
light beam is reflected at non-normal incidence from a sample surface. Its
sensitivity lies in the submonolayer range, it is nondestructive, and it can
be used in adverse ambient conditions including high temperature or high
pressure, through gases or liquids, etc. Thus it appears perfectly adequate
for tackling many of the problems of the semiconductor industry, which
begi ns with well-polished reflecting substrates such as Si and GaAs and
deposits on them thin films in the 1000 A range by various methods such
as plasma reactions, chemical vapor deposition, and electrochemistry.
Here lies the main reason for th�: growing interest in ellipsometry. The
recent development of minicomputers and microprocessors provided the
necessary hardware to allow widespread deVelopment of the method. It is
now possible to build fully automatic instruments that can perform in
real time both data-acquisition and data-reduction functions.
Applications are discussed in two categories. Real-time analysis of thin
film processing is presented first. In this case, measurements are made at
a fixed wavelength and a fixed angle of incidence. The emphasis is on
97
0084- 6600/81 /0801-0097$01.00
98 THEETEN & ASPNES
fast, automatic data acquisition and in situ examination. Here, "fast"

means with respect to film changes or growth rates, and" in situ" means
under actual processing conditions. From a practical viewpoint, ellipsom
etry can monitor and therefore possibly control the processing. From a
more fundamental viewpoint, crystal growth mechanisms, plasma deposi
tion, or plasma-etching reactions can be studied on samples that are in
equilibrium with the gaseous or liquid phase, i.e. interfaces can be
examined that exist only in the actual reaction ambient.
Spectroscopic ellipsometry is then discussed. Because it takes longer to
obtain full spectra, samples must usually have reached a steady state.
Consequently, "final products" are examined. In contrast with the kinetic
data obtained in the previous case, which are usually analyzed in a
3-phase (ambient/film/substrate) model, one is interested here in ex
tending the analysis toward multilayer models. Even a "bare" substrate

always has a surface region a few angstroms thick with a dielectric
response distinct from that of the bulk due to dangling bonds, surface
roughness, or other effects; and the transition between an A layer and a
B substrate can extend over a number of atomic layers. Thus one needs
to go beyond a simple model where a uniform, homogeneous top film is
assumed to have a mathematically sharp interface with a homogeneous
substrate. By varying the energy of the analyzing light, and to a lesser
extent the angle of incidence, capabilities are extended. We review several
recent achievements in this domain, ranging from the analysis of the
"nearly perfect" interfaces that occur between thermally grown Si02 and
Si, or the electrochemically grown anodic oxide and GaAs, to ill-defined
cases such as surface roughness and defect profiles in ion implantation.
Before dealing with the applications, a brief summary of the necessary
background in basic equations and instrumentation is given.
BACKGROUND
Basic Equations
Only results are given here; derivations of these results can be found in
(1). Ellipsometry is based on the fact that the reflectance of a polarized
incident beam is different for polarization perpendicular (s; German
senkrecht) or parallel (p) to the plane of incidence. The orientations are
defined in Figure 1. An ellipsometric measurement determines the com
plex reflectance ratio
1.
between the corresponding complex reflectances rs and rp' The angles 1/1
ELLIPSOMETRY 99
Figure 1 Definitions corresponding to reflectance at an interface.
and !J. are used for historical reasons and correspond respectively to the
differences in amplitude and phase of the two reflections. At a sharp
interface between a medium of refractive index no and one of n. (Figure
1), the following relations (from Descartes and Fresnel) hold:
nosinOo =n. sinO. 2.
.
rp =ro•p =(n. cos 00 -nocos 0.)( n. cos 00 +nocos 0.)- 3.
rs =ro•s =(nocosOo -n. cosO .)(nocosOo +n. cosO.)-·. 4.

Eqs. 2-4 are valid even when no and n. are complex quantities. By
solving Eqs. 1-4 one can determine the dielectric function E. =nf of the
reflecting medium:
E./Eo = sin2 00 +(l-p )2(1 +p )-2
5.
Note that in this "2-phase" model, the two parameters of p are used to
determine uniquely and exactly, without a Kramers-Kronig transform or
additional assumptions, the two parameters of the complex quantity E. in
terms of the ambient no and angle of incidence f)o.
Figure 2 shows a 3-phase system consisting of an ambient medium, a
uniform film, and a substrate. Here, the multiple interference regime that
develops within the film can be described by using an effective reflection
100 THEETEN & ASPNES
AMBIENT
eo
FILM
SUBSTRATE
Figure 2 Definitions for the 3-phase model.
coefficient,
reffa = (rOla +rI2aX)(1 + rOlarI2"X)-1 6.

with
a=p or s 7.
The complex ratio p is now given by

- -I 8.
P - reffp• reffs •
This "effective" reflectance concept can be used to evaluate p in a

step-by-step mode for a multilayer structure. Clearly it is impossible to
determine from p all parameters of a multilayer system, but much
information can be deduced from the many constraints obtained by
measuring p as a function of wavelength and/or angle of incidence. Then
p is calculated to match experiment using multilayer models that contain
parameters, such as layer thicknesses, which are independent of the
parameters varied in the measurement. Model parameters and their
confidence limits can be obtained systematically and objectively
. by linear
regression analysis (see below).
ELLIPSOMETRY 101
Instrumentation
The schematic block diagram of an ellipsometer is given in Figure 3. The
various possible combinations of optical elements were reviewed recently
by Hauge (6). We give only the most frequently encountered configura
tions.
The null ellipsometer uses a polarizer and a compensator or quarter-wave
plate to produce a phase shift just opposite to the one induced upon
reflection from the sample. This phase shift is obtained by varying the
polarizer azimuth with respect to the fast and slow axes of the compensa
tor. The light reflected from the sample is then linearly polarized and can
be completely extinguished by properly adjusting the azimuth of the
analyzer. This type of ellipsometer is mechanically simple and can be
operated manually. Consequently, it was the first to be used. But it
requires much care and time to adjust to adequate accuracy: of the order
of several minutes to achieve 0.0 I. 0 in lJt and �. By using stepping motors
to rotate the polarizer and the analyzer, or Faraday cells to rotate the
planes of polarization directly, it is possible to obtain a self-compensating,
automatic instrument.
The rotating analyzer ellipsometer (RAE) is a photometric configura
tion that does not rely on a null but rather imposes a time dependence on
a transmitted beam that can later be decoded for the desired information.
This is accomplished in the RAE by a rotating analyzer prism that
generates a sinusoidal output signal from the detector, representing the
"unrolled" polarization ellipse. The polarizer is kept fixed. When (typi
cally) no compensator is used, the system is completely achromatic; the
only wavelength-dependent element is the sample itself. Here, the ellipso
metric angles are given by the relations
tan 1f;=tan p[ ( c+a )( c-a ) - T/2 9.
cosA=b ( c2 _a2 ) -1/2 10.
where a, b, and c are the Fourier coefficients of the detector signal

I= c + a cos(2A) +bsin(2A), 1 1.
REFLECTING
SA MPLE
L-----.JH �1
SOURCE J� H'-----J
POLARIZER COMPEN
(optional)
TO ANALYSER DETECTOR
Figure 3 Schematic arrangement of an ellipsometer.

and P and A are the polarizer and analyzer azimuths, respectively. This
type of ellipsometer is ideally suited for a minicomputer since the
sinusoidal detector output can be processed digitally with an analog-to
digital converter and Fourier analysis. Because it operates as a modula
tion spectrometer with high optical efficiency, it can be used with weak
continuum sources and hence is ideally suited for spectroscopic applica
tions. It can also follow reactions as long as they are slower than the
rotation rate of the analyzer, which is usually of the order of 50 turns .per
second.
All remarks made concerning the RAE apply equally to the rotating
polarizer ellipsometer (RPE), which differs from the RAE only in that
source and detector are interchanged. Placing the dispersing optics
between sample and detector instead of between source and detector
offers advantages when the sample and/or ambient may generate light,
as in a plasma reactor.
If faster rates of measurement are needed, another photometric config
uration, the phase modulation ellipsometer, can be used. It can operate in
the kHz range. The design is similar to that of a null ellipsometer except
that the compensator is replaced by a variable retardation device whose
phase is modulated by electro-optical or piezo-optical techniques, for
instance a piezobirefringent silica plate typically driven at 50 kHz. If
P=90°, A=45°, C (the compensator azimuth axis)=45°, and the phase
modulation of the compensator is of the form Osinwt (instead of 90° as
with the null ellipsometer), and if 8 is adjusted to
i.e. (J= 137.8° 12.
where Jo is the Bessel function of zero order, then the detected signal can
. be analyzed with lock-in amplifiers centered at w and 2w and the
ellipsometric angles obtained from the following relations:
Rw =I"!od = 2(sin2o/ )(sin t:. )J1 ((J), 13.
R2w =I2.,!od = 2(cos 2o/ )Ji (J). 14.
This configuration is better suited to follow phenomena in the millisec

ond range, which are often encountered in electrochemistry. It has the
disadvantage of using analog techniques, being therefore less versatile
and adaptative than a fully computerized system as the RAE.
A detailed discussion of the precision limits of all the systems dis
cussed above can be found in (7). Photometric systems are more precise
than the null ellipsometer because they are less dependent on the
shot-noise and dark-current limitations of the detector.
ELLIPSOMETRY 103
Traditional Applications
Thin-film technologists have long used null ellipsometers to determine
the thickness of various dielectric films deposited on semiconductors (e.g.
8). Cleaning procedures for Si or III-V compounds (9), qualification tests
of polished surfaces ( lOa, b, 11), and routine analysis of the composition
of oxynitride layers deposited onto Si (12) are typical examples of
traditional applications where an ellipsometer is used as an improved
refIectometer. Here, the analysis is restricted to the 3-phase model where
the film is nonabsorbing and only its average thickness and refractive
index are needed. Sometimes, only a 2-phase "effective substrate" model

is considered, as for example in the analysis of polishing-induced defects
where the imaginary part of this effective substrate, as deduced from the
measured 1/1 and A using Eq. 5, is taken as an indicator of the residual
defects at the surface of a glass (10). Next we discuss recent improve

ments obtained from automation (real-time analysis) and energy scan
nipg (spectroscopic ellipsometry).
REAL-TIME ANALYSIS
The 3-Phase Model

As before, attention is focused here upon fast data acquisition. Both A
and 80 are fixed. This implies that only two independent quantities 1/1 and
A can be measured, and that the interpretation is therefore restricted to
the simplified 3-phase (ambient/film/substrate) model. The most ade
quate description of phenomena is then given by plotting the data in the
(1/1, A) plane as indicated in Figure 4. In this representation, the position
of the stable point corresponding to the bare substrate prior to the
reaction is unique (2-phase model) and gives directly the refractive in<:Jex
of the substrate. When deposition occurs, the (1/1, A) data points start
moving along a certain trajectory. If the deposited film is assumed to be
homogeneous, as in this model, then the unchanging refractive index of
the film results in a unique trajectory in the (1/1, A) plane. Figure 4a gives
typical trajectories for a dielectric and a weakly absorbing film deposited
onto GaAs.
Because the dielectric function of the substrate is known from mea
surements in the "bare-surface" condition, it is possible to solve the
3-phase model numerically to obtain the assumed constant refractive
index of the film and also the corresponding thicknesses along the
measured trajectory. This cannot be done on a point-by-point basis if the
film is absorbing because three parameters [Re( n), Im( n), d] must be
obtained while the data provide only two constraints (1/1, A). But we can
360 r-----�
DELTA
270
180
90
o 1----- �--- �----�---- �----I

10 20 30 4O
a
PSI
DELTA
BARE SUBSTRATE
b PSI
Figure 4 Use of the (>fI,�) plane in connection with the 3-phase model. (a) Typical
trajectories corresponding to the deposition of a dielectric (n\ J.14-iO) and a weakly
=
absorbing (n\ =2-;0.5) film onto GaAs (00 =70°, .\=6328 A). The crosses along the
trajectories correspond to loo-A increments of the film thickness. (b) Definition of the
residual used in Eqs. 15 and 16 of the text.
ELLIPSOMETRY 105
use the shape of the trajectory to fix n, using d as a parameter, as follows.

The approach is basically identical to that which is followed in the
analysis of spectroscopic ellipsometric data, except that the film thick
ness, d, is the variable parameter rather than the wavelength of light, A.
Consider the experimental points (1[;;, Ll;), i=O, 1. . . , with 0 being
associated with the bare substrate. An assumed value ntest for the
refractive index of the film can be evaluated by calculating the residual
15.
where CJ; is the minimal squared distance between the experimental point
i and the trajectory calculated for n=ntest' That is,
16 .
where [1[;(dJ, Ll(dJJ is the point calculated along the ntest trajectory
corresponding to a thickness d; of the film (Figure 4b). For each i, the
thickness d is varied until the individual CJ; is minimal, i.e. SCJ;/Sd=O
when d= d;. The "best" value of n test is that for which the total residual
F( n test ) is minimal. It is clear that d is only a dummy variable in this
ca lcu la tion. Once the best value has been found for n tes!' the correspond
ing d; are the thicknesses of the film at the various experimental points.
In other words, the assumption of the 3-phase model allows both real
and imaginary parts of the refractive index of the film to be determined
even though the film thickness is not known a priori at any single point.
Furthermore, changes in the refractive index during deposition or other
deviations from the assumptions of the 3-phase model can readily be seen
from changes in the shape of the trajectory. This is particularly useful for
monitoring the compositional change of a film as for example in the case
of III-V ternary alloys.
Cahan (13) proposed using the relative reflectance change SRIR as a
third indepe nde nt ellipsometric parameter for real-time measurements.
Although this parameter cannot be measured to the same accuracy as I[;
and Ll and because it is more sensitive to experimental artifacts such as
increased scattering from surface roughness, it can be used as an addi
tional tool to test the applicability of the 3-phase model in specific
situations. A detailed discussion is given in (13). This is especially useful
for the difficult case of electrochemical reactions, where one does,
however, have the advantage of being able to cycle repeatedly.between
bare and reacted conditions and' thus to determine SRIR by modulation
spectroscopic techniques.
Applications
HETEROEPITAXY Accurately controlling the refractive index of a given

film is of great importance in III-V epitaxial processes, especially for
optical devices such as laser structures where a ternary or quaternary
layer must be grown with an accurate composition to obtain proper
indices of refraction or lattice matching onto a binary substrate, for
instance Ga1_xAlxAs onto GaAs or Gal_xlnXAsl_ yPy onto InP. On the
other hand, the composition of an alloy can be evaluated from single
wavelength ellipsometric measurements with good accuracy: 1% has been
claimed for GaAlAs (14) and 0.4% for Ge-Si alloys (15) from the fact
that the components of the alloy, for instance GaAs and AlAs, have
markedly different dielectric functions. With a spectroscopic capability,
much better accuracy should be attainable because of the characteristic

variation of the critical point energies in the optical spectra. The fact that
deposition of the alloy onto the binary substrate occurs by epitaxy is
essential because no crystalline defects (at least at a scale visible with
ellipsometry) are produced when the growth conditions are modified
from the binary to the ternary epitaxy. The evolution of the (1/1,�) data
can then be attributed only to the composition of the epitaxial film.
A real-time analysis of epitaxial growth in the GaAlAsjGaAs system
is given in Figures 5 and 6 ( l6a-c). For this experiment, a He-Ne laser
(6328 A) was used. The light was incident through the quartz tube of a
CVD reactor onto a GaAs substrate and was reflected at an incident
angle of 71 0. The GaAs substrate was held at 600°C in controllable
�
flows of AsH3, (CH3)3Ga, and (CH3)3Al. In Figure 5a, the Al species

flow is first stopped and GaAs homoepitaxy occurs, giving a stable point
labeled 1 in the (I/;, �) plane. When the Al species flow is set to a value
corresponding to a 25% Al alloy, the (I/;,�) point starts moving. After
about I-J.l.m epitaxy, the (I/;,�) trajectory approaches a point labeled 2
corresponding a Gao.75Alo.25As substrate. Before reaching this point, the
trajectory shows damped oscillatory behavior due to multiple interference
in the growing GaAlAs film. The damping is due to light absorption in
the film. The markings along the trajectory give the thickness of the film
and the rate of growth is thus obtained. Since points 1 and 2 correspond
to bulk samples of GaAs and Gao.75Alo.25As at the growth temperature,
the 2-phase model can be applied and the refractive indices for both
materials can be obtained. Then the expected trajectory can be calculated
in the 3-phase model. The data deviate strongly from model predictions
at intermediate stages of the growth (Figure Sa). We must conclude
therefore that the composition of the GaAlAs film is not constant with
time.
-----�1
ELLIPSOMETRY 107
190r----
DELTA 9=710
(deg.) A=6328A
180
17
160
150
6 8 10 12
a PSI (deg.)
4.3 1.2
n k
4.1 to
n
3.9 ·8
3.7 .6
3.5
3.3
... .. a ••••••
k
·4
.2
GaAs (Ga,AIlAs
3.1 0
a 500 1000
b thickness (AJ
Figure 5 GaAs-->GaAlAs transition in a metallorganic CVD system. (a) Experimental
trajectory in the (,p, ll) plane. The calculated trajectory assuming a 3-phase model is given
for comparison (solid line), with crosses corresponding to loo-A increments in thickness.
(b) Refractive index profile calculated from the data.
----�
180--
DELTA
(deg.)
170
160
150
8 10 12 14
a PS I (deg.)
4.3 1.2
n ... n k
...... ...
4.1 1.0
3.9 .8
3.7 .6
• •
k
3.5 ·4
33 .2
Ga,AI)As GaAs
I 0
3.1
0 500 1000
0
b thickness (A)
Figure 6 GaAlAs ..... GaAs transition in the same metallorganic CVD system (continuation
of the experiment shown in Figure 5) (a) Experimental trajectory and comparison with
3-phase model (solid line), with crosses corresponding to loo-A increments in thickness. (b)
Refractive index profile calculated from the data.
ELLIPSOMETRY 109
However, by using the F(ntest) algorithm discussed above on a piece

wise basis, the index of refraction of the film can be calculated as a
function of thickness. Figure 5b shows that it takes about 1000 A of
GaAlAs deposition to reach the final composition. This is, of course, very
bad if one is interested in abrupt transitions as required for laser
structures or superlattices.
The reverse condition of GaAs growth on GaAlAs is illustrated in
Figure 6. These data are actually a continuation of the experiment of
Figure 5. The Al species flow is stopped when the (t/J, Ll) point is
stabilized around point 2. One is then left with the growth of GaAs on a
thick film of Gao.7sAlo.2sAs, which can be considered as the substrate

from the viewpoint of ellipsometry since point 2 is stable. The (t/J, Ll)
trajectory returns to point 1, again in a damped oscillatory fashion. But
now the 3-phase model prediction also given in Figure 6a is much closer
to the data. This is confirmed in Figure 6b, where the refractive index
profile calculated from the data of Figure 6a is shown as a function of
film thickness. The GaAIAs� GaAs transition occurs in less than 200 A.
Real-time ellipsometry is thus capable of determining the width of the
GaAIAs� GaAs and GaAs� GaAlAs transition regions in CVD deposi
tion. By repeating the experiments of Figures 5 and 6, one can directly
estimate the influence of various growth parameters such as temperature,
As/metallic species ratio, hydrodynamic regimes, etc upon the sharpness
of the transition. This procedure is obviously much faster than for
example a posteriori ion milling and Auger analysis, in addition to being
nondestructive and free from sputterin g artifacts.
KINETIC STUDIES The in situ capability can be very useful for studying
small changes in the kinetics of a reaction and for establishing weak
correlations of a reaction to parameters otherwise undetectable. This is
illustrated in Figure 7, where the rate of oxidation of Si under 02 and
H 2 0- 0 2 atmospheres is analyzed (17). The ellipsometer measures the
thickness of the growing oxide, and the influence of a small amount of
H2 0 in 02 is demonstrated. Oxidation curves corresponding to ambients
of dry 02 and 02 +2000 ppm H2 0 are first obtained. In another
experiment, H2 0 is turned on and off sequentially. It is seen in Figure 7
that when the ambient is changed from dry O2 to 02 + H2 0, the
oxidation behavior proceeds in parallel to the H2 0-02 curve. When the
H2 0 component is absent, the rate reverts to that for dry 02 . Real-time
analysis proves that the presence of H2 0 influences the oxidation and
that this effect is reversible. The effect can be evaluated quantitatively by
changing the amount of H2 0 during the on-off sequence so that several
dilutions can be tested in one run. Because of the accuracy of the
11 0 THEETEN & ASPNES
2000 ppm H20 in 02

2000
.........
� .....
• .... .
•• .
. ..
....
1500
•
. ..
1 ppm H20 in 02
H20-02off
1000
500
o 100 200 300 400
t (min)
Figure 7 Thermal oxidation of Si under dry O2 and H20-containing O2 atmospheres [after
(17»).
ellipsometric measurements, only small amounts of oxide growth are

necessary for each on-off sequence. Since the H20 effect is already
subtracted from a large background by this differential technique, the
limit of detectability of this and similar effects can be significantly lower
than with a posteriori methods of analysis.
A similar case of high sensitivity is illustrated in Figure 8 , where an
electrochemical reaction is followed (18). A single crystal of Cu is used as
an electrode in a O. l -M CuS04 solution. Depending on the direction of
the current, Cu dissolution or deposition occurs. In laminar-flow condi
tions, this changes the CuS04 concentration at the boundary layer
according to whether Cu is being deposited or dissolved. Ellipsometry
can detect such changes in mass-transport boundary layers. Variations of
the order of lOin t::. are measured when one switches from anodic to
cathodic bias. Detailed studies of the electrochemical reactions are thus
feasible. Of particular interest is the possibility of correlating the ellipso
metric signal and galvanometric measurements, giving insights for in
stance into the corrosion and passivation processes on metals (see 13,
19, 20).
ELLIPSOMETRY III
Single crystal
46
<I
48
36.5
35.5
40
�
o
I ! ! I
100 150 200
Time, sec
Figure 8 Changes in the boundary layer thickness above a single-crystal Cu electrode in a

O.l-M CuS04 electrolyte detected by ellipsometry using a modulation of the galvanometric
current [after (18)].
SURFACE AND GROWTH PROCESSES ON THE ATOMIC SCALE Because el

lipsometry is sensitive to submonolayer changes, more fundamental
studies, on the atomic scale, are possible. For instance, adsorption
mechanisms can be investigated. One of the most spectacular results in
this field was obtained by Quentel et al (21) (Figure 9). Here, Xe gas in
the pressure range 10 -1 torr is maintained over single-crystal graphite
held at 97 K.
This type of interaction between a rare gas and a graphite substrate
was first studied (22a, b) by gas volumetric techniques and since then by
a variety of techniques, including neutron scattering. Xe condenses on
the substrate with a weak binding interaction but with a strong interac
tion between adsorbed atoms. This leads to a large deviation from
Langmuir adsorption, with its linear relationship between surface cover
age and gas pressure. Instead, the adsorption isotherms exhibit pro
nounced steps corresponding to the successive condensations of mono
layers of rare gas atoms. Figure 9 gives the corresponding '" and �
variations as a function of th(� Xe pressure. The formation of five
successive Xe monolayers is seen very clearly and corresponds exactly to
1.5 --- --- - - - -- -- --- --- - - - --- --
---------------,-------�
I I I
I
0.5
Ir=----� I
I I
I I
fl./Pa
o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
°-
. __
__ �4
__,_-0�6
----�._��
0
-0.04
-0.08
T=97'K
-0.12
Figure 9 Variatioo of the ellipsometric angles of reflected light (A = 6328 A) from a (000 I)
graphite surface exposed to Xe [after (21»).
expectations based on gas volumetric measurements. A more detailed

study at Xe pressures from 1 0 3 to 10 -\ torr confirms that the Xe
-
monolayer experiences several internal transitions before becoming a

2-dimensional solid: gas (2D) � liquid (2D) � solid (2D), as was
expected also from the work of Thorny & Duval (22a, b). Similar studies
of Br adsorption onto Ge (111) surfaces have been done by Baklanov et
al (23).
Another interesting case has been reported by Habraken et al (24a, b)
concerning the adsorption of 02 on single-crystal eu surfaces. In addi
tion to a Langmuir type of isotherm, the slope of the isotherm depends
on the substrate orientation and also on the azimuthal position of the
plane of incidence with respect to the surface unit mesh. This gives
insight into the chemical bonding of C atoms on the Cu (100), Cu (110),
and Cu (I l l) surfaces.
Crystal growth mechanisms can also be analyzed. The growth of a Cd
crystal from Cd vapor in equilibrium with a Cd (0001) surface was
examined recently by Gauch & Quentel (25). This surface is flat on the
ELLIPSOMETRY II3
atomic scale and growth was thought to occur at screw dislocations

according to a mechanism first proposed by F. C. Frank. For a Cd
crystal held at 300°C in a weak supersaturation of Cd vapor, (j. exhibits
oscillations ranging from 0.02 to 0.3° as a function of the time of
exposure; the period of the oscillations ranges from a few seconds to
several minutes and is directly related to the supersaturation. This is
thought to be due to movements of monatomic steps generated by screw
dislocations (25).
In contrast with this layer-by-Iayer growth, nucleation and 3-
dimensional growth has also been observed in the deposition of Si onto a

Si 3 N4 -covered Si wafer. (Figure 10) (26). In this experiment, the sub
strate was first heated up to 620°C under 10 torr of H2• The (1/;, d)
trajectory reaches a stable point, a SiH4 flow is then added to the H2,
and SiH4 molecules reach the Si3N4 surface and decompose, leaving Si
atoms at the surface. The (1/;, d) point moves along a trajectory that
cOI:lverges to a location corresponding to amorphous Si. The fact that the
thick deposit is effectively a-Si was checked by in situ RHEED and Auger
measurements. Of interest here is the dashed calculated curve, which
supposes a uniform deposition of a-Si on the substrate. Clearly, there is
gross initial disagreement although the calculated and experimental curves
tend to converge as the thickness increases. This disagreement is due to
the growth mechanism, which proceeds rather through the formation of
small Si nuclei since the sticking probability of Si atoms on Si is much
higher than that of Si atoms on Si3N4• The nuclei grow independently
and finally coalesce. By assuming a distribution of hemispherical
amorphous Si nuclei with an average separation dN, the trajectory can be
recalculated as shown in the dotted-dashed curves of Figure 1 0. Good
agreement is obtained with dN � 100 A. The optical response of nuclea
tion growth is markedly different from that of layer-by-layer growth
because, when the nuclei are small, the growth layer "seen" by the
ellipsometer is an average mixture of voids and absorbing materiaL
Initially only a small fraction of absorbing material is present and the
average behaves as a dielectric instead of the absorbing film that one
would have for homogeneous deposition.
Limitations
Real-time ellipsometry is well adapted to kinetic studies. Its use with thin
film deposition systems can have a direct impact on the control of the
process. This in-situ methodology, however, cannot at present analyze
more complex structures in which not only the film but also the underly
ing substrate is changing with time. This has been pointed out by Muller
200
---- ---
180 --
...
--
__ CALC.
- ...
--
o --
- ._ 50 A .......
...... ...
. ·
.\
,. '...
.\ EXP.
,. .\, "" ,
<J ,
160 �\ "-100 A ,
,
\
\.
� ,
'. �
'.
-,, "
'.... ... ,r
'0' ....... .... .. ... -'
140 200A .. -.... --_ ....
11 13 15 17 19
�\cleg)
Figure 10 Determination of nucleation mechanism and center spacing for a-Si grown by
CVD on Si3N4 [after (26)].
(18) and Cahan (13) for electrochemical systems where surface roughen
ing occurs simultaneously with the formation or dissolution of a passivat
ing film. This can be seen in Figure 8 where a general decrease of 1/1 is
observed as a background to the modulation due to current changes.
Sometimes not only the vapor-film interface but also the film-substrate
interface is modified during film growth. This effect is seen for plasma
oxidation of GaAs (27) where unoxidized arsenic tends to pile up at the
oxide-GaAs interface during the plasma exposure. Spectroscopic el
lipsometry and other complementary techniques are necessary to in
vestigate these more complicated situations.
MULTILAYERS AND INTERFACES
Methodology
COMBINED ETCHING AND ELLIPSOMETRY If the film composition is not

uniform in depth, a first attempt to determine the profile can be to
ELLIPSOMETRY 115
chemically etch the film in a step-by-step manner and to measure p at

each step. The method relies on the existence of an etchant that is very
uniform in action over the entire film, i.e. one that leaves minimal
induced roughness. Otherwise, depth resolution may not be maintained
during the procedure and the data may also be affected by microscopic
roughness effects (Figure 8). As we discuss below, this technique can be
successful and adequately sensitive, but it is destructive. By using spec
troscopic ellipsometry, one can generate sufficient independent data to
obtain the depth profile, in particular a knowledge of the film-substrate
interface, without etching the film. This assumes that the film can be
treated as a succession of layers of variable thicknesses and of composi
tions consisting of mixtures of known materials. The effective medium
approximation (EMA) is used to evaluate the dielectric functions from
the compositions. One is left with P wavelength-independent parameters,

which are the compositions and thicknesses of successive layers. These
parameters can be obtained by linear regression analysis.
EHECTIVE MEDIUM APPROXIMATION If one considers the transItIon

region between an A layer and a B substrate of known bulk dielectric
functions "A and "B' this region may appear in some cases as a "physical"
mixture of A and B inclusions on a scale small compared to A. "Physical"
means here that an AB alloy does not exist and that the A and B
inclusions retain their own (macroscopic) dielectric identity. Alterna
tively, "chemical" mixing can occur in which all constituents are blended
on an atomic scale. In chemical mixing the electronic wavefunctions may
become simple interpolations or more complex averages of their forms in
the individual constituents. Examples of simple interpolations include
pseudobinary semiconductor alloys such as Ga1_xAlxAs, where the
atomic potential can be described in the virtual crystal model and the
energy band structures are interpolations of those of the endpoints of the
series. Here, the dielectric responses of the alloys can also be considered
linear interpolations of those of the endpoints although the interpolations
now must also include interpolation of critical point energies of absorp
tion-threshold structures in the dielectric function spectra.
A more complicated interpolation scheme is required, for instance, at
the interface between Si02 and Si, where Si and ° are mixed on an
atomic scale. A Si atom can have as first-nearest neighbors 4 Si atoms, or
3 Si atoms and I ° atom, or 2 Si and 2 ° (as in SiO), or I Si and 3 0, or
no Si and 4 ° atoms (as in Si02). One is left with five types of entities of
different electronic structure (28). This "chemical" mixture requires
modeling (28) first to construct the dielectric responses of the various
entities and then to assemble them as physical mixtures to generate the
overall dielectric response of the material.
In physical mixing, the light averages the dielectric response of A and

B inclusions since the characteristic length of the microstructure is
assumed to be small compared to the wavelength of light. Because of the
screening charge that develops at the boundaries between inclusions, the
average f is not a simple volume weighted average of f A and fB. A
number of theories (29- 3 1) have been proposed to evaluate f. But since
the microstructure of the material is not generally known, simple expres
sions can be preferred and the results should be interpreted as guidelines
(3 2). In fact, rigorous bounds to allowed values of f have been calculated
recently for two-component systems (33 ,3 4) and the results for statisti
cally isotropic materials show that the simple expressions can be rela
tively accurate. The physically most appealing simple expression, which is
symmetric in the constituents and already adapted to multicomponent
media, is that derived by Bruggeman (29):
17.
18.
where VA' VB" " are the volume fractions of constituents A, B, .... Equa
tions 1 7 and 18 give the effective medium approximation.
LINEAR REGRESSION The P parameters discussed above can be evaluated

by considering the residual
N
F= � I pcaIc(Ei)-Pexp;1 2, 19.
;=1
where E; are the energies at which the Pexp i are measured. In linear
regression analysis F is minimized by standard least-squares techniques
(35), which also give the 90% confidence limits of the best-fit parameters.
These confidence limits have to be small; otherwise the model is irrele
vant or an excessive number of parameters have been used.
Applications
SI/SI0 INTERFACE
2
Taft & Cordes (3 6) recently showed that a 3 -phase
model analysis of ellipsometric data of oxides grown thermally on Si does
not give consistent results. Measurements were made as a function of
oxide thickness, using HF in a step-by-step chemical etching process. The
lack of consistency is shown in Figure II, where the index of refraction
of the film varies as a function of thickness. By adding a 4-8-A interface
ELLIPSOMETRY 117
2
Q 1.48 'x
�
()
oCt �x 820°C
c:::
u.. �x xOXIDE ONLY
W -0--0--0"- 0'---'0- 0 8A INTERFILM
c::: 1.47 """ x

u..
o �x.....
-..,,
1260°C
x ----
x
w --1{= -- 0--
�
0 xOXIDE ONLY
Cl _0___'0 --- 0
y----x__
0
2 1.46 04AINTERFILM
500 1000 1500 2000

TH ICKNESS (A)
Figure 11 Evidence of the inability of the 3-phase model to describe Si02 films grown on
Si and proof of the existence of an interface layer 4-8 A thick [after (36)].
film of refractive index 2.8 at 5461 A between Si02 and Si, the top film
index was found to be independent of thickness.
A similar conclusion was obtained when spectroscopic ellipsometric
data were analyzed (3 7 ). Figure 12 gives the differences in tan t/; and cos
tl between experiment and various models for a 13 60-A oxide overlayer
on Si (100). The 3 -phase model with its single parameter, the oxide
thickness, deviates strongly from experiment. By allowing some voids to
exist in the Si02 layer in a 2-parameter model, a better fit is obtained.
However, the fit is not satisfactory, especially for cos tl in the 3 -5-eV
range. By incorporating an interface of chemically mixed Sio75(Si02 )o25
with a thickness of 6 . 6 A in a 3 -parameter model, far bette; agreeme� t
results. In the latter case the residual is six times lower than with the
I-parameter model. Similar analyses on (110) and (Il l) Si substrates
show that an interface of width 7 �±: 2 A consisting of atomically mixed Si
and ° of average stoichiometry SiOo.4±o. is always present. The spectro
scopic ellipsometer has a high sensitivity to the interface region because
of the high optical contrast between Si and its mixed oxides.
In this case the interface is extremely sharp and a 4-phase model is
sufficient. However, interface regions can be much wider. In order to
illustrate the capabilities of ellipsometry, we discuss now an extremely
wide interface: an ion-implantation-induced defect profile, where a
Gaussian spatial variation is expected.
0
,.
,
,.I I \,
\ . '��.
, ,
�-0.1 \ '
� . I
c
E
I· Si- SiOz
.I (100) INTERFACE
(;() I· 0
��
dox 1360 A
·1
-0.2
\. :--- = PARAMETER
·1 MODELS
I· 3-
'I
- 0.3
\.
V
E (eV)
Figure 12 Spectroscopic ellipsometric analysis of a 1360·11. Si02 film grown on Si (100)
[after (37)].
ION IMPLANTATION DEFECTS Kim & Park (38) determined the effective
refractive index of ion-implanted GaAs wafers as a function of depth,
using the chemical layer-stripping technique. The imaginary part of the
refractive index is very sensitive to the presence of defects induced by the
ion bombardment with doses as low as 1012 ions cm -2 being detected.
Figure 13 gives the results for lOI4 S and Cr ions cm -2. A comparison
with L SS and damage theory allows one to draw interesting conclusions
about the ion mass and implant dose dependence of the defect creation
mechan ism, and also the annealing mechanism when a similar study is
done after thermal treatment.
Again, comparable results can be obtained using spectroscopic el
lipsometry (39) assuming that the implanted ions locally transform the
crystalline GaAs (c-GaAs) substrate into amorphous GaAs (a-GaAs).
The defect profile can then be described by � series of layers of fixed
thickness, typically 50 A , and variable composition, typically a physical
ELLIPSOMETRY 119
1.4 GaAs:Cr
00 C (10 ions/cm .120KeV)
,4 2
•• 5 (10'4ions/cm2 . 120 KeV)

.-..
::t.
<l - - - - Damage Theory
1.2 --- LSS Profile
'-"'
I-
Z
!:!:!
(.)
i:1: 1 .0
u.
w
0
(.)
z 0.8
0
I-
(.)
�
I-
><
W
Z
W
C-' •
z
ct
J:
(.)
01L----�--.-L-----�--��
1000 2000 3000 4000
DEPTH (}�)
Figure 13 Dependence of the imaginary part of the index of refraction on depth for
implanted GaAs wafers using combined ellipsometry/chemical layer stripping [after (38)].
mixture of c-GaAs and a-GaAs. Figure 14 gives the results of a linear

regression analysis of the spectroscopic data using nine successive layers
in the case of IOO-keY Ar ions implanted into GaAs at doses from 1012 to
1014 ions cm 2. As expected, the dose for making GaAs totally amorphous
-
is around 1014• For totally amorphous material, the implanted region is

too opaque for the light to probe the regions underneath. At lower doses,
a maximum and then a decrease in the amount of defects is detected, as
expected from the theoretical LSSprofile, which should have its maxi
mum at 650 A. The possibility of getting depth profile information
nondestructiveiy is of major importance for on-line control of ion im
plantation and annealing processes.
100 -- -
%
a
GaAs
100
50
Figure 14 Defect profiles for lOO-keV Ar ions implanted into GaAs as deduced from
spectroscopic measurements [after (39)].
Limitations
The above analyses rely on the validity of the EMA and on reference
dielectric functions measured separately on standard samples. Standard
spectra are needed, of course, for any spectroscopic method using either
photons or electrons; owing to the newness of the technique very few
accurate standard spectra are yet available for use in spectroscopic
ellipsometry. Physical mixtures are usually assumed, because "first
principles" calculations required to obtain the dielectric response of
chemical mixtures may be inaccurate and difficult to perform in general.
The analysis of surface roughness is also difficult since dangling bonds,
surface relief, and the inherent anisotropy of the surface region are
boundary conditions not easily described in the above assumptions.
Although some success has been obtained in the case of microscopic
surface roughness on Si layers (3 4), complementary techniques such as
grazing incidence x-ray reflection (40) should be used for a detailed
study.
ELLIPSOMETRY 121
CONCLUSION
Real-time and spectroscopic ellipsometry can be very powerful tech

niques for analyzing thin films and interfaces. The methods discussed
have generally become available only recently, as can be appreciated by
the fact that most of the applications are less than two years old. It is
clear that this is a rapidly expanding field waiting for new users.
Literature Cited
1. Azzam, R. M. A, Bashara, N. M. des Mecanismes de Croissance en Phase

1 977. Ellipsometry and Polarized Light. Vapeur de Composes Semiconducteurs.
Amsterdam: North-Holland. 529 pp. Thesis, Universite de Paris VI
2. Rzhanov, A V., Svitashev, K. K. 1 979. 16b. Hottier, F., Hallais, J., Simondet, F.
Ellipsometric techniques to study 1 980. J. Appl. Phys. 5 1 . 1599

surfaces and thin films. A dv. Electron. 16c. Theeten, J. B., Hottier, F., Hallais, J.
Electron Phys. 49 : 1 - 84 1 979. J. Cryst. Growth 46 : 245
3. Aspnes, D. E. 1 976. Spectroscopic el 1 7. Irene,E. A., Ghez, R. 1 977. 1. Elec
lipsometry of solids. In Optical Proper trochem. Soc. 1 24: 1 757
ties of Solids: New Developments, ed. 1 8. Muller, R. H., Smith, C. G. 1 976. Surf.
B. O. Seraphin 1 5 : 799-46. Amster Sci. 56:440
dam: North-Holland. 1 0 1 8 pp. 1 9. Muller, R. H., Smith, C. G. 1 980. Surf.
4a. Muller, R. H. 1 977. Electrochem. A cta Sci. 96:375
22:95 1 20. Tadjeddine, A 1 976. Etude de l 'Inter
4b. Neal, W. E. J. 1 977. Surf. Techno/. phase Electrode Solide-Electrolyte par
6:81 Ellipsometrie et Excitation Oprique des
4c. Neal, W. E. J . 1 977. Phys. Technol. Plasmons de Surface: Application au
8 : 238 Systeme Or-Electrolyte Aqueux. Thesis,
4d. Neal, W. E. J. 1 979. Appl. Surf. Sci. Universite de Paris VII
2:445 21. Quentel, G., Richard, J . M., Kern, R.
5. Proe. Int. Conf. on Ellipsometry, 2nd 1975. Surf. Sci. 50:343
( 1 968), 3rd ( 1 975), 4th ( 1 979). Surf. 22a. Thorny, A, Duval, X. 1 970. J. Chern.
Sci. Vols. 1 6 ( 1 969), 56 ( 1 976), 96 Phys. 67: 1 1 0 1
( 1 980) 22b. Thorny, A, Duval, X. 1972. J . Crystal
6. Hauge, P. S. 1980. Surf. Sci. 96: 108 Growth 1 3/ 1 4 : 164
7. Aspnes, D. E. 1 975. Appl. Opt. 1 4: 1 1 3 1 23. Baklanov, M. R., Repinsky, S. M. 1 979.
8. Kutko, R . J. 1 978. Solid State Techno!. Surf. Sci. 88:427
2 1 :43 14a. Habraken, F. H. P. M., Kieffer, E. P.,
9. Twu, B. 1. 1 979. J. Electrochem. Soc. Bootsma, G. A 1 980. In Proc. 7th Int.
1 26 : 1 589 Vacuum Congr. and 3rd Int. Conf. on
lOa. Vedam, K. 1 976. Surf. Sci. 56:221 Solid Surf., Vienna, 1977, ed. R .
lOb. Mushakaraka, S. c., Vedam, K 1 980. Dobrozernsky, p. 877. Hom, Austria:
Surf. Sci. 96 : 3 1 9 Berger
11. Fukuyo, H., Oura, N . , Kitajirna, N., 24b. Habraken, F. H. P. M., Gijzernan, O.
Kono, H. 1 979. J. Appl. Phys. 50:3653 L. J., Bootsrna, G. A. 1980. Surf. Sci.
1 2. Sinha, A K, Lugujj o, E. 1 978. Appl. 96:482
Phys. Lett. 32: 245 25. Gauch, M., Quente1, G. 1 980. Private
1 3. ClIhan, B. D. 1 976. Surf. Sci. 56:354 communication
14. Kuphal, E., Dinges, H. W. 1 979. J. 26. Hottier, F., Theeten, J. B. 1 980. J.
Appl. Phys. 50:4196 Cryst. Growth 48 :644
15. Lukes, F . , Schmidt, E., Humlicek, J., 27. Chang, R. P. H. 1 979. Thin SoUd Films
Kekorna, M. K., Khoutsochvili, E. 5 6 : 89
1 979. Phys. Status Solidi A 53: 321 28. Aspnes, D. E., Theeten, J. B. 1 979. J.
1 6a. Hottier, F. 1 980. Contribution a I' Etude Appl. Phys. 50:4928
1 22 THEETEN & ASPNES
29. Bruggeman, D. A. G. 1 935. Ann. Phys. 36. Taft, E., Cordes, L. 1 979. J. Elec
(5 Folge) 24;636 trochem . Soc. 1 26; 1 3 1
30. Granqvist, C. G., Hunderi, O. 1 976. 37. Aspnes, D . E., Theeten, J . B . 1 979.
Phys. Rev. B 1 6 ; 3513 Phys. Rev. Lett. 43 ; 1 046
31. Sheng, P . 1 980. Phys. Rev. Lett. 45:60 38. Kim, Q., Park, Y. S. 1 980. J. Appl.
32. Aspnes, D. E. Theeten, J. B., Hottier, Phys. 5 1 : 2024
F. 1 979. Phys. Rev. B 20:3292 39. Theeten, J. B., Simondet, F., Erman,
33. Bergman, D. J. 1 980. Phys. Rev. Lett. M., Pemas, J. 1 980. Proc. 4th Int. Conf.
44; 1 285 on Solid Surfaces, Cannes. Supp\. to Le
34. Milton, G. W. 1 980. Appl. Phys. Lett. Vide, 1es couches minces, No. 20 1 , p.
37;300 107 1 . Paris; Soc. Fran�se du Vide
35. Keeping, E. S. 1 962. Introduction to 40. Nevot, L., Croce, P. 1 980. Rev. Phys.
Statistical Inference, Ch. 12, Prince Appl. 1 5 ; 76 1
ton; Van Nostrand

ANNUAL
REVIEWS Further
Quick links to online content
Annual Review of Materials Science

Volume 11, 1981
CONTENTS
PREFATORY CHAPTER
A Perspective on Martensitic Nucleation, G. B. Olson and M. Cohen
ExPERIMENTAL AND THEORETICAL METHODS
Higher Order Elastic Constants of Solids, Yosio Hiki 51
Weak-Bearn Electron Microscopy, D. J. H. Cockayne 75
Ellipsometry in Thin Film Analysis, J. B. Theeten and D. E. Aspnes 97
Electron-Bearn-Induced Currents in Semiconductors, J. I. Hanoka and

R. O. Bell 353
Recent Developments in Lattice Imaging of Materials, R. Sinclair 427
Auger Spectroscopy, D. F. Stein and A. Joshi 485
PREPARATION, PROCESSING, AND STRUCTURAL CHANGES

The Microchemistry and Microstructure of Portland Cement, P. L. Pratt
and H. M. Jennings 123
Continuous Casting of Steel, Shozo Mizoguchi, Tetsuro Ohashi, and
Tsuyoshi Saeki 151
Molecular Bearn Epitaxy of III-V Compounds: Technology and Growth
Process, Klaus Ploog 171
Dual Phase Steels, M. S. Rashid 245
Microstructure Fabrication in Electronic Devices, B. E. Deal and P. A.
Crossley 321
Formability Maps, J. D. Embury and J. L. Duncan 505
The Selective Permeation of Gases Through Polymers, S. A. Stern and
H. L. Frisch 523
PROPERTIES AND PHENOMENA
Dislocation Creep, M. M. Myshlyaev 31
Ionic Transport in Amorphous Solid Electrolytes, J. L. Souquet 211
Crystallography at High Pressure, John C. Jamieson 233
Predicting the Fatigue Resistance of Welds, F. V. Lawrence, N.-J. Ho,
and P. K. Mazumdar 401
SPECIAL MATERIALS
Silicon Nitride Ceramics: Composition, Fabrication Pararneters, and
Properties, J. Weiss 381
Properties, Preparation, and Device Applications of Indium Phosphide,
K. J. Bachmann 441
STRUCTURE
Eutectic Solidification in Ceramic Systems, V. S. Stubican and R. C.
Bradt 267
Polymer Alloys, J. W. Barlow and D. R. Paul 299
INDEXES
Author Index 551
Subject Index 569
Cumulative Index of Contributing Authors, Volumes 7-11 579
Cumulative Index of Chapter Titles, Volumes 7-11 581

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ANNUAL

THIN FILM ANALYSIS

This is not meant to be another review of ellipsometry, since a number of

fast, automatic data acquisition and in situ examination. Here, "fast"

tending the analysis toward multilayer models. Even a "bare" substrate

Figure 1 Definitions corresponding to reflectance at an interface.

rs =ro•s =(nocosOo -n. cosO .)(nocosOo +n. cosO.)-·. 4.

E./Eo = sin2 00 +(l-p )2(1 +p )-2

Figure 2 Definitions for the 3-phase model.

reffa = (rOla +rI2aX)(1 + rOlarI2"X)-1 6.

The complex ratio p is now given by

This "effective" reflectance concept can be used to evaluate p in a

where a, b, and c are the Fourier coefficients of the detector signal

Figure 3 Schematic arrangement of an ellipsometer.

R2w =I2.,!od = 2(cos 2o/ )Ji (J). 14.

This configuration is better suited to follow phenomena in the millisec­

index are needed. Sometimes, only a 2-phase "effective substrate" model

defects at the surface of a glass (10). Next we discuss recent improve­

The 3-Phase Model

o 1----- �--- �----�---- �----I

use the shape of the trajectory to fix n, using d as a parameter, as follows.

HETEROEPITAXY Accurately controlling the refractive index of a given

much better accuracy should be attainable because of the characteristic

flows of AsH3, (CH3)3Ga, and (CH3)3Al. In Figure 5a, the Al species

However, by using the F(ntest) algorithm discussed above on a piece­

thick film of Gao.7sAlo.2sAs, which can be considered as the substrate

2000 ppm H20 in 02

o 100 200 300 400

ellipsometric measurements, only small amounts of oxide growth are

Figure 8 Changes in the boundary layer thickness above a single-crystal Cu electrode in a

SURFACE AND GROWTH PROCESSES ON THE ATOMIC SCALE Because el­

1.5 --- --- - - - -- -- --- --- - - - --- --

expectations based on gas volumetric measurements. A more detailed

monolayer experiences several internal transitions before becoming a

atomic scale and growth was thought to occur at screw dislocations

dimensional growth has also been observed in the deposition of Si onto a

MULTILAYERS AND INTERFACES

COMBINED ETCHING AND ELLIPSOMETRY If the film composition is not

chemically etch the film in a step-by-step manner and to measure p at

the compositions. One is left with P wavelength-independent parameters,

EHECTIVE MEDIUM APPROXIMATION If one considers the transItIon

In physical mixing, the light averages the dielectric response of A and

media, is that derived by Bruggeman (29):

LINEAR REGRESSION The P parameters discussed above can be evaluated

c::: 1.47 """ x

500 1000 1500 2000

•• 5 (10'4ions/cm2 . 120 KeV)

mixture of c-GaAs and a-GaAs. Figure 14 gives the results of a linear

is around 1014• For totally amorphous material, the implanted region is

Real-time and spectroscopic ellipsometry can be very powerful tech­

1. Azzam, R. M. A, Bashara, N. M. des Mecanismes de Croissance en Phase

Ellipsometric techniques to study 1 980. J. Appl. Phys. 5 1 . 1599

ton; Van Nostrand

Annual Review of Materials Science

Electron-Bearn-Induced Currents in Semiconductors, J. I. Hanoka and

PREPARATION, PROCESSING, AND STRUCTURAL CHANGES

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This configuration is better suited to follow phenomena in the millisec

defects at the surface of a glass (10). Next we discuss recent improve

However, by using the F(ntest) algorithm discussed above on a piece

SURFACE AND GROWTH PROCESSES ON THE ATOMIC SCALE Because el

Real-time and spectroscopic ellipsometry can be very powerful tech